the worm-eating warbler ( helmitheros vermivorum ) is a small new world warbler that breeds in the eastern united states and migrates to southern mexico and central america for the winter .

worm - eating warbler

description : worm - eating warbler is the only warbler species in the genus helmitheros .
visit the bent life history for extensive additional information on the worm - eating warbler .
singing male worm - eating warbler , vinton co . , oh , 1 may .
the oldest known worm - eating warbler in the wild was 10 years , one month old .
relative abundance of worm - eating warbler , derived from breeding bird survey data , 1994 - 2003 .
thanks very much to gerry dewaghe for permission to use his marvelous photograph of a worm - eating warbler .
worm - eating warblers inhabit deciduous woods with banks , slopes , or gullies .
the worm - eating warbler was first described in 1789 by johann friedrich gmelin , a german naturalist , botanist and entomologist .
greenberg , r . 1987 . seasonal foraging specialization in the worm - eating warbler . condor 89 : 158 - 168 .
worm - eating warblers feed on spiders and insects , such as caterpillars . they primarily
diet : worm - eating warbler feeds mainly on caterpillars , insects and spiders , according to the season . it also consumes slugs .
the foraging behavior of the worm - eating warbler has been studied in both its summer and its winter habitats ( e . g . ,
greenberg , r . 1987 . seasonal foraging specialization in the worm - eating warbler . condor no . 89 : 158 - 168 . close
range : worm - eating warbler breeds in south - eastern united states , in dense deciduous forests . it winters in central america and caribbean .
one of 5 + worm - eating warblers singing along roadsides in the mark train national forest .
worm - eating warblers are sensitive to forest fragmentation , requiring large , unbroken tracts of habitat .
helmitheros vermivorus = worm - eating warbler sleeping , feedis on midges , back to sleep . at montrose point , chicago , may 2016 photo gallery at urltoken
habitat : worm - eating warbler lives mainly in dense undergrowth on wooded slopes . it breeds in mature forests with dense understory , and it winters in tropical forests .
the oldest recorded worm - eating warbler was a male , and at least 8 years , 1 month old when he was recaptured and rereleased during banding operations in connecticut .
the worm - eating warbler’s nest is a cup of dead leaves and is lined with moss and fungi . it is placed on the ground , often under a sapling or shrub .
worm - eating warblers forage in trees and shrubs , as well as on the ground , probing dead leaves for insects .
your ebird trip data anywhere on the worm - eating warbler’s journey — wherever it “hangs out” — - is a valuable contribution to learning more about this obscure but fascinating little forest songbird .
donegan , t . m . and b . c . huertas h . 2002 . first mainland record of worm - eating warbler helmitheros vermivorus for colombia . cotinga 17 : 77 - 78 .
flight : worm - eating warbler performs direct flights within canopy . before or after a fight , male may use fluttering flight , in aggressive behaviour . it can hover in order to capture flying insects .
though common in houston during spring migration , this well camouflaged warbler can be difficult to spot as it prefers to remain in the understory in dense thickets and woodlands . the song of the worm - eating warbler is a rapid , dry trill , often insect - like .
the worm - eating warbler is next , another early offshoot and ( still ) the only member of the genus helmitheros . on its wintering grounds , this species specializes in foraging at dead , curled leaves .
we included slope ( si2 ) in our model because of the prevalence of steep slopes in the territories of worm - eating warblers . we defined slope classes based on data from gale and others ( 1997 ) who identified the relative preference of various slopes for worm - eating warblers
in the forest understory , the worm - eating warbler specializes in recovering invertebrates from suspended tangles of dead leaves . this warbler seeks out dangling leaf clusters and pries or tears each crisp leaf open with its slim pointed beak to expose caterpillars , spiders and small insects . it will systematically work its way up through brambles and vines searching through the hanging curled leaves for its meal . the worm - eating warbler will also glean insects off green leaves and probe the bark of tree trunks and branches for insects .
status in tennessee : the worm - eating warbler is an uncommon to fairly common migrant across the state , and a fairly common summer resident in east and the western highland rim of middle tennessee . it arrives in mid - april and departs by early september . populations appear to be declining in the state . the worm - eating warbler appears on the audubon watchlist due to threats of forest fragmentation on the breeding grounds , and deforestation on the wintering grounds .
a small , drab , but elegantly marked bird of the eastern deciduous forests , the worm - eating warbler is often found on steep slopes with dense understory . true to its name , it feeds largely on caterpillars (
worms
) .
the worm - eating warbler is olive - brown at a glance with a buffy head and underparts , and distinct black stripes on its crown and through its eyes . these bold head stripes are helpful field marks . its legs are noticeably pink .
although the worm - eating warbler forages in the understory near the ground and nests on the ground , it does not spend much time on the forest floor . it does not forage there , and when on the ground it hops instead of walking .
the breeding season for the worm - eating warbler in new jersey is between early - may and mid - august . nests are built on the ground , usually on hillsides among dead leaves and tree roots , often at the base of a sapling .
the worm - eating warbler has brownish - olive upperparts , an orange - buff breast , and a head heavily striped with black and buffy orange . other than the stripes on the head , it is very plain , lacking wing bars or other stripes .
we also included forest patch size ( si3 ) as a model parameter to account for the preference of worm - eating warblers for forest interiors . we fit a logistic function
protection / threats / status : worm - eating warblers are mainly threatened by habitat loss , due to fragmentation and destruction of forested habitats , and human developments . they are preyed upon by mammals and snakes when at nest . corvids can take eggs and nestlings . nest can be parasitized by brown - headed cowbirds in fragmented forests . however , at this moment , worm - eating warbler’s populations seem to be stable across united states .
comments by don verser : worm - eating warblers sometime give a thin call note , similar to that of black - and - white , when moving around in the woods .
. we assumed worm - eating warblers occurred in forests with low stem densities , but these habitats had lower suitability scores than sites with well - developed understories characterized by dense stems .
the breeding range of the worm - eating warbler extends across much of the eastern half of the us from iowa in the northwest to new england in the northeast and as far south as the gulf coast . it winters in the west indies , central america and southeastern mexico .
the worm - eating warbler is sensitive to forest fragmentation and requires large tracts of mature forest with dense understory patches of shrubs . feral cats and subsidized predators may threaten this species’ nesting success since their nest locations are highly vulnerable on the ground . it is currently listed as a species of
worm - eating warblers breed across much of the eastern u . s . , though locally . they winter in mexico , central america , and the west indies . the population is stable .
the appalachian mountains are at the core of the worm - eating warbler’s breeding range . pennsylvania accounts for approximately 10 percent of the total nesting population , so it is critical that our state maintains the quality and quantity of forest needed for the continued existence of this songbird . the northern edge of the worm - eating warbler’s breeding range extends through pennsylvania following the eastern edge of the appalachian mountains . it breeds primarily east of the allegheny front and is much less common , even accidental in some counties , in the western and northern parts of the state and absent through the northwest corner in summer .
when male is establishing its territory , it can be aggressive , pursuing neighbours and chasing them , trying to peck each other . usually , males fight more often than females . breeding territory is established by male by singing from perches after arriving on breeding areas . worm - eating warblers are monogamous . female solicits copulation by spreading and drooping wings , with tail cocked upwards . copulation occurs usually in subcanopy , on small branches . worm - eating warbler is migratory . they travel by night , probably long distances .
stasz , j . l . 1996 . worm - eating warbler ( helmitheros vermivorus ) . pages 352 - 353 in c . s . robbins and e . a . t . blom , editors . atlas of the breeding birds of maryland and the district of columbia . university of pittsburgh press , pittsburgh .
during spring migration , magee marsh braces itself for an all - out warbler ( and birder ) invasion .
gale , g . a . 1995 . habitat selection in the worm - easting warbler ( helmitheros vermivorus ) : testing different spatial scales . university of connecticut , storrs , connecticut . ph . d . dissertation .
late in incubation the female worm - eating warbler sits so tight on her nest that only touching her will flush her . her cryptic coloring makes immobility a safe strategy . if she is flushed , she will flutter across the ground with her wings and tail spread , acting helpless to lure predators away from the nest .
hanners , l . a . , and s . r . patton . 1998 . worm - eating warbler ( helmitheros vermivorum ) . the birds of north america , no . 367 ( a . poole and f . gill , eds . ) . the birds of north america , inc . , philadelphia , pa .
vitz , andrew c . , lise a . hanners and stephen r . patton . 2013 . worm - eating warbler ( helmitheros vermivorum ) , version 2 . 0 . in the birds of north america ( p . g . rodewald , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , new york , usa .
young worm - eating warblers typically leave their nest 8 - 10 days after hatching . chicks as young as five days old have been observed leaving the nest and surviving , although they cannot fly at that age .
behaviour : worm - eating warbler forages in trees among foliage , on branches and twigs . it also forages in leaf litter , searching for caterpillars and other invertebrates . it feeds using several manners . it can hang towards live or dead leaves , insert bill into holes and bark crevices or leaf curls for grabbling preys , and also perform sally - hover attacks for taking moving insects , and remove prey from curled leaf , grasping it with foot and using its bill . worm - eating warbler is rarely seen on the ground where it hops rather than walks . it is an arboreal bird , moving easily from branch to branch by hopping or creeping on trunks .
three or four worm - eating warblers are on territory on our property in central missouri near columbia by about the time morels are coming up in mid - april . they are vigorous singers and have a subtle beauty .
worm - eating warbler : breeds from southeastern iowa , across the ohio valley , into the mid - atlantic states and southern new england , ranging into the southern states . spends winters in the tropics from central mexico , the yucatan peninsula , and the west indies to areas south . dry , wooded hillsides are the preferred habitat of this species .
the worm - eating warbler is a small migratory songbird about 5 - 5 ½ inches in length . both the male and female are a dull olive color . the back is darker than the buff - colored belly and breast and the buff - colored head has black stripes along the eyes and on the crown . its tail is relatively short and its bill large .
gale , g . a . , l . a . hanners and s . r . patton . 1997 . reproductive success of worm - eating warblers in a forest landscape . conserv . biol . no . 11 : 246 - 250 . close
stephenson , t . and s . whittle ( 2013 ) . the warbler guide . princeton university press , new jersey , usa .
curson , j . ( 2018 ) . worm - eating warbler ( helmitheros vermivorum ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .
reproduction : worm - eating warbler female selects the nest - site within the male’s territory , usually the same site year after year . female builds the nest alone , but male remains nearby . nest is placed near water , stream or wetland . nest is situated on the ground , on hillside or bank . it is often well hidden among vegetation , against roots , beside rock ledge , or in dense low shrubs .
a dry trilled song in the undergrowth of deciduous woods in summer announces that the worm - eating warbler is at home . less colorful than most of its relatives , it is also more sluggish , foraging deliberately in the woodland understory or on the ground , probing among dead leaves with its rather long bill . despite the name , it does not feed on earthworms ; it does eat caterpillars , but no more than many other warblers .
the ovenbird , a spotted warbler that walks on the ground , isn’t closely related to waterthrushes as was once thought . in fact , it appears to be a basal member of the wood - warbler clade — an early offshoot of the group — and is now the only member of the genus seiurus .
worm - eating warblers nest on steeper slopes and ravines in deciduous woodlands , with the core population in the appalachians . they also nest more sparsely in lowland forest . they sing an insect - like buzzy fast - paced trill . the following is a link to this photographer ' s website : urltoken .
to learn more about revisions to wood - warbler taxonomy , check out the pending aou proposal ( pdf ) , the paper on which it’s based ( a comprehensive multilocus phylogeny for the wood - warblers and a revised classification of the parulidae ( aves ) ) , birding ‘s interview with the study’s lead author ( pdf ) , john boyd’s parulidae , and nick sly’s new wood - warbler taxonomy post .
relationships among these three groups are not yet clear , nor are the relationships of several odd species , including the yellow - breasted chat , which though traditionally considered a wood - warbler might belong in the icteridae or somewhere else nearby .
description : this stocky , flat - headed , overall buffy - olive warbler has distinct black crown stripes , and a black stripe through eye . the male and female look the same . length : 5 . 25
wingspan : 8 . 5
weight : 0 . 46 oz
the kirtland’s warbler is an endangered species restricted to a very specific type of habitat mostly found in michigan ; jack pine forests . its habitat is managed for this species in a few national forests by ensuring that there are jack pine stands of the age and composition this species requires . brown - headed cowbird populations are also controlled on its breeding grounds .
further studies are required to assess effects of various logging practices on both wintering and breeding grounds . however , this warbler probably is tolerant of many different forest management and logging practices ; selective logging and thinning
overmature
trees may create favorable conditions ; may nest in clearcut areas as young as 7 years old where several hardwoods have been left standing in the clearcuts ( see bushman and therres 1988 ) .
members of the parulidae are not colonial nesters but often occur in mixed flocks with other species after the breeding season . they forage in a variety of ways for invertebrates , small fruits , and nectar . while the waterthrushes forage on the ground in streams and wetlands , and the black - and - white warbler creeps along tree trunks , most wood - warblers glean the vegetation of trees and bushes and make short sallies for their insect prey .
the wood - warblers are known for their colorful plumages – the blackburnian warbler being one of the most striking members of this family with its deep orange - red throat that contrasts with its handsome black and white plumage . however while many species are known for their beautiful breeding plumage colors , they are also known to bird watchers as being extremely challenging to identify when in the fall they revert to their drab tan , olive , and pale colored plumages .
let’s take a look at what the future might hold . in order to make this less scary , i’ve attempted to devise seven memorable group names to help you mentally organize the 14 proposed genera and hundred - plus species with ease : the ovenbird , the worm - eater , the other oddballs , the ( mostly ) gray jobbies , the sneaky yellow dudes , the rot - your - retinalicious eye candy , and the southern tribes .
this week , 8 may – 14 may 2011 , is wood - warbler week on 10 , 000 birds ! though wood - warblers , the mostly brightly colored birds of the family parulidae , are only found in the new world we felt that birders the world over would be pleased to see a plethora of posts about these striking and sought after species . we are devoting a whole week to wood - warblers but are only just barely scratching the surface of possible topics involving this amazing family of birds .
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sacc . 2005 and updates . a classification of the bird species of south america . available at : urltoken .
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robinson , scott k . ; thompson , frank r . , iii ; donovan , therese m . ; whitehead , donald r . ; faaborg , john
science , volume 267 , issue 5206 , pp . 1987 - 1990 ( sci homepage )
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has disappeared from some areas with clearing of forest . current numbers probably stable . will become more vulnerable to parasitism by cowbirds where forest is broken up into smaller patches .
leafy wooded slopes . during breeding season , frequents dense deciduous woodlands . prefers cool , shaded banks , sheer gullies and steep , forested slopes covered with medium - sized trees and an undergrowth of saplings and shrubs . in winter in the tropics , forages alone in dense thickets or in the forest undergrowth , usually near the ground .
forages mostly in trees and shrubs . probes in curled , dead leaves for insects , and searches on bark of trunks and limbs . forages also on the ground , walking while seeking insects on the leaf - litter .
4 - 5 , sometimes 3 - 6 . white , with brown spots and blotches . incubated by female alone , 13 days . in most areas , rarely parasitized by cowbirds , possibly because it breeds mainly in dense woods far from edges . in some areas , parasitism by cowbirds appears to be more common . young : fed by both parents . leave the nest at 10 days of age . probably 1 brood per year .
fed by both parents . leave the nest at 10 days of age . probably 1 brood per year .
mostly insects . eats smooth caterpillars , but rarely or never takes the earthworms that the name would seem to imply . also feeds on small grasshoppers , bugs , ants , bees , walkingsticks , beetles , sawfly larvae , and spiders . feeds nestlings on moths and grubs .
males defend territories by singing from perches at mid - levels or on the ground . besides the usual insect - like trill , male also sings a musical , varied song during flight as part of courtship . nest : placed on ground , normally on hillside against a deciduous shrub or sapling , well concealed by dead leaves . nest ( constructed by female ) is an open cup of dead leaf skeletons ; lined with fungus filaments , hair moss , maple seed stems , animal hair .
migrates mostly at night . fall migration begins early , many moving south in august . very rare stray in west , mostly in fall .
song like that of chipping sparrow , but faster , buzzy , and more insect - like .
audio © lang elliott , bob mcguire , kevin colver , martyn stewart and others .
in the broadest and most detailed study of its kind , audubon scientists have used hundreds of thousands of citizen - science observations and sophisticated climate models to predict how birds in the u . s . and canada will react to climate change .
the darker the color , the more favorable the climate conditions are for survival . the outlined areas represent approximate current range for each season .
each map is a visual guide to where a particular bird species may find the climate conditions it needs to survive in the future . we call this the bird’s “climatic range . ”
the darker the shaded area , the more likely it is the bird species will find suitable climate conditions to survive there .
the outline of the approximate current range for each season remains fixed in each frame , allowing you to compare how the range will expand , contract , or shift in the future .
the first frame of the animation shows where the bird can find a suitable climate today ( based on data from 2000 ) . the next three frames predict where this bird’s suitable climate may shift in the future—one frame each for 2020 , 2050 , and 2080 .
you can play or pause the animation with the orange button in the lower left , or select an individual frame to study by clicking on its year .
the darker the color , the more favorable the climate conditions are for survival . the outlined areas represent approximate current range for each season . more on reading these maps .
warblers aren ' t the most cooperative subjects , but they are one of the most beautiful and addictive . follow this advice to best capture the elusive birds .
smack - dab in the middle of the u . s . , missouri is a confluence of regions , creating a high variety of very different bird habitats—close in proximity for a great birding trip .
tell congress to oppose a harmful rider that threatens sage - grouse and other wildlife .
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stripes and eye - lines . as its name suggests , it eats a steady diet of moth caterpillars and worms . it usually forages in understory vegetation and dead leaves .
song is a musical trill , all on one pitch (
oregon
group ) .
despite its name , it only rarely , if ever , eats earthworms . instead , it feeds mostly on caterpillars , which were once referred to as worms .
late in incubation the female sits so tight on her nest that only touching her will flush her . her cryptic coloring makes immobility a safe strategy .
a group of warblers has many collective nouns , including a
bouquet
,
confusion
,
fall
, and
wrench
of warblers .
the wood - warblers are one of the one hundred eighteen families of birds in the order passeriformes ( pronounced pas - ser - i - for - meez ) ; a large taxonomic order that includes other small perching birds such as the vireos , the white - eyes , and the tanagers .
the wood - warblers , or parulidae ( pronounced pah - roo - luh - dee ) , are a large family of one hundred and twenty - two species in twenty - six genera that only occur in north and south america .
north america has ninety species of wood - warblers in twenty - six genera ; included in this family are the yellowthroats , a seemingly dizzying array of warblers , and the waterthrushes .
like several other passerines , the wood - warblers are small birds with medium length tails , medium length legs and strong feet suited to perching . they have short to longish wings ( in migratory species ) , and medium length , thin , pointed bills .
members of the parulidae come in a variety of colors . different shades of yellow and olive occur in many species , including the dull , brown , streaked plumages of females and immatures . in addition to having bright yellow in their plumages , males in bright breeding plumage can show orange , blue , grays , and handsome patterns of black and white .
most species of wood - warblers are long distance migrants to central and south america .
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bna account authors : hanners , lise a . , and stephen r . patton
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) , in neotropical birds online ( t . s . schulenberg , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , ny , usa . retrieved from neotropical birds online :
natural vocalization ; complex song from a bird moving low and hidden in the dense undergrowth of mixed forest . later playback of this cut resulted in an aggressive reaction and more typical song and calls .
recorded with iphone se . amplification used in audacity . same bird as xc383680 .
this was probably the male , calling in response to playback of song . the probable female was seen a few minutes before , sitting very quietly about 2m up in saplings . nest likely nearby .
bird heard singing in the distance . came straight in to minimal playback . perched directly over head and sang for approximately 10 min .
heard calling in large oak tree near steep ravine . responded aggressively to playback .
singing from 2 meters up , hemlock - hardwood forest , on a slope , natural conditions .
natural vocalizations from two birds ( one probably the same as in xc101626 ) chasing through low vegetation ( 1 - 3m up ) along rocky ridgetop with oak and hickory . one bird had wings hanging and quivering and tail cocked .
natural song from a bird perched between 3 - 6m up in short oak - hickory woodland on ridgetop by rock outcroppings . second and fourth songs were while flying between perches .
sonogram images © xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .
over much of e usa s of great lakes ( excluding florida peninsula and much of s atlantic coastal plain ) ; distribution centred around appalachians and adjacent areas . migrates to lowlands of central america from s & e mexico s to w panama , and caribbean .
13 cm ; 11·8–17·4 g . head is rich buff , with broad blackish lateral crownstripe and narrower blackish eyestripe ; upperparts uniformly olive - brown . . .
breeds on wooded ravines and hillsides in deciduous and mixed woodlands with dense undergrowth , . . .
feeds on insects , especially caterpillars , and other arthropods , especially spiders ( araneae ) . forages primarily by gleaning in understorey . . .
season may–jul , egg - laying may–jun . nest a cup of dead leaves , lined with hair , moss and stems of maple (
short - distance to medium - distance migrant . leaves breeding grounds mainly from late jul , those in e . . .
not globally threatened . listed as a species of conservation concern by us fish & wildlife service . generally fairly common throughout range . discontinuous distribution ; . . .
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in past , sometimes considered to include limnothlypis but , despite superficial similarities , they are apparently not closely related ; may be closest to vermivora .
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checklist of vertebrates of the united states , the u . s . territories , and canada
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let your mind’s eye sweep over the rich expanse of the avian family tree . revel in its deep , gnarly divisions , its long , slender shoots . you’ll come to a profusion of branches and twigs — the songbirds , or passerines — and if you look closer still , a colorful cloud of myriad forms , the nine - primaried cardinals , tanagers , finches , blackbirds , sparrows , and , blazing in their full resplendent glory , the wood - warblers .
so dense is this part of the tree , so close and tangled the relationships , that scientists struggle still to delineate families , genera , and species , but growing evidence places the wood - warblers ( parulidae ) closest to the blackbirds and relatives ( icteridae ) and the sparrows and relatives ( emberizidae ) .
waterthrushes ( now in the genus parkesia ) ; swainson’s , prothonotary , and black - and - white warblers ; and a greatly reduced vermivora ( now containing only the blue - winged , golden - winged , and presumed - extinct bachman’s warblers ) form a group of rather dissimilar small genera .
next are the yellowthroats . it turns out that warblers once placed in the genus oporornis ( kentucky , mourning , macgillivray’s , and connecticut ) are in fact scattered among the yellowthroats , and the aou proposal recommends merging everything into genus geothlypis . i can dig it . they’re broadly similar in habits ( low skulkers ) and song type ( carolina wren - like ) .
david j . ringer is exploring the world one bird at a time . his fascination with birds and nature began at the age of four or five , and he now works full time in conservation . he is a writer and communicator whose day jobs have taken him to six continents and more than 25 countries , including papua new guinea , vanuatu , kenya , and cameroon . follow him on twitter at @ realdjringer .
it might all make sense and i view it as a good thing , but i’ll miss “oporornis” . seriously miss it . if ever i get to see a connecticut again , it just won’t be the same because now it is in the same group as the easily observed common yellowthroat .
i’m curious about the picture of the “redstart” . i’ve seen lots of slate - throated redstarts here in mexico but they have all been red - bellied with slate color on head and back . howell and webb says that there is a group called connectens that is orange - red on underparts . they also list similar species as being painted redstart which is also red . so is this an error or are there some that are yellow - bellied ?
wait ! i just checked my panama book and they show a yellow and black bird like your picture . other folks may find the same confusion .
@ jochen – john boyd points out that given connecticut’s distinctiveness and its position in the clade , it could be retained in oporornis . that’s not the proposal the aou is considering , but it does make sense .
@ corey – get ’em while you can ! as if you needed another excuse to bird… .
@ chivis – yep , slate - throated whitestarts have redder underparts “up north” in their range and yellower down south .
outstanding analysis , david . i love taxonomic revisions as much as the next amateur field ornithologist , but i’m sure i’m not alone in disliking some of these proposals . obliterating very distinctive genus names cuts at the emotional heart of out interest .
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though it eats caterpillars , as do most warblers , it does not eat earthworms as its name would imply .
the song is a rapid buzz , similar to that of the chipping sparrow . a short , high - pitched flight call is also given .
number : usually lay 4 - 5 eggs . color : white and sometimes with darker markings . incubation and fledging : the young hatch at about 13 days and fledge at about 10 - 11 days , though remaining dependent on the adults for some time .
adult has brownish - olive upperparts , without any wing bar or tail spots . underparts are buffy , more orange - buff on throat . undertail coverts show dusky centres . head is buffy , with conspicuous black stripes on crown and through the eye . pointed bill shows dark upper mandible , and pinkish lower mandible . eyes are dark brown . legs and feet are pinkish - brown . both sexes are similar . immature resembles adults .
female builds the nest , first by forming the cup with pliable leaves . she performs repeated trips with leaves , and she moulds them into the cup . then , interior is lined with fine stems or moss . she may add hair and pine - needles , soft grasses and horse hair . female lays 4 to 5 white or pinkish eggs with brown markings . incubation lasts about 12 to 14 days , by female . male feeds her at nest during this period . if parents are disturbed at nest , they begin distraction display , with spread wings and fanned tail , both depressed , uttering alarm call “chip” , or they only flutter across the ground until intruder moves away from the nest .
a guide to the birds of mexico and northern central america by steve n . g . howell , sophie webb - oxford university press - isbn : 0198540124
chicks are altricial , with brownish - grey down growing two days later . they are brooded by female for the five first days . both parents feed the young and clean the nest , removing fecal sacs . young fledge at about 10 days of age , and they remain with parents for about three weeks after fledging , in shrub and subcanopy . this species produces only one brood per year , sometimes more if first is destroyed or lost .
. the suitability of a forest patch is influenced not only by its size , though , but also its landscape context ( si4 ) . in predominantly forested landscapes , small forest patch sizes not otherwise suitable may be used due to their proximity to a large forest block ( rosenberg and others 1999 ) . we built a logistic function
based on the assumptions that landscapes with < 30 percent forest were poor habitat ( suitability index score ≤ 0 . 100 ) and landscapes with > 70 percent forest were excellent habitat ( suitability index score ≥ 0 . 900 ;
. the maximum suitability index score of either si3 or si4 was assigned to each site to account for the higher suitability of small forest patches in heavily forested landscapes .
to calculate the overall suitability index score , we determined the geometric mean of si scores for forest structure ( si1 and si5 ) and landscape composition ( max ( si2 , si3 ) and si4 ) separately and then the geometric mean of these means together .
andrew c . vitz , lise a . hanners , and stephen r . patton
the introduction article is just the first of 11 articles in each species account that provide life history information for the species . the remaining articles provide detailed information regarding distribution , migration , habitat , diet , sounds , behavior , breeding , current population status and conservation . each species account also includes a multimedia section that displays the latest photos , audio selections and videos from macaulay library’s extensive galleries . written and continually updated by acknowledged experts on each species , birds of north america accounts include a comprehensive bibliography of published research on the species .
a subscription is needed to access the remaining account articles and multimedia content . rates start at $ 5 usd for 30 days of complete access .
this species breeds locally within the area denoted as ' migration ' and winters in the eastern caribbean , as well as in the range shown here . see the text for details . adapted from dunn and garrett 1997 .
lack , d . and p . lack . 1972 . wintering warblers in jamaica . living bird no . 11 : 129 - 153 . close
) . studies of forest birds conducted at sites in the ozarks , southern illinois , tennessee , ohio , and west virginia have provided important information about its breeding biology , response to prescribed fire , and how it is affected by habitat fragmentation and forest management . a long - term study of the species ' demography and population ecology has been conducted at the nature conservancy ' s devil ' s den preserve in southwestern connecticut since 1991 (
) . most of the information on the post - fledging ecology of this species is from a study in southern ohio ( vitz and rodewald 2010 , vitz and rodewald 2011 ) . unpublished data and observations are frequently provided herein .
vitz , a . c . , l . a . hanners , and s . r . patton ( 2013 ) .
) , version 2 . 0 . in the birds of north america ( a . f . poole , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , ny , usa .
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the hispaniolan solenodon ( solenodon paradoxus ) , also known as the haitian solenodon , or agouta , is a solenodon found only on hispaniola , the island shared by haiti and the dominican republic .

it was first described by brandt in 1833 .

a similar but smaller species , marcano 's solenodon ( s. marcanoi ) , once lived on the island , but became extinct after european colonization .

hispaniolan solenodon

the two living solenodon species are the cuban solenodon ( solenodon cubansus ) and the larger hispaniolan solenodon ( solenodon paradoxus ) .
hispaniolan solenodon ( solenodon paradoxus ) , arkive . accessed february 09 , 2015 at urltoken
venom system of solenodons . hispaniolan solenodon solenodon paradoxus ( . . . | download scientific diagram
the hispaniolan solenodon belongs to an ancient group of mammals and is one of only two solenodon species alive today .
the hispaniolan solenodon is relatively long - lived , potentially reaching 11 years of age .
the hispaniolan solenodon ( s . paradoxus ) lives in haiti and the dominican republic .
dana campbell set
file : hispaniolan solenodon . jpg
as an exemplar on
solenodon paradoxus brandt , 1833
.
dana campbell marked
file : hispaniolan solenodon . jpg
as trusted on the
solenodon paradoxus brandt , 1833
page .
yan wong set
file : hispaniolan solenodon crop . jpg
as an exemplar on
solenodon paradoxus brandt , 1833
.
the hispaniolan solenodon is classified as endangered ( en ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .
embed this arkive thumbnail link (
portlet
) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =
urltoken
title =
arkive species - hispaniolan solenodon ( solenodon paradoxus )
> < img src =
urltoken
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arkive species - hispaniolan solenodon ( solenodon paradoxus )
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the cuban solenodon ( solenodon cubanus ) , known as the ‘almiqui’ in cuba , is a soricomorph endemic to cuba . the cuban solenodon belongs to the family solenodontidae along with a similar species , the hispaniolan solenodon ( solenodon paradoxus ) . the cuban solenodon is unusual among mammals because it has a venomous saliva .
a female hispaniolan solenodon caught for research near the sierra de bahoruco and re - released . photograph : tiffany roufs
the hispaniolan solenodon is one of the only mammals in the world that can inject prey with a venomous bite .
a female hispaniolan solenodon caught for research near the sierra de bahoruco and re - released . photograph : tiffany roufs
a hispaniolan solenodon is caught on camera trap leaving its burrow at night in the dominican republic . photograph : grupo jaragua
a hispaniolan solenodon is caught on camera trap leaving its burrow at night in the dominican republic . photograph : grupo jaragua
conservationists are in the dominican republic to save one of the world ' s strangest and most ancient mammals - the hispaniolan solenodon .
hispaniolan solenodons are only a handful of mammals that are venomous . the second lower
featured photo : the hispaniolan solenodon is one of the most unusual mammals on the planet . photograph : miguel landestoy source : the guardian
solenodon are relatively long lived animals . a cuban solenodon lived more than 5 years in captivity . they may be able to live longer as a hispaniolan solenodon lived to 11 years in captivity ( vaughn et al . , 2000 ) .
the hispaniolan solenodon is one of only a few mammal species capable of producing toxic saliva , which it uses to immobilise its invertebrate prey .
this may explain why the hispaniolan solenodon , which is found on an island shared by haiti and the dominican republic , is so unusual .
the distinctive long snout of the hispaniolan solenodon is attached to the skull with a unique ball - and - socket joint , giving it great flexibility .
center : the hispaniolan hutia ( plagiodontia aedium ) is the only surviving native rodent on hispaniola . right : iucn red list range of the solenodon .
diet : the hispaniolan solenodon ' s diet includes insects and other invertebrates , small reptiles , some fruit and vegetables , and possibly an occasional young chicken .
after sequencing the mitochondrial genome of the hispaniolan solenodon , scientists confirmed that the endangered venomous mammal diverged from all other living mammals some 78 million years ago .
large , and with a long , thin snout , the hispaniolan solenodon resembles an overgrown shrew ; it can inject passing prey with a venom - loaded bite .
even as scientists try and find out basic data on the cuban solenodon , researchers are discovering surprises regarding the better - known hispaniolan species . surveying the species’ various populations , samuel turvey and his team recently discovered that the hispaniolan species is actually three distinct subspecies .
habitat : hispaniolan solenodons typically live in forests , but sometimes make their homes in plantations or gardens .
ottenwalder , j . a . 1999 . observations on the habitat and ecology of the hispaniolan solenodon ( solenodon paradoxus ) in the dominican republic . monografies de la societat d ' historia natural de les balears 6 : 123 - 167 .
hispaniolan solenodons are found in forests and brush country on the island of hispaniola in the caribbean . they are
figure 3 . venom system of solenodons . hispaniolan solenodon solenodon paradoxus ( a ) ; with deeply grooved lower canines ( as indicated by the arrow ) that aid in flow and injection of venom ( b ) . illustrations : kathleen reinhardt .
it is the middle of the night , and local research assistants nicolas corona and lleyo espinal have been trawling the dense forest vegetation , attempting to track down the elusive hispaniolan solenodon .
the hispaniolan solenodon is one of the most unusual mammals on the planet . notice the small eyes , hairless tail , rusty - orange coloured fur and crazy claws . photograph : miguel landestoy
turvey , s . t . , meredith , h . m . r . , and scofield , r . p . ( 2008 ) . continued survival of hispaniolan solenodon solenodon paradoxus in haiti . oryx 42 ( 4 ) : 611–614 . doi : 10 . 1017 / s0030605308001324 .
top left : jose with a solenodon caught in the field . top right : the last survivors team working in the field at night , to maximise chances of catching these nocturnal mammals . bottom left : hispaniolan solenodon , ( solenodon paradoxus ) , stuffed specimen in the natural history museum , vienna . bottom right : overlooking a disappearing landscape in the dominican republic .
the haitian solenodon weighs 700 - 1000 g ( 25 - 35 oz ) .
the hispaniolan solenodon spent most of the last 78 million years without any natural predators , but is now endangered as a result of habitat loss and predation from cats and dogs brought to the islands by human settlers .
hispaniolan solenodons and people : other than an occasional runin in a farm field or garden , solenodons and humans rarely see one another .
“ [ the programme ] drew a lot of international attention to the hispaniolan solenodon , ” rupp said . “some of this attention actually spilled over into the dominican press which published a few articles on the species . ”
the hispaniolan solenodon is one of the creatures highlighted by the zoological society of london ' s ( zsl ) edge of existence programme , which focuses its efforts on conservation plans for animals that are both endangered and evolutionarily distinctive .
natural history museum geneticist , selina brace , who recently co - authored a paper on the hispaniolan solenodon with turvey , called solenodons a “fabulously quirky creature” and said she was “instantly hooked” after seeing a picture of this oddity .
with a long snout and short brown - red fur , the hispaniolan solenodon looks like a large shrew . its hairless feet , nose and tail recall those of a possum . the species , sometimes called the dominican solenodon , is found only on hispaniola , the island shared by haiti and the dominican republic .
the hispaniolan solenodon is considered endangered . dogs and cats prey on the animal , and humans have cleared many of the forests where it lives . ( © n . smythe / photo researchers , inc . reproduced by permission . )
hispaniolan solenodons are slow clumsy animals and they have an ungainly gait . instead of running in a straight line they tend to take a zigzag course .
the haitian solenodon is found in forests and brush country , as well as around plantations .
the hispaniolan solenodon mainly feeds on insects , worms and lizards . they may also occasionally feed on fruit , roots and other vegetation . they probe the earth with their snout and dig or rip open rotten logs with their claws in order to locate their prey .
the hispaniolan solenodon ( stock image ) is one of the only mammals in the world and can inject prey with a venomous bite . now experts have come one step closer to revealing how it got its potentially deadly weapon by sequencing the creature ' s mitochondrial genome
the haitian solenodon .
dominican fauna . urltoken ( accessed on july 1 , 2004 ) .
kari pihlaviita added the finnish common name
haitinalmikki
to
solenodon paradoxus brandt , 1833
.
scientists discovered that the hispaniolan solenodon , a venomous mammal that lives in the dominican republic and haiti , diverged from all other mammals 78 million years ago , long before earth ' s largest dinosaurs died off , according to new research published monday in the journal of mitochondrial dna .
a female hispaniola solenodon with a radio collar attached so researchers could track its movements . photograph : tiffany roufs
the cuban solenodon was discovered in 1861 by the german naturalist wilhelm peters . only 36 cuban solenodons had ever been caught . by 1970 , it was thought that the cuban solenodon had become extinct , since no specimens had been found since 1890 . on june 2 , 1970 , the cuban solenodon was classified as endangered .
the cuban solenodon is found in dense , humid forests and brush country , as well as around plantations .
yan wong added a link to
the last survivors
on
solenodon paradoxus brandt , 1833
.
the solenodon is an ancient creature ; it survived the meteorite that wiped out the dinosaurs . turvey noted :
rebecca morelle science reporter with bbc news recently joined the durrell team in the dominican republic , attempting to track down one of the most strange and ancient mammals in the world - the hispaniolan solenodon . read the full reports below and log on again tomorrow to find out what the search revealed .
the hispaniolan solenodon is also an opportunistic scavenger and may prey on amphibians , reptiles and small birds if or when the opportunity arises . indeed , local people believe it to eat snakes and chickens ( 5 ) , and such remains have been found in solenodon faeces , although this may be the result of scavenging dead animals ( 2 ) . it lunges at its chosen prey , pinning it down with its strong forelimbs , and then scoops up the prey with its lower jaw . a bite from the solenodon injects the victim with toxic saliva from its lower incisors and renders the prey immobile ( 2 ) . potential animal predators of the hispaniolan solenondon include boas and birds of prey ( namely owls ) ( 2 ) ( 7 ) .
as the bag is opened , a pungent , musty smell - the solenodon ' s signature scent - seeps out .
massicot , p .
haitian solenodon .
animal info . urltoken ( accessed on july 1 , 2004 ) .
the plight of the solenodon in haiti may be the most dire of all . haiti’s forests have been decimated over centuries and the solenodon survives only in the massif de la hotte region , the impoverished nation’s last significant stand of cloud forest .
now the why . why would the solenodon evolve venomousness while pretty much every mammal on earth gets along fine without it ? well , it may not be the case of the solenodon evolving venomousness , as much as other mammals losing it .
s . paradoxus has acquired several adaptations which allow it to remain as one of the very few hispaniolan land mammals left . it has a magnificent sense of smell and is able to hear very well ; but in return , its eyesight is not near as developed . its snout contains sensory whiskers along its length . the hispaniolan solenodon has a fast - paced life in the sense that it is always on the move . however , it is on the move at a rather slow speed . it could easily beat a
international wildlife encyclopedia , 1974 .
solenodon
( on - line ) . accessed october 3 , 2001 at urltoken .
and then , once they know that , says dr young , the conservation of the solenodon can really begin in earnest .
eatroff , a .
solenodon paradoxus .
animal diversity web . urltoken ( accessed on july 1 , 2004 ) .
norvis hernandez , a cuban biologist , is one of the few people on planet earth who has seen a living , wild cuban solenodon . smaller than its hispaniola cousin , the cuban solenodon is easily distinguished by its black - and - white hair .
the cuban solenodon measures 16 – 22 inches ( 40 – 55 centimetres ) long from nose to tail with an extremely elongated snout and a long , naked , scaly tail . the cuban solenodon weighs around 1 kilogram ( 2 . 2 pounds ) .
“the solenodon lineage diverged from other placental mammals circa 78 million years ago . that means [ it ] has existed since the cretaceous period , ” said adam brandt , lead author of a recent study that took the first look at the solenodon’s mitochondrial dna .
the solenodon has been placed in a bag , which is the best way to keep it calm while it is temporarily captured .
the international wildlife encyclopedia , 1974 .
solenodon
( on - line ) . accessed november 20 , 2001 at urltoken .
the cuban solenodon is an insectivore and emerges from rocks and hollow logs at night to prey on insects , spiders and lizards .
hispaniolan solenodons breed up to twice per year . females will give birth to 1 - 3 young and at birth they weigh 40 - 55 g ( 1 . 4 - 1 . 9 oz ) . the young are
eatroff , a . ( 2002 ) . “ solenodon paradoxus , ” animal diversity web . accessed february 09 , 2015 at urltoken .
theusch , m . ( 2002 ) . “ solenodon cubanus , ” animal diversity web . accessed february 09 , 2015 at urltoken .
solenodon lives in family groups in caves , natural hollows , and burrows in dense , wet mountain forests ( nowak , 1999 ) .
is incapable of causing any significant detriment to the human economy . when it was present in higher numbers , farmers reported destruction of crops as a result of solenodon activity . however , this crop destruction was incidental to the solenodon ' s predation on insects beneath the soil .
the two living species in this family are the cuban solenodon ( suh - len - uh - dun ) , which is also known as the almiqui ( ahl - mee - kee ) , and the hispaniolan solenodon , which is sometimes called the haitian solenodon . both have extremely long snouts that extend beyond the end of their lower jaw . their four relatively tall legs , clawed feet , and long tails are nearly hairless . most are brown on the back , or sometimes black in the cuban solenodon , and have lighter - colored fur on their undersides . cuban solenodons have longer , coarser , back hair , giving it a shaggier appearance . they are also slightly smaller than hispaniolan solenodons . overall , adult solenodons range from about 10 to 15 inches ( 25 to 38 centimeters ) in length , and their tail adds another 6 to 10 inches ( 15 to 25 centimeters ) . adults weigh 1 . 3 to 2 . 4 pounds ( 0 . 6 to 1 . 1 kilograms ) .
ottenwalder , j . a . ( 1991 ) the systematics , biology , and conservation of solenodon . phd thesis , university of florida .
it took hernandez and her colleagues 12 days of searching in the field to finally catch a cuban solenodon , known locally as the almiqui .
massicot , p . 2001 .
animal info - cuban solenodon
( on - line ) . accessed november 20 , 2001 at urltoken .
baillie , j .
solenodon cubanus .
2003 iucn red list of threatened species . urltoken ( accessed on july 1 , 2004 ) .
baillie , j .
solenodon marcanoi .
2003 iucn red list of threatened species . urltoken ( accessed on july 1 , 2004 ) .
baillie , j .
solenodon paradoxus .
2003 iucn red list of threatened species . urltoken ( accessed on july 1 , 2004 ) .
while venom can land solenodon a meal and protect it from its natural enemies , it won’t do a lick of good against humans . habitat destruction on cuba and hispaniola has hit the solenodon hard . add to that the invasive species that humans have brought along and you’ve got a massacre .
the most important adaptation of the hispaniolan solenodon is its ability to secrete venomous saliva . the venom is secreted from enlarged submaxillary salivary glands which are located in a groove in the second lower incisor . the term solenodon actually means ‘grooved tooth’ in greek . this venom is used as a means of defense to stun its prey . this is the only documented venom delivery system in any recent mammal . however , discoveries have been made to support the hypothesis that salivary venoms and venom delivery systems have indeed evolved independently in early mammal lineages .
the hispaniolan solenodon is a high priority for global conservation due to its endangered threat status and its evolutionary distinctiveness , and is ranked in the top 10 mammals to conserve by edge urltoken effectively nothing is known about the species’ landscape - level distribution , surviving population size , habitat requirements or specific anthropogenic threats , which make it impossible to identify appropriate in situ or ex situ conservation management strategies .
the team i am with , made up of scientists from jersey ' s durrell wildlife conservation trust , the zoological society of london ( zsl ) , the hispaniolan ornithological society ( soh ) , have embarked on a project called the last survivors .
woods , c . a . ( 1976 ) solenodon paradoxus in southern haiti . journal of mammalogy , 57 ( 3 ) : 591 - 592 .
if there was any justice in the animal kingdom – any at all – the solenodon would be as famous as the tiger . the solenodon is a rabbit - sized , shrew - like mammal that is only found on two caribbean islands : cuba and hispaniola ( the dominican republic and haiti ) .
an asteroid strikes earth as flying reptiles look on . somehow the solenodon survived this . illustration : mark garlick / getty images / science photo library rm
motion - sensitive camera traps that the team have been setting outside solenodon burrows are beginning to shed light on how much of an issue this might be .
* * * as in most nocturnal terrestrial insectivores , the haitian solenodon ' s sense of touch is highly developed , while smell and hearing are also important .
4 . woods , c . a . ( 1976 ) solenodon paradoxus in southern haiti . journal of mammalogy , 57 ( 3 ) : 591 - 592 .
' it survived the asteroid ; it survived human colonisation and the rats and mice humans brought with them that wiped out the solenodon ' s closest relatives . '
the solenodon is endangered and experts may redouble their efforts to save the animal seeing as it ' s the only remnant of an incredibly old group of animals .
all laughing at the expense of the solenodon aside , please no touchy this animal if you happen to find one . not just because solenodon is endangered , but because it has a venomous bite , an extreme rarity for a mammal . ( shrews have a venomous bite too , and male platypuses have venomous spurs on their hind legs , though the males only use these to fight each other . ) sitting underneath the solenodon’s lower incisors are salivary glands that send venom along grooves in its teeth . all the solenodon has to do is break the victim’s skin—or cuticle , in the case of insects—for the venom to get in there and work its magic .
there is thought to be little hope for this species in haiti ( 2 ) , but in the dominican republic , the hispaniolan solenodon is known to occur in several areas ( 6 ) . these areas still face threats from logging , agriculture and cattle ranching ; however , both international conservation organisations ( for example , the nature conservancy and durrell wildlife conservation trust ) and national conservation organisations ( for example , sociedad ornitologica de la hispaniola and grupo jaragua ) are working to address these threats and implement management plans for protected areas ( 6 ) . the focus of efforts should be to conserve this species in protected forest reserves ; however , the enormous pressure from increasing human populations on hispaniola may mean that the survival of the hispaniolan solenodon ultimately depends on zoos ( 2 ) , although , as yet , captive breeding of this unique mammal has not been successful ( 7 ) .
the master escapist then survived subsequent ice ages and other natural disasters that have shaped earth’s history . and they are still around today–perhaps most impressive of all is that the solenodon has not yet been driven to extinction by human impacts…yet . today , the solenodon is threatened by the presence of invasive predators and by deforestation . turvey commented :
1 . solenodons have unusually flexible snouts . the hispaniolan solendon has a ball - and - socket joint at the base of its snout , similar to a human shoulder joint . this increases its mobility and allows it to use its snout to explore narrow crevices for potential prey .
to cite this page : eatroff , a . 2002 .
solenodon paradoxus
( on - line ) , animal diversity web . accessed july 09 , 2018 at urltoken
to cite this page : theusch , m . 2002 .
solenodon cubanus
( on - line ) , animal diversity web . accessed july 09 , 2018 at urltoken
8 . solenodon nipples are located near their rumps . the female solenodon gives birth to one to three young at a time , but only two will survive . she only has two nipples , and they’re located toward her back , almost on her buttocks . young solenodons stay with their mothers for several months , which is long compared with other insectivores .
turvey said the fact that the solenodon survived so many upheavals “makes it even more tragic that these ‘living fossil’ survivors are now in danger of extinction due to human activities . ”
thick gloves are donned , essential for protection against the solenodon ' s most ancient feature - it is the only mammal in the world that can inject venom through its teeth .
eisenburg , j . f . , and n . gonzalez gotera . 1985 . observations on the natural history of solenodon cubanus . acta zoologica fennica 173 : 275 - 277 .
for whatever reason , though , solenodon held onto it . indeed , solenodon is a truly ancient mammal , having diverged some 76 million years ago—not long ( in evolutionary time , that is ) before the dinos met their match in the form of an asteroid punching earth right in the face . ( braun notes , though , that debate still swirls around the evolution of venom in mammals . it may be that venomousness was rare in early mammals , as it is today , and solenodon has just always been an oddity . )
he says :
we are really laying the groundwork for the survival of the solenodon - what we want to do is ensure the long term survival of this unique animal .
the hispaniolan solenodon is nocturnal , secretive and rare , and so , unsurprisingly , is rarely seen and has not been widely studied ( 2 ) . it is capable of climbing near - vertical surfaces but spends most of its time searching for food on the ground . it uses its flexible snout to explore cracks and crevices , and its massive claws to dig under rocks , bark and soil , for invertebrates such as beetles , crickets , insect larvae , earthworms and termites ( 2 ) .
the most significant threats to the haitian solenodon appear to be the continuing loss of its forest habitat and predation by introduced cats and dogs , especially by dogs in the vicinity of settlements .
perhaps the solenodon’s elusive nature has helped it to survive up until this point ; however , the anthropocene is characterized by unprecedented changes to the course of evolution and the requirements for persistence of species . the solenodon’s problem is that it has been too successful in staying off the radar–it has failed to capture the attention of humans . without recognition from people , this threatened species may not be able to garner the conservation support it needs . will the anthropocene be the last epoch the solenodon ever sees ? or will it survive yet another phase of hardship on earth ?
what you don’t have , though , is a venomous bite . . . unless you are in fact a lizard person from outer space . or , better yet , a mysterious mammal called the solenodon . they ' re one of just a handful of mammals with venom glands that deliver a powerful toxin . but wait , there’s more : the solenodon’s nose has a ball - and - socket joint like the human hip , making it crazy flexible . and a lady solenodon’s teats are . . . oddly placed . let ' s just leave it at that for now .
eisenberg , john f . , and edwin gould .
the behavior of solenodon paradoxus in captivity with comments on the behavior of other insectivora .
zoologica 51 ( 1966 ) : 49–57 .
even if you do get a dose of solenodon venom , you’re getting off easy . the venom incapacitates other victims like lizards , and in laboratory tests , scientists dosed mice with the venom and recorded breathing problems , convulsions , and paralysis . and the solenodon doesn ' t stop at prey smaller than it . “there ' s one report of a solenodon kept in captivity in london that ate an entire chicken , ” says molecular biologist rodrigo ligabue braun of brazil’s federal university of rio grande do sul . “he bit a chicken and then ate all the parts he wanted . ”
dogs in particular are a problem on hispaniola , “although we ' ve also recorded or heard of cases where the solenodon has bitten a dog and the dog has died from presumably the venom , ” nunez - mino says . feral cats , too , aren’t just a potential executioner , but competition : the felines target the lizards and large insects and such that the solenodon relies on to survive .
3 . they’re venomous . solendons are one of only a few venomous mammals . other venomous mammals , like the duck - billed platypus , are only capable of passively conveying venom ; the solenodon actually injects its venom like a snake through specially modified teeth . the second lower incisors have special grooves through which venom flows . in fact , the name “solenodon” is derived from the greek for “grooved tooth . ”
varona , l . s . 1983 . remarks on the biology and zoogeography of solenodon ( atopogale ) cubanus peters , 1861 ( mammalia , insectivora ) . contributions to zoology 53 : 93 - 98 .
chances are you’re not far behind the aromatic wonder that is the solenodon . foraging typically at night , it jams its long , highly mobile ball - and - socket schnoz into the soil to root around for invertebrates , things like worms and insects . its many sensitive whiskers help it feel around the dirt , which is just as well because the solenodon ain’t got much going on in the eyesight department .
if you have never heard of the solenodon until now , you’re not alone . the solenodon ( pronounced so - leen - o - don ) lives only on two islands in the world–cuba and hispaniola . the nocturnal , insect - eating solenodon is elusive and eccentric . it’s one of the only mammals in the world that is venomous . it is suspected to have the ability to echolocate . another strange trait it boasts is having a joint in its snout . the nasal ball and socket setup allows it to deftly take in the olfactory environment . this small critter has long claws that curve outward from furless feet .
eisenberg , j . e . , and e . gould . 1966 . the behaviour of solenodon paradoxus in captivity , with some comments on the behaviour of other insectivores . zoologica 51 : 49 - 58 .
currently the hispaniola solenodon is considered endangered by the iucn red list – though two of its subspecies may be close to extinction . the cuban solenodon is in an even more precarious position . also considered endangered , the species has been feared extinct more than once . the zsl’s edge programme , which categorizes animals based on their threatened status and evolutionary distinctness , lists the pair of solenodons as number seven in the top 100 mammals .
as our close encounter with the solenodon nears its end , the team record the gps location where it has been found , measure the animal , and take some dna samples by pulling out a tuft of hairs .
there are a whole slew of reasons why the solenodon’s star should rise , including the facts that it’s one of the only venomous mammals and david attenborough really likes it . but , most of all , the solenodon should be famous because it somehow survived the asteroid collision that killed off the dinosaurs , not to mention the next 66 million years of other catastrophes , from ice ages to the rise of bipedal destroyers named homo sapiens .
although the cuban solenodon is not yet extinct , it is still an endangered species because it only breeds a single litter of one to three in a year and because of predation by species that were introduced by humans .
solenodons are some of the most unique and rare mammals in the world . solenodon - like animals lived all over north america 30 million years ago , but today they are only found on the islands of cuba and hispaniola .
research shows the solenodon evolved more than 70 million years ago – in time to hang out with dinosaurs . but today these unique mammals face a barrage of threats including stray dogs , feral cats , invasive mongoose and deforestation .
they say that this scheme , which is funded by the uk government ' s darwin initiative , and is supported by the dominican republic ' s national zoo and environment ministry , could be our last chance to save the solenodon .
the haitian solenodon is one of the species that live in both the caribbean biodiversity hotspot ( cons . intl . ) and the greater antillean moist forests global 200 ecoregion . ( olson & dinerstein 1998 , olson & dinerstein 1999 )
the cuban solenodon has small eyes and dark brown to black hair . it is sometimes compared to a shrew , although it most closely resembles members of the family tenrecidae including hedgehogs , shrews , opossums , mice and even otters .
but turvey said the last survivors programme made considerable progress on the hispaniolan species , including surveys across the dominican republic that found the species has a larger range than expected . as a result , the species will likely be downlisted by the iucn red list in the future . the programme’s work has also led to a new focus – and concern – for the nearly extinct subspecies in haiti .
both the hispaniola and cuban solenodon species are listed as endangered by the international union for the conservation of nature . their keen senses of smell and hearing help them to avoid human contact , though some local people have become skilled in tracking it down .
behavior and reproduction : during the day , hispaniolan solenodons rest in various hiding places , including hollow trees or logs , tight places in caves or slender cracks in rocks , or in the burrows they make . several solenodons may rest together in a burrow . when they become active at night , they scout around on the surface looking for food . adults are loners during this period , even fighting with one another .
in 2009 , a number of conservation groups – dwct , zsl’s the edge programme , la sociedad ornitológica de la hispaniola ( soh ) and the dominican republic’s ministry for environment and natural resources – kick - started a three - year research and conservation programme on the hispaniola solenodon called the last survivors ( the program also included the hispaniola hutia , a tree - dwelling rodent ) . while it resulted in researchers learning more about the solenodon than ever before , the conservation impacts have been negligible , according to rupp .
the haitian solenodon is mainly nocturnal , hiding during the day in rock clefts , hollow trees , or burrows which it excavates itself . solenodons obtain food by rooting in the ground with their snouts and by tearing into rotten logs and trees with their foreclaws .
conservationists , though , are working to protect this incredible and ancient mammal . groups like the durrell wildlife trust are working with local organizations and the dominican republic ministry of environment to better understand the solenodon , from its populations to the makeup of its venom .
she said that the cuban solenodon’s keen senses of smell and hearing make it almost impossible to capture with conventional methods . the species not only avoids human contact but , according to hernandez , is never tricked by the mechanical traps scientists commonly use to catch small mammals .
from the few reports of human envenomations , it sounds like the experience is no picnic . symptoms are similar to a snake bite , including localized swelling and severe pain , perhaps lasting several days . ( ask your doctor if solenodon venom is right for you ! )
the cuban solenodon is mainly nocturnal , hiding during the day in rock clefts , hollow trees , or burrows which it excavates itself . the cuban solenodons obtain food by rooting in the ground with their snouts and by tearing into rotten logs and trees with their fore claws .
solenodons and people usually do not see one another , unless the solenodon makes its home in a plantation or garden . homeowners and farmers sometimes view them as pests because they occasionally damage crops while rooting around in the dirt for insects and other prey that live near plants .
if the also - venomous shrews are any indication , the solenodon may not always be killing and consuming its prey outright . shrews will often bite and incapacitate their victims , then drag them to their dens and come back later and gnaw on the comatose things . the solenodon may well do the same . ( oh relax—it’s not that bad in the grand scheme of things . the tarantula hawk is a wasp that stings , well , tarantulas , then drags them back to a den for its larva to devour it alive over the course of several weeks . )
researchers aren’t entirely sure where the various solenodon populations were located when the asteroid hit – whether they were already on the landmasses that would become modern - day cuba and hispaniola or on the mainland – but they think the populations were close to ground zero of the asteroid’s impact in chicxulub , mexico .
the forelimbs of the hispaniolan solenodon are much more developed that the hindlegs but all of the limbs have claws with five digits which are used for digging . this creature shows a mix of primitive and derived traits . the primitive characteristics consist of a poisonous bite and the ability to echolocate . echolocation is the ability to send calls out into the environment and hear the echo from different objects close by . this helps them with feeding and navigation . also , s . paradoxus has a prootic canal for the lateral head vein . this canal is broadly distributed in mesozoic mammals but is essentially unknown to placental mammals . among the more derived characteristics are low birth frequency , low number of young per litter , and its os proboscis bone . this bone is located at the tip of the cartilaginous snout for support .
first described in 1861 , scientist lost track of the cuban solenodon near the end of the 19th century . no one had saw it for almost a hundred years – and many assumed it was extinct – until researchers spotted a few in the mid - 1970s . and then no one saw it again until 2003 .
it ' s just impressive it ' s survived this long ,
adam brandt , a postdoctoral researcher at the university of illinois , said in a press release .
it survived the asteroid ; it survived human colonization and the rats and mice humans brought with them that wiped out the solenodon ' s closest relatives .
it ' s just impressive it ' s survived this long ,
adam brandt , a postdoctoral researcher at the university of illinois , said in a news release .
it survived the asteroid ; it survived human colonization and the rats and mice humans brought with them that wiped out the solenodon ' s closest relatives .
three cuban solenodons were captured in 1974 and 1975 and research revealed that it still existed in many places at the eastern end of cuba . however , the cuban solenodon is still very rare . prior to 2003 , the most recent sighting was in 1999 mainly because it is a nocturnal burrower , living underground and it is very rarely seen .
“this experience of watching this ancient species [ was ] wonderful , it was for a short time because i do not like to feel that this species [ was ] stressed , ” said hernandez who caught a female solenodon in alejandro humboldt national park for brief study before releasing it again . “i cannot explain what i felt the first time i touched it . ”
researchers at the university of illinois and the university of puerto rico used two different methods to sequence the nucleotides that make up solenodon mitochondrial dna - - the kind passed unchanged from mother to offspring - - to determine the history of the species ' lineage . both methods produced the same conclusion , the species diverged from the mammalian tree of life some 78 million years ago .
like other mammals , solenodon mothers nurse their babies with milk delivered through their nipples . a mother may have up to three babies in each litter , but she has only two nipples . all three of her young cannot feed at once . as a result , one of the three babies typically gets less of the nourishing milk than the other two , becomes weaker and weaker , and eventually dies .
the main threats are habitat loss due to agricultural encroachment , charcoal production , and urban development . the impact of exotic predators , such as dogs , cats and mongooses has not been quanitified , although feral dogs are known to have severe localised impacts on solenodon populations . since the species had no natural predators before european colonisation of hispaniola , and is a slow clumsy mover , it does not possess many defences against introduced animals .
according to the world conservation union ( iucn ) both species are endangered , facing a very high risk of extinction in the wild . the u . s . fish and wildlife service also list these two species as endangered . the causes for their decline include hunting by dogs and cats , and the removal of the forests where the solenodons live . the iucn lists a third species , marcano ' s solenodon , as extinct .
the species’ ecology is becoming better understood thanks to recent research efforts . it is nocturnal and finds shelter during the day by burrowing or hiding in hollow logs or crevices . classed as an insectivore , the solenodon feeds mostly on spiders and insects found in the soil , although the diet may be supplemented with worms , snails and occasional plant material . the solenodon is one of the few species of mammal that can produce toxic saliva ( along with some species of shrew ) . a special groove in the second incisor carries the venom to its prey . the reproductive rate of this species is low , with females producing two litters containing 1 - 3 offspring per year . the young stay with their parents for several months , while other offspring are born and raised . the lifespan of wild solenodons is thought to be relatively long , as one individual survived for more than eleven years in captivity .
cuban solenodons are nocturnal ( vaughn et al . , 2000 ) . during the day , they stay in rock clefts , hollow trees , or burrows ( massicot , 2001 ) . only the toes of solenodon come into contact with the ground . however , they can run surprisingly fast and can also climb ( nowak , 1999 ) . although cuban solenodons are often found near vertical surfaces , they spend much of their time on the ground ( massicot , 2001 ) .
there is really nothing on the planet like the solenodon . there are just two surviving species today , one found on cuba and the other , more well known , on hispaniola . but these two species alone are so distinct from any other mammal that they represent an entire biological family : solenodontidae . to put that in perspective every single species of mice and rat – from the african pygmy mouse to the northern luzon giant cloud rat – also represent a single family of 700 - plus species .
like most other insectivores , solenodons rest during the day and become active at night . they usually spend their days in small groups within burrows or shallow hollows in the ground , but may also rest in small hiding places . they spread out at night to look for food alone , and will attack fellow solenodons that get too close , often inflicting nasty bites . if a predator approaches , the solenodon has the option of charging and biting , or running off . unless it is startled or has nowhere to flee , it will usually choose running over fighting .
endemic to the island of hispaniola ( haiti and the dominican republic ) . s . paradoxus paradoxus occurs in northern hispaniola . s . p . woodi occurs in the south of the island , in the sierra de baoruco - jaragua region of the southwest dominican republic , and also as an isolated population in the massif de la hotte region of haiti . the species’ range has substantially decreased with following centuries of deforestation , particularly in haiti , but the solenodon remains relatively widely distributed in the forests of the dominican republic today . classified as endangered ( en b2ab ( iii , v ) ) on the 2010 iucn red list of threatened species .
but should you be lucky enough to bump into a solenodon in the wild , you’re in for a treat . mildly put , this is a singular mammal . it’s about as big as a large rat with a tail to match . ( looks kind of like a rodent of unusual size , don ' t it ? ) it’s got long , sharp nails and ambles with a wobbly , i’m - just - coming - off - anesthesia gait . females with their young are particularly awkward . “the teats are sort of in the armpit of the rear legs , and sometimes the females will kind of run around dragging the babies , ” nunez - mino says .
the haitian solenodon is found in forests and brush country , as well as around plantations . it is mainly nocturnal , hiding during the day in rock clefts , hollow trees , or burrows which it excavates itself . its diet includes insects and spiders found in soil and leaf litter . solenodons obtain food by rooting in the ground with their snouts and by tearing into rotten logs and trees with their foreclaws . this species is relatively social , and up to eight individuals may inhabit the same burrow . litter size is 1 or 2 young . the young are born in a nesting burrow . young solenodons remain with their mother for several months , which is exceptionally long for insectivores .
, are all that is left of a once rich and unique land mammal fauna ( not including bats ) which was made up of at least 25 species . both species are currently listed as endangered by the iucn . glover m . allen wrote about these species 100 years ago in the “memoirs of the museum of comparative zoology at harvard college” . of the solenodon he said ”of the habits of this species in the wild very little is definitely known” while he wrote the following about the hutia : “of this interesting animal , nothing further seems to have been discovered since it was first described nearly seventy - five years ago” . the situation has unfortunately not moved on much in the last one hundred years .
the project will take place in the key biodiversity area ( kba ) of massif de la hotte , a mountainous area in the far south - west of haiti , home to one of the few remnants of forest . this region has been highlighted by the alliance for zero extinction ( aze ) as the highest global priority for urgent conservation action and is likely to represent the only part of the country where solenodons still persist . whilst the macaya national park encompasses the majority of the massif de la hotte , there is huge pressure on the remaining forest patches for charcoal production and clearing to provide areas for pasture and for crops which will result in the forest habitat becoming smaller and increasingly fragmented ; this leads both to destruction of solenodon habitat and potential escalation of human - animal conflict .
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thank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .
the haitian population and the southern dominican republic population may represent a distinct species and is already differentiated as a different subspecies ( s . turvey pers . comm . ) .
amori , g . ( small nonvolant mammal red list authority ) & chanson , j . ( global mammal assessment team )
justification : listed as endangered because its area of occupancy is estimated to be less than 500 km² , its range is severely fragmented , it is restricted to forest habitats , and there has been an observed shrinkage in its distribution and anecdotal information on habitat destruction and degradation within its range , and a decline in the number of individuals due to invasive species and persecution .
this species occurs in the massif de la hotte ( haiti ) and the dominican republic .
this species is rare . in haiti the species could be considered critically endangered because there is an isolated population with a range less than 100 km² , threatened by habitat loss and persecution ( s . turvey and l . davalos pers . comm . ) .
the most significant threat to this species appears to be the continuing demise of its forest habitat and predation by introduced rats , mongoose , cats and dogs , especially in the vicinity of settlements . in haiti persecution and hunting for food ( samuel turvey pers . comm . ) is a threat , and there is devastating habitat destruction also occurring .
it is protected by law in the dominican republic ( general environmental law 64 - 00 ) . there is a recovery plan published in 1992 which suggested comprehensive surveys , and management in the national park pic macaya , and education , and the control of exotic mammals , and breeding programmes . at the moment it is not being implemented ( samuel turvey pers . comm . ) . it is found in most protected areas in the dominican republic ( sixto inchaustegui pers . comm . ) . it is one of the species that lives in both the caribbean biodiversity hotspot and the greater antillean moist forests ecoregion ( olson and dinerstein , 1998 ) .
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rare footage of one of the world ' s most strange and elusive mammals has been captured by scientists .