the dusky grouse ( dendragapus obscurus ) is a species of forest-dwelling grouse native to the rocky mountains in north america .

it is closely related to the sooty grouse ( dendragapus fuliginosus ) , and the two were previously considered a single species , the blue grouse .

dusky grouse

dusky grouse are a recently identified species . the species formerly known as blue grouse (
dusky grouse are most likely to be confused with spruce ( franklin ) grouse in montana . male spruce grouse , however , are considerably smaller than male dusky grouse and have a black breast patch . female spruce grouse have white under parts with conspicuous black barring , while female dusky grouse are bluish - gray beneath .
dusky grouse are a food source for many predators found in the surrounding areas .
dusky grouse are game birds across their range and are hunted for their meat .
one of north america’s largest grouse , the dusky grouse used to be considered the paler , interior subspecies of the blue grouse . recent dna evidence supports the spilt of the blue grouse into two separate species , the dusky grouse and the sooty grouse . the male’s deep booming call is hard to locate .
adult males are mainly dark ( especially sooty grouse ) with a yellow ( sooty grouse ) or purplish ( dusky grouse ) throat air sac surrounded by white , and a yellow ( sooty grouse ) or yellow to red ( dusky grouse ) wattle over the eye during display .
the sooty grouse is found from british columbia south to california . the sooty grouse was the blue grouse until 2006 when the blue grouse was split into two species , the sooty grouse and the dusky grouse . the dusky grouse is found in the rocky mountains , from the southern yukon and northern british columbia , south into northern arizona and western new mexico .
often take advantage of an opportunity to eat a dusky grouse if it arises . other predators include
female dusky grouse ( shown ) are easy to distinguish from males of either species , but difficult to distinguish from female sooty grouse .
dusky grouse nest on the ground , usually in an open area concealed by understory vegetation and shrubs .
the dusky grouse is the third largest grouse in north america , and one of the largest in the world . the two sage - grouse are the only larger american species .
the dusky grouse and the sooty grouse were considered to be the same species , the blue grouse , until the american ornithologists’ union split them in 2006 based on dna evidence .
the approximate distribution of sooty and dusky grouse in north america . map modified from schroeder ( 2004 ) .
till very recently , the dusky grouse and sooty grouse were considered subspecies of the blue grouse . this has ceased to be the case , and each is a separate species . both continue to be collectively called blue grouse .
dusky grouse is the second largest grouse in the us after the sage grouse . they have a wide distribution , and their population numbers are holding their own for the last few decades .
, and disperse seeds from berry bushes throughout the ecosystem . in addition , dusky grouse may carry several parasites .
mainly leaves , flowers and conifer needles . dusky grouse , especially juveniles , will also eat small invertebrates . back to top
in addition , the spruce grouse and siberian grouse have been considered part of this genus .
eagles . the best defense for dusky grouse is their camouflage and ability to fly . these abilities sometimes keep them from becoming prey but are not uniformly successful as dusky grouse are not very accomplished fliers . they are only able to fly in relatively short bursts compared to the aerial predators that pursue them , as such ; camouflage is their best defense against raptors . terrestrial predators have a much harder time catching dusky grouse . many predators eat the eggs out of the nests , which are located on the ground . this gives dusky grouse a high mortality rate at a very young age .
dusky grouse are upland game birds that provide many hunters with a great opportunity to enjoy the mountainous areas they inhabit along with an appetizing meal for their dinner table .
the number of tail feathers a bird has is usually constant within a species ( and usually numbering around 10 ) . the dusky grouse , however , can have from 15 to 22 .
the approximate distribution of core areas for sooty and dusky grouse in washington . the line is an approximation and ‘hybrids’ are common near the line . map modified from schroeder ( 2005 ) .
male dusky and sooty grouse perform a hooting display when they are on breeding territories during the spring . each hooting display consists of a sequence of 5 - 7 low frequency ‘hoots’ that are detectable from 100 meters ( dusky grouse ) to more than 2 kilometers ( sooty grouse ) . the males of both species also utter a single ‘whoot’ note when they are displaying to a female that is detectable from about 2 kilometers . male dusky grouse perform a ‘flutter jump’ which is a loud flight that is detectable from about 1 kilometer . male sooty grouse exhibit a similar behavior called ‘landing on loud wing’ display where they create an unusually loud noise at the end of a short flight , often while landing in a tree .
) in 2006 based on dna evidence . sooty grouse live along the pacific coast , from northern canada to southern california in the sierra madre mountains . on the other hand , dusky grouse are found in inland north america , following the rocky mountains and other nearby montane regions .
patch of violet - red skin on neck surrounded by white feathers is displayed during courtship . formerly ( with sooty grouse ) known as blue grouse .
dusky grouse move between alpine environments at the tree line where they spend their winters and down into lower lying areas high in food sources in the summer time . they tend to use the same areas year after year . the young birds follow their mother and continue to migrate between these areas as they get older . these birds usually travel short distances , but in some instances dusky grouse travel up to 30 miles between their summer and winter ranges .
cones . it is high in protein and fats and provides these birds with a nutrient - rich diet that helps them through these cold months . during the summer months , dusky grouse feed on a variety of berries produced by
the dusky grouse has a large range , not specifically quantified but common in the western united states and canada . it is native to these two nations and prefers boreal or temperate forest ecosystems . the global population of this bird has not been specifically determined , as it is considered common , but it does not appear to meet population decline criteria that would necessitate inclusion on the iucn red list . the current evaluation status of the dusky grouse is least concern .
dusky and sooty grouse are found throughout western north america . their range extends from the southern portions of alaska and the yukon , south along the pacific coast to northern california and east to the rocky mountains ( new mexico to alberta ) . in washington , dusky and sooty grouse are found in mountainous areas wherever open coniferous forests are present . they are closely associated with true fir and douglas fir forests in winter and habitats that are often more open during summer .
tell congress to oppose a harmful rider that threatens sage - grouse and other wildlife .
during late summer and early autumn , dusky grouse move from open breeding areas to dense conifer forests at higher elevations ; this altitudinal migration is typically a short distance , but can be as much as 30 miles , much of which is undertaken on foot . most grouse leave their breeding grounds by october and return by early april .
in warm months , the sooty grouse eats seeds , berries , and insects . in the winter , the sooty grouse eats conifer needles . some sooty grouse are short distance migrators and , depending on where the food is , travel to either higher or lower elevations .
male dusky grouse in washington are characterized by indistinct tail bands ( if present at all ) , 20 tail feathers , and red bare patches on the side of their neck which they expose during display . they also perform a quiet hooting display .
hartkom , f . l . 1956 . montana blue grouse . montana wildlife . june .
sooty grouse nest on the ground , usually in an open shrubby area surrounded by forest .
sooty grouse habitat is variable , but often includes forests , ridgetops , and avalanche chutes .
a group of grouse has many collective nouns , including a
chorus
,
covey
,
drumming
,
grumbling
, and
leash
of grouse .
bendell , j . 1955 . disease as a control of a population of blue grouse .
there is little information on dusky grouse population numbers and trends . overall , populations appeared stable between 1966 and 2014 , according to the north american breeding bird survey . partners in flight estimates a global breeding population of 300 , 000 , with 56 % living int he u . s . , and 44 % in canada . the species rates a 12 out of 20 on the continental concern score . dusky grouse is a u . s . - canada stewardship species and is not on the 2014 state of the birds watch list . back to top
marshall , w . h . 1946 . cover preferences , seasonal movements , and food habits of richardson ' s grouse and ruffed grouse in southern idaho . wilson bull . 58 : 42 - 52 .
adults have a long square tail , gray at the end ( lighter in the sooty grouse ) .
, these plants are a prominent food source for dusky grouse this time of year . during the winter months , while most other animals found in mountainous areas have migrated to lower elevations , dusky grouse spend their time near the tree line at high elevations . they spend most of the winter roosting in douglas fir and lodgepole pines feeding on the cones and needles these trees produce . these high elevation areas not only provide major food sources , but tend to have less predation during this time of year , as most predators follow the larger game animals to lower elevations .
dusky grouse : this species occurs as a resident from the yukon and northwest territories , through much of british columbia , and south through the rocky mountains to arizona , colorado , and new mexico . its preferred habitats include burned areas , montane forests , slashes , and subalpine forest clearings .
all species have healthy populations , except for some population decline and habitat loss of the sooty grouse at the southern end of its range in southern california , and the siberian grouse which is considered near - threatened .
spends most of its time on the ground foraging , but will also forage for buds in deciduous trees and needles in coniferous trees . during winter , dusky grouse spend most of their time in coniferous trees eating needles . in general , they vocalize from the ground and rather infrequently . back to top
dusky grouse have a fairly short lifespan , with 50 percent of the birds lost in the first year . the birds that survive past the first year have an average lifespan of about three years . in areas with ample food and very low predation , birds have been known to survive up 14 years .
dusky grouse have exhibited a very minor decrease in population over the last 40 years . there are an estimated 3 , 000 , 000 mature individuals in the wild , and the decrease is so small that the species is still listed as ' least concern ' by the international union for conservation and nature ( iucn ) .
partridges , grouse , turkeys and old world quail often flock together to forage for small creatures , seeds , and buds . most look for food on the ground although the spruce grouse also forages in the trees for pine and spruce needles .
although populations of wild turkeys have made a wonderful , successful comeback since their decline earlier in the twentieth century , all five species of grouse that occur in sagebrush and grasslands ( sage - grouse , sharp - tailed grouse and prairie chickens ) have threatened and declining populations . these declines are due to degradation and conversion of their grassland habitats to agriculture and other development .
the mating behavior of dusky grouse takes place in the spring to mid - summer and is initiated by the hooting of males beginning in late march and continuing until mid - july . males claim and defend a mating territory by fanning out their tail feathers , hoping , and clapping their wings . dusky grouse are both lekking and non - lekking birds . this means the males either gather in a preferred area to challenge each other for females ( lekking ) or the males go out individually in search of females ready for mating . the males continue to hoot into the mid - summer months to try and attract females that have lost their clutch and are willing to mate again .
in the breeding season dusky grouse inhabit open , relatively dry mixed and conifer forest from the ponderosa pine zone to the subalpine fir zone , and adjacent shrub - steppe , grassland , aspen groves , and alpine meadows . in lodgepole pine and engelmann spruce forests at elevations above 5 , 000 feet , they may be largely , but not entirely , replaced by spruce grouse . they winter in dense conifer stands , often at a higher elevation than their breeding habitat .
zwickel , fred c . , and james f . bendell . 2005 . dusky grouse ( dendragapus obscurus ) . species account number 015 . the birds of north america online ( a . poole , ed . ) . ithaca , ny : cornell laboratory of ornithology ; retrieved 3 / 25 / 2008 from the birds of north america online database
the dusky grouse still occupies all or nearly all of its original range in washington . although it is vulnerable to habitat loss from activities such as grazing and logging , most of its range is in rugged mountains or other territory sparsely settled by humans . it is popular as a game bird , but its fall migration into dense forest reduces hunting mortality .
washington department of fish & wildlife’s priority habitat and species management recommendations . volume iv : birds . blue grouse ( dendragapus obscurus )
the sooty grouse is is 15 - 21 inches in length . the male sooty grouse is gray to bluish - gray with a red to yellowish - orange comb over its eyes . it has a yellow neck sac surrounded by white . the female is spotted brown with a dark tail . male sooty grouse in the rocky mountains have a red neck sac instead of a yellow one .
the sooty grouse is found in bush areas in coastal rain forests , burned areas , mountain forests , and subalpine forest clearings .
johnsgard , p . a . 1973 . grouse and quail of north america . u . of nebraska , lincoln . 553 pp .
to aid in walking in their snowy winter environments , ruffed grouse and ptarmigans have evolved “natural snowshoes” . in ruffed grouse , scales on their toes have extensions to keep them from sinking into snowdrifts , while ptarmigans have a profusion of feathers on their feet for this purpose .
mussehl , t . w . 1961 . blue grouse population study . montana dept . of fish and game , helena . 13 pp .
mussehl , t . w . 1962 . blue grouse population study . montana dept . of fish and game , helena . 17 pp .
in summer , dusky grouse feed on the ground on leaves , flowers , buds , berries , conifer needles , and insects . in winter , they forage in trees for needles of pines , firs , and other conifers . in many parts of their washington range larch and pine needles are the predominant food source . young birds eat mostly insects , especially in the first 10 days of life .
a large , dark forest grouse of inland regions of the western u . s . and canada . until recently , this and the sooty grouse were considered to make up one species under the name blue grouse . slow - moving and inconspicuous , but often surprisingly tame . most likely to be noticed ( at least by sound ) in spring , when males
sing
incessantly to attract mates , a series of deep hoots .
herman , m . f . 1980 . spruce grouse habitat requirements in western montana . ph . d dissertation , university of montana , missoula .
the phasianidae are known for their elaborate courtship displays that frequently utilize raised tails that are spread to reveal intricate patterns . male sage grouse , sharp - tailed grouse , and prairie chickens take these displays a step further by displaying communally at traditional “lekking “ sites where birds inflate prominent neck and
blackford , j . l . 1958 . territoriality and breeding behavior of a population of blue grouse in montana . condor 60 : 145 - 158 .
skinner , m . p . 1927 . richardson ' s grouse in yellowstone national park . wilson ' s bull . 39 : 208 - 214 .
blackford , j . l . 1963 . further observations on the breeding behavior of a blue grouse population in montana . condor 65 : 485 - 513 .
schladweiler , p . 1975 . seasonal food habits of montana blue grouse . state of mt , proj . no . w - 120 - r - 6 .
dusky grouse are usually found singly , not in flocks ( except for hens with young ) , and are generally fairly wary . males sing from the ground or from a low perch such as a stump . the usual song is a series of five soft , very low - pitched hoots that can rarely be heard beyond 100 feet . to attract females , males also strut with tails raised and fanned , and neck feathers spread , revealing patches of bright skin .
mussehl , t . w . 1963 . blue grouse brood cover selection and land - use implications . journal of wildlife management 27 ( 4 ) : 546 - 555 .
rogers , g . e . 1963 . blue grouse census and harvest in the united states and canada . j . wildi . manage . 27 : 579 - 585 .
in north america , the members of the phasianidae occur in tundra , grasslands , and forest . three species of ptarmigan crouch in the far northern tundra and alpine habitats of the rocky mountains while the sage - grouse , sharp - tailed grouse , and prairie chickens display in sagebrush and grasslands of the west . deciduous and coniferous forests are home to the wild turkey and four grouse species . introduced species live in a variety of hawaiian habitats while the ring - necked pheasant is now common in north american grasslands .
de juana , e . , kirwan , g . m . & christie , d . a . ( 2018 ) . dusky grouse ( dendragapus obscurus ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .
male 47–57 cm , c . 1245 g ; female 44–48 cm , c . 850 g . relatively large grouse ; male mostly grey or slate - coloured , lacking black breast of
mussehl , t . w . 1962 . some physical characteristics of ground vegetation used by blue grouse broods . nw sec . , the wildi . soc . , missoula . 11 pp .
mussehl , t . w . , and t . h . leik . 1963 . sexing wings of adult blue grouse . j . wildi . manage . 27 : 102 - 106 .
dusky grouse winter at high elevations in conifer stands . in early spring , they descend to lower altitudes , where they prefer forest edges and openings . broods may be found quite far from timber during summer and early fall . in the bridger mountains in early summer , broods were often observed in grass - forb areas ( with arrow - leaf balsamroot being dominant ) ; increased use of deciduous thickets was observed in late july to august ( mussehl 1958 ) . see also martinka 1970 for habitat comments from the sapphire mountains .
mussehl , t . w . 1962 . effects of land - use practices on blue grouse habitat ( breeding areas ) . montana dept . of fish and game , helena . 5 pp .
mussehl , t . w . 1965 . blue grouse population study ( side effects of insecticides used in spruce budworm control ) . montana dept . of fish and game , helena . 41 pp .
mussehl , t . w . 1958 . blue grouse production , movements , and populations in the bridger mountains , montana . m . s . thesis . montana state university , bozeman . 34 pp .
after the eggs have hatched , the chicks are protected from predators and intruders by their mother who will hiss and flap her wings to scare the intruder from the chicks . male dusky grouse have no part in parental care . after the chicks have reached 10 to 28 days of age , the mother and her chicks begin to separate while feeding , but the mother can often be found perched over her chicks , keeping a watchful eye for intruders . by early autumn , the young stop following the mother and become independent , after which they begin grouping with other adults .
schladweiler , p . and t . w . mussehl . 1969 . use of mist - nets for recapturing radio - equipped blue grouse . joural of wildlife management 33 ( 2 ) : 443 - 444 .
in north america , the phasianidae is represented by twenty - six species in seventeen genera . this total includes several introduced and native species such as the wild turkey , prairie chickens , and various species of grouse .
male sooty grouse in washington are characterized by light gray tail bands , 18 tail feathers , and yellow bare patches on the side of their neck which they expose during display . they also perform a loud hooting display .
schladweiler , p . , t . w . mussehl and r . j . greene . 1970 . age determination of juvenile blue grouse by primary development . journal of wildlife management 34 ( 3 ) : 649 - 652 .
martinka , r . r . 1970 . structural characteristics and ecological relationships of male blue grouse ( dendragapus obscurus ( say ) ) territories in southwestern montana . ph . d thesis . montana state university , bozeman . 73 pp .
dusky grouse tend to stay in smaller groups during the warmer months and form larger flocks during the winter , when they spend most of their time in the tree tops eating needles and cones . in the summer months , the largest flocks are generally comprised of a female with her chicks , about 6 or 7 birds . during the winter , groups of 15 to 20 birds have been observed . this occurs because of the food and cover density during these times . in areas where food is not as plentiful , small groups can be unusual as many move to join larger groups when food becomes scarce . during the summer , these birds spread out through areas rich with resources , such as
dusky grouse communicate socially through a series of chirps and peeps throughout the year . these sounds are very subtle to the human ear and are hard to distinguish from other forest birds . they are used to alert each other to predators , and are particularly common between a mother and her young . if the mother and young get separated , the mother will call her young with a series of deep clucks that sound similar to the hoot males give during the breeding season . during the mating season , a male will use hooting to communicate with females . in association with the hoots , males clap their wings together , producing a loud series of thumps . this call is used to defend their territory and also to call females .
schladweiler , p . 1968 . blue grouse population and life history study . montana dept . of fish and game . job compi . rep . , proj . no . w - 91 - r - 9 , job no . ii - c . 12 pp .
stabler , r . m . , n . j . kitzmiller , g . m . clark , t . w . mussehl and p . schladweiler . 1969 . hematozoa from mountain blue grouse . jour . parasit . 55 ( 4 ) : 830 - 832 .
partridges , grouse , turkeys and old world quail are members of the phasianidae ( pronounced fah - see - ah - nih - dee ) , a family of one hundred and eighty - seven species in fifty - six genera found on all continents except for south america and antarctica .
during mating season , the male sooty grouse often perches on a log or post and calls out with a loud booming hoot that can be heard for miles . the comb over his eyes stands up , and he fans out his tail and puffs out his neck to display his neck sac .
mussehl , t . w . p . schladweiler , and r . weckwerth . 1971 . forest grouse . pp . 142 - 152 in t . w . mussehl and f . w . howell ( eds . ) , game manaqement in montana . montana department of fish and game , helena . 238 pp .
an order of five families found on most continents ( some taxonomic systems only recognize four of these , classifying the fifth as a sub - family ) , the galliformes ( pronounced gal - lih - for - meez ) include “fowl” like birds such as guineafowl , pheasants , grouse and turkeys , and the wild ancestor to the domestic chicken .
the female sooty grouse lays 5 - 10 eggs in a scrape lined with pine needles and grass . the nest is usually hidden under a bush , log , rocky overhang , or small tree . the female incubates the eggs and cares for the chicks . the chicks hatch after 25 days and soon begin foraging for food . they fledge in seven to ten days .
pheasants , partridges , grouse , and turkeys are mostly ground - dwelling birds , although many forage or roost in trees during the winter . they do not migrate long distances , although they often use different habitats seasonally . they are omnivores , eating mostly plant matter in the winter and insects in the summer . many of the males in this family have loud and dramatic displays . nests are built on the ground , and clutch size is usually large . the young are precocial , able to walk and feed themselves within a few hours of hatching .
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thank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .
del hoyo , j . , collar , n . j . , christie , d . a . , elliott , a . and fishpool , l . d . c . 2014 . hbw and birdlife international illustrated checklist of the birds of the world . volume 1 : non - passerines . lynx edicions birdlife international , barcelona , spain and cambridge , uk .
justification : this species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing , the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size is extremely large , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .
this species has a large range , which spreads from northern canada to california across the internal western united states and canada .
( rich et al . 2004 ) trend justification : this species has undergone a small or statistically insignificant decrease over the last 40 years in north america ( data for dendropagus obscurus and d . fuliginosus combined , from breeding bird survey and / or christmas bird count : butcher and niven 2007 ) .
the species occurs in a variety of pine and fir forest habitats from sea level to 3 , 600 m close to the tree line .
to make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .
still fairly common . affected by forest management . may increase after clearcuts , but then declines as these grow up ; does very poorly in even - aged tree farms as compared to original old - growth forest .
deciduous and mixed forests in mountains in summer ; conifer forests at higher elevations in winter . prime summer habitat is where forest meets open country , such as sagebrush flats . in winter , these birds favor dense forests of conifers .
forages mostly on ground in summer , mostly in trees in winter , especially in areas with heavy snow cover .
5 - 10 , sometimes 2 - 12 . pale buff , usually speckled with brown . incubation is by female only , 25 - 28 days . young : usually leave nest within a day after hatching , and follow female ; young find all their own food . female often fearless in defense of eggs or young , standing her ground when approached closely . young can make short flights at age of 8 - 9 days , are full - grown at about 13 weeks .
usually leave nest within a day after hatching , and follow female ; young find all their own food . female often fearless in defense of eggs or young , standing her ground when approached closely . young can make short flights at age of 8 - 9 days , are full - grown at about 13 weeks .
conifer needles , leaves , insects . diet in summer is mostly leaves , flowers , buds , berries , and conifer needles ; also many insects . very young birds may eat more insects than adults . in winter feeds mostly on needles of conifers , including pines , hemlocks , firs , douglas - firs .
in breeding season , male gives deep song punctuated with short flights , wings fluttering loudly . in peak display , male struts on the ground with tail raised and fanned , neck feathers spread to reveal patches of bright skin . female mates with male , then departs . nest site is on ground , under cover such as shrub , log , rock ledge . nest a shallow scrape , lined with dead twigs , needles , leaves , a few feathers .
most birds move in autumn from fairly open breeding areas to dense coniferous forest . in most parts of range , this involves moving uphill to spend the winter , an unusual kind of altitudinal migration . maximum known travel is about 30 miles , but most go shorter distances . birds may migrate entirely by walking or may intersperse short flights .
male gives a series of deep hoots , whoop , whoop , whoop , whoop , whoop , increasing in tempo and volume .
audio © lang elliott , bob mcguire , kevin colver , martyn stewart and others .
in the broadest and most detailed study of its kind , audubon scientists have used hundreds of thousands of citizen - science observations and sophisticated climate models to predict how birds in the u . s . and canada will react to climate change .
the darker the color , the more favorable the climate conditions are for survival . the outlined areas represent approximate current range for each season .
each map is a visual guide to where a particular bird species may find the climate conditions it needs to survive in the future . we call this the bird’s “climatic range . ”
the darker the shaded area , the more likely it is the bird species will find suitable climate conditions to survive there .
the outline of the approximate current range for each season remains fixed in each frame , allowing you to compare how the range will expand , contract , or shift in the future .
the first frame of the animation shows where the bird can find a suitable climate today ( based on data from 2000 ) . the next three frames predict where this bird’s suitable climate may shift in the future—one frame each for 2020 , 2050 , and 2080 .
you can play or pause the animation with the orange button in the lower left , or select an individual frame to study by clicking on its year .
the darker the color , the more favorable the climate conditions are for survival . the outlined areas represent approximate current range for each season . more on reading these maps .
turkeys and chickens tend to get all of the attention . spread the love and learn about six other fowl .
tell congress and the department of the interior to uphold the country ' s most important bird protection law .
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copyright by : the macaulay library at the cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , ny , all rights reserved .
using personal observations and reviewing literature that summarize the breeding , overwintering , or migratory habitat requirements of each species ( dobkin 1992 , hart et al . 1998 , hutto and young 1999 , maxell 2000 , foresman 2012 , adams 2003 , and werner et al . 2004 ) ;
calculating the percentage of observations associated with each ecological system relative to the percent of montana covered by each ecological system to get a measure of
observations versus availability of habitat
.
species that breed in montana were only evaluated for breeding habitat use , species that only overwinter in montana were only evaluated for overwintering habitat use , and species that only migrate through montana were only evaluated for migratory habitat use . in general , species were listed as associated with an ecological system if structural characteristics of used habitat documented in the literature were present in the ecological system or large numbers of point observations were associated with the ecological system . however , species were not listed as associated with an ecological system if there was no support in the literature for use of structural characteristics in an ecological system ,
point observations were associated with that system . common versus occasional association with an ecological system was assigned based on the degree to which the structural characteristics of an ecological system matched the preferred structural habitat characteristics for each species as represented in scientific literature . the percentage of observations associated with each ecological system relative to the percent of montana covered by each ecological system was also used to guide assignment of common versus occasional association . if you have any questions or comments on species associations with ecological systems , please contact the montana natural heritage program ' s senior zoologist .
species associations with ecological systems should be used to generate potential lists of species that may occupy broader landscapes for the purposes of landscape - level planning . these potential lists of species should not be used in place of documented occurrences of species ( this information can be requested at :
) or systematic surveys for species and evaluations of habitat at a local site level by trained biologists . users of this information should be aware that the land cover data used to generate species associations is based on imagery from the late 1990s and early 2000s and was only intended to be used at broader landscape scales . land cover mapping accuracy is particularly problematic when the systems occur as small patches or where the land cover types have been altered over the past decade . thus , particular caution should be used when using the associations in assessments of smaller areas ( e . g . , evaluations of public land survey sections ) . finally , although a species may be associated with a particular ecological system within its known geographic range , portions of that ecological system may occur outside of the species ' known geographic range .
adams , r . a . 2003 . bats of the rocky mountain west ; natural history , ecology , and conservation . boulder , co : university press of colorado . 289 p .
dobkin , d . s . 1992 . neotropical migrant land birds in the northern rockies and great plains . usda forest service , northern region . publication no . r1 - 93 - 34 . missoula , mt .
foresman , k . r . 2012 . mammals of montana . second edition . mountain press publishing , missoula , montana . 429 pp .
hart , m . m . , w . a . williams , p . c . thornton , k . p . mclaughlin , c . m . tobalske , b . a . maxell , d . p . hendricks , c . r . peterson , and r . l . redmond . 1998 . montana atlas of terrestrial vertebrates . montana cooperative wildlife research unit , university of montana , missoula , mt . 1302 p .
hutto , r . l . and j . s . young . 1999 . habitat relationships of landbirds in the northern region , usda forest service , rocky mountain research station rmrs - gtr - 32 . 72 p .
maxell , b . a . 2000 . management of montana ' s amphibians : a review of factors that may present a risk to population viability and accounts on the identification , distribution , taxonomy , habitat use , natural history , and the status and conservation of individual species . report to u . s . forest service region 1 . missoula , mt : wildlife biology program , university of montana . 161 p .
werner , j . k . , b . a . maxell , p . hendricks , and d . flath . 2004 . amphibians and reptiles of montana . missoula , mt : mountain press publishing company . 262 p .
in winter they eat mainly conifer needles . in summer they eat a mixed diet of insects , green plants and berries . the young eat mainly insects ( mussehl 1971 ) .
brood movement in summer is generally less than 0 . 5 mile . brood break - up appeared concurrent with fall dispersal , in late august to early september and had lateral and altitudinal components . brood range densities were 27 ( 1957 ) and 34 ( 1958 ) in a 1 square mile area ( mussehl 1958 ) .
hatching dates in the bridger mountains ranged from may 25 to july 11 , with the peak the 3rd week of june ( mussehl 1958 ) . near fortine , hatching dates were june 10 to august 15 ; broods ranged from 1 to 10 young .
marks , j . s . , p . hendricks , and d . casey . 2016 . birds of montana . arrington , va . buteo books . 659 pages .
aldrich , j . w . 1963 . geographic orientation of american tetraonidae . journal of wildlife management 27 : 529 - 545 .
american ornithologists’ union [ aou ] . 1998 . check - list of north american birds , 7th edition . american ornithologists’ union , washington , d . c . 829 p .
casey , d . 2000 . partners in flight draft bird conservation plan montana . version 1 . 0 . 287 pp .
ehrlich , p . , d . dobkin , and d . wheye . 1988 . the birder’s handbook : a field guide to the natural history of north american birds . simon and schuster inc . new york . 785 pp .
hoffmann , r . s . 1960 . summer birds of the little belt mountains , montana . occasional papers of montana state university no . 1 , missoula .
hutto , r . l . , and j . s . young . 1999 . habitat relationships of landbirds in the northern region , usda forest service . u . s . forest service general technical report rmrs - gtr - 32 , ogden , utah .
johnsgard , p . a . 1992 . birds of the rocky mountains with particular reference to national parks in the northern rocky mountain region . lincoln : university of nebraska press . xi + 504 pp .
joslin , gayle . 1980 . wildlife inventory and hard rock mining impact analysis of the west cabinet mountains and lake creek valley , lincoln county , montana . mtfwp 91 pgs + 47 pgs app .
landusky mining inc . , zortman , mt . assisted by hydrometrics , helena , mt . , 1985 , operating permit application for an extension of landusky mining incorporated operations , phillips county , montana . june 12 , 1985
lenard , s . , j . carlson , j . ellis , c . jones , and c . tilly . 2003 . p . d . skaar’s montana bird distribution , 6th edition . montana audubon , helena , mt . 144 pp .
montana bird distribution committee . 2012 . p . d . skaar ' s montana bird distribution . 7th edition . montana audubon , helena , montana . 208 pp . + foldout map .
montana dept . of state lands , 1978 , preliminary environmental review for the proposed granting of an underground mining permit to beartooth coal company , incorporated , for the reopening of an underground coal mine in the area of bearcreek , carbon county , montana . july 10 , 1978 .
sibley , d . 2014 . the sibley guide to birds . alfred a . knopf , new york , ny . 598 pp .
skaar , p . d . , d . l . flath , and l . s . thompson . 1985 . montana bird distribution . montana academy of sciences monograph 3 ( 44 ) : ii - 69 .
skaar , p . d . 1969 . birds of the bozeman latilong : a compilation of data concerning the birds which occur between 45 and 46 n . latitude and 111 and 112 w . longitude , with current lists for idaho , montana , wyoming , impinging montana counties and yellowstone national park . bozeman , mt . 132 p .
stearns - roger inc . , 1975 , environmental baseline information of the mount vernon region , montana . january 31 , 1975 .
tvx mineral hill mine , amerikanuak , inc . , gardiner , mt . , 2002 , yearly summary of wildlife observation reports . 1990 - 2002 letter reports .
u . s . forest service . 1991 . forest and rangeland birds of the united states : natural history and habitat use . u . s . department of agriculture , forest service agricultural handbook 688 . 625 pages .
usdi fish and wildlife service . , 1961 , a detailed report on fish and wildlife resources affected by mcnamara dam and reservoir , blackfoot river project , montana . june 1961 .
walcheck , k . c . 1999 . the lewis and clark expedition : montana’s first bird inventory through the eyes of lewis and clark . lewis and clark interpretive association , great falls , montana .
zackheim , k . 1973 . exhibit h : wildlife study . in ash grove cement co . files .
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this group , the
chicken - like
birds , consists of medium to large terrestrial birds . they are quick flyers , better adapted for short bursts of speed than sustained flight . they are fast runners and spend much of their time on the ground . washington has two families :
females provide all parental care . nests are a shallow scrape in the ground , sometimes with little or no cover , sparsely lined with dead twigs , needles , leaves , and feathers . females lay and incubate 1–12 buffy , lightly speckled eggs ( normally 4–9 ) . the young leave the nest within a day after hatching . females tend the young , but do not feed them .
, seattle audubon ' s on - line breeding bird atlas of island , king , kitsap , and kittitas counties .
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these two taxa were originally regarded as separate species , but were considered conspecific for much of the twentieth century . however , in 2006 the american ornithologists ' union re - split them , following the dna - based work of barrowclough et al . ( 2004 ) . whose results supported the earlier work of brooks ( 1929 ) who regarded the two taxa as separate species based on morphology , behavior and vocalizations .
the precise ranges of the two species are well - defined in the south , separated by extensive areas of unsuitable forest - free habitat , but somewhat uncertain in the north of the range of the genus where there is no separation ; barrowclough et al . ' s study did not include these northern populations .
adult females of both species are mottled brown with dark brown and white marks on the underparts .
they mainly eat pine needles , but also green plants , berries , and insects in summer .
their breeding habitat is the edges of conifer and mixed forests in mountainous regions of north america and eurasia . their range is closely associated with that of various conifers . the nest is a scrape on the ground concealed under a shrub or log .
males sing with deep hoots on their territory and make short flapping flights to attract females .
late pleistocene fossil species that have been described are dendragapus gilli ( western and west - central usa ) , initially placed in a distinct genus palaeotetrix , and dendragapus lucasi ( known only from fossil lake , usa ) .
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throughout history , crows , ravens and other black birds were feared as symbols of evil or death . …
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often lumped with d . fuliginosus , which has yellow , not red , exposed breast patch in display ( 3 ) ; distinct pale tailband ( 2 ) ; and differences in hooting song # r , involving usually five vs usually six syllables ( “hoots” ) given at both lower pitch ( 50–100 hz vs 110–150 hz ) and lower volume ( audible to 40 m vs loud and audible to 500 m ) ( at least 2 ) ; genetic data support the split , but also suggest present species has n and s populations that do not conform to current subspecific divisions # r ; races sierrae and howardi of d . fuliginosus , sometimes placed in present species # r . proposed race flemingi ( s yukon ) usually included in richardsonii # r . four subspecies recognized .
( douglas , 1829 ) – w canada from se yukon and sw northwest territories s through british columbia and w alberta to n usa ( n idaho and perhaps nw montana ) .
swarth , 1931 – sw canada ( sc british columbia ) s through e washington to ne oregon , most of idaho , w montana and n & w wyoming .
( say , 1823 ) – rocky mts from c wyoming s through utah and colorado to n & e arizona and w new mexico . may formerly have ranged e to w south dakota , although more likely introduced there .
behle & selander , 1951 – ne nevada ( snake range , ruby mts and toiyabe range ) , s idaho and w utah ( deep creek mts ) .
male song consists of series of five far - carrying hooting notes , usually delivered from on or . . .
wide range of habitats in mountain zones , with greater preference for shrub - steppe and grassland . . .
winter diet consists almost entirely ( c . 90–99 % ) of needles , but including buds , twigs and cones , of firs (
lays late apr–jun , mostly from mid may . promiscuous ; males dispersed , on territories that are occupied year after year , although . . .
altitudinal shifts between breeding and wintering grounds reported for most areas ; in winter . . .
not globally threatened ( least concern ) . global population c . 3 , 000 , 000 mature individuals . still occupies most of original very large range , with some contractions due to . . .
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includes , in tetraonini , all taxa that have commonly been separated in families meleagrididae and tetraonidae .
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pteraster militaris , the wrinkled star , is a species of starfish in the family pterasteridae .

it is found in the northern pacific ocean , the arctic ocean , the barents sea and the northern atlantic ocean .

pteraster militaris

katie gale set
pteraster militaris
as an exemplar on
pteraster militaris ( o . f . müller , 1776 )
.
worms - world register of marine species - pteraster militaris ( o . f . müller , 1776 )
brooding biology of the sea star pteraster militaris ( o . f . müller ) : energetic and histological evidence for nutrient translocation to brooded juveniles
pteraster militaris has longer arms and a softer , more wrinkled skin than its close relative , pteraster tesselatus . the fans of marginal spines on adjoining mouth plates are not joined together by a continuous membrane as in p . tesse
brooding biology of the sea star pteraster militaris ( o . f . müller ) : energetic and histological evidence for nutrient translocation to brooded juveniles - sciencedirect
katie gale marked the classification from
world register of marine species ( worms )
as preferred for
pteraster militaris ( o . f . müller , 1776 )
.
similar species : pteraster pulvillus is similar but has shorter arms and 8 - 15 branches on the spines supporting the paxillae .
picton , b . e . & morrow , c . c . ( 2016 ) . pteraster militaris ( o f müller , 1776 ) . [ in ] encyclopedia of marine life of britain and ireland . urltoken accessed on 2018 - 07 - 09
to barcode of life ( 10 barcodes ) to biodiversity heritage library ( 12 publications ) ( from synonym pteraster aporus ludwig , 1886 ) to biodiversity heritage library ( 175 publications ) to biodiversity heritage library ( 28 publications ) ( from synonym asterias militaris o . f . müller , 1776 ) to encyclopedia of life to genbank ( 16 nucleotides ; 10 proteins ) to global biotic interactions ( globi ) to pesi to pesi ( from synonym asterias militaris o . f . müller , 1776 ) to pesi ( from synonym pteraster aporus ludwig , 1886 ) to usnm invertebrate zoology echinodermata collection ( 48 records ) to itis
the color of p . militaris is white , pale yellow or orange . it has five , sometimes red - tipped , arms . a third member of this family , p . obscurus has 6 - 8 arms .
typical for the pterasteridae family members are the spined papillae on the dorsal side . a soft skin is covering the spines , giving the surface of these sea stars a untidy , bumpy appearance . there are two to five spines on each papilla , in contrast to the similar , but smaller , pteraster pulvillus , on which the papillae have 8 - 15 spines . p . militaris may reach a diameter of 85 mm , while p . pulvillus does not exceed 40 mm .
( of pteraster aporus ludwig , 1886 ) ludwig , h . ( 1886 ) . echinodermen des beringsmeeres . zoologischer anzeiger . bd 1 ( 1886 ) : 275 - 296 . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 293 [ details ]
( of asterias militaris o . f . müller , 1776 ) müller , o . f . ( 1776 ) . zoologiae danicae prodromus : seu animalium daniae et norvegiae indigenarum characteres , nomina , et synonyma imprimis popularium . hafniae , typiis hallageriis . 1 - 274 . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 234 [ details ]
( of asteriscus militaris ( o . f . müller , 1776 ) ) müller , j . and troschel , f . h . ( 1842 ) . system der asteriden . 1 . asteriae . 2 . ophiuridae . vieweg : braunschweig . xxx + 134 pp . 12 pls . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 44 [ details ]
( of pteraster aporus ludwig , 1886 ) hansson , h . g . ( 2001 ) . echinodermata , in : costello , m . j . et al . ( ed . ) ( 2001 ) . european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . collection patrimoines naturels , . 50 : pp . 336 - 351 . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
( of asterias militaris o . f . müller , 1776 ) hansson , h . g . ( 2001 ) . echinodermata , in : costello , m . j . et al . ( ed . ) ( 2001 ) . european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . collection patrimoines naturels , . 50 : pp . 336 - 351 . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
( of pterasterides aporus ( ludwig , 1886 ) ) ludwig , h . ( 1886 ) . echinodermen des beringsmeeres . zoologischer anzeiger . bd 1 ( 1886 ) : 275 - 296 . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 293 [ details ]
hansson , h . g . ( 2001 ) . echinodermata , in : costello , m . j . et al . ( ed . ) ( 2001 ) . european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . collection patrimoines naturels , . 50 : pp . 336 - 351 . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
brunel , p . ; bosse , l . ; lamarche , g . ( 1998 ) . catalogue of the marine invertebrates of the estuary and gulf of st . lawrence . canadian special publication of fisheries and aquatic sciences , 126 . 405 p . ( look up in imis ) [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
linkletter , l . e . ( 1977 ) . a checklist of marine fauna and flora of the bay of fundy . huntsman marine laboratory , st . andrews , n . b . 68 : p . [ details ]
clark , a . m . ; downey , m . e . ( 1992 ) . starfishes of the atlantic . chapman & hall identification guides , 3 . chapman & hall . london , uk . isbn 0 - 412 - 43280 - 3 . xxvi , 794 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
southward , e . c . ; campbell , a . c . ( 2006 ) . [ echinoderms : keys and notes for the identification of british species ] . synopses of the british fauna ( new series ) , 56 . field studies council : shrewsbury , uk . isbn 1 - 85153 - 269 - 2 . 272 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
integrated taxonomic information system ( itis ) . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
pawson , d . l . , d . j . vance , c . g . messing , f . a . solis - marin & c . l . mah . ( 2009 ) . echinodermata of the gulf of mexico . pp . 1177–1204 in felder , d . l . and d . k . camp ( eds . ) , gulf of mexico–origins , waters , and biota . biodiversity . texas a & m ; press , college s . [ details ]
trott , t . j . ( 2004 ) . cobscook bay inventory : a historical checklist of marine invertebrates spanning 162 years . northeastern naturalist . 11 , 261 - 324 . , available online at urltoken [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
müller , j . and troschel , f . h . ( 1842 ) . system der asteriden . 1 . asteriae . 2 . ophiuridae . vieweg : braunschweig . xxx + 134 pp . 12 pls . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 128 [ details ]
dilman a . b . ( 2014 ) . deep - sea fauna of european seas : an annotated species check - list of benthic invertebrates living deeper than 2000 m in the seas bordering europe . asteroidea . invertebrate zoology . vol . 11 . no . 1 : 25–42 [ in english ] . [ details ] available for editors [ request ]
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this is a circumpolar species , found in the arctic as well as the northern parts of the pacific and atlantic ocean , as far south as the north sea and new foundland .
classification from world register of marine species ( worms ) selected by katie gale - see more .
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extracted from sea stars of british columbia , southeast alaska and puget sound by philip lambert .
the aboral side of body is inflated and the oral side flat . a supra dorsal membrane supported by the spines of the paxillae covers the true aboral surface to create a nidamental chamber . in the centre of this membrane is a large opening ( osculum ) . many smaller spiracles pierce the rest of the membrane . on each side of the ambulacral furrow is a wide actinolateral membrane supported by long spines ; between the spines are small holes , each guarded by an operculum , which lead to the nidamental chamber ; water enters here and is expelled through the osculum . no oral intermediate plates .
click on the image below to view an expanded illustration for this taxon . if more than one illustration is available for a species ( e . g . , two subspecies may be illustrated ) then links to the separate images will be provided below .
circumboreal ; in the north pacific , from the bering sea to northern oregon and to the sea of japan ; in the north atlantic , on the norwegian coast and to cape cod , u . s . a . found at depths of 10 to 1100 metres , usually on mud , but in less than 30 metres on rocky substrates . in the arctic , it is found on rock and a mixture of rock and mud .
bc ministry of environment : bc species and ecosystems explorer - - the authoritative source for conservation information in british columbia .
recommended citation : author , date . page title . in klinkenberg , brian . ( editor ) 2017 .
[ efauna . bc . ca ] . lab for advanced spatial analysis , department of geography , university of british columbia , vancouver . [ accessed :
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mah , c . l . ( 2014 ) world asteroidea database . accessed through : world register of marine species at urltoken
asteroidea of the north pacific and adjacent waters , part 1 . phanerozonia and spinulosa
description : small starfish with short arms . the spines at the edges of the arms are webbed together by a membrane . colour reported to vary from white through yellow to red . up to 15cm in diameter .
distribution : northern north sea , in more than 100m . possible record from 36m , ross - shire . widespread in the arctic to southern norway .
distribution map from nbn : interactive map : national biodiversity network mapping facility , data for uk .
occurrence describes how often the species is found on surveys within its distribution . it is calculated as the % of reef sites surveyed by rls divers across all the ecoregions in which the species has been observed
abundance is calculated as the average number of individuals recorded per rls transect , where present .
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these keywords were added by machine and not by the authors . this process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves .
: advances in fish science and technology , pp 86–103 . ed . by j . j . connell , farnham , surrey , england : fishing news books ltd . 1980
: biochemical and physiological approaches to shellfish nutrition . proceedings of second international conference on aquaculture nutrition . in press . ( 1983 )
ackman , r . g . and c . a . eaton : some contemporary applications of open - tubular gas liquid chromatography in analyses of methyl esters of longer chain fatty acids . fette seifen anstr - mittel
ackman , r . g . and j . mclachlan : fatty acids in some nova scotian marine seaweeds . a survey for octadecapentaeonoic and other biochemically novel fatty acids . proc . trans . nova scotian inst . sci .
ackman , r . g . , c . s . tocher and j . mclachlan : marine phytoplankter fatty acids . j . fish . res . bd can .
bergmann , w . and h . a . standbury : contributions to the study of marine products . xiv . astrol . j . org . chem .
brody , j . : fishery by - products technology , 232 pp . westport connecticut : avi publishing co . inc . 1965
christie , w . w . : lipid analysis , 338 pp . oxford : pergamon press 1973
chuecas , l . and j . p . riley : the component fatty acids of the lipids of some marine phytoplankton species . j . mar . biol . ass . u . k .
falk - petersen , i . - b . : reproductive and biochemical studies of the asteroid
falk - petersen , i . - b . and j . r . sargent : reproduction of asteroids from balsfjorden , northern norway : analyses of lipids in the gonads of
ferguson , j . c . : the annual cycle of fatty acid composition in a starfish . comp . biochem . physiol .
folch , j . , m . lees and g . h . sloane - stanley : a simple method for the isolation and purification of total lipids from animal tissues . j . biol . chem .
gunstone , f . d . : an introduction to the chemistry and biochemistry of fatty acids and their glycerides , 209 pp . london : chapman & hall ltd . 1967
gurr , m . i . and a . t . james : lipid biochemistry : an introduction , 247 pp . london and new york : chapman & hall 1980
johns , r . b . , p . d . nichols and g . j . perry : fatty acid composition of ten marine algae from australian waters . phytochem .
karnovsky , m . l . and a . f . brumm : studies on naturally occurring glyceryl ethers . j . biol . chem .
kozhina , v . p . t . a . terekhova and v . i . svetachev : lipid composition of gametes and embryos of the sea urchin
liefkens , w . , j . j . boon and j . w . de leeuw : on the occurrence of alkyl - and alk - 1 - enyl - diacylglycerides in the lugworm
morris , r . j . and f . culkin : marine lipids : analytical techniques and fatty acids ester analyses . oceanogr . mar . biol . a . rev .
malins , d . c . , j . c . wekell and c . r . houle : composition of the diacylglyceryl ethers and triglycerides of the flesh and liver of the dogfish (
metzman , m . s . , a . mastroianni and j . f . strauss : fatty acid composition of unfertilized and fertilized eggs of the sea urchin
ninno , r . e . , m . a . p . de torrengo , j . c . castuma and r . r . brenner : specificity of 5 - and 6 - fatty acid desaturases in rat and fish . biochim . biophys . acta
paradis , m . and r . g . ackman : potential for employing the distribution of anomalous non - methylene - interrupted dienoic fatty acids in several marine invertebrates as part of food web studies . lipids
pascal , j . - c . and r . g . ackman : long chain monoethylenic alcohol and acid isomers in lipids of copepods and capelin . chemy phys . lipids
rodegker , w . and j . c . nevenzel : the fatty acid composition of three marine invertebrates . comp . biochem . physiol .
sargent , j . r . : the structure , metabolism and function of lipids in marine organisms .
: biochemical and biophysical perspectives in marine biology , vol . 3 . pp 149–212 . ed . by d . c . malins and j . r . sargent . london : academic press 1976
sargent , j . r . : ether - linked glycerides in marine animals .
: marine biogenic lipids , fats and oils , ed . by r . g . ackman , cleveland , ohio : c . r . c . press inc . ( in press ) . ( 1983 )
sargent , j . r . and k . j . whittle : lipids and hydrocarbons in the marine food web .
: analysis of marine ecosystems , pp 491–533 . ed . by a . r . longhurst . london : academic press 1981
shaw , n . : lipid composition as a guide to classification of bacteria .
: advances in applied microbiology , vol . 17 . pp 63–109 . ed . by d . perlman , new york : academic press 1974
snyder , f . : enzymatic systems that synthesize and degrade glycerolipids possessing ether bonds . adv . lipid res .
takagi , t . , c . a . eaton and r . g . ackman : distribution of fatty acids in lipids of the common sea urchin
todd , d . and g . p . rizzi : biochemistry of the α - glyceryl ethers . i . distribution in mammalian tissues and in starfish . proc . soc . exp . biol . med .
sargent , j . r . , falk - petersen , i . b . & calder , a . g . marine biology ( 1983 ) 72 : 257 . urltoken
boolootian , r . a . : physiology of echinodermata , 822 pp . new york : interscience publishers 1966
dorée , c . : the occurrence and distribution of cholesterol and related bodies in the animal kingdom . biochem . j .
eilertsen , h . chr . , s . falk - petersen , c . c . e . hopkins and k . tande : ecological investigations on the plankton community of balsfjorden , northern norway . program for the project , study area , topography and physical environment . sarsia
falk - petersen , i . b . : reproductive and biochemical studies of the asteroid
fewster , m . e . , b . j . burns and j . f . mead : quantitative densitometric thin - layer chromatography of lipids using copper acetate reagent . j . chromat .
kossel , a . und s . edlbacher : beiträge zur chemischen kenntnis der echinodermen . hoppe - seyler ' s z . physiol . chem .
lee , r . f . and j . hirota : wax esters in tropical zooplankton and nekton and the geogranhical distribution of wax esters in marine copepods . limnol . oceanogr .
lee , r . f . , j . hirota and a . m . barnett : distribution and importance of wax esters in marine copepods and other zooplankton . deep - sea res .
lee , r . f . , j . c . nevenzel and a . lewis : lipid changes during the life cycle of marine copepod
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present addresse : d . j . mcclary , department of zoology and portobello marine laboratory , university of otago , po box 8 , portobello , new zealand .
present addresse : p . v . mladenov , marine science and aquaculture research centre and portobello marine laboratory , university of otago , po box 56 , dunedin , new zealand .
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