urticina lofotensis is a species of sea anemone in the family actiniidae .

it is commonly known as the white-spotted rose anemone or strawberry anemone .

urticina lofotensis

cowles , d . ( 2006 ) . urticina lofotensis ( danielssen , 1890 ) .
jennifer hammock added an association between
image of urticina lofotensis
and
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gametogenesis and reproductive periodicity of the subtidal sea anemone urticina lofotensis ( coelenterata : actiniaria ) in california .
identification the species referred to as urticina lofotensis is actually cribrinopsis albopunctata sanamyan & sanamyan , 2006 ; urticina lofotensis is a junior synonym of u . eques , and does not occur in the pacific - see link to urltoken web site [ details ]
gametogenesis and reproductive periodicity of the subtidal sea anemone urticina lofotensis ( coelenterata : actiniaria ) in california . - pubmed - ncbi
( of urticina ( tealia ) felina var . lofotensis ) fautin , daphne g . ( 2013 ) . hexacorallians of the world . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
jennifer hammock selected
comprehensive description
to show in overview on
tealia lofotensis ( danielssen , 1890 )
.
80 years - urticina anemones can live between 60 to 80 years in the wild .
how to distinguish from similar species : urticina columbiana has rough white tubercles in circumferential rows . urticina piscivora and urticina crassicornis have inconspicuous tubercles which are not white , and u . crassicornis also has transverse bands on its tentacles and greenish blotches on its column .
urticina felina lives in full salinity situations and the factor is assessed as not relevant .
sexes are separate in the sea anemone urticina crassicornis , as in most anemone species 0 . 3x
the dahlia anemone urticina felina fully retracted . column showing characteristic warts ( verrucae ) and adherent debris .
moen , f . e . , 1996 . urticina felina fjaeresjorose . , 2002 - 01 - 25
( of tealia lofotensis dan . ) fautin , daphne g . ( 2013 ) . hexacorallians of the world . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of madoniactis lofotensis danielssen , 1890 ) fautin , daphne g . ( 2013 ) . hexacorallians of the world . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
rasmussen , ( 1973 ) records urticina felina as being very common in banks of mytilus feeding mostly on gammarids .
wedi , s . e . , & dunn , d . f . , 1983 . gametogenesis and reproductive periodicity of the subtidal sea anemone urticina lofotensis ( coelenterata : actiniaria ) in california . biological bulletin , marine biological laboratory , woods hole , 165 , 458 - 472 .
urticina means nettle , a stinging plant . like all sea anemones they do have a sting , but the urticina cold water sea anemones have much more . . . being very beautiful they are known as flowers of the sea !
solé - cava et al . ( 1994 ) suggested that the large sub - littoral sea anemone urticina eques ( very similar to urticina felina ) with its large lecithotrophic larvae is probably not truly planktonic and has poor dispersive powers .
solé - cava et al . ( 1994 ) suggested that the large sub - littoral sea anemone urticina eques ( very similar to urticina felina ) with its large lecithotrophic larvae is probably not truly planktonic and has poor dispersive powers .
( of tealia ( madoniactis ) lofotensis dan . ) fautin , daphne g . ( 2013 ) . hexacorallians of the world . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
urltoken to barcode of life ( 4 barcodes ) to biodiversity heritage library ( 14 publications ) ( from synonym tealia lofotensis dan . ) to biodiversity heritage library ( 2 publications ) to encyclopedia of life to genbank ( 2 nucleotides ; 1 proteins ) to global biotic interactions ( globi ) to pesi to pesi ( from synonym tealia lofotensis dan . )
( of tealia felina var . lofotensis ( danielssen ) ) fautin , daphne g . ( 2013 ) . hexacorallians of the world . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
urticina felina is predominantly a subtidal species so that decrease in emergence is likely to lead to more habitats for colonization becoming available .
urticina felina is likely to have poor ability for detection of noise vibrations and as such is unlikely to be sensitive to noise .
urticina felina has very limited , if any , ability for visual perception . the anemone is unlikely to be sensitive to visual presence .
( of urticina lofotenesis ) fautin , daphne g . ( 2013 ) . hexacorallians of the world . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
age at maturity is not known . chia & spaulding ( 1972 ) working with the similar ( see ' taxonomy ' ) tealia crassicornis ( see below ) found no sign of gonad development at 14 months old . the smallest fertile urticina lofotensis , a similar species in california , are recorded as at least 18 months old ( wedi & dunn , 1983 ) .
general references : gotshall , 1994 harbo , 1999 morris et al . , 1980 niesen , 1997 o ' clair and o ' clair , 1998 ricketts et al . , 1985 ( as tealia lofotensis ) sept , 1999
urticina felina has no known obligate relationships so removal of other species is unlikely to have any direct effect . the incidental physical effects of removal of other species can be assessed under the relevant factors .
urticina felina is recorded from several estuarine sites including mucking in thames estuary and the river blackwater estuary and so will be subject to variable or low salinities . in the westerschelde estuary , braber & borghouts ( 1977 ) found that urticina ( as tealia ) felina penetrated to about the 11ppt chlorinity ( about 20 psu ) isohaline at mid tide during average water discharge making it tolerant of reduced salinity conditions .
urticina felina is not currently subject to extraction . however if a cold water marine aquarium trade were to take - off , this species is likely to be collected . although urticina felina probably breeds every year there is no information regarding fecundity . although recolonization is likely to occur from nearby populations , frequency and success of recruitment is unclear and a precautionary assessment of ' moderate ' is made . see ' additional information ' below .
urticina eques is a similar but larger species ( up to 30 cm tentacle spread ) with longer tentacles and more commonly found offshore and in deeper water to 400 m . this species has fewer or no verrucae and no attached gravel or other particles .
migné , a . , & davoult , d . , 1997a . ammonium excretion in two benthic cnidarians : alcyonium digitatum ( linnaeus , 1758 ) and urticina felina ( linnaeus , 1767 ) . journal of sea research , 37 , 101 - 107 .
% urticina eques % is a similar but larger species ( up to 30 cm tentacle spread ) with longer tentacles and more commonly found offshore and in deeper water to 400 m . this species has fewer or no verrucae and no attached gravel or other particles .
houtman , r . , paul , l . r . , ungemach , r . v . , & ydenberg , r . c . , 1997 . feeding and predator avoidance in the rose anemone urticina piscivora . marine biology , 128 , 225 - 229 .
urticina felina anemones adhere strongly to the substratum . substratum loss would result in mortality . some individuals might , however , be left behind as they typically live in fissures . recruitment to replace lost individuals is likely to be slow ( see ' additional information ' below ) .
urticina felina occurs in clear to highly turbid waters and occurs down to depths of at least 100m ( manuel , 1988 ) where light levels are low . the anemone is not known to contain symbiotic algae and is likely to tolerate changes in turbidity or the resulting change in light attenuation .
recent revision of pacific species of cribrinopsis : sanamyan n . p . , sanamyan k . e . , 2006 . the genera urticina and cribrinopsis ( anthozoa : actiniaria ) from the north - western pacific . journal of natural history , 40 ( 7 - 8 ) : 359 - 393 .
the plymouth marine fauna ( marine biological association , 1957 ) records urticina felina as breeding in may . chia & spaulding ( 1972 ) record the similar tealia crassicornis from san juan island on the north - west coast of the usa as spawning in the morning during april , may and june .
urticina felina occurs in clear to highly turbid waters and occurs down to depths of at least 100m ( manuel , 1988 ) where light levels are low . the anemone is not known to contain symbiotic algae and is unlikely to be sensitive to changes in turbidity or the resulting change in light attenuation .
solé - cava , a . m . , thorpe , j . p . & kay , j . g . , 1985 . reproductive isolation with little genetic divergence between urticina ( = tealia ) felina and u . eques ( anthozoa : actiniaria ) . marine biology , 85 , 279 - 284 .
no information has been found regarding the longevity of urticina felina but given the large size , slow growth rate and few predators it is likely that it survives for quite a long time . specimens in aquarium tanks are known to still be flourishing fifty years after collection ( p . g . moore pers . comm . ) .
( of tealia lofotensis dan . ) van der land , j . ; den hartog , j . h . ( 2001 ) . actiniaria , in : costello , m . j . et al . ( ed . ) ( 2001 ) . european register of marine species : a check - list of the marine species in europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification . collection patrimoines naturels , 50 : pp . 106 - 109 ( look up in imis ) [ details ]
reidy , s . 1996 . comparison of associations of the nudibranch aeolidia papillosa with two sea anemones urticina crassicornis and metridium senile . in proceedings of the 24th annual benthic ecology meeting , columbia , south carolina , march 7 - 10 , 1996 ( ed . s . a . woodin et al . ) , pp . 68 .
jackson , a . & hiscock , k . 2008 . urticina felina dahlia anemone . in tyler - walters h . and hiscock k . ( eds ) marine life information network : biology and sensitivity key information reviews , [ on - line ] . plymouth : marine biological association of the united kingdom . [ cited 09 - 07 - 2018 ] . available from : urltoken
being an epibenthic species , urticina felina would be exposed to changes in siltation . increases in siltation may begin to cover the anemone or interfere with feeding . an energetic cost will result from efforts to clean off the silt particles , e . g . through mucus production and sloughing . repeated energetic expenditure in cleaning off silt particles may cause loss of condition . recovery of condition may take several months .
white - spotted rose anemones can grow up to 4
( 10 cm ) in diameter , with a length up to 6” ( 15 cm ) . it is unknown how long anemones live , in fact , some anemones can be hundreds of years old in the wild and in captivity some have been known to last 80 years or more . it is believed urticina anemones can live between 60 to 80 years in the wild .
there is no information about urticina felina tolerance to changes in oxygenation but cole et al . , ( 1999 ) suggest possible adverse effects on marine species below 4 mg / l and probable adverse effects below 2mg / l . the large size and slow growth rate of this anemone suggests that it is quite long lived . although recolonization is likely to occur from nearby populations , frequency and success of recruitment is unclear and a precautionary assessment of ' moderate ' is made ( see ' additional information ' below ) .
proceeds within the gastrovascular cavity , through gastrulation ( 3d ) to swimming planula larva ( 10d ) , and then to release of the swimming larvae via the mouth ( 15d ) . the authors note that the embryonic development of cribrinopsis is similar to that of other anemones , e . g . , urticina crassicornis . the main difference is in the brooding behaviour of cribrinopsis , which lasts for two or more weeks . the authors note the lecithotrophic nature of the eggs and suggest that the function of brooding is protective rather than nutritive .
densities vary from solitary individuals to dense carpets in ideal locations such as crevices and gullies . measurements of size refer to the diameter across the base . growth is dependent on the level of feeding so size is not proportional to age . gosse ( 1860 ) notes [ most likely from aquarium observations ] that
the shore crab ( carcinus ) is its ordinary prey but it feeds on limpets , and other mollusca and nereids and shrimps and on echinus [ now psammechinus ] miliaris . rasmussen ( 1973 ) records urticina felina as feeding mainly on gammarids in banks of mytilus edulis .
do not belong to this species was recognized by european taxonomists for a long time ( e . g . manuel , 1981 , 1988 , den hartog , 1986 ) and discussed in details in our publication ( sanamyan , sanamyan , 2006 ) . actually even a brief look on the photos of living european and pacific specimens left no doubt that they belong to different species , the original
is a very different species not resembling pacific anemone externally . the pacific species has white , always well visible verrucae on usually uniformly colored crimson column . in european species the verrucae are smaller , usually inconspicuous , they may be whitish , but often of the same colour as the column and the species look completely different . surprisingly , despite these pronounced differences many websites and internet databases still wrongly list
as a valid pacific species . the internal morphological differences between pacific and european species are even more pronounced - actually these two species belong to two different genera having different internal morphology and different set of nematocysts ( stinging capsules ) : valid name for european
daly , m . ; fautin , d . ( 2018 ) . world list of actiniaria .
fautin , daphne g . ( 2013 ) . hexacorallians of the world . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of rhodactinia crassicornis ( o . f . müller ) ) fautin , daphne g . ( 2013 ) . hexacorallians of the world . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
( of bulocera eques ) fautin , daphne g . ( 2013 ) . hexacorallians of the world . , available online at urltoken [ details ]
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some other common names it is known by are spotted red anemone , white - spotted anemone and tealia anemone . the term
tealia
means blooming , likening these beauties to
flowers of the sea .
the common name , tealia anemone is very enchanting and is also used for one of its flowery relatives , the
they are generally found alone or in small groupings . the white - spotted rose anemones attach to shaded rocks along rocky sand covered shore lines and in tide pools . like all anemones , they are carnivorous , feasting on sea urchins , small fish , crabs , and mussels that happen by .
, using similar husbandry for other cold water anemones is suggested . like all anemones , they use their venomous cells , or nematocyst , found in their tentacles to sting and deflect any possible threats or attacks . but they mostly utilize them for stunning and capturing prey .
some predators of this anemone can be certain nudibranchs , sea stars , and snails . interestingly , in the wild painted greenling
juveniles are found in association with this anemone , swimming or resting around its tentacles and column . adults may sleep near its base . the anemone gives them protection from predators and the opportunity to feed on copepods and other small invertebrates .
this video shows how the white - spotted rose anemone spends it ' s day . they do , of course , require cold water marine tanks and are found from the alaskan coast to the california coast . they only need to be fed a few times per month due to the cold water and they do not host clownfish . only reaching 6 ,
they are great for a cold water marine nano tank !
, as those found in the pacific may be a different species than those found in the atlantic . the first scientific designation ,
. this european species is very different in its appearance , with no external resemblance to the pacific anemone . however , this is unreviewed and currently not accepted by worms , the world register of marine species , sealifebase , nor the encyclopedia of life .
white - spotted rose anemones are located in colder subtidal waters . they occur solitary or in small groupings , attached to shaded rocks along rocky , sand - covered shore lines and in tide pools . but they can also be found at depths down to 82 feet ( 0 - 25 m ) . they use their venomous cells or nematocyst found in their tentacles to sting and deflect any possible threats or attacks , but they mostly utilize them for stunning and capturing prey . this cold water anemone feasts on sea urchins , small fish , crabs , and mussels .
juveniles are found in association with this anemone in more exposed environments where both these fish and the anemone is plentiful . they will swim or rest around its tentacles and column , giving them protection from predators and affording them the opportunity to feed on copepods and other small invertebrates . adults may sleep near its base . it is not thought that the anemone receives any benefit from this relationship , but these small fish seem to be immune to the anemone ' s sting . some predators include certain nudibranchs , sea stars , and snails .
this anemone has a red - to - orange cylindrical pedal column with distinct vertical rows of white dots , or tubercles , all over . these tubercles are non - adhesive , so are generally free of shell fragments , gravel , or other debris . the pedal column has a sticky foot at the bottom which they use to adhere to various surfaces . they also use this
foot
to move around if conditions are not ideal . the color of the foot is brown , or reddish brown to orange , and has distinctive white spots .
at the top of the column is an oral disc with an opening , or mouth , in the center . the
takes food in and expels waste through this opening . the mouth should be closed and tight . it will open when hungry , having an oval look . a gaping mouth is a warning signal that the anemone is not doing too well .
white - spotted rose anemones have sturdy tentacles , well - spaced on the oral disc . they are situated in 5 or more rows surrounding the mouth . the tentacles are usually light gray , white , red , or orange , and a combination of those can be on each tentacle . the tentacles are thicker at the base and are thinner toward the top with a little
bulbous
tip . the oral disc and mouth are lighter in color .
4 . 0 inches ( 10 . 16 cm ) - it can grow up to 4
( 10 cm ) in diameter with a height up to 6” ( 15 cm ) .
the white - spotted rose anemone is very rarely available to aquarists from a retailer . these anemones can be difficult to care for because they must be kept in cold water . a chiller should be able to keep the tank temperature between 55 and 68°f . as with most anemones , the tank should be at least 1 year old and stable before adding your new strawberry anemone .
when selecting a white - spotted rose anemone , make sure the color is good , their mouth is not gaping open , and their foot and tentacles are sticky to the touch . also , they should be attached to something , but make sure there is no damage to the foot area , often a result of pulling the anemone off its surface .
to take one of these anemones from another aquarium , use a thin blunt item like a credit card . gently wiggle it under the foot and slowly nudge the anemone away from the glass . if it ' s attached to a rock , ideally you can simply purchase the rock as well . if you cannot purchase the rock , then directing water at it or wiggling the rock gently upside down under water while tickling the foot can work .
the white - spotted rose anemone is a carnivore . in nature , they use their potent sting to immobilize small fish and invertebrates , primarily sea urchins , crabs , and mussels . in captivity feed your anemone chopped silversides , shrimp , krill , and mussels , fresh chopped fish ( from your grocery store ) , as well as frozen carnivore preparations .
the white - spotted rose anemones metabolism is not as fast as warmer water anemones . they are cooler water creatures , so usually only need to be fed once a week or twice a month .
all of diet - sources of marine flesh and frozen / thawed preparations for carnivores .
weekly - feed only once a week or twice a month , because cold water anemones have much slower metabolisms .
water changes of 10 % bi - monthly or 20 % a month are typical . monitor your water quality for your particular situation and adjust your water changes accordingly . waste production created by your anemone can be calculated in inches . basically , every inch of anemone is equal to an inch of fish , so an average - sized white - spotted rose anemone produces a bio - load equivalent to that of about one 4
fish .
purigen and poly - fiber are great products to help in maintaining water quality . purigen is a synthetic polymer that removes soluble and insoluble impurities from water at an exceptionally high rate and capacity , helping to control ammonia , nitrites and nitrates . additional chemical additives , such chemi - pure , gfo , and carbon also help maintain quality water parameters . poly - fiber can be cut and used in sumps , etc . a good protein skimmer is a must .
although anemones are not as dependent on calcium as stony corals , magnesium and calcium is still needed to keep the ph and alkalinity stable and within the correct parameters . additions of trace elements are suggested . phosphates should be kept around 0 . 03 or less . control phosphates with products such as phosban and the phosban reactor . phosphates should be less than 0 . 03 ppm .
bi - weekly - water changes of 10 % twice a month , or 20 % a month are typical .
380 . 0 - 450 . 0 ppm - helps to balance alkalinity . aim for 420 ppm , or 385 ppm if you are using seachem calcium .
7 . 0 - 11 . 0 dkh - ( 2 . 5 to 3 . 9 meq / l ) aim for 10 dkh ( 3 . 5 meq / l ) for reef tanks .
1 , 250 . 0 - 1 , 350 . 0 ppm - test magnesium levels and adjust before checking calcium .
the white - spotted rose anemone can be kept in an aquarium of 50 - gallons or more when full grown . the typical reef environment is what is needed , but it must be a cold water reef . they need live rock or some other solid material they can attach to . you can even use submersed bio - balls . provide some rock crevices as well as rocky overhangs .
they need a low to moderate water movement and moderate lighting . the temperature can be between 55 . 0 to 68 . 0° f ( 12 . 8 to 20 . 0° c ) , but keep it stable as fluctuations can be stressful to the anemone . a chiller will be needed , but this allows you to have both inter - tidal and sub - tidal animals . acrylic tanks are best for insulating against temperature fluctuations , each 1 / 2
will give a thermal barrier of 5° f . be sure to have all of your pumps covered , most good quality pumps have guards on them .
10 gal ( 38 l ) - they do best in 50 - gallons or more when full grown .
the white - spotted rose anemone is considered semi - aggressive because they can be mobile , yet most of the cold water anemones stay still if their needs are met . it has often been suggested to not put anemones in a reef environment since corals cannot move away from the stinging tentacles . once you get your anemone situated and it has not moved for several months , it might be safe to add other corals . just keep in mind these anemones will sting everything they can reach , like corals and other invertebrates . anemones will move if your lighting is not good , or the water quality is not to their liking .
these anemones may split often once settled , similar to others in their genus . after splitting , anemones will tolerate their own “clones” and sometimes their own species . all anemones in the tank need to have their own space , otherwise there can be a “chemical” warfare between species . this will usually cause one to not eat , shrink and eventually die . having excellent filtration and a large tank will usually allow 2 anemones at opposite ends to thrive . you can also build a natural blockade to help prevent them from wandering into each others “space” .
when housing them with fish , if the tank is very large and you are keeping larger cold water fish , they should be fine . the problem occurs when keeping small gobies , blennies or other small cold water fish that can easily become dinner if they wander into the very sticky ( more sticky than typical ) tentacles .
they multiply rather quickly once adjusted , so keeping corals in the tank may be a risky thing to do . if attempting to add cold water corals , allow the anemones to settle and once they are in place , try to place a coral away from them . this may work for a while , however , the way they reproduce will eventually have detrimental affects on any other corals or anemones .
the white - spotted rose anemone will divide captivity . there is no information on the propagation of cold water anemones , however , but it may be just like other anemones . similar to other cold water anemones , they reproduce by fission or external fertilization of egg and sperm .
they will spawn when the water temperature drops from its highest for the year . the best success for breeding them is when they spawn , in april and may . when they spawn , they produce larvae that will float away , and eventually finding a spot to land . they then attach and develop a pedal disk that grows into a new anemone .
problems for the white - spotted rose anemone are pretty minimal unless your lighting , water movement , feeding and water quality are low . then your anemone will detach to look for “better conditions . ” in general , if your anemone moves , it is not happy . make sure your lighting and water quality is good , and that the food you are offering is to their liking . some predators include certain nudibranchs , sea stars , and snails .
the white - spotted rose anemone or strawberry anemone is generally unavailable to aquarists through retailers .
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this large anemone has no acontia . the column is red with smooth white tubercles in longitudinal rows . the margin of the oral disk has no white spherules . the tubercles usually do not hold sand , shells , or other debris . the oral disk is red and has no radiating white stripes . the slender tentacles are red , unbanded but with sometimes a yellow tinge at the base and pinker at the tips . diameter to 10 cm .
habitat : rocky , exposed coast , concrete pilings , marina floats . in the intertidal , is usually in surge channels and on vertical rock faces .
biology / natural history : shells or debris is occasionally found adhered to the tubercles , but not usually and not strongly . juvenile painted greenlings are often associated with this anemone , and adults may sleep near its base . the eggs are very large ( over 1 . 2 mm diameter ) and yolky . it has not been observed brooding the eggs .
scientific articles : sebens , k . p . and g . laakso , 1977 . the genus tealia ( anthozoa : actiniaria ) in the waters of the san juan archipelago and the olympic peninsula . wasmann j . biol . 35 : pp 152 - 168
biology / natural history : shells or debris is occasionally found adhered to the tubercles , but not usually and not strongly . juvenile painted greenlings are often associated with this anemone , and adults may sleep near its base . the eggs are very large and yolky . it has not been observed brooding the eggs .
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is a species common in european and northern seas , but not occurring in pacific . for a long time this european species was known as
is an older name , it become valid name of this species . note , that pacific species commonly called
( which has much better developed nonadhesive vesicles on column and also differs in internal features ) .
is usually buried , occurs in crevices , has the body densely covered with large strongly adhesive veruccae to which gravel and other particles are attached . third european species ( occurring also in north pacific ) ,
, always has absolutely smooth body . ( note , that verrucose [ not smooth ] pacific species which is often called
have whitish or yellowish ground colour with wide or narrow , irregular , mainly longitudinal red patches . in some specimens the prevailing colour is red . small nonadhesive verrucae are distinctly visible on the living specimens , especially on the contracted anemones . the verrucae are of the same colour as the column or paler , and they probably do not become as inflated and blister - like as in pacific species
. the oral disk and the tentacles are yellow - whitish , transparent , with the red longitudinal bands outlining tentacle bases on the disk ; the tentacles are encircled with the wide white and red bands in the middle .
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hayward et al . , 1996 , solé - cava et al . , 1985 , manuel , 1988 , picton & costello , 1998 , gosse , 1860 , chia & spaulding , 1972 . , stephenson , 1935 , howson & picton , 1997 ,
hayward et al . , 1996 , solé - cava et al . , 1985 , chia & spaulding , 1972 . , manuel , 1988 , houtman et al . , 1997 , migné & davoult , 1997 ( a ) , rasmussen , 1973 , wedi & dunn , 1983 , elliott , 1992 , solé - cava et al . , 1994 , picton & costello , 1998 , moen , 1996 , gosse , 1860 ,
the species is boreal - arctic with a possible circumpolar distribution . found throughout europe from northern russia to biscay but not in the mediterranean . records from elsewhere are incomplete and there is considerable confusion in taxonomy .
hayward et al . , 1996 , solé - cava et al . , 1985 , manuel , 1988 , migné & davoult , 1997 ( a ) , rasmussen , 1973 , picton & costello , 1998 , jncc , 1999 , moen , 1996 , george et al . , 1988 , bruce et al . , 1963 , braber & borghouts , 1877 ,
stephenson ( 1935 ) reports that viviparity has been suspected because of the sudden appearance apparently from
nowhere
of individuals in aquaria .
chia & spaulding ( 1972 ) bred and grew tealia crassicornis from the north - west coast of the usa . in tealia crassicornis , mucus containing gametes were expelled from the mouth . the yellow eggs ( 500 - 700 µm diameter ) formed little clusters which then broke apart and began to float .
the duration of the larval stage may vary . for tealia crassicornis , chia & spaulding ( 1972 ) found that nine days after fertilization , the planula was ready to settle and , a further four days after settling , had 4 tentacles . certain substrata ( such as phyllochaetopterus sp . and sabellaria cementaria tubes ) could induce settlement rapidly in the laboratory . in the absence of inducing substrata larvae could remain in the water column for at least 17 days but settled within the second month after fertilization .
the species is probably quite slow growing . chia & spaulding ( 1972 ) found that fed individuals of the similar
were only 10mm in diameter after a year and there was no gonad development present in 14 month old anemones . however , at 18 months , individuals were 4 cm diameter with 60 - 70 tentacles .
solé - cava et al . , 1985 , chia & spaulding , 1972 . , hand , 1955 , wedi & dunn , 1983 , spaulding , 1974 , solé - cava et al . , 1994 , solé - cava & thorpe , 1992 , mba , 1957 , stephenson , 1935 , wedi & dunn , 1983 , gosse , 1853 ,
biotic ( biological traits information catalogue ) by marlin ( marine life information network ) is licensed under a creative commons attribution - non - commercial - share alike 2 . 0 uk : england & wales license . permissions beyond the scope of this license are available at urltoken . note that images and other media featured on this page are each governed by their own terms and conditions and they may or may not be available for reuse . based on a work at urltoken .
( danielssen , 1890 ) . in : fautin , daphne g . 2011 . hexacorallians of the world . in : costello , m . j . ; bouchet , p . ; boxshall , g . ; arvantidis , c . ; appeltans , w . ( 2014 ) european register of marine species , accessed through pesi at
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a large anemone ( base up to 15 cm diameter ) with up to 160 short ( up to 2 cm ) , stout tentacles arranged in multiples of ten . individuals from offshore tend to be larger . the coloration is very variable , ranging through white , yellow , orange , red , blue , grey , purple and brown being either plain or more commonly in some combination . perhaps most commonly with a red column blotched with green / grey and a prominent pattern of red lines amongst the tentacle bases . the tentacles are usually banded but may be plain . there are numerous grey warts on the column to which gravel and shell fragments stick . when the tentacles are fully retracted , the body of the anemones may be almost obscured by these adherent particles .
typically found on the lower shore and subtidally , particularly on shores with strong wave action or subtidal areas with strong tidal streams . small individuals may be found as high as the mid - tide line . attaches very firmly to rocks and boulders , typically in crevices and gullies , sometimes forming dense carpets . occurs in estuaries where hard substrata are present .
large size , up to 15 cm across the base ( bigger than most other anemones ) .
large verrucae or warts present on the column , often with gravel or shell fragments attached .
occurring on the north - west ( pacific ) coast of north america . an attempt is made below to establish relationships important for using literature to support sensitivity and recoverability assessments elsewhere in this review . stephenson ( 1935 ) identifies
of gosse ( 1860 ) . however , stephenson notes that , in his
var .
, the embryos develop up to a late stage in the coelenteron of the parent and later describes it as
viviparity
. since appelöff ( 1900 ) cited in chia & spaulding ( 1972 ) reported that , in europe ,
releases it ' s gametes freely into the sea ( i . e . is not viviparous ) and that the species they studied in the northwest usa similarly produced ova and sperm , it seems likely that their
the stinging nematocysts in the anemones tentacles are used to trap and paralyse prey . the nematocysts can also provoke itching and blistering of the skin in humans but the effects vary considerably between individual humans .
densities vary from solitary individuals to dense carpets in ideal locations such as crevices and gullies . measurements of size refer to the diameter across the base . growth is dependent on the level of feeding so size is not proportional to age . gosse ( 1860 ) notes [ most likely from aquarium observations ] that
the shore crab (
moderately strong 1 to 3 knots ( 0 . 5 - 1 . 5 m / sec . ) , strong 3 to 6 knots ( 1 . 5 - 3 m / sec . ) , very strong > 6 knots ( > 3 m / sec . ) , weak < 1 knot ( < 0 . 5 m / sec . )
releases its gametes into the sea and that larval development is independent of the adult . chia & spaulding ( 1972 ) , in observing that
this marlin sensitivity assessment has been superseded by the maresa approach to sensitivity assessment . marlin assessments used an approach that has now been modified to reflect the most recent conservation imperatives and terminology and are due to be updated by 2016 / 17 .
reduction of the need to keep the anemone surface clear of silt will mean less energy expenditure and mucus production and therefore likely benefit to the anemone .
increase in emergence is likely to result in exposure to desiccation and a decreased opportunity for feeding . increased emergence may have no effect for anemones in damp fissures or pools . assuming that desiccation or heat stress ( see ' increase in temperature ' below ) occurs , intolerance and recoverability will be as desiccation . recruitment to replace lost individuals is likely to be slow ( see ' additional information ' below ) . a precautionary assessment of ' moderate ' recoverability is made but with a low confidence .
in the absence of wave action , water flow is likely to be very important in preventing siltation and stagnation and in bringing food . therefore , in conditions where water flow rates fall to very low levels , anemones may be adversely affected , lose condition and , especially if some stagnation occurs , some may die . although recolonization is likely to occur from nearby populations , frequency and success of recruitment is unclear and a precautionary assessment of ' moderate ' is made ( see ' additional information ' below ) .
the species favours areas with strong wave action ( manuel , 1988 ) and strong tidal currents ( migné & davoult , 1997 ) although it is also found in more calm and sheltered areas as well as deep water .
in the absence of tidal streams , wave action is likely to be very important in preventing siltation and stagnation and in bringing food . therefore , in conditions where wave action falls to very low levels , anemones may be adversely affected , lose condition and , especially if some stagnation occurs , some may die . assuming that some individuals survive , local recruitment is likely to occur within a few years .
recoverability is likely to be slow in populations where nearby individuals do not exist . the large size , slow growth rate and evidence from aquarium populations suggests that
is long lived . although it probably breeds each year there is no information regarding fecundity . breeding probably does not occur until the anemone is at least 1 . 5 years old . dispersal ability is considered to be poor in the similar
for north - west usa ) , is unlikely to travel far . however , assuming that there are populations surviving nearby ( further down the shore ) , recruitment is likely to occur over the short distances involved but how rapidly is uncertain . adults can detach from the substratum and relocate but locomotive ability is very limited . there is potential for some immigration of adults from other populations via water currents or rafting . gosse ( 1853 ) noted that an
had
eaten a hole the size of a pea in the side before being discovered
. under its current name of
in ideal conditions such as crevices and gullies on wave exposed shores the species can form dense carpets . the role of
( ne pacific ) has been investigated by elliott ( 1992 ) . the same roles may be filled by species in the british isles although there are no records of this for
can constitute a large proportion of the biomass . in addition , they are thought to be responsible for the major part of carbon / nitrogen exchange at the sediment - water boundary ( migné & davoult , 1995 ; migné & davoult , 1997a ) . although ' culinary use ' is indicated as ' no ' , gosse ( 1853 ) describes methods of cooking the dahlia anemone and seemed reasonably impressed with it boiled or fried .
braber , l . & borghouts , c . h . , 1977 . distribution and ecology of anthozoa in the estuarine region of the rivers rhine , meuse and scheldt . hydrobiologia , 52 , 15 - 21 .
bruce , j . r . , colman , j . s . & jones , n . s . , 1963 . marine fauna of the isle of man . liverpool : liverpool university press .
chia , f . s . & spaulding , j . g . , 1972 . development and juvenile growth of the sea anemone tealia crassicornis . biological bulletin , marine biological laboratory , woods hole , 142 , 206 - 218 .
cole , s . , codling , i . d . , parr , w . & zabel , t . , 1999 . guidelines for managing water quality impacts within uk european marine sites . natura 2000 report prepared for the uk marine sacs project . 441 pp . , swindon : water research council on behalf of en , snh , ccw , jncc , sams and ehs . [ uk marine sacs project . ] , urltoken
crisp , d . j . ( ed . ) , 1964 . the effects of the severe winter of 1962 - 63 on marine life in britain . journal of animal ecology , 33 , 165 - 210 .
davis , d . s . , 1967 . the marine fauna of the blackwater estuary and adjacent waters . essex naturalist , 32 , 1 - 60 .
elliott , j . , 1992 . the role of sea anemones as refuges and feeding habitats for the temperate fish oxylebius pictus . environmental biology of fishes , 35 , 381 - 400 .
eno , n . c . , clark , r . a . & sanderson , w . g . ( ed . ) 1997 . non - native marine species in british waters : a review and directory . peterborough : joint nature conservation committee .
george , j . d . , tittley , i . , price , j . h . , & fincham , a . a . , 1988 . the macrobenthos of chalk shores in north norfolk and around flamborough headland ( north humberside ) . nature conservancy council csd rep . 833 149p . , peterborough : nature conservancy council
gosse , p . h . , 1853 . a naturalist ' s rambles on the devonshire coast . london : van voorst .
gosse , p . h . , 1860 . actinologia britannica : a history of british sea anemones and corals . london : van voorst .
hand , c . , 1955b . the sea anemones of central california . part ii . the endomyarian and mesomyarian anemones . the wassmann journal of biology , 13 , 37 - 99 .
hayward , p . , nelson - smith , t . & shields , c . 1996 . collins pocket guide . sea shore of britain and northern europe . london : harpercollins .
hoare , r . & hiscock , k . , 1974 . an ecological survey of the rocky coast adjacent to the effluent of a bromine extraction plant . estuarine and coastal marine science , 2 ( 4 ) , 329 - 348 .
holme , n . a . & wilson , j . b . , 1985 . faunas associated with longitudinal furrows and sand ribbons in a tide - swept area in the english channel . journal of the marine biological association of the united kingdom , 65 , 1051 - 1072 .
howson , c . m . & picton , b . e . , 1997 . the species directory of the marine fauna and flora of the british isles and surrounding seas . belfast : ulster museum . [ ulster museum publication , no . 276 . ]
jncc ( joint nature conservation committee ) , 1999 . marine environment resource mapping and information database ( mermaid ) : marine nature conservation review survey database . [ on - line ] urltoken
manuel , r . l . , 1988 . british anthozoa . london : academic press . [ synopses of the british fauna , no . 18 . ]
mba ( marine biological association ) , 1957 . plymouth marine fauna . plymouth : marine biological association of the united kingdom .
migné , a . , & davoult , d . , 1995 . role des organismes suspensivores dans les transferts pélago - benthiques d ' une zone de fort hydrodynamisme : approche expérimentale . journal de recherche oceanographique , 20 , 9 - 14 .
nmmp , 2001 . national marine monitoring programme ( nmmp ) . http : / / www . marlin . ac . uk , 2001 - 01 - 17
picton , b . e . & costello , m . j . , 1998 . biomar biotope viewer : a guide to marine habitats , fauna and flora of britain and ireland . [ cd - rom ] environmental sciences unit , trinity college , dublin . , urltoken
rasmussen , e . , 1973 . systematics and ecology of the isefjord marine fauna ( denmark ) . ophelia , 11 , 1 - 507 .
smith , j . e . ( ed . ) , 1968 . ' torrey canyon ' . pollution and marine life . cambridge : cambridge university press .
solé - cava , a . m . & thorpe , j . p . , 1992 . genetic divergence between colour morphs in populations of the common intertidal sea anemones actinia equina and a . prasina ( anthozoa : actiniaria ) . marine biology , 112 , 243 - 252 .
solé - cava , a . m . , thorpe , j . p . & todd , c . d . , 1994 . high genetic similarity between geographically distant populations in a sea anemone with low dispersal capabilities . journal of the marine biological association of the united kingdom , 74 , 895 - 902 .
spaulding , j . g . , 1974 . embryonic and larval development in sea anemones ( anthozoa : actiniaria ) . american zoologist , 14 , 511 - 520 .
stephenson , t . a . , 1935 . the british sea anemones , vol . 2 . london : ray society .
marine life information network ( marlin ) , the marine biological association of the uk ( see contact us ) © 2018 the marine biological association of the uk , all rights reserved .
the information ( text only ) provided by the marine life information network ( marlin ) is licensed under a creative commons attribution - non - commercial - share alike 2 . 0 uk : england & wales license . note that images and other media featured on this page are each governed by their own terms and conditions and they may or may not be available for reuse . permissions beyond the scope of this license are available here . based on a work at urltoken
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general characteristics : column diameter to 10 cm ( 4 inches ) , height to 15 cm ( 6 inches ) . column bright scarlet or crimson with white warty spots in longitudinal rows ; tentacles slender , elongate , scarlet to crimson .
distribution / habitat : se alaska to san diego , ca . found on rocks and walls of surge channels , low intertidal to 15 m ( 49 feet ) on exposed outer coast .


the african cuckoo-hawk , or african baza , ( aviceda cuculoides ) is a medium-sized raptor in the family accipitridae so named because it resembles the common cuckoo , which is found in sub-saharan africa and along the eastern parts of southern africa .

it prefers dense woodland and forest of either indigenous or exotic trees .

african cuckoo - hawk

other names : african baza , african cuckoo - falcon , african cuckoo falcon , cuckoo - falcon , cuckoo - hawk , west african cuckoo - falcon .
nobody uploaded sound recordings for african cuckoo - hawk ( aviceda cuculoides ) yet .
the african cuckoo hawk is mainly seen singly or in pairs in the wild .
african cuckoo hawk ( aviceda cuculoides fam . accipitridae ) kruger park birds & birding .
in terms of distribution of the african cuckoo hawk in the kruger national park you may not see it in all areas . african cuckoo hawk : see above distribution map .
the african cuckoo hawk is a bird about the size of a francolin now called spurfowl . the height of the african cuckoo hawk is about 40 cms and its weight is about 250 gms
the african cuckoo hawk ( latin name aviceda cuculoides ) is described in roberts birds of southern africa , 7th edition . this bird has a unique roberts number of 128 and you will find a full description of this bird on page 474 also a picture of the african cuckoo hawk on page 433 . the african cuckoo hawk belongs to the family of birds classified as accipitridae . according to the percy fitzpatrick institute of african ornithology the african cuckoo hawk is also known by these other names : african cuckoo falcon , west african cuckoo falcon , cuckoo falcon .
african cuckoo - hawk ( aviceda cuculoides ) is a species of bird in the accipitridae family .
african cuckoo hawk nest with eggs , nylsvley area , south africa . [ photo warwick tarboton © ]
museum specimens indicate historical distributions . the map below shows locations from which museum specimens of african cuckoo hawk were collected . you can see more information on the individual museum specimens of african cuckoo hawk here .
the african cuckoo hawk is mainly found in light and densely wooded forests , where there are mopane trees .
this bird is known as cuckoo hawk in the roberts 6th edition . there have been no changes in the latin name for the african cuckoo hawk between the roberts 6th and roberts 7th edition .
the african cuckoo hawk is neither endemic or near endemic to the kruger national park . it is however a rare resident
you will normally see the african cuckoo hawk by itself rather than in the company of birds of the same species .
the african cuckoo hawk is a southern african bird that belongs to the accipitridae bird family group which includes birds such as raptors , old vultures , osprey .
subspecies and range : the african cuckoo - hawk has three subspecies which differ in size , extent of barring and intensity of plumage colour .
the african cuckoo hawk is monogamous unless its mate dies . in the event of a partner dying aviceda cuculoides will seek out a new mate
birds & birding in the kruger national park south africa . in roberts 6 this bird was called cuckoo hawk
recommended citation : global raptor information network . 2018 . species account : african cuckoo - hawk aviceda cuculoides . downloaded from urltoken on 9 jul . 2018
the african cuckoo - hawk or african baza ( aviceda cuculoides ) is a medium - sized bird of prey of the family accipitridae , and found in much of the forested regions of africa south of the sahara desert .
the nesting habit of african cuckoo hawk is to create the nest in branches of a tree or shrub . the bird lays eggs which are in colour and number between 1 to 2
the description for the african cuckoo hawk ( latin name aviceda cuculoides ) can be found in the 7th edition of the roberts birds of southern africa . the aviceda cuculoides can be quickly identified by its unique roberts identification number of 128 and the detailed description of this bird is on page 474 . you will find a picture of the african cuckoo hawk on page 433 .
calls and songs : sounds by xeno - canto the african cuckoo - hawk is noisy before breeding , giving loud , far - carrying whistling calls “teee - oooo” and shorter ones “tittit - eoo” .
the african cuckoo hawk is a monogamous bird which means that the bird finds and breeds with one partner for the rest of its life . the bird lays between 1 to 2 eggs and they are coloured .
the african cuckoo - hawk often stands horizontally on branch with the wings slightly drooped . it prefers to perch under cover or below the canopy , rather than on open sites . it is often found in pairs .
the african cuckoo - hawks ( aviceda cuculoides ) - also known as african cuckoo falcons - are found in sub - saharan africa and along the eastern parts of southern africa . this species is mainly resident , but a partial - migrant in the east and south .
african harrier - hawk , harrier hawk , or gymnogene ( polyboroides typus ) is a bird of prey . it is about cm in length , and is related to the harriers . it breeds in most of africa south of the sahara .
introduction : the african cuckoo - hawk is a long - winged raptor with short , pointed crest , and two tooth - like indentations on the edge of the upper mandible . the aviceda species were related to falcons because of the notched bill , but finally , it is mostly closely related to kites . they are also called cuckoo - falcons and bazas .
the african cuckoo - hawk is uncommon throughout its range , but that is mostly because of its secretive behavior and not because it is threatened . population size is for now deemed to be stable and it is listed as least concern on the iucn red list .
ryan , p . g . & moloney , c . l . 1995 . range extension and display flight of the cuckoo hawk in the southwestern cape province , south africa . gabar 9 : 25 .
the african cuckoo - hawk occupies evergreen forest and deciduous woodlands up to 6 , 000 feet elevation , both within the forest interior and edges , and often being seen in suburban gardens . it is also seen in savannahs and open bush country during migrations in east africa .
the african cuckoo hawk has a height of 40 cms and weighs around 250 gms . the head is coloured brown while the bill is coloured black . the aviceda cuculoides has a blue , grey coloured throat , yellow legs and a brown coloured back . the eyes are brown .
experiences with species raptors have always been my favourite group of birds . on a trip to mozambique in august 2008 , i was 11 species short of 700 on my southern african bird list . i got to 699 and speculated on what my 700th bird would be . it turned out to be the african cuckoo - hawk ! other names : -
habitat : the african cuckoo - hawk frequents dense woodland or second growth forest mixed with cultivated areas , but it is also present in exotic plantations in more open savanna , up to 3000 metres of elevation . it usually avoids desert and semi - desert , but it can be seen in suburban areas too .
the african cuckoo - hawk is mainly resident in most part of the range , but some seasonal movements can be observed , often related to prey availability such as chameleons and insects . the flight is fast and direct , with wingbeats interspersed with glides . but it soars rarely . the flight displays are spectacular .
distribution of african cuckoo hawk in southern africa , based on statistical smoothing of the records from first sa bird atlas project ( © animal demography unit , university of cape town ; smoothing by birgit erni and francesca little ) . colours range from dark blue ( most common ) through to yellow ( least common ) .
the list of sought - after forest associated target species at the grootvadersbosch nature reserve include : terrestrial brownbul , olive bush - shrike , forest canary , blue - mantled crested - flycatcher , red - winged francolin , grey cuckoo - shrike , lemon dove , african crowned eagle , african cuckoo hawk , black - headed oriole , red - necked spurfowl , narina trogon , knysna warbler and yellow - throated woodland - warbler . the description of species abundance herewith is based on the latest sabap2 ( the bird atlasing project ) report cards for the region .
the african cuckoo - hawk feeds primarily on insects , reptiles and small birds , and usually from a still - hunting position on a perch within the forest or at the forest edge on a clearing . it has also been observed to search for prey on the wing , taking flying insects from the air or other prey on the ground .
protection / threats / status : the african cuckoo - hawk is widespread throughout its large range , but it is uncommon and difficult to see due to its secretive habits . this species is affected by the loss of its forest habitat , and it is preyed upon by larger raptors . however , the population appears stable and the species is not currently threatened .
as the name implies , the african cuckoo - hawk bears a superficial resemblance to the unrelated cuckoos . its wingspan is about 3 feet , with an overall body length of 16 to 18 inches . like other members of the genus aviceda , it bears two distinctive tooth - like notches near the edge of the bill , and a crest of feathers at the top of the head . legs are short and stout , and bear powerful talons .
reproduction of this species : the breeding season usually takes place during the rainy season , but the laying period may vary according to the range . the african cuckoo - hawk nests in forest . the nest is placed fairly high up in a forest tree , often eucalyptus , and well concealed among the foliage . it is a typical platform made with sticks , roots and twigs with leaves still attached . the cup is lined with grass , green leaves and wool .
checklist of birds of the afrotropical and malagasy regions . volume 1 . species limits and distribution | african bird club
kemp , a . c . , marks , j . s . & boesman , p . ( 2018 ) . african cuckoo - hawk ( aviceda cuculoides ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .
behaviour in the wild : the african cuckoo - hawk feeds mainly on lizards , especially chameleons , and large insects such as grasshoppers , mantids and caterpillars . but its diet can be more varied too , including beetles , wasps , termites , crabs , fish , small birds taken in the nest , and bats . it often hunts from a perch , waiting for long periods within vegetal cover . once a prey is detected , it swoops slowly down to catch it from foliage or branch , but also by walking around or hopping along the ground . it may sometimes perform aerial sallies and hawk flying insects . or it flies low over the open vegetation before to drop onto the prey .
the southern african bird atlas project ( sabap1 ) in namibia gathered a huge amount of distribution data between 1970 and 1993 .
preston , g . r . , siegfried , w . r . & wynberg , r . p . 1995 . attitudes and policies of the directors of south african nature conservation departments toward the protection of biological diversity . south african journal of wildlife research 25 : 77 - 89 .
kemp , a . c . & kirwan , g . m . ( 2018 ) . madagascar cuckoo - hawk ( aviceda madagascariensis ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .
the african cuckoo - hawk is a monogamous , solitary nester that breeds in the season september - march , with peaks in october - december . a breeding pair will build a nest together , generally in the highest branches of a tree 10 to 30 meters above ground . the nest is built of vines , twigs , and leaves . one or two ( rarely three ) eggs are laid and incubated by both sexes for 32 - 33 days . after hatching , the chicks will spend about 28 days in the nest as both parents feed them . they will depend on the parents for another week or so after leaving the nest .
range : africa : west , central , southcentral , southeast . the african cuckoo falcon is found in the southern half of africa , including the forested areas of west africa , in forest and wetter savannah country . there are two races , aviceda cuculoides cuculoides , occurring north and west of a line through north angola and the congo , and aviceda cuculoides verreauxi to the south and east .
turpie , j . k . 1995 . prioritizing south african estuaries for conservation : a practical example using waterbirds . biological conservation 74 : 75 - 185 .
allan , d . g . & jenkins , a . r . 1995 . editorial . j ournal of african raptor biology 10 ( 1 ) : 1 .
jenkins , a . r . 1995 . morphometrics and flight performance of southern african peregrine and lanner falcons . journal of avian biology 26 : 49 - 58 .
cooper , j . & ryan , p . g . 1995 . sa scientists produce management plan for gough island . south african journal of science 91 : 107 .
hockey , p . a . r . 1995 . review : bird atlas of botswana ( penry ) . south african journal of zoology 30 : 59 - 60 .
allan , d . g . 1995 . habitat selection by blue cranes in the western cape province and the karoo . south african journal of wildllife research 25 : 90 - 97 .
crowe , t . m . 1995 . wildlife utilization : science vs . ethics and northern vs . southern perspectives . south african journal of science . 91 : 375 - 376 .
lombard , a . t . 1995 . introduction to an evaluation of the protection status of south africa ' s vertebrates . south african journal of zoology 30 : 63 - 70 .
predominantly a forest and woodland dwelling species , the african baza may be found in trees surrounding rivers , humid savannah woodland , eucalyptus and pine plantations and even suburban gardens ( 4 ) .
not globally threatened ( least concern ) . cites ii . one of the commonest and most conspicuous of the small hawks of african forested habitats , although no firm estimates of . . .
drummond , a . e . 1995 . reproduction of the sea urchins echinometra mathaei and diadema savignyi on the south african eastern coast . marine freshwater research . 46 : 751 - 755 .
lombard , a . t . 1995 the problems with multi - species conservation : do hotspots , ideal reserves and existing reserves coincide ? south african journal of zoology 30 : 145 - 163 .
smith , b . s . 1995 . biodiversity : sell - out biology , renegade economics or the glimmer of a new conservation paradigm ? south african journal of science 91 : 377 - 380 .
van jaarsveld , a . s . & lombard , a . t . 1995 . towards the establishment of a national environmental information network . south african journal of science 91 : 9 - 10 .
conservation : widespread , but probably uncommon throughout most of its range . probably overlooked to some extent because of its secretive habits . sympatric raptor species may prey on cuckoo hawks in secondary habitats or tree plantations ( verdoorn 2000 ) . categorized as a species of
least concern
by birdlife international . more . . . .
tucker , k . c . & richardson , d . m . 1995 . an expert system for screening potentially invasive alien plants in south african fynbos . journal of environmental management 44 : 309 - 338 .
gelderblom , c . m . & bronner , g . n . 1995 . patterns of distribution and protection status of the endemic mammals in south africa . south african journal of zoology 30 : 127 - 135 .
ryan , p . g . , cowling , r . m . & costanza , r . 1995 . valuing ecosystems : is the fynbos worth conserving ? south african journal of science 91 : 572 - 573 .
african cuckoo - hawks prefer dense woodland and forest habitats , as well as forest edges . it is solitary and rarely found in the company of an individual of the same species . it is a seldom seen bird with secretive habits , but can occasionally be seen gliding between branches amongst trees . it generally feeds on invertebrates , but will also feed on small lizards , snakes , frogs , birds , and rodents . hunting is often done in low vegetation and grass , where prey is caught on the ground . prey can also be caught in trees .
drinkrow , d . r . & cherry , m . i . 1995 . anuran distribution , diversity and conservation in south africa , lesotho and swaziland . south african journal of zoology . 30 : 82 - 90 .
the facility will assist , were possible , in any bona fide program or research that is beneficial to the long term conservation of raptors . the sanctuary also serves as a biological and genetic bank of southern african birds of prey .
dean , w . r . j . & milton , s . j . 1995 . plant and invertebrate assemblages on old fields in the arid southern karoo , south africa . african journal of ecology 33 : 1 - 13 .
du plessis , m . a . , siegfried , w . r . & armstrong , a . j . 1995 . ecological and life - history correlates of cooperative breeding in south african birds . oecologia 102 : 180 - 188 .
siegfried , w . r . 1995 . conference report . in : robinson , r . , ed . african heritage 2000 : the future of protected areas in africa . pretoria : national parks board . pp . 133 - 135 .
siegfried , w . r . 1995 . the difference between education and training . in : robinson , r . , ed . african heritage 2000 : the future of protected areas in africa . pretoria : national parks board , pretoria .
siegfried , w . r . & brooke , r . k . 1995 . anthropogenic extinctions in the terrestrial biota of the afrotropical region in the last 500 , 000 years . journal of african zool ogy 109 : 5 - 14 .
malan , g . 1995 . cooperative breeding and delayed dispersal in the pale chanting goshawk melierax canorus . ph . d . thesis , univ . of cape town ( abstract ) . journal of african raptor biology 10 ( 1 ) : 40 .
benn , g . a . , kemp , a . c . & begg , k . s . 1995 . the distribution , size and trends of the saddlebilled stork ephippiorhynchus senegalensis population in south africa . south african journal of wildlife research 25 : 98 - 105 .
preston , g . r . & siegfried , w . r . 1995 . the protection of biological diversity in south africa : profiles and perceptions of professional practitioners in nature conservation agencies and natural history museums . south african journal of wildlife research 25 : 49 - 56 .
skelton , p . h . , cambray , j . a . , lombard , a . & benn , g . a . 1995 . patterns of distribution and conservation status of freshwater fishes in south africa . south african journal of zoology 30 : 71 - 81 .
crawford , r . j . m . , cooper , j . & dyer , b . m . 1995 . conservation of an increasing population of great white pelicans pelecanus onocrotalus in south africa ' s western cape . south african journal of science . 15 : 33 - 42 .
branch , w . r . , benn , g . a . & lombard , a . t . 1995 . the tortoises ( testudinidae ) and terrapins ( pelomedusidae ) of southern africa : their diversity , distribution and conservation . south african journal of zoology 30 : 91 - 102 .
excellent birding is available at the grootvadersbosch reception office and camping area . bar - throated apalis , cape batis , sombre greenbul , cape robin - chat , olive thrush and cape white - eye are abundant . cape canary , african dusky flycatcatcher , greater double - collared sunbird and common and swee waxbills are seen commonly . special species to look out for at the camp site include olive bush - shrike , forest canary and olive woodpecker , and small groups of cape siskin often forage in the area . brimstone canary , greater honeyguide and african olive - pigeon are also often conspicuous . amethyst sunbird and southern double - collared sunbird are seen less often , as are yellow bishop and rock martin . campers can expect to hear the calls of fiery - necked nightjar , spotted eagle - owl and barn owl at night . the beautiful call of african wood - owl represents a special treat .
the african baza ' s extensive range encompasses much of sub - saharan africa , from senegal in the west to cameroon , extending east across to kenya , and south as far as angola on the west coast and south - east south africa on the east coast ( 1 ) ( 4 ) .
there are two recognized subspecies of black - backed jackal . the southern african subspecies ( c . m . mesomelas ) and the larger east african subspecies ( c . m . schmidti ) . the black - backed jackal has been seen as a pest by farmers ever since colonization of south africa because they often kill livestock and carry rabies . attempts were made to eradicate them , but the species is so succesful and adaptable that any attempt generally failed . the species is to this day still widespread and fairly common within its range and it is listed as least concern on the iucn red list .
dean , w . r . j . , hoffman , m . t . , kerley , g . i . h . & milton , s . j . 1995 . desertification in developed countries : in search of the silver bullet . south african journal of science 91 : 213 - 215 .
benn , g . a . 1995 . review : handbook of the birds of the world . vol . 2 : new world vultures to guineafowl ( eds . j . del hoyo , a . elliott & j . sargatal ) . journal of african raptor biology 10 ( 1 ) : 42 - 43 .
gelderblom , c . m . , bronner , g . n . , lombard , a . t . & taylor , p . j . 1995 . patterns of distribution and current protection status of the carnivora , chiroptera and insectivora in south africa . south african journal of zoology 30 : 103 - 114 .
milton , s . j . , dean , w . r . j . , maricowitz , c . p . & kerley , g . i . h . 1995 . effects of the 1990 / 91 drought on rangeland in the steytlerville karoo . south african journal of science 91 : 78 - 84 .
siegfried , w . r . 1995 . conference report : african heritage 2000 : the future of protected areas in africa . an iucn - cnppa africa - region working session , held at skukuza , kruger national park , south africa , 11 - 17 october 1994 . biodiversity and conservation 4 : 442 - 444 .
the main reference source for this data was
roberts - birds of southern africa , 7th edition
. other references were
newmans birds of the kruger park
by keith newman published circa 1980 . names in foreign languages were obtained from the percy fitzpatrick institute of african ornithology , university of cape town website , urltoken
manongi , f . s . & hoffmann , j . h . 1995 . the incidence of parasitism in trichilogaster acaciaelongifoliae ( froggatt ) ( hymenoptera : pteromalidae ) , a gall - forming biological control agent of acacia longifolia ( andr . ) willd . ( fabaceae ) in south africa . african entomology 3 : 47 - 151 .
mugo , d . n . , lombard , a . t . , bronner , g . n . , gelderblom , c . m . & benn , g . a . 1995 . distribution and protection of endemic or threatened rodents , lagomorphs and macrosceledids in south africa . south african journal of zooogy 30 : 115 - 126
little , r . m . , vester , k . c . & crowe , t . m . 1995 . temporal and spatial patterns of breeding activity of 12 duck species ( anatidae ) in the cape provinces , south africa , and their implications for hunting seasons . south african journal of wildlife research 25 : 17 - 22 .
wilson , r . p . & wilson , m . - p . t . 1995 . the foraging behaviour of the african penguin spheniscus demersus . in : dann , p . , norman , i . & reilly , p . , eds . the penguins . chipping norton , nsw : surrey beatty . pp . 244 - 265 .
little , r . m . , perrings , j . s . a . , crowe , t . m . & witt , a . b . r . 1995 . notes on the diet of helmeted guineafowl numida meleagris on deciduous fruit farms in the western cape province , south africa . south african journal of wildlife research 25 : 144 - 146 .
resident in most areas but some seasonal movement into coastal kenya to breed in apr - nov and into transvaal highveld after breeding in may - aug . may move locally within deciduous woodland in response to fluctuations in chameleon and insect numbers , leading to irregular influxes in areas of e and s africa . small - scale seasonal movements have also been detected in w african savannas .
marshall , d . j . , crafford , j . e . , krynauw , j . r . , drummond , a . e . & newton , i . p . 1995 . the biology , physico - chemistry and geology of a nunatak pond at valterkulten , western dronning maud land , antarctica . south african journal of antarctic research 25 : 9 - 16 .
kemp , a . c . & marks , j . s . ( 2018 ) . african goshawk ( accipiter tachiro ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .
while the african baza is never found in great abundance at any particular location , its range is so large that , even with low population densities , its population is estimated to number between 10 , 000 and 100 , 000 individuals ( 1 ) ( 4 ) . although deforestation is reducing the area of its preferred forest habitat , it appears to adapt readily to secondary forest and plantations , and can even survive in suburban gardens , hence it does not appear to be particularly at risk at present ( 4 ) .
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thank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .
del hoyo , j . , collar , n . j . , christie , d . a . , elliott , a . and fishpool , l . d . c . 2014 . hbw and birdlife international illustrated checklist of the birds of the world . volume 1 : non - passerines . lynx edicions birdlife international , barcelona , spain and cambridge , uk .
justification : this species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km 2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be stable , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size may be moderately small to large , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .
population size likely to exceed 10 , 000 individuals ( ferguson - lees and christie 2001 ) . trend justification : the population is suspected to be stable in the absence of evidence for any declines or substantial threats .
it is affected by the loss of forest habitat and can be predated by larger raptors ( del hoyo et al . , 1994 ) . in south africa it has been known to drown in small reservoirs on farmland ( anderson et al . 1999 ) .
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occurs across much of sub - saharan africa ; in southern africa it is generally scarce in mozambique , zimbabwe , northern botswana , namibia ( including the caprivi strip ) and eastern south africa , with an isolated population in the east of the western cape . it generally prefers woodland , the understorey and edges of forest and plantations of alien trees .
the chicks have been recorded as prey of aquila wahlbergi ( wahlberg ' s eagle ) .
it mainly eats reptiles and insects , hunting by flying from tree to tree , searching for from its perch before flying to pluck the prey item from the canopy or ground . the following food items have been recorded in its diet :
monogamous , solitary nester , performing spectacular aerial displays in the run - up to the breeding season .
the nest ( see image below ) is built by both sexes in about 11 days , consisting of an untidy platform of twigs , vines and leaves and lined with leaves , grass and small bits of sticks . it is typically placed in the highest branches of a tree , roughly 10 - 30 metres above ground .
it lays 1 - 2 , rarely 3 eggs in the period from september - march ; egg - laying season peaks from october - december .
the chicks are fed and brooded by both parents , leaving the nest after about 28 days and taking their first flight a few days later , remaining dependent on their parents for another week or so .
previously suspected to be threatened in the early 1980 ' s , but it is now thought to be not threatened in southern africa .
hockey par , dean wrj and ryan pg 2005 . roberts - birds of southern africa , viith ed . the trustees of the john voelcker bird book fund , cape town .
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myavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .
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two birds in miombo woodland , one had just been doing a display flight above the other . this call was given right before they both took flight and left the area .
vocalizations probably coming from an immature unseen while calling but seen in flight . listen for comparison ml69160
recorded on iphone . filtered by james bradley . recording is of one bird , but two birds were heard dueting , perched in tall trees in neighbouring garden , and seen as they flew off .
sonogram images © xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .
hbw alive contains information on descriptive notes , voice , habitat , food and feeding , breeding , movements , status and conservation plus a list of bibliographical references for this species account .
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mauriravasini , lars petersson , buchert , éric roualet , james kashangaki , josep del hoyo , bruno schmetz , nik borrow , nachoaransay , tadeusz stawarczyk , lmarce .
combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be stable , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size may be moderately small to large , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .
recommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : aviceda cuculoides . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .
birds of east africa vol 1 by c . a . w . guggisberg – mount kenya sundries ltd . – isbn : 9966889051
the adult has dark grey to blackish - brown upperparts . the rump is black , barred white . the black tail feathers show three grey bands and a narrow greyish - white terminal band . the flight feathers are dark grey and narrowly barred paler grey . on the underparts , chin , throat and upper breast are pale grey , whereas lower breast and underwing - coverts are white , broadly barred dark rufous . lower belly , vent and undertail - coverts are white .
on the pale grey head , the face is slightly paler . there is a small crest , often folded , with pale centre and rufous patch on nape . the bill is black with double - notched cutting and deep yellow cere . the eyes are deep red - brown in male and yellow in female . the short , bare legs and feet are deep yellow too .
both sexes are similar in size and plumage , except the eyes . the juvenile has brown upperparts with pale rufous - tipped feathers . the underparts are white , heavily streaked black , mostly spotted on flanks . we can see a white streaking on crown , forehead and eyebrow . the throat is white with indistinct brown streaks . the face shows a dark brown mask . the crest is less conspicuous than in adults . the eyes are dark brown . the subadult resembles adult but is has rufous - tinged chest and finely barred grey underparts . the eyes are pale yellow .
a . c . cuculoides ( here described ) is found in woodland from senegal , e to sw ethiopia , and s to nigeria and n zaire .
a . c . batesi occurs in lowland rainforest from sierra leone , e to uganda and s to n angola . this one has darker upperparts and heavy barring on underparts .
a . c . verreauxii is found in woodland and coastal , riparian and montane forests , from kenya , s to n namibia and south africa . it has distinctive white barred wing lining .
during the breeding season , it performs courtship displays and calls from perches . the pair engages in twisting display flights high in the air , usually at dawn and dusk . these flights consist of several undulating swoops and dives , with steep sideway banking , in order to display the rufous underwing - coverts . they may soar in small groups above the forest , while calling to one another .
the female lays 2 - 3 white eggs with bold brown spots . both sexes share the incubation during 32 - 33 days . at hatching , the chicks have white down . they are fed on insects by both parents . they fledge about 5 - 6 weeks after hatching , and still depend on adults for one week or more .
males are blackish - brown in color above , with a grayish color on the crown , mantle , cheeks , throat and upper breast . at the base of the neck is a chestnut - colored patch . tail is black , barred in gray , and tipped in white . the underside of the wings are white with black bars , with the underwing coverts chestnut . the belly is white with broad chestnut bars . females are browner , with the chestnut bars on the belly paler in color .
the species begins breeding in late - summer , building small nests in the season which lasts from september until the following february , depending on location ; it can occur in south africa in september through march , while in western africa it is june through august . nests are constructed high in the forest canopy . two red - blotched white eggs are laid , with both parents sharing the incubation , which can last just over a month . the feeding and rearing of the chicks until fledge takes an additional month .
this page was last modified on 24 june 2016 , at 18 : 40 .
the adult male of the nominate race is generally colour blackish brown above , slate on the crown and mantle , with white bases to the feathers , and a chestnut patch at the ase base of the neck . the upper tail coverts are black , tipped and barred with white . the tail is black , with three broad grey bars and a white tip . the throat , cheeks and upper breast are dove grey . the remainder of the underparts are white , with broad chestnut bars on the lower breast and belly , sometimes reaching the flanks . under wing coverts are chestnut , the rest of underwing being white , barred with black . the cere is greenish yellow , the legs and feet yellow , the eyes bright yellow , and the bill and claws black . the female differs from the male in being browner all over , with little slaty wash ; the chestnut bars on underside broader and paler than the male . immatures are dark brown above , with many feathers edged with buff , and the bars on tail are brownish grey . there are large irregular spots on the underside ; the barring on the underside develops as the bird matures . aviceda cuculoides verreauxi differs from the nominate race in having white bars on the chestnut under - wing coverts , and in being much larger .
uncommon throughout its range and only rarely seen , this is a bird of secretive , skulking habits in dense woodland or second growth forest mixed with cultivation , only occasionally emerging into open ground .
insects and lizards ; occasionally small birds . prey is caught either in trees or on the ground .
this species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be stable , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size may be moderately small to large , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .
in display it calls from a perch and sometimes performs display flights high above the ground . these flights consist of undulating swoops and dives , with steep sideways banking exposing the chestnut underwing coverts . several individuals may soar together above forest , calling to one another . the nest is built high in a tree , well concealed in dense foliage . it is made of sticks , roots and grasses , lined with green leaves . a new nest is constructed every year , construction taking a month or more . two or three pale greenish blue eggs , spotted and streaked with brown and chestnut and with lilac markings , are laid . it times its breeding to coincide with the rains when insects are plentiful . incubation lasts for about a month and the young fledge about 6 weeks later . both sexes care for young .
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the map of the kruger you see on this page shows the areas ( coloured orange ) where this bird has been identified . the basic information was provided by the avian demographic unit based at uct and i created the maps from that information . . . the green dots show the locations of the various kruger national park rest camps
for in - depth birding information please refer to these authoritative avian references . . .
it is often seen flying between trees in short glides with wings held high , swooping up at end of glide and perching .
their primary diet consists of insects , particularly grasshoppers . however , they may also take small snakes and lizards , as well as birds and rodents .
both male and female participate in building the nest - which is a platform made of leafy twigs . it is situated in the upper foliage of a tall tree , about 10–25 m above ground .
the average clutch consists of 2 , rarely 3 , chalky - white eggs with reddish - brown blotches .
the eggs are incubated by either the male or the female for about 32 - 33 days .
the chicks are raised by both parents and leave the nest when they are about one month old .
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throughout history , crows , ravens and other black birds were feared as symbols of evil or death . …
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ver time , these will give valuable information on population distribution , habitat requirements , trends and so on .
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ioc world bird list ( v7 . 1 ) , gill , f and d donsker ( eds ) . 2017 .
this species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km 2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be stable , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size may be moderately small to large , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .
classified as least concern ( lc ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) and listed on appendix ii of cites ( 3 ) .
population size likely to exceed 10 , 000 individuals ( ferguson - lees and christie 2001 ) .
although there are no specific conservation measures in place for this species at present ( 1 ) , it is one of the many species found within the gamba protected areas complex in gabon ( 5 ) . this collection of eight protected areas , two of which have national park status , is helping to preserve gabon ' s unique wildlife from logging and hunting ( 5 ) .
it is a mostly solitary and skulking bird , flying between trees in short glides with wings held high , swooping up at end of glide and perching . it is usually found hunting in grass and low vegetation , remaining still for a while and then moving to a new spot . its diet consists mainly of insects , with a preference for grasshoppers , but also takes small snakes and lizards , as well as birds and rodents .
nesting takes place from september to february , and consists of a platform of leafy twigs , constructed by both sexes in the upper foliage of a tall tree and located from 10–25 m above ground , lofty eucalypts often being favoured . the clutch is of 2 ( rarely 3 ) chalky - white eggs with reddish - brown blotches . incubation is by both sexes or female only and lasts for 32–33 days . the nestlings are nest - bound for about a month and are fed by both parents .
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appears to be closely related to a . cuculoides , and possibly also to a . jerdoni and a . subcristata . monotypic .
- like on perch , but slow heavy flapping flight ( using tail as rudder ) is baza - like ; has slight crest , large eyes ( . . .
gives quick , run - together series of “wik” notes that falter slightly at terminus ; also . . .
evergreen and dry deciduous forest from sea - level to 1600 m ( reports to 1800 m ) based on erroneous . . .
mainly small reptiles ( e . g . chameleons and geckos ) , large insects and their larvae ( grasshoppers , beetles , bees , wasps , cicadas , mantises . . .
aerial display reported late sept and mid dec ; flying straight above canopy then tilting sideways while fluttering the wings 3–6 . . .
not globally threatened ( least concern ) . cites ii . formerly considered near threatened . occurs throughout madagascar and is fairly common in all forest zones , perhaps . . .
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the grootvadersbosch nature reserve ( s33° 57 ' 52 . 46” e20° 48 ' 24 . 70” ) is situated on the r322 between swellendam and heidelberg and protects the most westerly patch of indigenous forest in south africa . the reserve also has large stretches of unique mountain fynbos , thus adding to the avian biodiversity of the region . from a bird - watching perspective the reserve offers several species associated with forest habitats in many cases on the most westerly limit of their distribution range . for this reason it is regarded as one of the top birding destinations for bird - watchers from the western cape and elsewhere . it further adds an unique suite of sought - after species to the already impressive list of birds to be found in the swellendam local municipal region .
the grootvadersbosch nature reserve protects a diversity of habitat types dominated by afromontaine forest . birding under the closed forest canopy is often difficult as many of the sought - after species forage high up in the canopy . the disturbed forest fringes and bracken covered slopes are often far more productive . the reserve further offers moist mountain fynbos where many of the special and often endemic species associated with this habitat type are to be found . the best time of year to visit is in spring when most of the birds are breeding . a variety of day walks and mountain bike trails are available and permits can be obtained from the reserve office . maps of the various trails are available at the office . the campsite has braai facilities , ablutions and a thatched lapa and advanced reservations are advised .
redwoods road is clearly sign - posted along bosbokrand . it is on the slope’s lower contour and is extremely popular with birders as it features most of the species mentioned in the melkhoutpad description and many , many more . red - necked spurfowl on its westernmost distribution is scarce and best found early in the morning . the calls of sombre greenbul , terrestrial brownbul , olive bush - shrike , yellow - throated woodland - warbler and olive woodpecker are heard often , but these species are notoriously difficult to spot visually . it is best to become accustomed to their calls and spend patient time in searching for them . a sharp turn to the left is reached where the road crosses the duiwenhoks river . the undergrowth along the stream is the best spot in the reserve to look for the inconspicuous and difficult to find knysna warbler . it is best located by its call and it tends to react well to ' splishing ' . this is also a good area for knysna woodpecker , with its single nasal shriek often leading one to its location . it unfortunately only calls every 10 to 15 minutes or so . look out for airborne raptors at the few forest clearings along the road .