the scaly-sided merganser or chinese merganser ( mergus squamatus ) is an endangered typical merganser ( genus mergus ) .

it lives in temperate east asia , breeding in the north and wintering in the south .

scaly - sided merganser

scaly - sided merganser ( mergus squamatus ) or chinese merganser bird flapping its wings .
nobody uploaded sound recordings for scaly - sided merganser ( mergus squamatus ) yet .
s1 dataset . historical occurrence dataset for wintering scaly - sided merganser in china .
summary of selected candidate predictor variables and their relevance to scaly - sided merganser .
zhengjie z , zhengjie p . the foraging behaviour of the scaly - sided merganser
response curves of environmental variables with highest contribution to occurrence of scaly - sided merganser .
birdskorea ( 2013 ) scaly - sided merganser in the republic of korea . available :
scaly - sided merganser , daily travel distance , mergus squamatus , daily home range , group characteristics .
east asian - australasian flyway partnership . 2016 . scaly - sided merganser task force . available at : urltoken
distribution of scaly - sided merganser flocks and gravel bar patches in the 36 km river section of the lower yuanjiang river .
genetic diversity of the endangered scaly - sided merganser ( mergus squamatus ) in the wintering habitat of central - southern china .
surveys in main rivers in distribution areas and population density of scaly - sided mergansers .
> 0 . 05 ) of scaly - sided merganser among forenoon , noon and afternoon during overall wintering period . in addition , no significant differences were found in the travel distance and home range of scaly - sided merganser among forenoon ( f = 2 . 489 ,
since 2000 , wildlife biologists from russia and china have been studying the globally endangered scaly - sided merganser . this species has limited distribution and is found exclusively in isolated areas of russia , china , and korea . the decline of the worldwide population of the scaly - sided merganser and concern for its survival led to the formation of the scaly - sided merganser task force , dedicated to the conservation of the species .
shokhrin v , solovyeva d ( 2003 ) scaly - sided merganser breeding population increase in far east russia . twsg news 14 : 43–51 .
fenqi h , jiansheng l , bin y , hangdong j , haohui z . current distribution and status of the wintering scaly - sided merganser
cranswick , p . 2010 . conservation of the scaly - sided merganser in far east russia . wwt conservation report 2008 - 2009 : 33 .
solovyera , d . 2013 . real stories of poaching of the scaly - sided merganser . twsg news 16 , december : 38 - 39 .
genetic diversity of the endangered scaly - sided merganser ( mergus squamatus ) in the wintering habitat of central - southern china . - pubmed - ncbi
scaly - sided merganser is an endangered species and existing populations contain few individuals . therefore , using launchers to measure the home range of this species involves a high risk to these populations . scaly - sided merganser has a relatively small home range during the entire wintering period , so this provides an opportunity to monitor the travel distance and home range of these birds without using launchers . the overall home range of scaly - sided merganser was about 0 . 2 km
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arkive video - various stages of scaly - sided merganser chick development
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time budgets provide important information for the study of animal behavior . the present study analyzed the daily travel distance , home range and group characteristics of scaly - sided merganser
shao m , zeng b , tim h , chen l , you c , et al . ( 2012 ) winter ecology and conservation threats of scaly - sided merganser
zhiru w , jihong s , yankuo l , xiaobin t , daojiang j , et al . ( 2010 ) wintering distribution and population size of scaly - sided merganser
shao m , zeng b , tim h , chen l , you c , wang h , et al . winter ecology and conservation threats of scaly - sided merganser
solovyeva d . foraging behaviour and daily time budget of scaly - sided merganser mergus squamatus breeding on iman river , russia . wildfowl . 2002 ; 53 : 205–14 .
the globally - threatened scaly - sided merganser is one of the rarest seaducks in the old world , found in remote parts of far - east russia and china .
solovyeva dv , liu p , antonov ai , averin aa , pronkevich vv , et al . ( 2014 ) the population size and breeding range of the scaly - sided merganser
solovyeva dv , liu p , antonov ai , averin aa , pronkevich vv , shokhrin vp , et al . the population size and breeding range of the scaly - sided merganser
the average daily travel distance of scaly - sided merganser was 3100 ± 1313 m with no significant difference in the daily travel distance between different months ( f = 0 . 658 ,
solovieva d , shokhrin v , vartanyan s , dondua a , vartanyan n ( 2006 ) scaly - sided merganser surveys in primorye , russia , 2003–05 . twsg news 15 : 60–69 .
. the sex ratio of scaly - sided merganser was also different in different months . the sex ratio we observed in february was similar to the results reported as 1 : 0 . 61 by
the map of potential habitat shows that highly suitable habitats for scaly - side merganser are located in the middle and lower reaches of the yangtze river ( fig . 2 ) , especially in jiangxi , hunan and hubei provinces . sichuan , chongqing , and henan province also have areas of high importance for scaly - sided merganser .
liu , y . , yang , z . j . , zuo , b . and yi , g . d . , 2008 . wintering distribution and population size of scaly - sided merganser (
he fq , melville d , gui xj , hong yh , liu zy ( 2002 ) status of the scaly - sided merganser wintering in mainland china in the 1990s . waterbirds 25 : 462–464 .
large flocks of scaly - sided merganser were less frequently observed than small flocks . being in small flocks may reduce competition among individuals and ensure that every individual acquires the largest possible benefit from flocking behavior (
shao , m . q . , shi , w . j . , zeng , b . b . and jiang , j . h . , 2014 . diving behavior of scaly - sided merganser ,
the scaly - sided merganser usually forages in small groups of up to three birds and feeds on small fish as well as insect larvae , shrimps , crayfish and beetles , taken from the river ( 5 ) .
solovyeva dv , afanasiev v , fox jw , shokhrin v , fox ad ( 2012 ) use of geolocators reveals previously unknown chinese and korean scaly - sided merganser wintering sites . endangered species research 17 : 217–225 .
solovyeva , d . , vartanyan , s . , & vartanyan , n . 2013 . artificial nest sites for scaly - sided merganser – a way to breeding habitat restoration . amurian zoological journal 5 : 201–207 .
) . in recent years , the population of scaly - sided merganser has shown obvious declines caused by very high levels of habitat loss . currently , the breeding population in china is estimated to be only 200–250 pairs (
fenqi h , jiansheng l , bin y , hangdong j , haohui z ( 2006 ) current distribution and status of the wintering scaly - sided merganser mergus squamatus in china . chinese journal of zoology 41 : 52–56 .
he f , melville d , gui x , hong y , liu z . status of the scaly - sided merganser wintering in mainland china in the 1990s . waterbirds . 2002 ; 25 ( 4 ) : 462–64 .
we observed the endangered duck persistently preferred some river sections over others within the same river reach in its known wintering distribution [ 14 ] . the study is therefore designed to investigate why scaly - sided mergansers choose particular habitats , and aims to test the hypotheses that more gravel bars support high occurrence probability of scaly - sided merganser , and that occurrence probability is also influenced by human disturbance .
barter m , zhuang x , wang x , cao l , lei j , et al . ( 2014 ) abundance and distribution of wintering scaly - sided mergansers
barter m , zhuang x , wang x , cao l , lei j , solovyeva d , et al . abundance and distribution of wintering scaly - sided mergansers
) , which could markedly reduce foraging time . to meet daily energy requirements , scaly - sided merganser has to fly to areas where there is less human activity , which unavoidably leads to longer flushing distances , daily travel distances and home ranges (
the red dots indicate 127 scaly - sided merganser flocks recorded over three winters . green points represent houses along the river within a 50 m buffer zone . areas in dark grey are gravel bars in river and area in light grey are islands .
he , f . q . , li , j . s . , yang , b . , jiang , h . d . and zhang , h . h . , 2006 . current distribution and status of the wintering scaly - sided merganser (
solovyeva , d . v . and pearce , j . m . 2011 . comparative mitochondrial genetics of north american and eurasian mergansers with an emphasis on the endangered scaly - sided merganser ( mergus squamatus ) . conservation genetics 12 : 839 - 844 .
solovyeva , d . ; shokhrin , v . ; vartanyan , s . ; dondua , a . ; vartanyan , n . 2006 . scaly - sided merganser surveys in primorye , russia , 2003 - 05 . twsg news : 60 - 69 .
solovyeva , d . v . , afanasiev , v . , fox , j . w . , shokhrin , v . and fox , a . d . in press . previously unknown chinese and korean scaly - sided merganser wintering sites revealed by geolocators .
partnership for the east asian - australasian flyway . 2008 . scaly - sided merganser . available at : file : / / / w : / 3 % 20species % 20new % 20info / mergus % 20squamatus / mergus % 20squamatus % 20eaafp % 20mar13 . htm .
duckworth , j . & kim c . scaly - sided mergansers mergus squamatus on the lower chongchon river , central korea . wildfowl ( 2005 ) 55 : 135 - 144 .
duckworth , j . w . ; kim chol . 2005 . scaly - sided mergansers mergus squamatus on the lower chongchon river , central korea . wildfowl 55 : 133 - 141 .
citation : zeng q , zhang y , sun g , duo h , wen l , lei g ( 2015 ) using species distribution model to estimate the wintering population size of the endangered scaly - sided merganser in china . plos one 10 ( 2 ) : e0117307 . urltoken
] , length was considered to the most suitable to calculate population density for rivers . we estimated the potential scaly - sided merganser population by projecting these observed population densities in the main known habitat , the middle reaches of yangtze river with reference to the entire modelled distribution area [
zeng q , zhang y , sun g , duo h , wen l , lei g . using species distribution model to estimate the wintering population size of the endangered scaly - sided merganser in china . plos one 2015 ; 10 ( 2 ) : e0117307 . pmid : 25646969
) . throughout the day , the group size of scaly - sided merganser showed extremely significant differences , which were inseparable from its ecological habits , such as dispersed foraging , collective maintenance and rest . scaly - sided merganser was found foraging in small dispersed flocks at 7 : 00–9 : 00 . large flocks were recorded while resting and loafing at 12 : 00–13 : 00 and 16 : 00–17 : 00 . foraging in small flocks can reduce the competition among different individuals . and rest in large flocks can reduce the alert time and the probability to be predated (
citation : zeng q , shi l , wen l , chen j , duo h , lei g ( 2015 ) gravel bars can be critical for biodiversity conservation : a case study on scaly - sided merganser in south china . plos one 10 ( 5 ) : e0127387 . urltoken
he fen - qi . ; melville , d . ; gui xau - jie . ; hong yuan - hua . ; liu , zhi - yong . 2002 . status of the scaly - sided merganser wintering in mainland china in the 1990s . waterbirds 25 : 462 - 464 .
zeng , q . , zhang , j . , li , h . , lu , k . , and lei , g . 2013 . the first record of a ringed scaly - sided merganser mergus squamatus at a wintering site in southern china . birdingasia 19 : 57 - 58 .
: scaly - sided merganser , scimitar babblers , short - tailed parrotbill , dusky fulvetta , chinese bamboo partridge , and other forest birds including pied falconet , red - billed leiothrix , red - billed starling , red - billed blue magpie , chestnut bulbul , grey - headed parrotbill etc .
recent phylogenetic study found this species to be basal to m . merganser # r . monotypic .
. 2015 ) . the scaly - sided merganser project has been running in primorye since 2000 and has collated information on the threats facing the species ( solovyera 2013 ) . in 2010 a task force was formed to develop a species action plan ( east asian - australasian flyway partnership 2016 ) .
in yihuang and wuyuan counties , jiangxi province , china , from december 2012 to march 2013 and december 2015 to march 2016 . results showed that the daily travel distance of scaly - sided merganser was 3100 ± 1313 m ; the daily home range was 122 , 460 ± 42 , 019 m
zeng , q . , zhang , y . , sun , g . , duo , h . , wen , l . and lei , g . 2015 . using species distribution model to estimate the wintering population size of the endangered scaly - sided merganser in china . plos one 10 : e0117307 .
a total of 456 flocks of scaly - sided merganser were recorded between december 2012 and march 2013 . the average group size was 3 . 91 ± 2 . 94 individuals and highly significant differences were found in group size between different times of day ( kruskal - wallis h : f = 25 . 540 ,
peiqi liu ; feng li ; huidong song ; qiang wang ; yuwen song ; yusen liu ; zhengji piao . 2010 . a survey to the distribution of the scaly - sided merganser ( mergus squamatus ) in changbai mountain range ( china side ) . chinese birds 1 ( 2 ) : 148 - 155 .
cao , l . and barter , m . 2008 . non - breeding season survey for scaly - sided mergansers in fujian , guangdong and jiangxi provinces . university of science and technology of china , hefei .
classed as endangered on the iucn red list owing to its small and declining population , the scaly - sided merganser breeds in a restricted area in southeast russia and northeast china , primarily in the primorye region of far - east russia . it winters in china and north korea , although its distribution is poorly known .
solovyeva , d . , newton , j . , hobson , k . , fox , j . w . , afanasyev , v . and fox , a . d . 2014b . marine moult migration of the freshwater scaly - sided merganser mergus squamatus revealed by stable isotopes and geolocators . ibis 156 : 466–471 .
fen - qi , h . , jian - sheng , l . , bin , y . , hang - dong , j . and ho - fai , c . 2006 . current distribution and status of the wintering scaly - sided merganser mergus squamatus in china . chinese journal of zoology 41 : 52 - 56 .
) . however , we did not find any data on daily travel distance and home range for this endangered species . thus , the objective of this study was to analyze the daily travel distance , home range and grouping characteristics of scaly - sided merganser in yihuang and wuyuan counties , jiangxi , china for future conservation efforts .
during the whole 24 surveys ( 2011–2013 ) , we counted 514 scaly - sided mergansers , belonging to 127 flocks in total ( fig 2 ) . the number of individual in a flock varied from 1 to 20 .
when the group was encountered we also record their sex composition . before sexual maturity a male scaly - sided merganser cannot be differentiated from a mature female in the field . therefore , birds recorded as “female” in this paper actually include females and juveniles and the sex ratio was the ratio of ( females + juveniles ) to males (
cao , l . & barter , m . 2013 . non - breeding season surveys for scaly - sided mergansers in anhui , fujian , guangdong and jiangxi provinces , china . twsg news 16 december : 35 - 37 .
chinese merganser ( mergus squamatus ) . it lives in east asia , status - this species is considered endangered .
the occurrence of the scaly - sided merganser had significantly positive relationship with contig _ am . the significantly positive relationship was consistence across all the plausible glms although their estimation varied ( i . e . the coefficients are 1 . 09 , 4 . 11 , 3 . 55 , and 3 . 26 for models 1 , 2 , 3 and 4 respectively , table 3 ) . the significant level of positive relationship between scaly - sided merganser presence and contig _ am was verified by bayesian inference ( i . e . the 95 % intervals were all positive and 0 was not included , table 3 and fig 4 ) . the mcmc estimates were consistently higher across the models ( table 3 ) .
shao , m . q . , zhang , r . , dai , n . h . , guo , y . r . , gan , w . l . , tong , l . f . , jian , m . f . and tu , y . l . , 2010 . preliminary study on behaviors of wintering scaly - sided merganser .
> 0 . 05 ) . the significant correlation between daily home range and daily minimum temperature may be related to energy requirements or prey activities . the average group size of the scaly - sided merganser was 3 . 91 ± 2 . 94 individuals , and extremely significant differences existed at different time of day ( f = 25 . 540 , df = 11 ,
studies suggested that 500 individuals were required to maintain the evolutionary potential of the species [ 4 , 63 ] and an overall population of 5 , 000 individuals would be required to prevent the loss of quantitative genetic variation in a species [ 64 ] . thus , our findings indicated that the scaly - sided merganser was still endangered and the survival of the species requires conservation efforts on an international scale .
the scaly - sided merganser breeds in south - east russia , north korea and north - east china . some birds spend the winter in south - east russia , but most are thought to winter in central and southern china . small numbers winter in japan , north korea , south korea and taiwan ( china ) , and a handful of records exist from myanmar , thailand and northern vietnam ( 5 ) .
the partial response curves of the four highly influential variables were presented in fig . 4 . the strong non - linear relationships between the probability of scaly - side merganser occurrence and predictor variables are evident . the most suitable habitat for scaly - side mergansers are areas with annual mean temperature around 17°c , mean temperature in winter around 6°c minimum temperature in coldest month around 2°c , and winter precipitation around 170 mm .
wang , z . r . , shan , j . h . , li , y . k . , tu , x . b . , jia , d . j . , hao , y . , song , y . z . , ying , q . , sun , z . y . and zhao , j . , 2010 . winter population status and endangered factors of scaly - sided merganser (
solovyeva , d . v . , liu , p . , antonov , a . i . , averin , a . a . , pronkevich , v . v . , shokhrin , v . p . , vartanyan , s . l . and cranswick , p . a . 2014 . the population size and breeding range of the scaly - sided merganser mergus squamatus . bird conserv . int . 24 : 393 - 405 .
carboneras , c . & kirwan , g . m . ( 2018 ) . scaly - sided merganser ( mergus squamatus ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .
annual mean temperature , mean temperature of coldest quarter , minimum temperature of coldest month and precipitation of driest quarter are the most important variables in the scaly - sided mergansers occurrence ( fig . 3 ) . stream density , human influence and land cover are factors of lesser importance ( fig . 3 ) .
the occurrence of the scaly - sided merganser was significantly negatively affected by bld , and this was consistent for both the glm estimates ( table 3 ) and the bayesian inferred posterior density distribution ( table 3 and fig 4b ) . in addition , the glm estimation of - 2 . 02 was close the medium of - 2 . 88 from mcmc posterior sampling for the model which included bld as main factor only ( i . e . model 2 ) .
titman , r . d . ( 1999 ) red - breasted merganser ( mergus serrator ) . cornell lab of ornithology . birds of north america online .
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based on the fitted glms , para _ am negatively affects the occurrence of the scaly - sided merganser although the coefficient in model 2 and model 4 was considerably higher than in model 3 . furthermore , the bayesian estimates were higher for models 2 and 4 , but lower for model 3 . in addition , the 95 % intervals included 0 for model 3 and 4 ( table 3 ) although the distribution density was heavily skewed to the left ( negative ) ( fig 4 ) .
food selection , food - seeking patterns and hunting success of captive goosanders mergus merganser and red - breasted mergansers m . serrator in relation to the behaviour of their prey
larger gravel bars could improve the function of river section as possible roosting sites . the incessant , strongly turbulent flow requires strong rooting to resist , or significant expenditure of energy to withstand [ 32 ] . scaly - sided merganser uses gravel bars to roost and preen , which could minimize the necessary expenditure of energy to maintain position for other activities such as feeding and social interaction . these resting and maintenance behaviors could account for 39 % and 24 % of time budget in male and female during days [ 13 ] .
the posterior mcmc showed a strong positive relationship between np and the occurrence of the scaly - sided merganser ( fig 4d and table 3 ) . the coefficient was 1 . 85 and 4 . 83 based on glm and bayesian estimation , respectively . for nlsi , although the glm indicated a significantly positive effect , the bayesian posterior inference was not conclusive ( table 3 ) : the 95 % internals were - 0 . 94 and 1 . 72 , and the distribution density was slightly skewed to the positive range ( fig 4c ) .
barter , m . , zhuang , x . , wang , x . , cao , l . , lei , j . , solovyeva , d . , and fox , a . d . abundance and distribution of wintering scaly - sided mergansers mergus squamatus in china : where are the missing birds ? bird conserv . int . 24 : 406 - 415 .
a specific threshold is needed to transform the model results of logistic occurrence probabilities or suitability index to presences / absences [ 35 ] . however , the fixed threshold approach ( e . g . 0 . 5 [ 36 ] , 0 . 3 [ 37 ] , 0 . 05 [ 38 ] ) is arbitrary and lacks ecological basis [ 39 ] . average predicted probability was used as it is considered a more robust approach [ 40 ] . areas with an occurrence probability above the threshold are regarded as modelled distribution areas for scaly - sided merganser .
yu chang - hao ; sun zhi - yong ; wang zhi - ru . 2008 . winter distribution of chinese merganser in jiangxi . china crane news 12 ( 1 ) : 35 - 36 .
field data were collected in three winters ( 2010 / 2011 , 2011 / 2012 , 2012 / 2013 ) when scaly - sided mergansers arrived for wintering . winter is the low water season , and the river is very stable in terms of water level fluctuation . field survey were conducted every second week from november to february ( when the bird population was relatively stable ) , resulting in a total of 24 surveys .
. 2007 , 2008 ) . logging of river sources and adjacent slopes has led to reduced spring water levels and changes in fish abundance ; since logging began on the avvakumovka river in 2004 , spring water levels and merganser populations have undergone continuous declines ( d . solovieva
shao , m . q . , zeng , b . b . , shang , x . l . , chen , l . x . , you , c . y . and dai , n . h . , 2012 . group characteristics of chinese merganser (
striking merganser with shaggy crest and scaled flanks . adult male has black , glossed green head and neck with long crest . creamy - white lower foreneck , breast and central underparts . whitish flanks , ventral region , and rump with grey scaling . blackish mantle , hindneck and scapulars . mostly white innerwing . adult female has warm buffish head and neck with dusky lores and wispy crest . whitish breast and central underparts . male red - breasted merganser m . serrator has white collar and rufous breast and lacks heavy scaling on flanks . female also lacks scaling .
52 - 58 cm . striking merganser with shaggy crest and scaled flanks . adult male has black , glossed green head and neck with long crest . creamy - white lower foreneck , breast and central underparts . whitish flanks , ventral region , and rump with grey scaling . blackish mantle , hindneck and scapulars . mostly white innerwing . adult female has warm buffish head and neck with dusky lores and wispy crest . whitish breast and central underparts . < similar species > male red - breasted merganser m . serrator has white collar and rufous breast and lacks heavy scaling on flanks . female also lacks scaling .
the red - breasted merganser breeds along the wooded shorelines of deep lakes , rivers and streams , as well as shallow bays and estuaries with a sandy bottom , preferring narrow channels with small rocky islands and grassy banks rather than large , open expanses of water . at other times of the year , it is largely found at sea , inhabiting deeper offshore waters as well as inshore areas ( 2 ) ( 7 ) .
52 - 58 cm . striking merganser with shaggy crest and scaled flanks . adult male has black , glossed green head and neck with long crest . creamy - white lower foreneck , breast and central underparts . whitish flanks , ventral region , and rump with grey scaling . blackish mantle , hindneck and scapulars . mostly white innerwing . adult female has warm buffish head and neck with dusky lores and wispy crest . whitish breast and central underparts .
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del hoyo , j . , collar , n . j . , christie , d . a . , elliott , a . and fishpool , l . d . c . 2014 . hbw and birdlife international illustrated checklist of the birds of the world . volume 1 : non - passerines . lynx edicions birdlife international , barcelona , spain and cambridge , uk .
barter , m . , cao , l . , he , f . , hughes , b . , peiqi , l . , solovyeva , d . & fen - qi , h .
benstead , p . , bird , j . , chan , s . , crosby , m . , peet , n . , symes , a . , taylor , j . , allinson , t , north , a . , martin , r
justification : this species has a very small population which is suspected to be undergoing a continuing and rapid decline as a result of habitat loss , illegal hunting and disturbance . it is therefore listed as endangered . this species may warrant a downlisting in the future but this will depend on a robust understanding of the threats on the status of the breeding population .
. it had been suggested that there could be around 10 , 000 mature individuals or more globally ( d . solovyeva
most breed in russia where , in the early 1980s , there were c . 1 , 000 pairs in primorye and c . 100 pairs in khabarovsk but , by 2012 , the total number in these areas was estimated at c . 448 pairs ( solovyeva
the breeding population in china was estimated at 150 - 200 pairs from 2008 and 2009 surveys ( peiqi liu et al . 2010 ) and 166 pairs in 2012 ( the majority of which are found in the chingbai mountains [ 155 pairs ] , with a small number of breeding pairs in the lesser xingan mountains [ 11 pairs ] ) ( solovyeva
in 2003 , a population of c . 40 individuals was found on the lower chongchon river in central korea ( duckworth and chol 2005 ) . a total of 300 individuals ( including one flock of 80 birds ) were recorded on a stretch of river not more than 3 km long , at song jiang he in jilin province , china , representing a post - breeding congregation prior to migration ( peiqi liu
. 2007 , 2008 ) . surveys of c . 1 , 000 km of rivers and 11 reservoirs in south - east china in the winters of 2006 and 2008 found a total of 71 individuals ( 31 and 40 respectively ) ( cao and barter 2008 ) , and wintering birds at four sites in northern jiangxi during 2002 - 2007 included a peak of 88 on a 22 - km stretch of xinjiang river ( yu chang - hao
in russia , c . 1 , 643 pairs nest in sikhote - alin ( solovyeva
2014 ) , with just 11 pairs estimated to nest north of the amur river . in china , 155 pairs breed in the changbai mountains and 11 pairs in lesser xingan ( solovyeva
2014 ) . pair densities were found to be highest on the fuerhe river in the chinese changbai mountains ( 0 . 918 pairs / km ) and on the pavlovka river in sikhote - alin ( 0 . 63 pairs / km ) ( solovyeva
2014 ) . there are , however , other estimates of perhaps several thousand pairs ( b . hughes
( 2010 ) . this is roughly equivalent to 3 , 600 - 6 , 800 individuals in total . further research is required in order to verify this .
a rapid and on - going population decline is suspected ( see birdlife international 2001 ) . the density of breeding pairs more than doubled since the 1960s / 1970s in the species ' s stronghold in russia , but has since stabilised ( solovieva
. 2006 ) . the changbai ( china ) breeding population may be increasing , but the western population ( found in xingan , china and zeya - bureya , russia ) has declined rapidly .
2015 ) . flocks of up to 20 individuals have been noted on passage or in winter ( duckworth and chol 2005 ) . in russia , they moult on a range of water bodies within the breeding range and north and east of breeding range , including rivers , estuaries and the sea but the stable isotope analysis confirmed that the species is predominately confined to freshwater habitat ( solovyeva
. 2014b ) . a satellite tracking study of individuals breeding in the lesser xingan mountains found migration to last on average 42 days , stopping at several sites on route . this study was however based on a very small sample size and so may not necessarily be representative of the population as a whole ( dong - ping
. 2007 , 2008 ) . other major threats within the breeding range include illegal hunting ( solovyera 2013 ) , drowning in fishing nets ( a major cause of mortality at russian breeding sites in 2003 - 2007 [ d . solovieva
. 2007 , 2008 ] ) , disturbance from motor boats during the breeding season , river pollution and natural predators . increased hunting of waterfowl for sport together with poor regulation of the spring hunting season ( which is intended to coincide with passage migration and avoid targeting locally breeding birds ) is a significant and increasing threat ; large numbers were reportedly shot in the kievka river basin , southern primorye , in spring 2008 ( d . solovieva
. 2010 ) , despite environmental arguments against the project . in south korea , the species is impacted by increased river turbidity due to construction and dredging , bridge - building activities , river - bank strengthening and road - widening schemes ( moores
. other significant aspects of habitat modification will include the deepening of rivers and the removal of boulders and islands , which are used for roosting . many stretches of river are expected to be rendered unusable for the species owing to habitat degradation and disturbance ( moores
. 2010 ) . the species has low genetic diversity ( solovyeva and pearce 2011 ) . high levels of heavy metals , especially as and hg , were reported in females and their eggs after wintering in the yangtze catchment ( solovyeva
2012 ) . poor egg hatchability recorded within sikhote - alin population could be a result of pollution on the wintering grounds .
cms appendix ii . primary forest is protected at some breeding localities in china and at the most important breeding site in north korea . small proportions of its breeding and non - breeding populations occur inside protected areas , notably sikhote - alin ' state biosphere reserve , lazovskiy state reserve and botchinskiy state reserve ( russia ) ( d . solovyeva
. 2007 , 2008 ) , and changbai shan nature reserve ( china ) . an artificial nest programme in russia , involving the provision of over 200 nest boxes ( partnership for the east asian - australasian flyway 2008 ) , has shown positive results , increasing habitat capacity along rivers with logged flood - plains ( d . solovieva
. the programme involves the continued maintenance of artificial nests , liaison with hunters and fishers and collaboration with local communities , including information and education activities and the construction of a research and visitor centre ( d . solovyeva
. 2007 , 2008 ; anon . 2009 ) . this has already resulted in a change in fishing practices by local people . it has also facilitated the capture of females for tagging with geolocators , allowing the identification of staging and wintering sites ( cranswick 2010 , solovyeva
. collaboration with general motors has resulted in the re - use of chevrolet volt battery covers as successful nesting boxes in the changbai mountain national nature reserve in china ( general motors green 2015 ) . in 2015 , 11 ducklings hatched from the chinese nest box programme ( cranswick
( amended version of 2017 assessment ) . the iucn red list of threatened species 2017 : e . t22680488a118860238 .
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this species has a very small population which is suspected to be undergoing a continuing and rapid decline as a result of habitat loss , illegal hunting and disturbance . it is therefore listed as endangered . this species may warrant a downlisting in the future but this will depend on a robust understanding of the threats on the status of the breeding population .
recommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : mergus squamatus . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .
breeding occurs along the middle reaches of well - forested , fast - flowing mountain rivers and rapid streams , below around 900 metres above sea level , where the bird is largely confined to primary forests with an abundance of potential nest holes ( 2 ) ( 6 ) . the non - breeding season is spent on larger lakes and more sluggish rivers and lagoons ( 6 ) .
classified as endangered ( en ) on the iucn red list 2007 ( 1 ) , and listed on appendix ii of the convention on migratory species ( cms ) ( 3 ) .
birdlife international . ( 2001 ) threatened birds of asia : the birdlife international red data book . birdlife international , cambridge , uk .
information authenticated ( 02 / 05 / 07 ) by dr baz hughes , head of species conservation , wildfowl and wetlands trust , slimbridge , uk . urltoken
phillips , j . c . ( 1986 ) a natural history of the ducks . vols 3 & 4 . courier dover publications , uk .
del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . and sargatal , j . ( 1992 ) handbook of the birds of the world – ostrich to ducks . vol . 1 . lynx edicions , barcelona .
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breeds in extreme se siberia , ne china and n korea . winters mainly in c & s china ( especially in r yangtze catchment ) ; also in se russia , korea , japan , occasionally taiwan , myanmar and thailand .
52–62 cm ; male 1125–1400 g , female 870–1100 g ; wingspan 70–86 cm . structurally intermediate between
during breeding season , inhabits well - forested , clear , fast - flowing mountain rivers and rapid . . .
until recently few data available , but several studies have now elucidated the species’ diet and foraging behaviour . diurnal feeder , . . .
little known until recently . during local spring : arrives on breeding grounds late mar / early apr , initially frequents lakes and larger . . .
migratory ( though true extent still not entirely known ) , mainly present on breeding grounds between . . .
endangered . fully protected in all range states . poorly known , population probably quite small , but has been suggested that perhaps as many as 10 , 000 individuals survive , . . .
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hbw alive contains information on descriptive notes , voice , habitat , food and feeding , breeding , movements , status and conservation plus a list of bibliographical references for this species account .
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a male performing alarm movements rising the beak close to its mate and finally both taking off .
a fermale having a bath and joining a male on a river , then both preening on the water .
a pair on a river , preening and showing well the fine black scales at the flanks and the long drooping crest , characteristic of this species .
josep del hoyo , tomasz doroń , markmaddock , jonathan , pthompson234 , john breugelmans .
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the nest boxes have also enabled us to fit data loggers to individual birds , giving us valuable insights into their movements during migration and in winter .
in 2010 , wwt organised a workshop in vladivostok , bringing together experts from russia , china , north and south korea , australia and the uk to develop an international conservation action plan . new relationships were forged and plans for collaborative surveys developed . the action plan is the first to be developed under the east asian - australian flyway partnership .
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howard and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :
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all ranks domain kingdom subkingdom phylum subphylum superclass class subclass infraclass superorder order suborder infraorder superfamily family subfamily tribe subtribe genus subgenus species subspecies variety group ( polytypic ) group ( monotypic ) species split life sp . ssp . intra - specific hybrid interspecific hybrid intergeneric hybrid species pair
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birds korea would like to thank participating surveyors and ed keeble for financial support of the february 2012 survey .
austin , o . l . , jr 1948 . the birds of korea . bulletin of the museum of comparative zoology , harvard university 101 : 1 - 301 .
ministry of environment . 2000 - 2012 . annual reports of the winter bird census ( in korean ) .
moores , n . 2002 . wetlands : korea’s most threatened habitat . oriental bird club bulletin 36 : 54 - 60 .
moores , n . , kim , a . , park m - n . , & kim s - n . 2010 . the anticipated impacts of the four rivers project ( republic of korea ) on waterbirds . birds korea preliminary report , published by birds korea . march 2010 .
park , j - y . 2002 . current status and distribution of birds in korea . department of biology , kyung hee university , seoul ( unpublished thesis , in korean ) .
copyright 2002 - present urltoken all rights reserved birds korea 1108 ho , 3 dong , samick tower apt . , 148 - 22 , namcheon - dong , su - young - gu busan , 618 - 762 republic of korea
the representative cheek teeth of the siwalik cervids from the middle siwaliks of pakistan .
during the wintering period . no significant difference was detected in the daily travel distance between different months ( f = 0 . 658 ,
> 0 . 05 ) . significant differences were detected in the daily home rang between january and february , and between february and march . no significant correlation was observed between daily travel distance and home range ( r = 0 . 256 , n = 12 ,
< 0 . 01 ) . the largest group size ( 5 . 22 ± 5 individuals ) appeared at 16 : 00–17 : 00 , and the smallest at 08 : 00–09 : 00 ( 2 . 6 ± 1 . 12 individuals ) , similar results obtained between december 2015 and march 2016 , which was related to the daily habits of this species , such as dispersed foraging , collective maintenance and rest . group size peaked in february ( 5 . 07 ± 4 . 166 individuals ) and was smallest ( 2 . 91 ± 1 . 354 individuals ) in december with significantly different group sizes in all months ( f = 35 . 351 ,
< 0 . 01 ) . a total of 57 . 98 % of all groups had a majority of females . a large difference in sex ratios was observed among different months . the actual ratio of [ ( adult + sub - adult male ) : ( adult + sub - adult female ) ] was 1 : 1 . 44 ( n = 22 ) in february . future studies are necessary , and the main goal should be focused on sex ratio , mortality and sex ratio at birth .
ms and pc designed the study , ms , bc , bz and jj collected and analyzed the field data . ms , bc wrote the manuscript . ms and pc gave the suggestions and revised paper .
aily travel distance affects the time budget of animal behaviors , such as foraging and social activities . therefore , travel distance has an important influence on individual energy expenditure and nutrient balance , and may affect survival and reproduction (
) . an animal’s home range is related to its daily travel distance . home range is the region within which animal actively carries out essential daily behaviors , such as foraging , mating and the rearing of offsprings (
) . home range externally reflects the intensity of animals’ territorial behavior . both the area of a home range and changes in the home range are important parameters for evaluating habitat quality , estimating habitat load and determining the spatial extent of habitat required to protect a minimum viable population . hence , home range is an important part in the study of animal behavior and ecology (
) . the size of the home range of many bird species varies widely in different seasons . for instance , owing to an uneven distribution of food resources in different seasons , temminck’s tragopan
group formation is one of the most important behavioral adaptations in birds , especially during the entire wintering period for migratory birds . living in groups can reduce the risks from predators for individual prey , reduce their alert time and allow the individuals to spend more time on other activities to enhance their fitness for survival (
) . the studies on animal groups usually centered on group type , group size and ecological factors influencing the group . animals may have an optimal group size in a specific environment (
) while the area in the north of jiangxi province provides one of the main wintering grounds for this species in china . this population is mainly distributed along the xinjiang , fuhe , raohe and xiuhe rivers and their tributaries in jiangxi (
two study sites were selected , one each in yihuang and wuyuan counties . yihuang county lies in the upper reaches of the fuhe river in northern jiangxi province and has a humid subtropical climate with an annual average temperature between 16 and 18 °c . the average annual precipitation is 1749 . 4 mm (
) . wuyuan county is located in the northeastern part of jiangxi province and has a humid subtropical climate with an annual average temperature 16 . 7 °c . the average annual precipitation is 1816 mm . the second study site is along the leanhe river in wuyuan county ( n : 29°9’ 24″ ~ 29° 11’ 15″ , e : 117°50’ 01″ ~ 117° 51’ 06″ ) (
lists the sympatric waterfowl species of mergansers in this region that typically feed while swimming .
at yihuang in different time of a day from 2012 - 2013 ( unit / m ) .
were used to confirm the flock positions and google earth software was used to mark real - time locations and measure travel distance and river width . the travel distance was the linear distance the flock center moved every half hour . daily travel distance was the sum of the travel distances measured throughout the day (
) . daily home range was the product of the average river width in the range of movement and the distance between the two farthest daily activity sites .
) . the largest flock size was used to calculate the sex ratio in the current month .
< 0 . 05 was considered significant . all statistical analyses were carried out in excel 2010 and spss 22 . 0 .
during the wintering period . significant differences were found in the daily home range between january and february ( f = 2 . 502 ,
< 0 . 05 ) , and february and march ( f = 2 . 754 ,
no significant correlation was observed between daily travel distance and home range ( r = 0 . 256 , n = 12 ,


the amazonian hocicudo , oxymycterus amazonicus , is a species of rodent in the cricetidae family from south america .

it is found in the amazon basin in brazil where it lives in moist lowland forest .

it is a common species with a large range and is rated by the iucn as being of " least concern " .

amazonian hocicudo

oxymycterus amazonicus ( amazonian hocicudo ) oxymycterus angularis ( angular hocicudo ) oxymycterus caparoae ( mt . caparaó hocicudo ) oxymycterus dasytrichus ( atlantic forest hocicudo ) oxymycterus delator ( spy hocicudo ) oxymycterus hiska ( small hocicudo ) oxymycterus hispidus ( hispid hocicudo ) oxymycterus hucucha ( quechuan hocicudo ) oxymycterus inca ( incan hocicudo ) oxymycterus josei ( cook’s hocicudo ) oxymycterus nasutus ( long - nosed hocicudo ) oxymycterus paramensis ( paramo hocicudo ) oxymycterus quaestor ( quaestor hocicudo ) oxymycterus roberti ( robert’s hocicudo ) oxymycterus rufus ( red hocicudo )
you selected amazonian hocicudo ( english ) . this is a common name for :
the amazonian hocicudo , oxymycterus amazonicus , is a rodent species from south america . it is found in brazil . . . .
janos dp , sahley ct ( 1995 ) rodent dispersal of vesicular - arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in amazonian peru . ecology 76 : 1852–1858
brown woolly monkey _ _ _ _ _ _ ( in northwest amazonian brazil , and southeast colombia , northeast ecuador , and extreme northern peru , east to the river negro and south to the river solimoes - napo , in primary rainforest ) lagothrix lagotricha the brown woolly monkey is the largest primate in amazonia , aside from man .
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thank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .
justification : this species is listed as least concern in view of its wide distribution , presumed large population , and because it is unlikely to be declining at nearly the rate required to qualify for listing in a threatened category . collecting localities recorded so far from voucher - specimens suggest a broad distribution in the lower amazon and a high likelihood to occupy disturbed forest or secondary brush formations ( gonçalves and oliveira pers . comm . ) .
this species is distributed along the madeira , xingú , tocantins and tapajós river basins , in the brazilian states of mato grosso , rondônia and pará ( oliveira and gonçalves 2015 ) .
no population estimates are available for this species , but its records suggest stable population sizes ( oliveira and gonçalves 2015 ) .
this species is found in lowland moist forests of the amazon river basin . it inhabits secondary growth forest and brush formations ( oliveira and gonçalves 2015 ) .
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data and apps idaho fish and wildlife information system bringing information to bear on the management and conservation of fish , wildlife , and plants in idaho .
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urn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 322c1faa - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626
urn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 322c2a8c - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626
urn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 322c2b9b - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626
urn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 322daf70 - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626
urn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 322db071 - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626
urn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 3677c1c6 - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626
tom orrell ( custodian ) , dave nicolson ( ed ) . ( 2018 ) . itis global : the integrated taxonomic information system ( version jun 2017 ) . in : roskov y . , abucay l . , orrell t . , nicolson d . , bailly n . , kirk p . m . , bourgoin t . , dewalt r . e . , decock w . , de wever a . , nieukerken e . van , zarucchi j . , penev l . , eds . ( 2018 ) . species 2000 & itis catalogue of life , 30th june 2018 . digital resource at urltoken species 2000 : naturalis , leiden , the netherlands . issn 2405 - 8858 .
urn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 77a85e18 - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626
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infonatura species index : 301 - 350 of 479 records in family muridae of order rodentia .
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note : data presented in infonatura at urltoken were updated to be current with natureserve ' s central databases as of april 2007 . note : this report was printed on .
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citation : infonatura : animals and ecosystems of latin america [ web application ] . 2007 . version 5 . 0 . arlington , virginia ( usa ) : natureserve . available : http : / / infonatura . natureserve . org . ( accessed :
citation for bird range maps : ridgely , r . s . , t . f . allnutt , t . brooks , d . k . mcnicol , d . w . mehlman , b . e . young , and j . r . zook . 2005 . digital distribution maps of the birds of the western hemisphere , version 2 . 1 . natureserve , arlington , virginia , usa .
acknowledgement statement for bird range maps :
data provided by natureserve in collaboration with robert ridgely , james zook , the nature conservancy - migratory bird program , conservation international - cabs , world wildlife fund - us , and environment canada - wildspace .
citation for mammal range maps : patterson , b . d . , g . ceballos , w . sechrest , m . f . tognelli , t . brooks , l . luna , p . ortega , i . salazar , and b . e . young . 2005 . digital distribution maps of the mammals of the western hemisphere , version 2 . 0 . natureserve , arlington , virginia , usa .
acknowledgement statement for mammal range maps :
data provided by natureserve in collaboration with bruce patterson , wes sechrest , marcelo tognelli , gerardo ceballos , the nature conservancy - migratory bird program , conservation international - cabs , world wildlife fund - us , and environment canada - wildspace .
citation for amphibian range maps : iucn , conservation international , and natureserve . 2006 . global amphibian assessment . urltoken , version 1 . 1 .
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les cricétidés sont une famille extrêmement diversifiée de rongeurs . c’est l’une des plus grandes familles de mammifères . la plupart des cricétidés ressemblent à des souris ou des rats : ils ont un petit corps un peu allongé , ils sont gris ou marron avec une longue queue , de grands yeux , de grandes oreilles et des moustaches . cependant , les formes du corps dans ce groupe varient . les cricétidés sont petits ( 8 g ) à grands ( 2 kg ) . le dimorphisme sexuel varie selon les espèces : dans certains cas , les mâles sont plus gros que les femelles , et dans d’autres cas , les femelles sont plus grandes que les mâles . certaines espèces ne présentent pas de dimorphisme sexuel du tout . il existe diverses spécialisations pour les différents modes de vie au sein de ce groupe , comme par exemple de longues griffes puissantes ( geoxus ) adaptées pour creuser , alors que la partie palmée des pattes arrière et la queue en gouvernail des rats musqués sont adaptées à la nage .
isthmomys flavidus ( yellow isthmus rat ) isthmomys pirrensis ( mt . pirri isthmus rat )
oligoryzomys andinus ( andean pygmy rice rat ) oligoryzomys arenalis ( sandy pygmy rice rat ) oligoryzomys brendae ( brenda’s colilargo ) oligoryzomys chacoensis ( chacoan pygmy rice rat ) oligoryzomys delticola ( delta pygmy rice rat ) oligoryzomys destructor ( destructive pygmy rice rat ) oligoryzomys eliurus ( brazilian pygmy rice rat ) oligoryzomys flavescens ( yellow pygmy rice rat ) oligoryzomys fornesi ( fornes’ colilargo ) oligoryzomys fulvescens ( fulvous pygmy rice rat ) oligoryzomys griseolus ( grayish pygmy rice rat ) oligoryzomys longicaudatus ( long - tailed pygmy rice rat ) oligoryzomys magellanicus ( magellanic pygmy rice rat ) oligoryzomys microtis ( small - eared pygmy rice rat ) oligoryzomys nigripes ( black - footed pygmy rice rat ) oligoryzomys stramineus ( straw - colored colilargo ) oligoryzomys vegetus ( sprightly pygmy rice rat ) oligoryzomys victus ( st . vincent pygmy rice rat )
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a new species of litomosoides is described from sigmodontine murids occurring in the rain forests of misiones , argentina . litomosoides anguyai n . sp . , a parasite of the abdominal cavity of oxymycterus misionalis , belongs to the sigmodontis group and is closely related to l . legerae and l . oxymycteri . the new species is differentiated by the salient amphids , an asymmetrical annular thickening of the buccal capsule , by the arrangement of the head and tail papillae , and the shape and size of the microfilaria .
these keywords were added by machine and not by the authors . this process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves .
chitwood , b . c . ( 1938 ) some nematodes from the caves of yucatan .
crespo , j . ( 1982 ) ecología de la comunidad de mamíferos del parque nacional iguazú , misiones .
n . sp . de la cavidad peritoneal de la rata de los cañaverales de tabacal , salta .
n . sp . from the ashy opossum in brazil ( nematoda : filarioidea ) .
( nematoda : filarioidea ) in sigmodontines ( rodentia : muridae ) from rio de la plata marshland , argentina .
sigmodontinae is the second - largest subfamily of muroid rodents , with 377 species and 74 genera in eight tribes . members of this group , the new world rats and mice , display a vast array of habits and physical characteristics that is surpassed in scope only by the
musser , g . , m . carleton . 2005 . superfamily muroidea . d wilson , d reeder , eds . mammal species of the world . baltimore and london : the johns hopkins university press .
sigmodontines range from tierra del fuego north throughout south america , central america , and mexico , and into the united states as far north as nebraska and new jersey . they are also found on the galapagos islands .
nowak , r . 1999 . walker ' s mammals of the world , vol . ii . baltimore and london : the johns hopkins university press .
sigmodontines are small to medium - large muroid rodents - - head and body length ranges from 62 to 360 mm , tail length ranges from 30 to 330 mm , and they weigh 7 to 455 grams . they are extremely diverse in body form , resembling
, which has the formula 1 / 1 , 0 / 0 , 0 / 0 , 2 / 2 = 12 . the
) . each molar has a longitudinal enamel crest ( mure or murid ) . the molars range from
, and the third molars are usually smaller than the second molars . sigmodontine skulls generally have flat
is of parallel construction . all other sigmodontine skull characteristics vary widely . a skeletal characteristic shared by most sigmodontines is the presence of a prominant neural spine on the second thoracic vertebra . finally , sigmodontines have one - or two - chambered stomachs , and the tongue bears a single circumvallate papilla .
carleton , m . , g . musser . 1984 . muroid rodents . pp . 289 - 379 in d wilson , d reeder , eds . orders and families of recent mammals of the world . new york : john wiley and sons .
sigmodontines live in a wide range of habitat types , including grasslands , deserts , wet and dry forests , scrub forests , savannahs , steppes , agricultural areas , marshes , swamps , streams , sandy coastlines , barren highlands , alpine meadows , and human habitations . they live at elevations from sea level to over 5 , 500 meters .
these rodents are herbivorous , omnivorous , or carnivorous . foods consumed by the group as a whole include : grasses , seeds , fruit , berries , fungi , lichen ,
sigmodontines are primary and higher - level consumers , and they are food for a wide range of other animals . some species are commensal with humans , depending on human food stores or agriculture to survive . others take advantage of burrows made by other animals , such as armadillos (
. some , as mentioned in the previous section , rely on other animals to help them avoid predation . finally , sigmodontines may be important dispersers of mycorrhizal fungi ( mangan and adler 2000 ) .
mangan , s . , g . adler . 2000 . consumption of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi by terrestrial and arboreal small mammals in a panamanian cloud forest . journal of mammalogy , 81 ( 2 ) : 563 - 570 .
. the neutral - colored coats of sigmodontines may help them blend in with their background . most species are vigilant and agile , helping them to avoid predation . semiaquatic species avoid predation by quickly diving into the water when threatened . one sigmodontine species ,
sigmodontines perceive their environment using vision , hearing , touch , smell , and taste . hearing and olfaction may be especially important , as auditory and chemical cues are often used for communication . sigmodontines make a variety of squeaking sounds in social contexts , and they can detect and produce ultrasounds . territorial males use their urine and feces to scent - mark their domains .
sigmodontines have short lives . most do not make it past their first birthday . in captivity , some species have lived as long as five years .
most sigmodontines have a promiscuous mating system . during mating , a copulatory plug forms and seals the female ' s reproductive tract , preventing subsequent males from successfully fertilizing the female ' s eggs .
many rodents are prolific breeders and sigmodontines are no exception . they breed year round or seasonally , and during a year or season females often have two to three , or even six to seven litters . ovulation is spontaneous , and females of many species have a postpartum estrus , becoming pregnant again just a few hours after giving birth . in some species , the embryos do not implant until the current litter is weaned ; gestation after implantation occurs usually lasts 20 to 30 days . some species can have as many as 13 young in a litter , although many have just three to five . the young are altricial and open their eyes anywhere from 1 to 11 days after birth . they are weaned as early as five and as late as 30 days . female sigmodontines reach sexual maturity several weeks before males do . some have been known to give birth at just four weeks of age . other species mature much later , and do not reproduce until they are at least four months old .
sigmodontine females generally do not have any help in caring for their young . most build nests out of plant material where they raise their babies . the young are altricial , and they nurse for 5 to 30 days . in a few species , the young remain with the mother for a few days after weaning is complete .
) sigmodontine species on the iucn ' s red list of threatened species . in addition , three species are lacking sufficient data to be assessed , and five species have gone extinct recently ( both
iucn , 2004 .
2004 iucn red list of threatened species
( on - line ) . accessed june 29 , 2005 at urltoken .
several sigmodontine species are considered household or agricultural pests . they raid buildings , gnawing on and destroying household goods and food stores , and they damage crops . some also carry diseases such as haemorrhagic fever .
some sigmodontines are used in laboratory disease research . others are trapped for their fur .
as part of a larger definition of sigmodontinae . when those genera are included , the species count numbers at least 508 . their distribution includes much of the
sigmodontines proceeded to diversify explosively in the formerly isolated continent . they inhabit many of the same
the
thomasomyini
from the atlantic forest of brazil are generally thought to be not especially related to the
real
thomasomyini from the northern andes and amazonia . the genera wiedomys and sigmodon are generally placed in their own tribe , and the
phyllotines
irenomys , punomys , euneomys , and reithrodon are considered incertae sedis .
d ' elía , g . ; luna , l . ; gonzález , e . m . ; patterson , b . d . ( february 2006 ) .
on the sigmodontinae radiation ( rodentia , cricetidae ) : an appraisal of the phylogenetic position of rhagomys
. molecular phylogenetics and evolution ( elsevier ) 38 ( 2 ) : 558–564 . doi : 10 . 1016 / j . ympev . 2005 . 08 . 011 . pmid 16213166 .
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urltoken
brazil , pará state , right bank lower rio tapajós , fordlândia ; 03º40′s , 55º30′w .
lower amazon basin , south of the rio amazonas between the rios tocantins and madeira , c brazil , as least as far south as nw mato grosso ( per additional localities reported by musser et al . , 1998 : 239 ) .
considered a small size - class species , principally compared with o . nasutus ; sister species to o . delator according to phylogenetic analysis of cytochrome b data ( hoffmann et al . , 2002 ) .
at present , 4 , 700 species of extant mammals are recognized in the world , 1 , 100 of which occur in south america . bolivia is home to one third of all south american mammal fauna . to date , 319 species of native mammals have been recorded ; this number is expected to continue to increase in the future . new species and genera are still being described . consequently , a complete picture of bolivia’s mammal fauna is not yet available . a summary of current knowledge is presented .
actualmente están reconocidas en el mundo 4 , 700 especies de mamíferos vivientes , de las cuales 1 , 100 se registran en suramérica . bolivia sirve de hogar a una tercera parte de toda la fauna de mamíferos suramericana . hasta la fecha se han registrado 319 especies de mamíferos autóctonos y se espera que dicha cifra siga aumentando en el futuro . nuevas especies y géneros están siendo descritos , por lo que aún no es posible ofrecer una imagen completa de la fauna de mamíferos de bolivia . se presenta un resumen de los conocimientos acumulados hasta ahora .
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anderson s ( 1991 ) a brief history of bolivian chiropterology and new records of bats . bull amer mus nat hist 206 : 138–144
anderson s ( 1993 ) los mamíferos bolivianos : notas de distribución y claves de identifïcación . instituto de ecología , colección boliviano de fauna . la paz
anderson s ( 1997 ) mammals of bolivia , taxonomy and distribution . bull amer mus nat hist 231 : 1–652
anderson s , koopman kf , creighton gf ( 1982 ) bats of bolivia : an annotated checklist . amer mus novit 2750 : 1–24
anderson s , riddle br , yates tl , cook ja ( 1993 ) los mamiferos del parque nacional amboró y la región de santa cruz de la sierra , bolivia . special publication , the museum of southwestern biology 2 : 1–58
anderson s , webster dw ( 1983 ) notes on bolivian mammals 1 : additional records of bats . amer mus novit 2766 : 1–3
anderson s , yates tl , cook ja ( 1987 ) notes on bolivian mammals 4 . the genus
( rodentia : ctenomyidae ) in the eastern lowlands . amer mus novit 2891 : 1–20
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cook ja , anderson s , yates tl ( 1990 ) notes on bolivian mammals 6 . the genus
( rodentia , ctenomyidae ) in the highlands . amer mus novit 2980 : 1–27
eisentraut m ( 1983 ) im land der chaco - indianer . biotropic - verlag , baden - baden
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glanz we , anderson s ( 1990 ) notes on bolivian mammals . 7 . a new species of
( rodentia ) and relationships of the abrocomidae . amer mus novit 2991 : 1–32
( cebidae , platyrrhini ) , a preliminary taxonomic review . fieldiana zool ns 55 : 1–109
gardner and creighton , 1989 ( marmosidae , marsupialia ) : a taxonomic review with notes on general morphology and relationships . fieldiana zool ns 79 : 1–56
( sigmodontidae , muroidea ) , with a critical review of the generic content . fieldiana zool ns 79 : 1–43
from isla mocha , chile ( mammalia : octodontidae ) . z säugetierkunde 59 : 27–41
hutterer r ( 1995 ) unbekannte säugetierwelt : übersicht der seit 1985 beschriebenen arten . tier und museum ( bonn ) 4 : 77–88
hutterer r ( 1997 ) archaeozoological remains ( vertebrata , gastropoda ) from prehispanic sites at pailón , bolivia . beitr allgemein vergl archäol 17 : 325–341
ibañez c ( 1985 ) notas sobre distribución de quiropteros en bolivia ( mammalia , chiroptera ) . hist nat argentina 5 : 329–333
ibañez c , cabot j , anderson s ( 1994 ) new records of bolivian mammals in the collection of the estación biológica de donana . donana , acta vertebrata 21 : 79–83
ibañez c , ochoa g j ( 1989 ) new records of bats from bolivia . j mamm 70 : 216–219
morell v ( 1996 ) new mammals discovered by biology’s new explorers . science 273 : 1491
from the cloud forest of eastern cochabamba department , bolivia ( rodentia : sigmodontinae ) . occas pap mus zool univ michigan 720 : 1–28
( muridae : sigmodontinae ) , with emphasis on peru and bolivia . miscell publ mus zool univ michigan 177 : 1–104
( rodentia , muridae ) and the description of a new subspecies . amer mus novit 2890 : 1–17
pacheco v , de macedo h , vivar e , ascorro c , arana - cardó r , solari s ( 1995 ) lista anotada de los mamiferos peruanos . occas pap conserv biol 2 : 1–35
patterson bd ( 1992a ) mammals in the royal natural history museum , stockholm , collected in brazil and bolivia by a . m . ollala during 1934–1938 . fieldiana zool ns 66 : 1–42
patterson bd ( 1992b ) a new genus and species of long - clawed mouse ( rodentia : muridae ) from temperate rainforests of chile . zool j linn soc 106 : 127–145
patterson bd , feigl ce ( 1987 ) faunal representation in museum collections of mammals : osgood’s mammals of chile . fieldiana zool ns 39 : 485–496
patterson bd , pacheco v , solari s ( 1996 ) distributions of bats along an elevational gradient in the andes of south - eastern peru . j zool lond 240 : 637–658
patton jl , myers p , smith mf ( 1990 ) vicariant versus gradient models of diversification : the small mammal fauna of eastern andean slopes of peru . in : peters g , hutterer r ( eds ) vertebrates in the tropics . zoologisches forschungsinstitut und museum alexander koenig , bonn , pp 355–371
pine rh ( 1982 ) current status of south american mammalogy . in : mares ma , genoways hr ( eds ) mammalian biology in south america , 27–37 . special publ ser pymatuning lab ecol univ pittsburgh vol 6
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roosevelt ac , lima da costa m , lopes machado c , michab m , mercier n , valladas h , feathers j , barnett w , imazio da silveira m , henderson a , sliva j , chernoff b , reese ds , holman ja , toth n , schick k ( 1996 ) paleoindian cave dwellers in the amazon : the peopling of the americas . science 272 : 373–384
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tarifa t ( 1996 ) mamiferos . in : ergueta p , de morales c ( eds ) libro rojo de los vertebrados de bolivia , centro de datos para la conservaciòn , la paz , pp 165–264
morgan , linares , and ray , 1988 , reported for southeastern brasil , with paleoecological comments ( phyllostomidae , desmodontinae ) . mammalia 55 : 456–459
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species in this classification . to view subspecies , varieties and populations select the species .
some of the font group participants in september 2006 who saw the animals & birds noted above .
one - striped opossum ( t1 ) _ _ _ _ _ _ ( in the itarare region of sao paulo ) monodelphis unistriata monodelphis unistriata is possibly extinct . it is only known from a specimen collected prior to 1842 .
linnaeus ' s mouse opossum ( ph ) _ _ _ _ _ _ ( has been called the murine mouse opossum ( from colombia to southeast brazil , in forest , roadside brush , and gardens ) marmosa murina a linneaus ' s mouse - opossum photographed during a font tour this little animal has been in the nest of an hornero .
maned three - toed sloth ( t2 ) ( bre ) ( * ) ( ph ) _ _ _ _ _ _ se ( from bahia to sao paulo , in remnant patches of atlantic forest ) bradypus torquatus br : preguica de coleira a rare maned three - toed sloth . bradypus torquatus , clinging on the trunk of a cecropia tree ( photographed by marie gardner during the font march ' 08 brazil tour ) rabbits - family leporidae
russet rice rat _ _ _ _ _ _ ( in southern brazil , eastern paraguay , and northeast argentina ) euryoryzomys ( formerly oryzomys ) russatus what was oryzomys kelloggi , the kellogg ' s rice rat , is now part of euryoryzomys russatus . oryzomys kelloggi was said to occur in minas gerais in the region of the fazenda sao geraldo .
brazilian rice rat ( bre ) _ _ _ _ _ _ hylaeamys ( formerly oryzomys ) laticeps ( change of genus for this & other species in this group in 2005 ) what was oryzomys seuanezi , the seuanez ' s rice rat , is now part of hylaeamys laticeps .
caparao grass mouse ( bre ) _ _ _ _ _ _ ( in minas gerais , on mt . caparao ) akodon mystax
candango mouse ( bre ) ( now extinct ) _ _ _ _ _ _ ( in the brasilia region ) juscelinomys candango the name for the genus juscelinomys was derived from that of the brazilian president juselino kubitschek de oliveira who created the city of brasilia , where juseclinomys candango was found in 1965 . subsequently , however , its habitat was overtaken by urban sprawl , and the species is now presumed to be extinct . two other species in the juscelinomys genus occur in bolivia , in addition to the species listed here .
( when these photos were taken ) , but during every font tour in that area .
pantanal cat ( * ) ( ph ) _ _ _ _ _ _ ms ( was part of the pampas cat ) leopardus braccata br : gato palheiro the pantanal cat ( formerly part of the more - southerly pampas cat ) photographed at night during the font tour in mato grosso do sul in september 2006 .
ocelot ( t3 ) ( * ) ( ph ) _ _ _ _ _ _ ms , mt leopardus pardalis br : gato maracaja , or jaguatirica an ocelot photographed at night during the font tour in mato grosso do sul in september 2006 . this wonderful animal has been seen nicely during numerous font tours in that area .
crab - eating fox ( * ) ( ph ) _ _ _ _ _ _ ms , mt cerdocyon ( has previously been dusicyon ) thous ( the single member of its genus ) br : cachorro - do - mato ( or graxaim ) above & below : crab - eating foxes photographed at night during our brazil tour in mato grosso do sul in september 2006 . the species has been seen during every font tour in that area .
short - eared dog ( * ) _ _ _ _ _ _ af atelocynus ( has previously been dusicyon ) microtis ( the single member of its genus ) br : cachorro do mato the short - eared dog is a rarely seen animal .
the giant otters above were photographed during a font tour in the pantanal of brazil .
crab - eating raccoon ( * ) ( ph ) _ _ _ _ _ _ ms , mt procyon cancrivorous br : mao - pelada a crab - eating raccoon photographed at night during the font brazil tour in mato grosso do sul in september 2006 .
south american coati ( * ) ( ph ) _ _ _ _ _ _ ig , mn , ms , mt , se nasua nasua br : quati or quatimunde above : two photos of the south american coati below : a group of them seen during the font brazil tour in august 2008 . ( photo below courtesy of trevor & pamela sims ) sheath - tailed bats - family emballonuridae
greater fishing bat ( also called bulldog bat ) ( * ) _ _ _ _ _ _ af , ms , mt ( from mexico to southern brazil and northern argentina , in lowlands forest , and at lakes , rivers , and along coasts ) noctilio leporinus the wingspan of noctilio leporinus is a meter , or 3 feet . in flight after dark , a greater fishing , or bulldog bat ( photo by burke korol )
pied tamarin ( t1 ) ( bre ) ( * ) _ _ _ _ _ _ am ( has been called pied bare - faced tamarin ) saguinus bicolor ( now considered a distinct species ) in previous taxonomy , there were 3 subspecies of what was called the brazilian bare - faced tamarin . these were : pied bare - faced tamarin , saguinus bicolor bicolor , martin ' s bare - faced tamarin , saguinus bicolor martinsi , ochraceous bare - face tamarin , saguinus bicolor ochraceous . the pied bare - faced tamarin ( seen during the font 2005 brazil tour ) i s restricted to a 30 kilometer radius of manaus . the other 2 species ( or subspecies ) probably range between the lower rivers uatuma and cumina ( erepecuru ) ; their range limits are not precisely known . br : sauim ( or sagui de cara nua or sagi de duascores )
white - tufted ( or common ) marmoset ( bre ) _ _ _ _ _ _ ( in northeast brazil , in piaui , ceara , paraiba , pernambuco , alagoas , and northern bahia ) callithrix jacchus the white - tufted marmoset originally occurred along the northeastern coast of brazil from the state of piaui to that of bahia . through the release of captive individuals , it also occurs now in southeastern brazil , where the first sighting in the wild in rio de janeiro was in 1929 . today it is common in the area of that city . the white - tufted marmoset was described by linnaeus in 1758 . white - tufted marmoset
black howler monkey ( * ) ( ph ) _ _ _ _ _ _ mn , ms , mt ( in south - central brazil , and in eastern bolivia south to paraguay and northeast argentina , in forests ) alouatta caraya br : guariba or bugio ( male : black ; female : brown ) above : male black howler monkey below : female black howler monkey photographed during our tour in mato grosso do sul in september 2006 .
brown howler monkey ( * ) ( ph ) _ _ _ _ _ _ mn , se ( in east - central and southeast brazil , from bahia to rio grande do sul , and in northeast argentina in misiones , in atlantic forest ) alouatta guariba ( formerly a . fusca ) br : bugio ( howler monkeys are locally called
barbados
, or
beards
, in minas gerais , because of the long hair covering their large throat sacs . ) above : a male brown howler monkey photographed during the font tour in minas gerais , brazil in october 2009 below : 2 brown howler monkeys during that same tour . this species is endangered , found only in remnants of the atlantic forest of southeast brazil . ( both photos by marie gardner )
black bearded saki ( t2 ) ( bre ) _ _ _ _ _ _ ( in northeast brazil in maranhao , in lowland rainforest of the amazon basin ) chiropates satanas the dark - nosed bearded sakis were split in 2003 into the following species in addition to chiropates satanas . previously these were considered subspecies .
black - striped capuchin ( * ) _ _ _ _ _ _ ig ( in southern brazil , and in northern argentina , paraguay , and bolivia , in forests ) sapajus ( formerly cebus ) libidinosus br : macaco prego cebus libidinosus has been called the black - striped tufted capuchin .
southern muriqui ( t1 ) _ _ _ _ _ _ ( was called
woolly spider monkey
) ( in southeast brazil , in remnants of atlantic forest in rio de janeiro and sao paulo ) brachyteles arachnoides the two former subspecies brachyteles a arachnoides & brachyteles arachnoides . hypoxanthus became two distinct species in 1995 , based on geographical distribution and morphological differences . genus lagothrix
tucuxi ( * ) _ _ _ _ _ _ am ( or
gray dolphin
) sotalia fluviatilis br : tucuxi the tucuxi is found in south american rivers draining into the atlantic & the caribbean . it occurs throughout the entire amazon river basin , and also in coastal waters north to panama , occasionally to costa rica .
common bottlenose dolphin ( * ) ( ph ) _ _ _ _ _ _ rs tursiops truncatus common bottlenose dolphins have been seen during font brazil tours from shore by a rock jetty extending about 2 miles out to sea , in rio grande do sul .
pygmy brocket ( deer ) ( * ) _ _ _ _ _ _ ig ( also called bororo ) mazama nana br : veado the pygmy brocket deer is rare in a small geographic range .
sao paulo bororo ( t3 ) ( bre ) _ _ _ _ _ _ mazama bororo in 1992 , mazama bororo was reported to a be new species . that classification was predominantly based upon karyotype differences between other mazama species and the specimen found . the captive individual used for the analysis was from capao bonito , in sao paulo state . mazama bororo has a small population , and is said to be declining due to hunting and habitat loss . the total population has been estimated as 5 , 500 individuals , with mature animals being a fraction of the number . it is limited to the coastal atlantic forest in brazil . though small , the population area of mazama bororo has more than 3 , 600 square kilometers of protected areas , a number of which are connected with each other , forming one of the biggest blocks of atlantic forest in brazil .
brazilian tapir ( t3 ) ( * ) ( ph ) _ _ _ _ _ _ af , ms , mt tapirus terrestris br : anta above : a young brazilian tapir below : an adult and a young the photo below was taken at a animal scientific research facility in paraguay during a font tour ( mostly in brazil ) in august 2008 . this tapir is an endangered species in paraguay . ( lower photo by pamela sims ) manatees - family trichechidae
were seen by the rio cristalino ( in northern mato grosso ) during our august 1995 tour .
both adult and juvenile ( larger and smaller ) giant otters were seen during font tours in the rio cristalino in august 1996 , and in the pantanal in august 2003 . two giant otters were seen closely during the font brazil tour in august 2008 . they were first seen resting on the steps of a wooden dock along a river ' s edge .
spectacled caiman ( * ) _ _ _ _ _ _ af , ms , mt , rs caiman crocodilus yacare ( including the jacare caiman subspecies in the pantanal ) a spectacled caiman photographed during our tour in mato gross do sul in september 2006 . below is a caiman in brazil vertically in the water . .
bright green snake ( sp . ) ( * ) _ _ _ _ _ _ af ( swimming across rio cristalino )
sulphur butterfly ( * ) _ _ _ _ _ _ af phoebis sp .
leaf - cutter ants ( * ) _ _ _ _ _ _ af , rs , ug atta sp .