mobula munkiana , commonly known as the manta de monk , munk 's devil ray , pygmy devil ray , or smoothtail mobula , is a species of ray in the family myliobatidae .

it is found in tropical parts of the eastern pacific ocean , ranging from the gulf of california to peru , as well as offshore islands such as the galapagos , cocos , and malpelo .

munk 's devil ray was first described in 1987 by the italian ecologist giuseppe notarbartolo di sciara .

mobula munkiana

( 14 ) the saw fishes anoxypristis cuspidate , pristis clavata , pristis pectinata , pristis zijsron , pristis pristis , the mobula rays mobula mobular , mobula japonica , mobula thurstoni , mobula tarapacana , mobula eregoodootenkee , mobula kuhlii , mobula hypostoma , mobula rochebrunei and mobula munkiana fall under the cfp which offers the appropriate instruments for the eu to contribute to managing their protection when adding these species to appendix i and ii to the convention .
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nature picture library - a large group of munk & apos ; s devil / smoothtail mobula rays ( mobula munkiana ) galapagos islands , ecuador , pacific ocean - bra . . .
6 . other parties to the convention have submitted proposals to amend appendices i and ii to the convention for the species ursus maritimus , all subspecies of the panthera leo , kobus kob , eudorcas rufifrons , otis tarda , calidris pusilla , calidris tenuirostris , cardellina canadiensis , carcharhinus falciformis , sphyrna lewini , sphyrna mokarran , anoxypristis cuspidate , pristis clavata , pristis pectinata , pristis zijsron , pristis pristis , mobula mobular , mobula japonica , mobula thurstoni , mobula tarapacana , mobula eregoodootenkee , mobula kuhlii , mobula hypostoma , mobula rochebrunei and mobula munkiana , manta alfredi and anguilla anguilla .
having viewed the footage of mobula munkiana in the gulf of california , mr stewart was able to confirm that both females and males jump .
view image of m . munkiana may jump to identify an aggregation to others ( credit : octavio aburto / ilcp )
bentfin devil ray , lesser devil ray , smoothtail mobula , thurston’s devil ray .
bizzarro , j . j . , smith , w . d . & clark , t . b . 2005 . mobula munkiana . 2006 iucn red list of threatened species . downloaded on 3 august 2007 .
the nine mobula species range in size from the largest , mobula mobular , which can reach 5 . 2 meters dw , to the smallest , mobula eregoodootenkee , which averages only 1 . 1 meters dw 10 . mobulas can be found in temperate and tropical waters worldwide . some mobula species are range restricted , such as mobula kuhlii and mobula eregoodootenkee , found only in the indian and western pacific oceans respectively . other species , such as mobula tarapacana and mobula thurstoni , are thought to be circumglobal 2 , 11 . since information on the distribution of this genus is based on sparse records and misidentification is common , the estimated ranges of individual species , and even some species classifications , will likely change in the coming years .
all mobula are likely to be at risk of over - exploitation by both targeted and artisinal fisheries , due to their similar biological and behavioural characteristics . the lack of specific records of mobula landings at the species level , mainly as a result of the difficulty in distinguishing between the different mobula in the field makes assessment of the conservation status of individual mobula species extremely difficult .
10 - bizzarro , j . j . , smith , w . d . & clark , t . b . 2006 . mobula munkiana . in : iucn 2011 . iucn red list of threatened species . version 2011 . 2 . .
tw3621 - d . smoothtail mobula rays ( mobula munkiana ) , an aggregation of hundreds of the 2 to 3 foot wide rays are feeding on plankton at night . also called munkõs devil ray and pygmy devil ray . baja , mexico , sea of cortez , pacific ocean . photo copyright © brandon cole . all rights reserved worldwide . urltoken
tw3621 - d - brandon _ cole - mobula _ rays _ at _ night _ photo . jpg
mobula munkiana , the manta de monk , munk ' s devil ray , pygmy devil ray , or smoothtail mobula , is a species of fish in the myliobatidae family . it is found in colombia , costa rica , ecuador , el salvador , guatemala , honduras , mexico , nicaragua , panama , and peru . its natural habitats are shallow seas and subtidal aquatic beds .
soaring high above the waves as easily as a bird , mobula rays appear perfectly designed for this astonishing aerobatic display .
his team has also uncovered what is thought to be a m . munkiana nursery ground , where juveniles were feeding along the shore , close to where the aggregations and jumping typically happen .
a revisionary study of the genus mobula rafinesque , 1810 ( chondrichthyes : mobulidae ) , with the description of a new species .
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notobartolo - di - sciara , g . ( 1987 ) natural history of the rays of the genus mobula in the gulf of california . fishery bulletin , 86 ( 1 ) : 45 - 66 .
“along these lines , we ' re thinking that the m . munkiana may be jumping to identify the aggregation to other nearby individuals . in theory , this would increase the density and overall number of individuals , providing a higher mate choice ability and increasing the likelihood that any one individual gets to mate . ”
the smoothtail mobula occurs in coastal waters of the eastern pacific , from the gulf of california , mexico , south to peru , and inclusive of the galapagos , cocos , and malpelo islands ( 1 ) .
“because of this , we know that the mobula aggregations in the gulf of california are extremely vulnerable to human impacts , and the greatest threat is most likely bycatch in drift gill net fisheries , ” says mr stewart .
mobula rays can reach heights of more than two metres ( 6ft 6ins ) , remaining airborne for several seconds , but their landings are much less graceful , creating a loud bang as they belly - flop back into the sea .
2 - notarbartolo di sciara , g . 1987 . a revisionary study of the genus mobula rafineque , 1810 ( chondrichthyes : mobulidae ) with the description of a new species . zoological journal of the linnean society , 91 : 1 - 91
11 - clark , t . b . , smith , w . d . & bizzarro , j . j . 2006 . mobula thurstoni . in : iucn 2011 . iucn red list of threatened species . version 2011 . 2 . .
notarbartolo - di - sciara , g . ( 1987 ) a revisionary study of the genus mobula , rafinesque , 1810 ( chondrichthyes : mobulidae ) with the description of a new species . zoological journal of the linnean society , 91 : 1 - 91 .
more research is vital to determine the impact of target and non - target fisheries on the smoothtail mobula . it is thought likely that the availability of additional fisheries information will reveal an urgent need for conservation measures including restrictions on harvest and trade ( 1 ) .
what is known about mobula rays is that they reach sexual maturity late and their investment in their offspring is more akin to mammals than other fishes , usually producing just a single pup after long pregnancies , all of which makes them extremely vulnerable to commercial fishing .
as large species which feed low in the food chain , mobula can be viewed as indicator species for the overall health of the ecosystem . studies have suggested that removing large , filter - feeding organisms from marine environments can result in significant , cascading species composition changes .
mobula rays’ elusive nature and skittish behaviour in front of divers has made them difficult to observe in the wild , except when they breach the water . mr stewart explains that even large aggregations , like the one in the gulf of california , can sometimes be hard to find , as they can occur in different locations and at slightly different times of the year .
recent research has revealed that manta and mobula rays have the highest brain mass to body mass ratio of all elasmobranchs , comparable to some birds and mammals . they exhibit high maneuverability , and increased social and cognitive abilities 16 . divers cite numerous examples of manta rays cooperating and accepting help when entangled in lines , and many report that injured manta rays even seem to seek assistance .
the smoothtail mobula is thought to commonly forage along the seafloor , with mysid shrimp being its main prey , but more research is needed to assess feeding behaviour and dietary preferences ( 1 ) . likewise , very little is known about its migratory habits , other than that it is common in the gulf of california over winter , when other mobulid species are rare or absent ( 6 ) . it reproduces ovoviviparously , with each mature female producing just a single pup per litter ( 1 ) .
the seas surrounding the arabian peninsula , including the red sea , the gulf of aden , the gulf of oman and the arabian / persian gulf , contain very important habitat for these fascinating and vulnerable species , and a better understanding of their ecology and status is urgently needed to secure their survival . a description of the biology , ecology and conservation status of devil rays found in the seas of arabia is ongoing . this also includes the re - description of a little - known species , mobula kuhlii .
owing to its schooling behaviour and apparent benthic feeding habit , the smoothtail mobula is highly vulnerable to gillnet fishing . as may be expected of a highly mobile schooling species , large numbers are caught episodically in traditional fisheries in the gulf of california . although there is no fishery information outside of mexico , there is also a high possibility that it is caught as bycatch in numerous other fisheries throughout its range . consequently , there is great concern that catch rates may be unsustainable , particularly given this species’ low reproductive output ( 1 ) .
the group of cartilaginous fish in the family mobulidae ( mobulid rays ) consists of two genera , manta and mobula , with two and nine species respectively 1 , 2 . all mobulid rays have diamond shaped bodies , wing - like pectoral fins used for propulsion , and five pairs of gill slits . they usually inhabit pelagic zones 3 , 4 . mobulids are often called “devil rays” because of the cephalic fins on the front of their heads that resemble “horns” . the cephalic fins unfurl and help guide water into their mouths , and modified gill features filter zooplankton and small fish , their primary food sources 5 - 7 .
in common with other species in the mobulidae family , the smoothtail mobula has long , pointed , pectoral fins which it strokes up and down , like wings , for propulsion ( 2 ) ( 3 ) . on either side of the head , and in front of its prominent eyes , are two fleshy lobes that project forward to funnel food into the mouth ( 3 ) ( 4 ) . the dorsal fin is small , and the tail is long , flattened and spineless . the upper surface of its body is generally dark purplish to mauve - grey , while the underside is white , becoming blue - grey towards the ‘wing - tips’ ( 3 ) ( 5 ) .
having only been discovered as recently as 1988 , information on the biology of the smoothtail mobula is still relatively fragmentary ( 1 ) . however , it is well known for forming large schools , appearing as conspicuous dark patches slowly cruising along the shallow coastline . typically , its occurrence in any particular location is unpredictable , with large numbers sometimes gathering in an area for a few days , before disappearing for weeks or even months ( 1 ) ( 6 ) . another remarkable feature of this species is the frequency with which individuals breach the water’s surface , often simultaneously . the breaching behaviour is characterised by a variety of acrobatic manoeuvres , including head over tail somersaulting and high vertical leaps , followed by loud belly slaps ( 6 ) .
marine ; pelagic - oceanic ; oceanodromous ( ref . 51243 ) ; depth range 0 - 15 m ( ref . 58018 ) . tropical
maturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 220 cm wd male / unsexed ; ( ref . 28023 ) ; common length : 100 . 0 cm wd male / unsexed ; ( ref . 9256 )
pelagic species forming schools in coastal and oceanic waters , but also found near the bottom . found singly , in small groups , or in schools ( ref . 12951 ) . feeds mainly on planktonic crustaceans , but also takes small schooling fishes ( ref . 12951 ) . ovoviviparous ( ref . 50449 ) .
exhibit ovoviparity ( aplacental viviparity ) , with embryos feeding initially on yolk , then receiving additional nourishment from the mother by indirect absorption of uterine fluid enriched with mucus , fat or protein through specialised structures ( ref . 50449 ) .
mceachran , j . d . and g . notarbartolo di sciara , 1995 . mobulidae . mantas , diablos . p . 759 - 764 . in w . fischer , f . krupp , w . schneider , c . sommer , k . e . carpenter and v . niem ( eds . ) guia fao para identification de especies para los fines de la pesca . pacifico centro - oriental . 3 vols . fao , rome . ( ref . 9256 )
) : 22 . 2 - 28 . 5 , mean 23 . 5 ( based on 368 cells ) .
phylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 5005 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .
bayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 01000 ( 0 . 00244 - 0 . 04107 ) , b = 3 . 04 ( 2 . 81 - 3 . 27 ) , in cm total length , based on all lwr estimates for this body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .
trophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 8 ±0 . 60 se ; based on food items .
resilience ( ref . 69278 ) : low , minimum population doubling time 4 . 5 - 14 years ( fec assumed to be < 100 ) .
vulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : high vulnerability ( 56 of 100 ) .
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the relatively recent description of this species and similarity of morphology among mobulids may account for common misidentifications of this ray .
kyne , p . m . , notarbartolo - di - sciara , g . , fowler , s . l . & compagno , l . j . v . ( shark red list authority )
eastern pacific from the gulf of california , méxico to peru , including the galapagos , cocos , and malpelo islands ( robertson and allen 2002 ) .
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classified as near threatened ( nt ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .
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benthic the lowermost region of an aquatic habitat , the bottom . bycatch in the fishing industry , the part of the catch made up of non - target species . dorsal fin in fish , the unpaired fin ( s ) found on the back of the body . ovoviviparously ovovivipary is a method of reproduction whereby the egg shell is weakly formed and young hatch inside the female ; they are nourished by their yolk sac and then ‘born ' live . pectoral fins the pair of fins that are found one on each side of the body just behind the gills . they are generally used for balancing and braking .
grove , j . s . and lavenberg , r . j . ( 1997 ) the fishes of the galápagos islands . stanford university press , california .
campbell , a . and dawes , j . ( 2004 ) encyclopedia of underwater life . oxford university press , oxford .
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notarbartolo - di - sciara , 1987 . accessed through : world register of marine species at : urltoken ; = 271482 on 2018 - 07 - 09
the webpage text is licensed under a creative commons attribution - noncommercial 4 . 0 license
froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
eschmeyer , w . n . ( 1990 ) . catalogue of the genera of recent fishes . california academy of sciences , san francisco , california .
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nelson , joseph s . , edwin j . crossman , h . espinosa - pérez , l . t . findley , c . r . gilbert , et al . , eds .
full author list : nelson , joseph s . , edwin j . crossman , héctor espinosa - pérez , lloyd t . findley , carter r . gilbert , robert n . lea , and james d . williams
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like other rays , the smoothtail devil ray has a distinctive disc - like body with large , triangular pectoral fins that function like ‘wings’ , propelling it swiftly through the water column ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 4 ) . the mouth is located on the underside of the head , while the front of the head is equipped with two distinctive paddle - shaped lobes that channel food towards the mouth . the moderately long tail is flattened towards the base , and lacks the barbed spine exhibited by some ray species . above , this devil ray is dark blue to black , while the underside is white , becoming silvery towards the tips of the ‘wings’ ( 2 ) ( 5 ) .
chupa sangre , chupasangre , diablo , diablo chupasangre , diablo manta , manta , muciélago .
in common with many other mobulid species , there is a dearth of information on the natural history of the smoothtail devil ray . based on studies in the gulf of california , mexico , this devil ray appears to have a highly specialised diet , with euphasiid shrimp and , to a slightly lesser extent , mysid shrimp being the main prey items . it is not known to form large schools , a behaviour exhibited by some of its close relatives , but instead is usually observed solitarily or in small groups of two to six ( 1 ) ( 6 ) .
in common with many elasmobranchs , mating , birthing and juvenile life predominately take place in shallow waters . it reproduces ovoviviparously , with each female producing just a single pup per litter , which develops within an egg inside the mother ' s body but emerges alive after hatching . the gestation period is around 12 months ( 1 ) ( 6 ) .
the smoothtail devil ray is currently known from scattered locations in the indian , pacific , and atlantic oceans , but is probably circumglobal in tropical and sub - tropical waters ( 1 ) ( 5 ) .
occurs along coastlines , to depths of less than 100 metres ( 1 ) .
the smoothtail devil ray is taken as both a target species and as bycatch in fisheries in mexico , indonesia and the philippines , and is almost certainly landed in other countries across its range . the greatest concern is in southeast asia , where catches and demand are increasing , owing in particular to a rise in the value of gill - rakers in the asian medicinal market . given its low reproductive potential , this species is unlikely to be able to tolerate the current levels of exploitation ( 1 ) .
it is crucial that additional research is carried out to establish the true impact of target and non - target fisheries on the smoothtail devil ray . unfortunately , elasmobranch fisheries are generally unmanaged in most regions within this species range . furthermore , in some areas fishing regulations are poorly enforced , such as in the philippines where mobulids are still being caught illegally despite a ban put in place in 1998 . in the long run , the development and implementation of international management plans may be vital for the survival of the smoothtail devil ray and other mobulids ( 1 ) .
bycatch in the fishing industry , the part of the catch made up of non - target species . elasmobranch subclass of cartilaginous fish that includes sharks , skates and rays . gill - rakers a series of bony , comb - like projections located along the front edge of the gill arch . mobulid species within the modbulidae family ovoviviparously ovovivipary is a method of reproduction whereby the egg shell is weakly formed and young hatch inside the female ; they are nourished by their yolk sac and then ‘born ' live . pectoral fins the pair of fins that are found one on each side of the body just behind the gills . they are generally used for balancing and braking .
allen , g . r . and robertson , d . r . ( 1994 ) fishes of the tropical eastern pacific . crawford house press , bathhurst , uk .
manta trust catemwood house corscombe dorchester dorset dt2 0nt united kingdom info @ urltoken http : / / www . urltoken
notarbartolo di sciara , 1987 : in : database of modern sharks , rays and chimaeras , www . shark - references . com , world wide web electronic publication , version 07 / 2018
. pelagic species forming schools in coastal and oceanic waters , but also found near the bottom . found singly , in small groups , or in schools
host - parasite list / parasite - host list ( version : 01 . 04 . 2015 ) 544 pp , 5 , 37 mb new !
pelagic species forming schools in coastal and oceanic waters , but also found near the bottom . found singly , in small groups , or in schools ( ref . 12951 ) . feeds mainly on planktonic crustaceans , but also takes small schooling fishes ( ref . 12951 ) . ovoviviparous ( ref . 50449 ) .
eastern pacific from the gulf of california , mxico to peru , including the galapagos , cocos , and malpelo islands ( robertson and allen 2002 ) .
pelagic - oceanic ; oceanodromous ( ref . 51243 ) ; marine ; depth range 0 - 15 m ( ref . 58018 )
oceanodromous . migrating within oceans typically between spawning and different feeding areas , as tunas do . migrations should be cyclical and predictable and cover more than 100 km .
pelagic species forming schools in coastal and oceanic waters , but also found near the bottom . found singly , in small groups , or in schools ( ref . 12951 ) . feeds mainly on planktonic crustaceans , but also takes small schooling fishes .
exhibit ovoviparity ( aplacental viviparity ) , with embryos feeding initially on yolk , then receiving additional nourishment from the mother by indirect absorption of uterine fluid enriched with mucus , fat or protein through specialised structures ( ref . 50449 ) .
devil rays ( batoid species belonging to the family mobulidae ) are highly evolved elasmobranchs that have abandoned life on the sea bottom to swim in the water column and near the surface , where they feed on small fishes and zooplankton . some ( e . g . , manta rays ) have reached a very large body size .
liaising with the manta trust , an ngo dedicated to mobulid science and conservation , and actively participating to the drafting of a global strategy for the conservation of mobulid rays ( work in progress ) .
, and probably endemic to the region . considering the extremely low reproductive potential of the species , its limited range , and threats deriving from both directed and accidental captures in fisheries , giant devil rays were assessed as endangered in iucn’s
for giant devil rays seasonally gathering off gaza ( palestinian territories ) in late winter , a collaborative work was started in 2015 with professor mohammed abudaya , an ichthyologists from the local university with the support of the mava foundation , to study the phenomenon , suggest mechanisms for impact mitigation on this endangered species , and satellite tag some individual rays to study their migratory behaviour within the mediterranean .
g . , lauriano g . , pierantonio n . , cañadas a . , donovan g . , panigada s . 2015 . the devil we don’t know : investigating habitat and abundance of endangered giant devil rays in the north - western mediterranean sea . plos one 10 ( 11 ) : e0141189 . doi : 10 . 1371 / journal . pone . 0141189 open access
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> press w . h . , flannery b . p . , teukolsky s . a . and vetterling w . t . < br / > < strong > cyclic redundancy and other checksums < / strong > < br / > < a href =
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> numerical recipes in c 2nd ed . , pp896 - 902 , cambridge university press ( 1993 ) < / a > ) < / p >
< p > this subsection of the ‘sequence’ section is used for sequence fragments to indicate that the residue at the extremity of the sequence is not the actual terminal residue in the complete protein sequence . < p > < a href = ' / help / non _ ter ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >
km364948 genomic dna translation : aiz03095 . 1 km364949 genomic dna translation : aiz03096 . 1 km364950 genomic dna translation : aiz03097 . 1
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the genus manta includes the larger manta birostris ( oceanic manta ) , the smaller manta alfredi ( reef manta ) , and a possible third species , manta . cf birostris 1 both m . birostris and m . alfredi are circumglobal in overall range , and overlap in some locations 8 . m . cf birostris , is likely limited to the gulf of mexico and western caribbean 1 . manta birostris has a maximum wingspan ( disk width , or dw ) of seven to nine meters 1 , 3 . manta alfredi has a maximum 4 to 5 meter disk width 9 , and usually occupies tropical areas .
all mobulids are aplacental , viviparous species , meaning that they give birth to fully developed live young 4 , 7 , 12 , and typically bear only a single pup with each pregnancy 12 , 13 . while the lifespan and age at sexual maturity are not yet known for many mobulid species , long - term studies of m . alfredi populations in various locations indicate a life history incompatible with targeted commercial fishing .
for example , female m . alfredi are believed to reach maturity at 8 - 10 years 9 , however female m . alfredi in an extensively studied population in the maldives showed no mating scars and did not become pregnant for a number of years after reaching mature size . these observations indicate that female m . alfredi in some subpopulations may not mate until an age of 15 years or more 14 .
m . alfredi near a mozambique study site and in maui had a biennial reproductive period with some females pupping in consecutive years 13 , while in the maldives , the reproductive cycle appears to be significantly slower , with female m . alfredi giving birth on average to only one pup every five years 14 . m . alfredi have been confirmed to live at least 30 years 17 and both manta species are believed to live 40 years and possibly longer 9 , 15 .
1 – marshall , a . d . 2009 . biology and population ecology of manta birostris in southern mozambique . phd thesis , university of queensland
3 - compagno , l . j . v . 1999 . checklist of living elasmobranchs . in : hamlett , w . c . ( ed ) . sharks , skates , and rays : the biology of elasmobranch fishes . maryland : john hopkins university press . p 471–498
4 - deakos , m . h . 2010a . ecology and social behavior of a resident manta ray ( manta alfredi ) population off maui , hawai’i . phd thesis , university of hawai’i , manoa , hawai’i .
5 - maigret , j . and ly , b . 1986 . . les poissons de mer de mauritanie . science nat . , compiègne .
6 - notarbartolo di sciara , g . and hillyer , e . v . 1989 . mobulid rays off eastern venezuela ( chnodrichthyes , mobulidae ) . copeia , 3 : 607 - 614 .
7 - compagno , l . j . v . and last , p . 1999 . mobulidae . in : capenter , k . e . and niem , v . h . ( eds ) , fao species identification fuide for fishery purposes . the living marine resources of the western central pacific ( volume 3 . batoid fishes , chimeras and bony fishes . part 1 ( elopidae to linophymidae ) ) . rome : fao .
8 - kashiwagi , t . marshall , a . d . , bennett , m . b . , and ovenden , j . r . 2011 . habitat segregation and mosaic sympatry of the two species of manta ray in the indian and pacific oceans : manta alfredi and m . birostris . marine biodiversity records : 1 - 8 .
9 - marshall , a . , bennett , m . b . , kodja , g . , hinojosa - alvarez , s . , galvan - magana , f . , harding , m . , stevens , g . & kashiwagi , t . 2011 . manta birostris . in : iucn 2011 . iucn red list of threatened species . version 2011 . 2 . .
12 - marshall , a . , ishihara , h . , dudley , s . f . j . , clark , t . b . , jorgensen , s . , smith , w . d . , and bizzarro , j . j . 2006 . manta birostris . in : iucn 2010 . iucn red list of threatened species , version 2010 . 4 www . iucnredlist . org . downloaded 12 february 2011 .
13 - marshall , a . d . and bennett , m . b . 2010 . reproductive ecology of the reef manta ray manta alfredi in southern mozambique . journal of fish biology , 77 ( 1 ) : 169 - 190 .
14 - anderson , r . c . , adam , m . s . , kitchen - wheeler , a . , and stevens , g . 2010 . extent and economic value of manta ray watching in maldives . tourism in marine environments , 7 ( 1 ) : 15 - 27 .
15 - marshall , a . d . , dudgeon , c . l . and bennett , m . b . 2011 . size and structure of a photographically identified population of manta rays manta alfredi in southern mozambique . marine biology , 158 ( 5 ) : 1111 - 1124 .
16 - ari , c . 2011 . encephalization and brain organization of mobulid rays ( myliobatiformes , elasmobranchii ) with ecological perspectives . the open anatomy journal , 3 : 1 - 13 .
17 - clark , t . b . 2001 . population structure of manta birostris ( chondrichthyes : mobulidae ) from the pacific and atlantic oceans . ms thesis , texas a & m university , galveston , tx
diamond - shaped bodies and wings aren ' t the only things that [ . . . ]
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closely related to sharks but with long , flat bodies and wing - like pectoral fins , they are ideally suited to swooping through the water yet seem equally at home in the air , so much so that they have earned the name “flying rays” .
this behaviour - filmed in the gulf of california , mexico , as part of a new bbc / discovery coproduction television series - can last for 24 hours and happens as many hundreds of rays shoal together to form huge aggregations .
“sitting in a boat in the midst of these aggregations is akin to sitting in a pot of popcorn as the kernels explode into the air . everywhere you look mobulas are leaping out of the water and landing with a loud smack , sometimes just a couple of meters from you , ” says joshua stewart , from the gulf of california marine program at scripps institution of oceanography , who studies rays in mexico and across the world .
“the mobulas launch themselves straight up out of the water at top speed , and most often they land flat on their belly . however , sometimes they seem to lose control and do flips and twists before reconnecting with the water . ”
in order to shed some light on these animals mr stewart applies some of his findings from his research into the larger manta rays he completed with the manta trust . for example , he knows that manta rays have to start their leaps fairly deeply , in order to build up enough speed to leave the water .
“as far as we can tell , all mobulid rays jump , as do their myliobatid ( eagle rays ) cousins . many theories have been suggested [ as to why they jump ] , from feeding , courting , communicating , and ridding themselves of parasites , ” he says .
“while the jumping behaviour may occur during feeding or courting events , we believe that the most likely purpose of the jumping behavior is communication , which could have a variety of applications in different behavioral scenarios . however it is very likely that mantas , mobulas and eagle rays jump for a variety of reasons . ”
“there’s some evidence to suggest that females mate immediately after giving birth , ” says stewart .
“this is pure speculation , but it ' s possible that the females could give birth in the nursery habitat and then mate shortly thereafter in the same area . ”
in the maldives reef mantas ( manta alfredi ) have been observed jumping at the beginning of a feeding frenzy .
“we believe that they ' re jumping to inform other mantas in the area that food is available , and using the jumping as a sort of signal to aggregate , ” mr stewart says .
as a species that likes to come together , they are an easy target for fishermen and many rays can be caught in a single attempt . fishing spawning aggregations of other species is known to cause numbers to plummet .
“huge numbers of these animals are moving through relatively constricted geographic areas and just a few large catches could have dramatic negative impacts on their populations . ”
mr stewart is now planning research to confirm the reasons behind the aggregating behaviour in the gulf of california and how many of the population is represented , as well as further work on seasonal locations and habitat use .
in the uk you can watch episode two of ' shark ' on thursday 14th may at 21 : 00 bst , on bbc one . it will be broadcast at a later date in other countries .
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last , p . , white , w . , de carvalho , m . , séret , b . , stehmann , m . and naylor , g . 2016 . rays of the world . csiro publishing , clayton .
with a circumglobal distribution , the bentfin devil ray is found in tropical , subtropical , and temperate waters of the pacific , atlantic , and indian oceans ( couturier et al . 2012 ) . this species probably occurs in many other locations from which it has not yet been identified . it was documented in australian waters from a few sightings off mackay and port douglas ( queensland ) and at ningaloo reef ( western australia ) from where it was previously unconfirmed ( last and stevens 2009 ) .
there are no historical baseline population data and global population numbers are unknown for any devil ray species . however , regional , genus - wide declines are inferred based on catch landings , trawl - survey indices , and diver sightings ( couturier
devil rays have population sizes likely one or two orders of magnitude greater than manta rays , have larger geographic ranges , and larger migratory movements . this makes devil rays more challenging to assess than manta rays . by comparison , manta rays can be easily locally depleted because they appear to be restricted geographically , and hence declines are likely to be genus - wide . the bentfin devil ray is less frequently encountered in catches compared to other species of devil ray , which makes this species particularly difficult to assess compared to devil rays that are more frequently encountered ( e . g . , the chilean devil ray ) . given the paucity of data across the entire
genus , most population trend data for devil rays are not species - specific . hence , most of the decline rates in this assessment were necessarily inferred from these genus - wide declines . local population trend data are available from market landings , a trawl survey index , and diver surveys .
given the patchy nature of the bentfin devil ray’s occurrence , its range has been divided into seven regions for the purpose of this assessment : indo - west pacific , central pacific , eastern pacific , western atlantic , eastern atlantic , indian ocean , and australia . next , the status of this species in each of these regions was considered , before drawing these together into a global estimate of population reduction .
in indonesia , catches of the bentfin devil ray were recorded in the country’s three largest devil ray landing sites ( tanjung luar , lombok ; lamakera , solor ; cilacap , west java ) . landed mobulid ( devil and manta ray ) catch was estimated to have declined by 77
. 2015 ) . local population depletions can be inferred from an increase in the number of operating fishing vessels concurrent with these landed catch declines . the number of vessels catching devil rays from tanjung luar has increased since 2014 but any longer - term trend is unquantifiable owing to a lack of effort data . from lamakera however , the number of vessels fishing devil rays has approximately doubled since 2001 ( s . lewis , unpublished data ) . although this species is suspected to be naturally rare compared to its congener the chilean devil ray ( compagno 1999 ) based on catch proportions , in tanjung luar it was the most commonly caught devil ray species from 2013–14 , making up 49 % of total catch ( lewis
there appears to have been a recent expansion and collapse of devil ray fisheries due population depletion in bohol , philippines . historically , from the 1900s to 1960s the devil ray fishing grounds were inshore ( within five km of shore ) , but subsequently expanded to offshore waters extending over the jurisdiction of municipal waters ( 15 km from the coastline ) following fleet modernization in the 1970s . by 2014 , the devil ray fishing grounds had contracted to a smaller area in the northeast of the bohol sea , suggesting a decrease in devil ray fishing effort led by several factors including a possible depletion of fishing grounds and decrease in financial viability of the fishery , compared to historical records ( j . acebes and a . ponzo , unpublished data ) .
interviews with fishermen in the philippines indicate villages take as many as 1 , 000 devil rays per year , and the number of villages and fishermen participating in the fishery expanded through 2002 . this is concurrent with declines in catch rates , therefore local population declines can be inferred but not quantified ( alava
population reductions can be suspected or inferred from three forms of data : ( i ) diver sightings from cocos island , ( ii ) bycatch rates in tuna purse seine fleet , and ( iii ) fisheries landings in peru .
. 2015 ) . over this time period , devil rays were generally rare and seen on only 7 % of dives . while species - level identifications were not available in this study , area dive operators report the chilean devil ray as the species generally sighted ( e . herreno , pers . comm . 2012 ) , so it is unclear whether the bentfin devil ray occurs in lower numbers or not at all . the degree to which this index reflects wider population reduction remains to be fully understood , however , the cocos island is one of the world’s oldest marine protected areas , and lies within the area of activity of the eastern tropical pacific tuna purse seine fisheries , which take large numbers of devil rays as incidental catch ( croll
. 2015 ) . fishing effort and species - specific data from this region are currently unavailable for quantification of declines .
the inter - american tropical tuna commission ( iattc ) catch and bycatch data for devil rays from purse seine fisheries in the eastern pacific between 1998 and 2009 show a significant increase from < 1t in 1998 to > 80t in 2006 , and a subsequent decline over three years until 2009 , where the reported catch was 40t ( hall and roman 2013 ) . while population trends cannot be directly taken from grouped species bycatch data such as these , this pattern may be indicative of overall devil ray population declines following overexploitation in the region , depending on the corresponding trajectory of fishing effort .
already in the early 1980s concern existed over the sustainability of bentfin devil ray catch in the gulf of california ( mexico ) . growth overfishing may have been occurring as 72 % of individuals caught were immature ( notarbartolo di sciara 1988 ) . since this study in the 1980s , however , no data have been published on the bentfin devil ray in these waters , so it is impossible to determine catch trends over time .
. 2010 ) , to 135t in 2013 ( imarpe 2014 ) , although reported devil ray landings fluctuate considerably from year to year . llanos
. ( 2010 ) describe all the devil rays landed as the bentfin devil ray , but these statistics probably also include the chilean devil ray . this is likely , as a more recent fishery survey found mobulid landings in tumbes between 2013 and 2014 to consist mainly of the spinetail devil ray (