furcifer lateralis , also known as the carpet chameleon or the white-lined chameleon , is a species of chameleon that is endemic to madagascar .

it was described in 1831 by john edward gray .

carpet chameleon

the carpet chameleon is a charming addition to the chameleon collection and ours ‘tamed’ quickly , allowing hand feeding and more interaction than the larger chameleons such as panther and veiled .
they live in carpet chameleon mainly on the island of madagascar . they can be seen in the woods , overgrown savannas , grasslands , plantations even .
the colors and patterns on this female furcifer lateralis lateralis might remind people of an oriental carpet .
according to international union for conservation of nature ' s red list of threatened species , many species of chameleon are endangered . some species that are considered in danger of extinction are the tiger chameleon , elandsberg dwarf chameleon , namoroka leaf chameleon and the decary ' s leaf chameleon .
hello all , i recently completed a detailed care sheet on how i keep and breed furcifer lateralis , the carpet chameleon . i hope it is helpful .
abate , ardie 1995 . chameleon profile [ chamaeleo lateralis ] . chameleon information network 1995 ( 18 ) : 15 - 16
as the structure of the chameleon ' s eye , allows the chameleon to have complete 360 degree vision around its body . this special adaptation , allows the chameleon to be able to hunt
carpet chameleons can easily climb branches but not smooth surfaces . a top is only necessary to contain food items .
carpet chameleons eat mostly small insects and grubs . the most popular foods for captive chameleons are crickets and flies .
genera & species : within the two subfamilies are nine genera and 171 species . a few examples — calumma parsonii ( parson’s chameleon ) , furcifer oustaleti ( oustalet ' s chameleon ) , brookesia minima ( pygmy leaf chameleon ) , chameleo jacksonii ( jackson’s chameleon )
house carpet chameleons in full - screen enclosures . provide each chameleon with a space at least 1 foot long , 1 foot wide and 2 feet tall . bigger enclosures are better .
my friend who has a store is selling a carpet chameleon . i want to make sure they have a good number of sources for info , and have a prinout of links to give to customers for further info before & after they purchase the chameleon .
the carpet chameleon is found in the mixed woodlands and forests of madagascar . it is arboreal ( a tree dweller ) . adults require a 18
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enclosure with branches .
10 . the american chameleon is not actually a chameleon . the american chameleon , or anole ( anolis carolinensis ) , is not a true chameleon , but a small lizard of the iguana family . it is found in the se united states and is noted for its colour changes . [ source ]
males are light green with a mid - body white stripe . females are dark brown to black with a mid - body yellow stripe and numerous white to multi - coloured spots , hence the name , carpet chameleon .
i ' m also in port elizabeth and picked up a chameleon . . .
the female chameleon then lays a clutch of around 20 eggs , although the exact number of eggs can vary from just one to nearly 100 . the chameleon eggs take from 4 - 12 months to hatch , depending on the chameleon species .
learn many facts about the chameleon , a wonderful creature with many remarkable abilities .
simulate a chameleon’s natural environment as close as possible . carpet chameleons like to bask in the sun , so give them the opportunity to do so , but make sure they have a shady retreat . never leave a chameleon in direct sunlight without giving it the opportunity of shade . otherwise they might get too warm .
the carpet chameleon comes from madagascar and is also known as jewelled chameleons because of its stunning colours . it is the female that sports the familiar eye pattern but the male can display lovely greens with shades of blue around the eyes and feet .
information on the jewel chameleon is currently being researched and written and will appear here shortly .
carpet chameleons may hibernate for 1 to 3 months during the winter . after hibernation , keep adults well fed with a variety of vitamin / mineral enriched foods .
it is important to give a gravid female carpet chameleon high - quality food and supplementation during the initial period shortly after breeding has taken place . she most likely will go off food after her body becomes so engorged with eggs that she no longer has room .
and can grow to nearly 70 cm in length . parson ' s chameleon , also found in
team , ben .
description of chameleon color phases
accessed july 09 , 2018 . urltoken
carpet chameleon eggs should be artificially incubated in slightly moist vermiculite . a cool phase is needed during egg incubation : 25c for the first 45 days , 15c for 40 days , then 28c until hatching ( around 100 days following the end of the cool phase ) .
the largest chameleon is the parson’s chameleon , according to encyclopedia britannica . it can grow up to 27 inches ( 69 . 5 centimeters ) long . the madagascan , also known as the oustalet ' s chameleon , is also very large and grows up to 23 inches ( 60 cm ) long .
carpet chameleons will not drink from standing water so daily misting , or a dripping / splashing water source is necessary , e . g . waterfall . clean terrarium as needed .
, due to the large eyes and curled tail of the chameleon . chameleons are found throughout jungle and
prefer to be vegetarians . a chameleon will generally eat anything though including berries , leaves , fruits ,
like many chameleons , the colours are at their best when either displaying to a mate or rival . when the female is gravid the jewelled effect is most pronounced . environment and mood play their part and a basking carpet chameleon can exhibit combinations of deep reds , blues or black .
this is flim flam , a male furcifer lateralis lateralis , also known as a carpet of jeweled chameleon . smaller in size than a veiled or panther they can be housed in a smaller cage . if you can help it avoid buying wild caught ! seek captive bred or captive hatched .
carpet chameleon – a small family pet lizards . its easy to keep at home . small animal has an unusual variegated coloring . small size body ( about twenty centimeters ) . the backrest is slightly raised , has a small crest , which runs through the entire spine . the tail is long , curved . in the wild , the life expectancy of carpet chameleon no more than one year . but in captivity , he can expect to live twice , even three times longer . females differ from males in body coloring . the color scheme of female individuals is much brighter . chameleon size depends on the environment . for example , in the warm regions of much larger animals . another distinctive feature of the sexes is the tail of the chameleon . in males , it is a little thicker .
other chameleon species lay eggs that have an incubation period of four to 24 months , depending on species , according to the san diego zoo . the size of the chameleon predicts how many eggs she will lay . small chameleon species lay two to four eggs while larger chameleons lay 80 to 100 eggs at one time .
team , ben .
description of chameleon color phases .
animals - urltoken , http : / / animals . urltoken / description - chameleon - color - phases - 5111 . html . accessed 09 july 2018 .
team , ben . ( n . d . ) . description of chameleon color phases . animals - urltoken . retrieved from http : / / animals . urltoken / description - chameleon - color - phases - 5111 . html
if breeding was successful , the female carpet chameleon shows gravid coloration . a gravid female displays this coloration , hisses and possibly bites males even if she is carrying infertile eggs . after she lays eggs and has time to fatten up , reintroducing her to a male may still elicit a gravid , unreceptive coloration .
photos of a smith’s dwarf chameleon blending in when facing two decoy predators , a shrike and a mamba . photo by
the smallest chameleon has a special distinction . it is also one of the smallest vertebrates ever discovered . the leaf chameleon grows to just 0 . 5 inches ( 16 millimeters ) and can sit comfortably on the head of a match .
) , we recovered dates that are consistent with previously documented chameleon fossils . for instance , the age of the genus
a wonderful chameleon with wonderful colors and patters and now a wonderful care sheet to take care of them wonderfully . . .
water is very important to chameleon growth and health . they either slurp water up using their tongues or the inhale it .
wild - caught imports of furcifer l . lateralis can be found quite often in pet stores due to the number and wide distribution of this particular subspecies . be warned , however , that purchasing an adult carpet chameleon may not have favorable results . they may not live long if they are purchased too old or if there is a parasite issue .
the challenge of keeping and finally breeding carpet chameleons under captive conditions is both fascinating and worthwhile . sperm retention is common in all chameleons . it is possible that if a female breeds once , she can have fertile eggs clutch after clutch . technically , a female chameleon can breed for one season and still produce viable eggs for her entire life .
when a gravid female carpet chameleon is ready to lay eggs , a nesting site should be available . i provide a plastic container measuring 1 . 5 feet long , 1 . 5 feet wide and 1 foot tall placed in the bottom of the female’s enclosure . i position it next to her plant with a stick leading into the nesting site .
. then a chameleon’s green coloration is acquired by the blue light reflected by the iridiophores that goes through the outer yellow chromatophores .
when frightened , the chameleon can make a hissing sound . they can bite ( which is non - toxic and harmless ) .
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a female carpet chameleon may dig several test holes . this may take days or hours to accomplish . leave her alone , and let her dig . do not remove her until she is finished covering her holes or returns to her branch for a length of time . she may return to the test holes repeatedly and cover only a few them . be patient .
source / reference article learn how you can use or cite the chameleon article in your website content , school work and other projects .
look for chameleon eggs to start swelling and sweating after four to five months . eggs hatch between five to seven months on average .
allow the female carpet chameleon to rest at least a week or two after egg deposition , and then reintroduce the female to the male in his enclosure . the female retains the active sperm and automatically fertilizes more than one clutch of eggs , so it is possible to have an impregnated female lay several clutches of fertile eggs without being exposed to a male for many months .
some chameleons display so many different colors that it is difficult to characterize them . panther chameleons from ambilobe are kaleidoscopic animals , they can display red , orange , yellow , blue , white and green colors at the same time . carpet or jeweled chameleons ( furcifer lateralis ) display a variety of colors . females of the species are often marked with purple , blue and white markings on a dark background . male carpet chameleons are usually green with blue , orange or white markings .
found in tropical rainforests , prairies and cities , where they live in bushes or trees . this chameleon has adapted to living around humans .
to bury her eggs to keep them safe and warm , the female chameleon first digs a hole in the forest floor in which to bury them . the hole can be from 10 to 30 cm deep , but the depth of the hole generally depends on the chameleon species .
) . each of these hypotheses results in specific patterns that we use here to assess support between diversification models for our target chameleon group .
) . we have clarified the range of these chameleon species . from the point locality data alone , we found that the range of the
carpet chameleons are the most common and plentiful species of chameleon found on madagascar , which is off the coast of africa . they live in varied habitats and favor humid areas in the central to southern regions , where most of the native population can be found . carpet chameleons have adapted to mountains , deserts and rain forest habitats , but they seem to be most numerous where there is ample humidity . there is little question that within reason most chameleons can adapt to varying temperatures , humidity and dryness , but the fact remains that they will only adjust to some semblance of their native environment . adaptability does not mean lizardkeepers should push the extreme limits of the chameleon’s environmental needs . all subspecies of furcifer lateralis are generally collected where humidity averages 70 percent or higher .
stuart - fox & moussalli ( 2008 ) . selection for social signalling drives the evolution of chameleon colour change . plos biol vol . 6 .
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breeding your own insects as food will allow you to give your chameleon a varied diet . you will also have better control over the quality of food .
florio , a . m . , ingram , c . m . , rakotondravony , h . a . , louis , e . e . and raxworthy , c . j . 2012 . detecting cryptic speciation in the widespread and morphologically conservative carpet chameleon ( furcifer lateralis ) of madagascar . journal of evolutionary biology 25 : 1399 - 1414 . doi : 10 . 1111 / j . 1420 - 9101 . 2012 . 02528 . x .
differences in the colouring of a panther chameleon when it’s relaxed and excited , and its relation with the composition and distribution of the iridiophore nanocrystals . image extracte from
unfortunately , females of all chameleon species , especially short - lived ones such as furcifer lateralis , can breed with a potentially infertile male and not show signs of infertility until they have expired , and the eggs all turn up useless . i recommend all chameleon females breed with several males per season to ensure proper fertilization .
florio , a . m . , ingram , c . m . , rakotondravony , h . a . , louis , e . e . and raxworthy , c . j . 2012 . detecting cryptic speciation in the widespread and morphologically conservative carpet chameleon ( furcifer lateralis ) of madagascar . journal of evolutionary biology , 25 : 1399–1414 . doi : 10 . 1111 / j . 1420 - 9101 . 2012 . 02528 . x - get paper here
krysko , kenneth l . and louis a . somma 2017 . the status of two species of nonindigenous lizards in florida , the slender chameleon , chamaeleo gracilis hallowell 1842 and the white - lined chameleon , furcifer lateralis ( gray 1831 ) : a corrigendum . ircf reptiles & amphibians 24 ( 1 ) : 65–66 - get paper here
a chameleon’s tongue is not really sticky . it’s hollow and composed of three main elements : accelerator muscles , retractor muscles and the sticky tip , which is more like a toilet plunger . the tip hits prey hard and creates suction around it before the chameleon retracts it . because of this suction , the tip can get stuck on a feeder dish . irreversible damage can result . sometimes the tongue no longer retracts , and it atrophies or even causes death if the chameleon cannot be taught to be hand - fed .
on the long drive from ranomafana national park north to antananarivo , we stopped along national route 7 for this beautiful chameleon crossing the road , and moved him over to safety .
the chameleon can move one eye in one direction while moving the other eye in a different direction . it also has the ability to view its surrounding with nearly 360° vision .
although there are many fun and interesting facts about the chameleon , it is recommended by some to not keep them as pets because they are hard to care for in captivity .
wild - caught carpet chameleons are often heavily parasitized and stressed , frequently with short life expectancy . another problem with wild - caught specimens is the ease with which they mate . young females kept in crowded cages awaiting shipment will often mate too small , resulting in poor quality eggs and often a dead female .
such as pink , blue , red , orange , green , black , brown , light blue , yellow and turquoise , all so that the chameleon can blend in more easily .
many people believe the chameleon changes color to blend in with their environment . scientists disagree with this . studies have shown that mood , temperature , and light causes their color to change .
this chameleon is endemic to madagascar and is distributed in the east of the island ( florio et al . 2012 ) . it has a large estimated distribution of > 130 , 000 km² .
1 . almost half of the world’s chameleon species live on the island of madagascar , with 59 different species existing nowhere outside of the island . there are approximately 160 species of chameleon . they range from africa to southern europe , and across south asia to sri lanka . they have also been introduced into the united states in places such as hawaii , california and florida . [ source 1 , source 2 ]
carpets require the basic chameleon care , such as uv lighting , the correct delivery of water and heating , etc . i always recommend natural sunlight for health and best colours , if your location is suitable .
. this allows them to control the wavelength of the light reflected by the iridiophores and so , the colour . combined with the chromatophores , the different chameleon species can cover most of the visible spectrum of colours .
coming from various parts of madagascar , they are not restricted to one habitat or ecosystem . this means they are fairly tolerant of temperature ranges but the following are optimum : daytime between 25°c and 30°c , dropping at night by 5°c to 10°c . do not let the temperature fall below 12°c or rise above 32°c . the carpet chameleons may survive but they could become stressed .
also provide nontoxic plants ( such as a ficus benjamina ) , sticks of various sizes and vines , so they may feel secure . chameleons become stressed when they see other chameleons , even if they see one across the room . if you notice a chameleon stressing — changing to gravid or unreceptive colors , hissing or puffing up for no apparent reason — it may see its reflection or have view of a chameleon in another cage .
when you purchase any chameleon , please do the animal and yourself a favor : get a fecal check . it’s the only way to be completely sure the animal doesn’t have parasites . veterinarians can do this simple test . all you have to take to the vet office is a fresh stool sample . even a healthy - looking , active chameleon with a tight grip and strong tongue can harbor a fatal parasite load . parasites are commonly aggravated by stress , which can grow to unmanageable levels in a relatively short amount of time in captivity . even a very heavy load of parasites , if caught early in an otherwise healthy chameleon , can be treated and cured .
hatchling carpet chameleons can be kept in much the same way as the adults , but even more care should be taken to make sure the temperature and humidity are precise . hatchlings are very strong and usually eat voraciously in a day or two . furcifer lateralis subspecies grow so quickly that it is imperative that supplements contain a high - quality form of calcium to ensure proper growth of bones and muscles .
scheme of a chameleon’s skin section in which the iridiophores ( blue ) with nanocrystal layers and the different kinds of chromatophores can be seen ; xanthophores ( yellow ) , erythrophores ( red ) and melanophores ( black ) . image by
chameleons ( chamaeleonidae family ) are extremely cryptic lizards , as their coloration is usually very similar to that of their habitat’s . also , many chameleon species present the ability to actively shift their colours , making their camouflage even more complex .
as long as no aggressive behavior is present , a clutch of 10 to 15 hatchling carpet chameleons can be housed together in a screen cage measuring 1 foot long , 1 foot wide and 2 feet tall for no more than a month . after that time , keep no more than five hatchlings per cage . furcifer lateralis subspecies grow quickly , and adults require their own cage after they reach 3 months old .
changing skin color is an important part of communication among chameleons . according to the san diego zoo , a chameleon ' s skin changes colors in response to its emotions , such as anger or fear , changes in light , temperature or humidity .
] . to help alleviate this , we estimated chameleon divergence both ways and then assessed concordance . while the dates inferred using the nd2 molecular rate were generally older , the dates did not largely vary between analyses with respect to geologic period ( see
as we’ve just seen , the variety of colorations among the distinct chameleon species is huge . yet , their incredible abilities haven’t saved chameleons from being on the endangered species list , as many of them are in danger of extinction , mainly because of the destruction of their habitat due to the logging industry and because of poaching for the illegal exotic animal trade . we hope that with a better awareness of these spectacular and colourful lizards , future generations can still delight with chameleon colour shifts for a long time .
many chameleon species , including panther ( furcifer pardalis ) , jackson’s ( chamaeleo jacksonii ) and senegal ( chamaeleo senegalensis ) chameleons will display dark brown colors if they are cold , sick or stressed . other chameleons , including many of the stump - tailed chameleons ( brookesia sp . ) , always display brown or other earth tones that help them to blend in to their natural habitat . outstalet’s chameleons ( furcifer outstaleti ) , potentially the largest chameleon species in the world , usually exhibit grey or brown colors .
supply water to your chameleon twice daily in the form of a mist , spray or dripper . i use tap water in a hudson sprayer to mist my enclosures . a humidifier also helps to keep humidity in check . do yourself a favor and get the more expensive one with the auto shut - off . i use only distilled water in the humidifier . this keeps minerals from building up and causing the misting nebulizer to malfunction . make sure to wet the chameleon’s body as well as the plants in the enclosure .
2 . colour changing . most chameleons change from brown to green and back , but some can turn almost any colour . a change can occur in as little as 20 seconds . chameleons are born with special cells that have a colour or pigment in them . these cells lie in layers under the chameleon’s outer skin . they are called chromatophores . the top layers of chromatophores have red or yellow pigment . the lower layers have blue or white pigment . when these pigment cells change , the chameleon’s skin colour changes .
there are more than 160 sub species of the chameleon and they have a huge diversity when it comes to where they are located . some of those common areas include florida , california , hawaii , asia , sri lanka , spain , madagascar , and portugal .
] that offer possible explanations for the production of this biodiversity . in this study , we focused on four hypotheses that we consider the most likely candidates for diversification , based on our chameleon target group distributions ( e . g not montane ) and ecology ( see
carpet chameleons do well on a diet of medium - sized crickets , flies and other small insects . offer five to six gut - loaded feeder insects per meal . i generally feed my chameleons twice a week , and i allow the feeder insects to roam the cage freely . this forces chameleons to use their hunting abilities and keep their tongues strong . dish feeding is also an option , but there is a higher risk of tongue damage when using a dish .
the time period for actual mating can vary from a few minutes to more than an hour . the carpet chameleons should not be disturbed during this time . after mating has taken place , the pair pulls apart , and the female usually tries to escape the vicinity of the male . remove the female , place her in her enclosure , offer food and water , and let her relax . if the female doesn’t show signs of being gravid , try mating her again .
if you intend to breed carpet chameleons ( furcifer [ chamaeleo ] lateralis ssp . ) , please purchase only unrelated animals . some species are represented by very small gene pools , and extra effort must be made to keep these animals genetically divergent and pure to avoid genetic depression and hybridization . captive - bred or wild - caught furcifer lateralis subspecies mature and breed at the early age of 8 to 12 months , and they are subsequently gravid for the rest of their reproductive lives .
the chameleon is a very popular type of lizard due to the fact that it has the ability to change colors based on their mood . this also allows them to blend into the surroundings for safety . other factors influence color too including mating season and even the temperature around them .
the mating season for the chameleon can vary based on the time of year and the location of them . the sub species that is being evaluated will also influence that period of time . all chameleons lay eggs and that typically will occur in four weeks or less after mating takes place .
many people think chameleons change colour to blend in with their surroundings . scientists disagree . their studies show that light , temperature and mood cause chameleons to change colour . sometimes changing colour can make the chameleon more comfortabl . sometimes it helps the animal communicate with other chameleons . [ source ]
there aren’t many chameleons who can make their whole body red , but several types of panther chameleon display some red in their pattern . one exception is male panther chameleons from the east coast of madagascar , notably those from tamatave , who display bright red or orange coloration over their entire body .
chameleon owners need to be prepared to spend not only time on this creature but also money . the lizard is normally the most inexpensive part of startup costs . hidden costs include parasite checks , possible treatment , follow - up fecal checks , possible blood work , tests for bacterial infections and other expenses .
any animal that can change colours and look in two directions at once is worth learning more about . armed with a tongue you have to see to believe , the chameleon may be one of the coolest reptiles on the planet . here are ten things you may not have known about our lizard friend .
chameleons are famous for changing colors . they don’t do it to camouflage themselves , as is commonly thought ; they change color in response to temperature , stress level , reproductive state and mood . male chameleons are usually more boldly colored than females and usually display their most intense colors when confronted by another chameleon .
even when you are familiar with the various locations where the chameleon you may not see them . they do blend in exceptionally well to their surroundings . as a result you will have to try to focus on a given area and be patient to wait to see if you can make out the shape of one of them .
i have had much better luck breeding and maintaining healthier captive animals with a humidity higher than 70 percent . if humidity in the enclosure drops below 70 percent , a weekly deep hydration is necessary . even with a humidifier present i prefer this shower method . gently place the chameleon on a clothes - drying rack or plant in the shower stall . turn the shower on so a light , lukewarm rain falls on the chameleon for 30 to 60 minutes . in drier climates the shower method may be used twice a week or more . outdoor enclosures can be fitted with automatic mister systems , which reduce the risk of dehydration and make watering easier for the lizardkeeper .
chameleons are loners . in fact , most of the time females don ' t want males to even come near them . during the rare moments when the female is willing to be touched , the male will approach for mating . a brighter colored male chameleon is more likely to convince a female to mate than a duller colored male .
breeding only the strongest and healthiest chameleons adds to the future strength of the gene pool . all subspecies of f . lateralis are avid breeders . in my experience , once sexual maturity is reached , female carpet chameleons have produced a clutch every six to eight weeks . maturity can occur as early as 2 or 3 months of age . once bred , females lay between five and 20 eggs depending on the subspecies . generally larger subspecies produce more eggs than the smaller ones . eggs hatch in as few as five to seven months . they can produce upwards of 200 eggs in a lifetime .
the most obvious motive ( even if not the most important ) is camouflage . even if the standard coloration of most chameleon species is cryptic enough , in case of necessity chameleons are able to blend in even more with their surroundings . this helps them not to be detected by their prey , but mainly to go unnoticed by their predators .
the chameleon has a body that is wide and appears to be puffed up . they have a head that is narrow so you can see their shoulders from the front . they have wide eyes on the sides of the head and a tongue that is wide and long . they move from side to side when they walk with a gait that appears to be quite awkward .
this species , as with most other chameleon species , is strictly diurnal . they generally spend the early part of the day warming up their bodies by assuming a very dark coloration and exposing as much surface area as possible to sunlight . after they have reached the desired body temperature , they begin hunting for prey , an activity which usually lasts for the rest of the daylight hours .
5 . ballistic tongues that are 1 . 5 - 2 times the length of their body . chameleons feed by ballistically projecting their long tongue from their mouth to capture prey located some distance away . while the chameleon’s tongue is typically thought to be 1 . 5 to 2 times the length of their body ( their length excluding the tail ) , it has been recently discovered that smaller chameleons have proportionately larger tongue apparatuses than their larger counterparts . tongue projection occurs at extremely high performance , reaching the prey in as little as 0 . 07 seconds , having been launched at accelerations exceeding 41 g . the chameleon tongue’s tip is a bulbous ball of muscle , and as it hits its prey it rapidly forms a small suction cup . [ source 1 , source 2 ]
may contain chameleons in small terrariums . the main thing that creature felt roomy , comfortable . the bottom is littered with a thick ball of a special substrate . since the heat - loving animals , it requires special care . above the house your pet arrange lamps with ultraviolet radiation . daytime temperature should be about twenty - five degrees , the lamp can not use at night . daily moisturize the air in the terrarium . sprinkling the bottom wall of the water drops . this procedure is recommended in the morning . as feed , use of cockroaches , beetles . they also eat green food ( spinach , lettuce , dandelion leaves ) . insects can be purchased at a pet store . carpet chameleon eats a lot . so feed him every day . drink animals ordinary water . at the bottom of the cage , place a sustainable capacity in water . but as chameleons do not like to drink , you need to water them occasionally violently . the main thing is not to overdo . in the mouth , pour a few drops . for ease of use the syringe , pipette .
3 . chameleon eyes have a 360 - degree arc of vision and can see two directions at once . chameleons have the most distinctive eyes of any reptile . their upper and lower eyelids are joined , with only a pinhole large enough for the pupil to see through . they can rotate and focus separately to observe two different objects simultaneously , which lets their eyes move independently from each other .
the tongue is another interesting feature of the chameleon . the tip of their tongue is covered with a sticky secretion that grabs its prey . they can
shoot out
their long tongue ( which can be as long as their body ) and have their prey in their mouth in a fraction of a second ( faster than what the human eye can see ) . they can repeat this action immediately afterwards .
chameleons live in madagascar , africa , spain , portugal and asia in rain forests , savannas , semi - deserts and steppes , according to the san diego zoo . they typically stay in trees or bushes , though some species do live on the ground . for example , the horned leaf chameleon lives in dead leaves on forest floors according to the national wildlife federation . [ photos : 11 colorful chameleons of madagascar ]
no matter what species , chameleons become mature at 1 to 2 years of age . the exception is the madagascan chameleon . it has been labeled as the vertebrate with the world ' s shortest life span , according to encyclopedia britannica . their eggs hatch in november , the young become adults in january , they lay eggs in february , and then the entire adult population perishes after a lifespan of just three months .
a gravid female chameleon that does not like to be in the proximity of an amorous male usually exhibits unreceptive coloration , which is different from her normal resting colors . this beautiful display of color announces to the male that female does not want anything to do with him . yet some males will try to mount anyway , so to prevent unnecessary stress , it is advisable to remove a gravid female after mating has taken place .
carefully dig up the chameleon eggs , and place them in a plastic container with a sealed lid for incubation . i use a tupperware cupcake container without holes . the container should be filled halfway with damp vermiculite purchased at a garden center . mix in enough water so when it’s squeezed , a few droplets dribble off . too much water drowns the eggs . place eggs in rows 1 inch apart and half - buried in vermiculite .
although i believe chameleons should be in natural sunlight as much as possible , an indoor environment is fine for most animals . they require a full - spectrum fluorescent light and a heat dome light . i position the dome light so the highest point the chameleon can reach is no more than 90 degrees fahrenheit . ambient temperatures can range from 70 to 80 degrees . chameleons should not be able to touch bulbs , or burns can result .
chameleons are different from many reptiles because some of the species , like the jackson’s chameleon , have live births . these species can give birth to eight to 30 young at one time after a gestation of four to six months . while the young are born live instead of in an egg , they started as an egg . these mothers incubate the eggs , minus a shell , inside of her body instead of laying them in a nest .
is almost entirely insectivorous , and prefers insects which normally reside in trees or shrubs . these include most flies , grasshoppers and crickets , and various insect larvae . adult specimens are also known to consume very small lizards and even small newborn rodents ( in captivity ) . this species hunts for food in the typical chameleon style of slowly creeping through tree or shrub branches , using its excellent eyesight to spot insects . as the desired prey is selected ,
the chameleon tends to be a timid type of lizard and they will retreat rather than fight when they can . they are often kept as pets due to their calm nature and the fact that they can amazingly change colors . however , they can be tough to care for because they need the right balance of food , heat , and places to climb in order to really thrive . they are believed to be a very intelligent species of lizard .
also watch them for signs of overheating while in direct sunlight . chameleons showing dark green or solid black are basking . blanching , turning very light green , yellow or even white , indicates that the animal should be removed from the sun and given shade and water . a trip to the shower for “deep hydration , ” a watering method i discuss later , is a good idea for any chameleon found overheated , blanched or panting with an open mouth .
the main function of chameleons colour change is intraspecific communication . chameleons use different colour patterns known as liveries in some countries , which are changed in order to transmit information to other individuals of their same species like their stress degree , their reproductive or health status , etc… a chameleon’s standard coloration is usually similar to that of their habitat . so , this colour pattern usually indicates a healthy animal , while if they feel sick or have some physical problem , they usually present paler and duller colorations .
a total of 129 individuals belonging to furcifer oustaleti ( n = 89 ) and furcifer verrucosus ( n = 40 ) , collected between 1990 and 2012 , were included for analysis . the closely related species furcifer labordi , furcifer major , and furcifer antimena were included to test the sister species relationship of f . verrucosus and f . oustaleti [ 1 , 2 , 5 ] . furcifer campani was used as the furcifer outgroup taxon to root all phylogenetic trees . the following chameleon species were also included in the species tree analysis to estimate divergence dates : chamaeleo namaquensis , chamaeleo chamaeleon , furcifer cephalolepis , and furcifer polleni . these species are distantly related to the ingroup taxa , and were only included to allow for the fossil calibration in the divergence dating analysis .
another in the too - long list of chameleons which avoided having its picture taken . i guess i ' ll just have to go back to madagascar soon .
i went back , and i got pictures , just as promised . not exactly
soon
though .
these chameleons vary in appearance from beautiful greens and yellows to outrageously colorful patterns . this species does well in degraded habitat and is considered a
follower of civilization
.
here is a list of all the reptiles and frogs i saw on this trip to madagascar .
abate , a . , and abate , e . 2004 . the chameleons of madagascar ( dvd )
note : tdwg regions are generated automatically from the text in the distribution field and not in every cases it works well . we are working on it .
syntypes : bmnh 1946 . 8 . 22 . 12 - 13 ( 2 specimens ) . holotype : mnhn = mhnp 1921 . 269 ( lambertoni )
subspecies : florio et al . 2012 elevated f . l . major to species status without providing much detail . however , they do state that “brygoo’s ( 1971 ) description of f . lateralis major from tanandava , south - western madagascar , closely corresponds with the morphology of the southern group recovered in our study . these individuals have higher head casques and have a larger svl . ” klaver & böhme 1997 listed major as a synonym of f . lateralis .
andrews , r . m . , brandley , m . c . and greene , v . w . 2013 . developmental sequences of squamate reptiles are taxon specific . evolution & development , 15 : 326–343 . doi : 10 . 1111 / ede . 12042 - get paper here
angel , f . 1921 . contribution à l´étude des chamaeleons de madagascar . bull . mus . nat . hist . nat . , paris 27 ( 5 - 6 ) : 328 - 331 , 406 - 412 . - get paper here
barbour , thomas 1918 . vertebrata from madagascar . 2 . amphibia and reptilia . bull . mus . comp . zool . harvard 61 ( 14 ) : 479 - 489 . - get paper here
böhle , a . 2004 . eine reise durch das madagassische hochland . draco 5 ( 19 ) : 82 - 86 - get paper here
boumans , louis ; david r . vieites , frank glaw and miguel vences 2007 . geographical patterns of deep mitochondrial differentiation in widespread malagasy reptiles . molecular phylogenetics and evolution 45 ( 3 ) : 822 - 839 - get paper here
brygoo , e . r . 1971 . reptiles sauriens chamaeleonidae . genre chamaeleo . faune de madagascar , orstom et cnrs , paris 33 : 1 - 318 .
d ' cruze , neil ; annette olsonn , david henson , sunil kumar , and david emmett . 2009 . the amphibians and reptiles of the lower onilahy river valley , a temporary protected area in southwest madagascar . herp . cons . biol . 4 : 62 - 79 - get paper here
duméril , a . m . c . and g . bibron . 1836 . erpetologie générale ou histoire naturelle complete des reptiles . vol . 3 . libr . encyclopédique roret , paris , 528 pp . - get paper here
gehring , p . s . & witte , k . 2007 . ultraviolet reflectance in malagasy chameleons of the genus furcifer ( squamata : chamaeleonidae ) . salamandra 43 ( 1 ) : 43 - 48 - get paper here
glaw , f . & vences , m . 1994 . a fieldguide to the amphibians and reptiles of madagascar . vences & glaw verlag , köln ( isbn 3 - 929449 - 01 - 3 )
glaw , f . 2015 . taxonomic checklist of chameleons ( squamata : chamaeleonidae ) . vertebrate zoology 65 ( 2 ) : 167–246 - get paper here
gray , j . e . 1831 . a synopsis of the species of class reptilia . in : griffith , e & e . pidgeon : the animal kingdom arranged in conformity with its organisation by the baron cuvier with additional descriptions of all the species hither named , and of many before noticed [ v whittaker , treacher and co . , london : 481 + 110 pp . [ 1830 ]
gray , j . e . 1845 . catalogue of the specimens of lizards in the collection of the british museum . trustees of die british museum / edward newman , london : xxvii + 289 pp . - get paper here
gray , j . e . 1865 . revision of the genera and species of chamaeleonidae , with the description of some new species . ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 3 ) 15 : 340 - 354 - get paper here
krüger , jens 1999 . neue erkenntnisse zur faunistik einiger reptilien madagaskars . salamandra 35 ( 2 ) : 65 - 76 - get paper here
leptien , r . 2003 . getting started keeping chameleons . reptilia ( gb ) ( 26 ) : 11 - 14 - get paper here
lutzmann , n . ; kremer , g . ; van steendam , n . & flamme , a . 2004 . auf chamäleonsuche entlang der route national 2 von antananarivo bis an die ostküste bei ambila - lemaitso . [ madagascar ] . draco 5 ( 19 ) : 50 - - 55 - get paper here
necas , p . 2012 . im porträt : das teppichchamäleon , furcifer lateralis . reptilia ( münster ) 17 ( 95 ) : 34 - 37 - get paper here
necas , petr 1999 . chameleons - nature ' s hidden jewels . edition chimaira , frankfurt ; 348 pp . ; isbn 3 - 930612 - 04 - 6 ( europe ) < br / > isbn 1 - 57524 - 137 - 4 ( usa , canada )
neukirch , k . 2003 . versuche zur auswirkung verschiedener parameter bei der aufzucht von furcifer pardalis ( cuvier 1829 ) . chamaeleo 13 ( 2 ) : 5 - 9 . - get paper here
raxworthy , c . j . ; enrique martinez - meyer ; ned horning ; ronald a . nussbaum ; gregory e . schneider ; miguel a . ortega - huerta & a . townsend peterson 2003 . predicting distributions of known and unknown reptile species in madagascar . nature 426 : 837 - 841
rusch , d . 2003 . erfahrungen mit furcifer lateralis . chamaeleo 13 ( 1 ) : 19 . - get paper here
schmidt , w . 1985 . chamaeleo lateralis gray , 1831 . sauria 7 ( 4 ) suppl . : 025–026 - get paper here
schmidt , w . 1986 . über die haltung und zucht von chamaeleo lateralis ( gray , 1831 ) . salamandra 22 ( 1 ) : 105 - 112 - get paper here
schmidt , w . 1988 . zeitigungsversuche mit eiern des madagassischen chamäleons furcifer lateralis ( gray , 1831 ) ( sauria : chamaeleonidae ) . salamandra 24 ( 2 - 3 ) : 182 - 183 - get paper here
schmidt , w . 2001 . haltung und zucht von furcifer lateralis in mehreren generationen . mitteilungsblatt ag chamäleons 22 : 9 - 10 - get paper here
schmidt , w . ; tamm , k . & wallikewitz , e . 2010 . chamäleons - drachen unserer zeit . natur und tier verlag , 328 pp . [ review in reptilia 101 : 64 , 2013 ] - get paper here
van beest , piet 2004 . herpetologische waarnemingen op madagascar - deel 1 . lacerta 62 ( 2 ) : 48 - 55 - get paper here
van hoof , j . et al . 2006 . kameleons , een fascinerende hobby . lacerta 64 ( 5 - 6 ) : 1 - 96 - get paper here
this database is maintained by peter uetz ( database content ) and jakob hallermann , zoological museum hamburg ( new species and updates ) .
this species has not yet been classified by the iucn and is listed on appendix ii of cites ( 2 ) .
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one of the things that attract people to chameleons is their ability to change color . contrary to popular belief , chameleons do not change color to match the exact color of their surroundings . instead , their color changes reflect fluctuations in temperature and emotion , and these remarkably swift changes are believed to occur from a shift in hormones or a reaction by the nervous system .
a male furcifer lateralis lateralis ( pictured ) is less ornate than a female of the subspecies . .


crotalus lepidus is a venomous pit viper species found in the southwestern united states and northern central mexico .

four subspecies are currently recognized , including the nominate subspecies described here .

crotalus lepidus

comparison of venom composition and biological activities of the subspecies crotalus lepidus lepidus , crotalus lepidus klauberi and crotalus lepidus morulus from mexico .
crotalus lepidus lepidus ( kennicott 1861 ) caudisona lepida kennicott 1861 : 206 crotalus lepidus lepidus — gloyd 1936 crotalus lepidus — cope 1883 crotalus semicornutus taylor 1944 crotalus lepidus lepidus — klauber 1952 : 45 crotalus lepidus castaneu crotalus lepidus — stebbins 1985 : 227 crotalus lepidus lepidus — conant & collins 1991 : 237 crotalus lepidus lepidus — liner 1994 crotalus lepidus — mcdiarmid , campbell & touré 1999 : 287 crotalus lepidus lepidus — tennant & bartlett 2000 : 535 uropsophus lepidus — hoser 2009 crotalus lepidus — wallach et al . 2014 : 191 crotalus lepidus klauberi gloyd 1936 crotalus lepidus klauberi gloyd 1936 crotalus lepidus klauberi — klauber 1952 : 53 crotalus lepidus kaluberi [ sic ] — van devender & lowe 1977 crotalus lepidus klauberi — stebbins 1985 : 228 crotalus lepidus klauberi — tanner 1985 : 663 crotalus lepidus klauberi — conant & collins 1991 : 237 crotalus lepidus klauberi — liner 1994 crotalus lepidus klauberi — dixon 2000 crotalus lepidus klauberi — tennant & bartlett 2000 : 538 crotalus lepidus klauberi — bryson 2007 crotalus lepidus klauberi — love 2011 crotalus lepidus klauberi — monzel 2012 crotalus lepidus klauberi — werning 2012 crotalus lepidus klauberi — weima 2013 crotalus lepidus maculosus tanner , dixon & harris 1972 crotalus lepidus maculosus tanner , dixon & harris 1972 crotalus lepidus maculosus — liner 1994 crotalus lepidus maculossus — welch 1994 : 47 ( in error ) crotalus lepidus maculosus — beaman & hayes 2008
comparison of venom composition and biological activities of the subspecies crotalus lepidus lepidus , crotalus lepidus klauberi and crotalus lepidu . . . - pubmed - ncbi
crotalus lepidus morulus klauber 1952 : 52 crotalus lepidus morulus — liner 1994 crotalus lepidus morulus — bryson 2007 crotalus morulus — bryson et al . 2014 crotalus morulus — terán - juárez et al 2016
these are relatively small rattlesnakes . crotalus oreganus was included in crotalus viridis until recently ( see crotalus viridis account ) .
comparison of venom composition and biological activities of the subspecies crotalus lepidus lepidus , c . l . klauberi and c . l . morulus from mexico .
venom phenotypes of the rock rattlesnake ( crotalus lepidus ) and the ridge - nosed rattlesnake ( crotalus willardi ) from méxico and the united states .
beaupre , s . 1993 . an ecological study of oxygen - consumption in the mottled rock rattlesnake , crotalus - lepidus - lepidus , and the black - tailed rattlesnake , crotalus - molossus - molossus .
venom phenotypes of the rock rattlesnake ( crotalus lepidus ) and the ridge - nosed rattlesnake ( crotalus willardi ) from méxico and the united states . - pubmed - ncbi
liner , e . a . , and a . h . chaney . 1986 . crotalus lepidus lepidus ( mottled rock rattlesnake ) . reproduction . herpetological review 17 ( 4 ) : 89 .
a characteristic distinguishing it quite well ( apart from the livery ) from the crotalus lepidus lepidus is the absence of the typical dark line going , in this last one , from the buccal rima to the eye .
we characterized the venom of three subspecies of c . lepidus complex from mexico .
strimple , pete 1993 . report on the feeding and growth of a juvenile mottled rock rattlesnake , crotalus lepidus lepidus , during three years in captivity . litteratura serpentium 13 ( 3 ) : 89 - 94 - get paper here
velde , hans v . d . 1995 . breeding results : crotalus lepidus klauberi . litteratura serpentium 15 ( 5 ) : 134 - get paper here
goldberg , stephen r . 2000 . reproduction in the rock rattlesnake , crotalus lepidus ( serpentes : viperidae ) . herpetological natural history 7 ( 1 ) : 83 - 86
on these background colours stand out some well spaced bands , of dark colour , black or brown , and , among them , are often spread small dark spots which , however , are never so thick and close as is the case of the subspecies crotalus lepidus lepidus .
goldberg , s . 1999 . reproduction in the blacktail rattlesnake , crotalus molossus .
portrait of a southern pacific rattlesnake ( crotalus viridis helleri ) on white background .
the greatest recorded length for a c . l . lepidus specimen is 775 mm ( boundy , 1995 )
mata - silva , vicente , jerry d . johnson and arturo rocha . 2011 . crotalus lepidus ( rock rattlesnake ) feeding behavior . herpetological review 42 ( 3 ) : 439 - get paper here
desantis , dominic l . , vicente mata - silva and jerry d . johnson . 2015 . crotalus lepidus ( rock rattlesnake ) diet / scavenging . herpetological review 46 ( 2 ) : 268 - 269
gloyd , howard k . 1936 . the subspecies of crotalus lepidus . occasional papers of the museum of zoology , university of michigan ( 337 ) : 1 - 5 + 1 plate - get paper here
mata silva , vicente ,
ecology of the rock rattlesnake , crotalus lepidus , in the northern chihuahuan desert
( 2011 ) . etd collection for university of texas , el paso . aai3489984 . urltoken
beaupre , s . j . 1995 . comparative ecology of the mottled rock rattlesnake , crotalus lepidus , in big ben national park . herpetologica 51 ( 1 ) : 45 - 56 . [ links ]
banda - leal , javier , david lazcano , manuel nevárez - de los reyes and alejandro huereca - delgado . 2015 . crotalus lepidus ( rock rattlesnake ) diet . herpetological review 46 ( 1 ) : 102
1 , 434 crotalus stock photos , vectors , and illustrations are available royalty - free .
beaupre , s . j . 1996 . field metabolic rate , water flux , and energy budgets of mottled rock rattlesnakes , crotalus lepidus , from two populations . copeia 1996 ( 2 ) : 319 - 329 .
51 - swinford , g . w . 1994 . project summary 1991 - 1994 , a continued study of the mottled race of the rock rattlesnake , crotalus lepidus lepidus , in southeastern new mexico currently listed state endangered . share with wildlife , new mexico department of game and fish . contract # 93 - 516 . 6 - 2 . view document
western diamondback bites camera ! ! ! red crotalus atrox a . k . a . blood diamond
tanner , wilmer w . , james r . dixon and herbert s . harris 1972 . a new subspecies of crotalus lepidus from western mexico . great basin naturalist 32 ( 1 ) : 16 - 24 - get paper here
for information on c . lepidus klauberi , which is also found in new mexico , texas , and arizona , see 030174 .
jacob , j . s . , and j . s . altenbach . 1977 . sexual dimorphism in crotalus lepidus klauberi gloyd ( reptilia , serpentes , viperidae ) . journal of herpetology 11 ( 1 ) : 81 - 84 .
johnson , t . b . , and g . s . mills . 1982 . a preliminary report on the status of crotalus lepidus , c . pricei , and c . willardi in southeastern arizona . arizona natural heritage program , phoenix .
mccrystal , h . k . , c . r . schwalbe , and d . f . retes . 1996 . selected aspects of the ecology of the arizona ridge - nosed rattlesnake ( crotalus willardi willardi ) and the banded rock rattlesnake ( crotalus lepidus klauberi ) in arizona . report to the arizona game and fish department , heritage grant iipam 192034 .
the rock rattlesnakes , labelled with the scientific name of crotalus lepidus - kennicott , 1861 , are small viperids ( viperidae ) , afferent to the well known subfamily of the crotalides ( crotalinae ) having an elegant look , as suggested by the latin scientific name , “lepidus” , which , besides being a proper name of the old rome , means something like “graceful” , “elegant” , or “coy” .
carbajal - marquez , rubén alonso and gustavo e . quintero - diaz . 2015 . diet of crotalus lepidus ( serpentes : viperidae ) in mesa montoro , aguascalientes , méxico . revista mexicana de herpetología 1 ( 1 ) : 18–21 - get paper here
( crotalus viridis viridis , ) . paper presented at meeting of the animal behavior society , tucson , az .
christman , b . l . , a . barkalow , r . d . jennings , g . l . hamilton and j . bain 2016 . crotalus lepidus kaluberi ( banded rock rattlesnake ) diet / mortality . herpetological review 47 ( 3 ) : 477 .
the treatments represent the phenotypic extremes of crotalus l . lepidus found in eastern and western regions of west texas ( refer to figure 1a ) . the treatments are ( from left to right ) eastern unblotched , eastern blotched , western unblotched , and western blotched .
natureserve explorer , 2004 .
crotalus molossus
( on - line ) . accessed july 06 , 2004 at urltoken .
great basin rattlesnakes ( crotalus viridis lutosis ) are the only venomous reptiles in most of the great basin desert . night scene
rattlesnake of the reeds . rattlesnakes are a group of venomous snakes of the genera crotalus and sistrurus of the subfamily crotalinae .
tanner , wilmer w . ; dixon , james r . ; and harris , herbert s . jr . ( 1972 )
a new subspecies of crotalus lepidus from western mexico ,
great basin naturalist : vol . 32 : no . 1 , article 2 . available at : urltoken
the northwestern neotropical rattlesnake is characterised by its large size , pronounced vertebral ridge , and a highly potentent venom . crotalus culminatus .
an examination of additional specimens of crotalus lepidus from western durango and the adjacent parts of sinaloa and nayarit have demonstrated the validity of klauber ' s ( 1956 ) suggestion that a new subspecies may occur . the new subspecies ( c . l . maculosus ) is described and compared to other subspecies .
mata - silva , vicente , jerry d . johnson , arturo rocha , and steven dilks 2014 . rainwater - harvesting by the rock rattlesnake , crotalus lepidus , in the chihuahuan desert of western texas . southwestern naturalist jun 2014 , vol . 59 , no . 2 : 303 - 304 . - get paper here
panamint rattlesnake ( crotalus mitchellii stephensi ) under a pinyon pine tree in basin and range national monument , lincoln county , nevada , usa .
geographical distribution of crotalus durissus with stomach contents from central region of brazil covering forest formations of amazon and atlantic forest , caatinga and cerrado .
food composition in individual males , females , newborns and juveniles of crotalus durissus from central region of brazil ( n = 30 snakes ) .
winchell , s . 2007 . klapperschlangen ! die gattung crotalus . reptilia ( münster ) 12 ( 66 ) : 18 - 25 - get paper here
molecular model of snake venom toxin convulxin found in a tropical rattlesnake crotalus durissus terrificus , 3d illustration . this toxin causes blood clot formation after snake bite
echeverrigaray , s . , grazziotin , g . , grazziotin , f . & agostini , g . 2000 . random amplified polymorphisms between two south american subspecies of rattlesnakes ( crotalus durissus collilineatus e crotalus durissus terrificus ) . braz . arch . biol . techn . 313 - 317 . [ links ]
holycross , a . t . , c . w . painter , d . b . prival , d . e . swann , m . t . schroff , t . edwards , and c . r . schwalbe . diet of crotalus lepidus klauberi ( banded rock rattlesnake ) . journal of herpetology 36 ( 4 ) : 589 - 597 .
lepidus : usa ( se new mexico , sw texas ) , ne mexico ( chihuahua [ hr 31 : 113 ] , coahuila ) ; type locality : presidio del norte and eagle pass , texas .
a further odd and interesting characteristic is the longevity of these small viperids : often bigger animals do have a longer life than the small ones , but it is not always the case , and the crotalus lepidus may live up to 25 and more years , third in ranking , among the crotalides , after crotalus atrox and agkistrodon contortrix ( 30 and 29 years respectively ) … . maybe thanks to its retired and monastic life , as a hermit of the mountains , little prone to the stress and lover of its own privacy .
models were placed in the eastern region on limestone rocks and western region on volcanic rocks ( refer to figure 1a ) during the course of the predation study . the upper graph ( a ) is showing the proportion of attacks on models that mimicked the coloration of crotalus l . lepidus from the eastern region . the lower graph ( b ) is showing the proportion of attacks on models that mimicked the coloration of c . l . lepidus from the western region . the x - axis indicates the type of damage the models sustained as either avian attacks or non - predator disturbances .
the western diamondback rattlesnake or texas diamond - back ( crotalus atrox ) is a venomous rattlesnake species found in southwestern united states , mexico . likely responsible for snakebite fatalities
food item , ameiva ameiva , recorded in the stomach of a female crotalus durissus . specimen deposited in the coleção herpetológica da universidade de brasília ( chunb 49673 ) .
to cite this page : desai , m . 2004 .
crotalus molossus
( on - line ) , animal diversity web . accessed july 09 , 2018 at urltoken
clark , r . w . 2002 . diet of the timber rattlesnake crotalus horridus . j . herpetol . 36 ( 3 ) : 494 - 499 . [ links ]
prival , d . b . , and j . p . porter . 2016 . rock rattlesnake crotalus lepidus ( kennicott 1861 ) . pages 433 - 459 in g . w . schuett , m . j . feldner , c . f . smith , and r . s . reiserer ( eds ) . 2016 . rattlesnakes of arizona , volume 1 . eco herpetological publishing , rodeo , nm .
prival , d . b . 2008 . morphology , reproduction , and habitat use of a northern population of banded rock rattlesnakes , crotalus lepidus klauberi . pages 431 - 440 in w . k . hayes , k . r . beaman , m . d . cardwell , and s . p . bush ( editors ) , the biology of rattlesnakes . loma linda university press , loma linda , california .
i was interested to here your description of color variants to c . l . klauberi . i have seen specimens at the arizona sonora desert museum and also have been on trips to the chiricahuas and huachucas where we collected them on talus slopes . all of these specimens were green . at the museum and in the snakes of arizona by fowlie , crotalus lepidus klauberi is referred to as the green rock rattlesnake .
such small litters mean that although c . l . lepidus breeds every year , it still has a low reproductive rate . most young are born in mid - to late summer , 8 to 10 after mating ( tennant , 1984 )
holycross , a . t . , painter , c . w . , prival , d . v . , shawnn , d . e . , schroff , m . j . , edwards , t . & schwalbe , c . r . 2002 . diet of crotalus lepidus klauberi ( banded rock rattlesnake ) . j . herpetol . 36 ( 4 ) : 589 - 597 . urltoken ; 2 [ links ]
crotalus molossus is a venomous pit viper species found in the southwestern united states and mexico . common names : black - tailed rattlesnake , green rattler , northern black - tailed rattlesnake .
borja , miguel ; david lazcano , gerardo martínez - romero , jesús morlett , elda sánchez , ana c . cepeda - nieto , yolanda garza - garcía , and alejandro zugasti - cruz 2013 . intra - specific variation in the protein composition and proteolytic activity of venom of crotalus lepidus morulus from the northeast of mexico . copeia dec 2013 , vol . 2013 , no . 4 : 707 - 716 . - get paper here
big curve creepy viperidae crotalus asp serpentine on white backdrop . outline black ink hand drawn zoo pictogram emblem logo sketchy in art retro doodle style pen on paper space for text . closeup view
hoser , r . 2009 . a reclassification of the rattlesnakes ; species formerly exclusively referred to the genera crotalus and sistrurus . australasian j . herpetol . 3 : 1 - 21 - get paper here
late pleistocene and holocene snakes from the great basin and the colorado plateau include the genus , crotalus , and the species , c . viridis ( mead and bell , 1994 ) * 34 * .
macarthney , j . m . 1989 . diet of the northern pacific rattlesnake , crotalus viridis oreganus , in british columbia . herpetologica 45 ( 3 ) : 299 - 304 . urltoken [ links ]
santos , s . m . & germano , v . j . 1996 . crotalus durissus ( neotropical rattlesnake ) prey . herpetol . rev . 27 ( 3 ) : 143 . [ links ]
considering data to other viperids ( sawaya et al . 2008 ; marques et al . 2009 ; barbo et al . 2011 ) the frequency of individuals of crotalus durissus with prey in the stomach was low .
the specific name apparently comes from the latin word lapidis , meaning
stone ,
in reference to the snakes ' affinity for living in rocky terrain , or perhaps from the latin adjective lepidus , meaning
pleasant or charming
( lemos - espinal & dixon 2013 ) .
pifano , f . & rodriguez - acosta , a . 1996 . ecological niche and redescription of crotalus vegrandis ( serpentes : crotalidae ) in venezuela . brenesia 45 - 46 : 169 - 175 . [ links ]
ty - jour ti - a new subspecies of crotalus lepidus from western mexico t2 - the great basin naturalist . vl - 32 ur - urltoken pb - m . l . bean life science museum , brigham young university , cy - provo , utah : py - 1972 sp - 16 ep - 24 do - 10 . 5962 / bhl . part . 25765 sn - 0017 - 3614 au - tanner , w w au - dixon , j r au - harris , h s er -
hoyos , m . a . 2012 . a cascavel neotropical crotalus durissus : uma abordagem morfológica e da história natural em populações do brasil . tese de doutorado , universidade de são paulo , são paulo . [ links ]
wüster , w . & bérnils , r . s . 2011 . on the generic classification of the rattlesnakes , with special reference to the neotropical crotalus durissus complex ( squamata : viperidae ) . zoologia 28 ( 4 ) : 417–419
the head of the lepidus is triangular and distinct from the neck , also if less evidently than what happens in other crotalides , the eye has elliptic and vertical pupil , and , in fact , this serpent is of mainly crepuscular and nocturnal habits , even if it may be met during the day .
tozetti , a . m . , & martins , m . 2008 . habitat use by the south - american rattlesnake ( crotalus durissus ) in southeastern brazil . journal of natural history 42 : 1435 - 1444 . urltoken [ links ]
collection sites with voucher numbers of studied specimens of crotalus durissus and stomach contents from central region of brazil . chunb , coleção herpetológica da universidade de brasília ; ibsp , instituto butantan ; mzusp , museu de zoologia da universidade de são paulo .
diller , l . v . & wallace , r . l . 1996 . comparative ecology of two snake species ( crotalus viridis and pituophis melanoleucus ) in southwestern idaho . herpetologica 52 ( 3 ) : 343 - 360 . urltoken [ links ]
sant ' anna , s . & abe a . s . 2007 . diet of the rattlesnake crotalus durissus in southeastern brazil ( serpentes , viperidae ) . stud . neotrop . fauna e . 42 ( 3 ) : 169 - 174 . urltoken [ links ]
beaupre , s . j . , duvall , d . & o ' leile , j . 1998 . ontogenetic variation in growth and sexual size dimorphism in a central arizona population of the western diamondback rattlesnake ( crotalus atrox ) . copeia 1 : 40 - 47 . [ links ]
bryson jr , robert w . ; robert w . murphy , amy lathrop and david lazcano - villareal 2011 . evolutionary drivers of phylogeographical diversity in the highlands of mexico : a case study of the crotalus triseriatus species group of montane rattlesnakes . journal of biogeography 38 : 697–710 - get paper here
salomão , m . g . , almeida - santos , s . m . & puorto , g . 1995 . activity pattern of crotalus durissus ( viperidae , crotalinae ) : feeding , reproduction and snakebite . stud . neotrop . fauna e . 30 ( 2 ) : 101 - 106 [ links ]
prairie rattlesnakes ( crotalus viridis ) exhibited a sustained high rate of tongue flicking after a predatory strike whether or not rodent odors were present in the poststrike environment . for the lizard specialist , c . pricei , strike - induced chemosensory searching was maintained at a high level only when chemical cues were available following the strike .
campbell , j . a . , e . d . brodie , jr . , d . g . barker , and a . h . price . 1989 . an apparent natural hybrid rattlesnake and crotalus willardi ( viperidae ) from the peloncillo mountains of southwestern new mexico . herpetologica 45 ( 3 ) : 344 - 349 .
northern populations of black - tailed rattlesnakes recently have been recognized as actually consisting of two species , crotalus molossus and c . ornatus ( anderson and greenbaum 2012 ) . populations west of southwestern new mexico are recognized as c . molossus , but relatively little change in the boundary would put c . ornatus into the california wash area .
the herpetologist james bear , tragically passed away in 2008 due to the bite of a crotalus horridus , reported the following variants : in the chiricahua zone , a marbled or mottled livery with silver and black shades , a black predominance on the franklin mountains , whilst other specimens show light blue , or lavender , or pink or green colours .
the south - american rattlesnake crotalus durissus , is restricted to south america ( campbell & lamar 2004 ) and has a discontinuous distribution ( wüster et al . 2005 ) from colombia to argentina ( vanzolini et al . 1980 ) . some populations exhibit considerable ecological variation , with closeby populations differing greatly from each other ( campbell & lamar , 2004 ) .
a free - ranging specimen of crotalus durissus unicolor on aruba island was observed after striking rodent prey ( calomys hummelincki ) and after no - strike presentations . strike - induced chemosensory searching and trail following were seen after strikes . when a chemical trail was not present following a strike , the snake searched extensively near its refuge , but never emerged from it .
prival , d . b . , goode , m . j . , swann , d . e . , schwalbe , c . r . & schroff , m . j . 2002 . natural history of a northern population of twin - spotted rattlesnakes , crotalus pricei . j . herpetol . 36 ( 4 ) : 598 - 607 . urltoken ; 2 [ links ]
the venom , besides the cytotoxins , which cause skin and muscular necrosis , has an haemotoxic action , with possible seemingly paradoxical and opposite phenomena of haemorrhages and thrombosis , but it has also neurotoxins which , even if not so much strong as in other species of rattlesnakes ( crotalus durissus o cascavel ) and of many elapids , may worsen the symptoms and cause breathing and cardiac problems .
wüster , w . , ferguson , j . e . , quijada - mascareñas , j . a . , pook , c . e . & salomão , m . d . 2005 . tracing an invasion : landbridges , refugia , and the phylogeography of the neotropical rattlesnake ( serpentes : viperidae : crotalus durissus ) . mol . ecol . 14 ( 4 ) : 1095 - 1108 . urltoken [ links ]
bryson , robert w . ; jr . , charles w . linkem , michael e . dorcas , amy lathrop , jason m . jones , javier alvarado - díaz , christoph i . grünwald & robert w . murphy 2014 . multilocus species delimitation in the crotalus triseriatus species group ( serpentes : viperidae : crotalinae ) , with the description of two new species . zootaxa 3826 ( 3 ) : 475–496 - get paper here
quijada - mascareñas , j . a . , ferguson , j . e . , pook , c . e . , salomão , m . g . , thorpe , r . s . & wüster , w . 2007 . phylogeographic patterns of trans - amazonian vicariants and amazonian biogeography : the neotropical rattlesnake ( crotalus durissus complex ) as an example . j . biogeogr . 34 : 1296 - 1312 . urltoken [ links ]
each of 10 prairie rattlesnakes ( crotalus viridis ) was exposed to three types of trails after striking rodent prey ( mus musculus ) . one trail was made with mouse urine , another was made with tap water , and the third consisted of materials from mouse integument . the snakes exhibited trailing behavior only when integumentary trails were available . it was concluded that prairie rattlesnakes do not utilize urinary cues ; instead they attend to materials associated with rodent skin and fur .
the copperhead and cottonmouth occur only east of our region . however , the region hosts a large number of species of rattlesnake , all of which are placed in the genus crotalus except for the massasauga ( sistrurus catenatus ) . although crotalid vertebrae are distinctive from those of other snakes of our region , few if any species are identifiable with certainty on the basis of vertebrae . although there are differences in adult size among the species , this seldom is conclusive in identification .
all food items were removed from the stomach and identified to the lowest possible taxonomic level . each of the contents was deposited in a glass container with the same identification number as the specimen ( voucher number ) . the intestinal content was determined while taking into account the type of food residue . in addition , available literature records of prey were included in this study , which analyzed the food composition for crotalus durissus from southeastern brazil ( santos & germano 1996 ; sant ' anna & abe 2007 ) .
2013 : rattlesnakes , primarily of the genus crotalus , are harvested in rattlesnake round - ups for the meat and skin trade * 54 * . 2013 : although the effect of snake harvest on some local populations should be taken seriously , the numbers are not nearly as staggering as the number of snakes lost to road mortality * 54 * . 2016 : as the climate changes this species’ range is predicted to decrease by 4 % by 2039 and 8 % by 2099 from its current range * 53 * .
mammal specialization may be related to several life history strategies ( martins et al . 2002 ) . in some species of pitvipers , it could be associated with the increased venom toxicity in juveniles ; this may be a consequence of the need to immobilize larger prey such as a mammal ( andrade & abe 1999 ) . furthermore , the adoption of a juvenile diet based on mammals is more profitable energetically than an ecthothermic diet ( martins et al . 2002 ) . in crotalus durissus populations , the low frequency of ectothermic prey could explain such eventual facts .
we placed 40 models in each of the twelve sites to test the prediction that selective predation maintains the color polymorphism in snakes . we had 10 replicates of each combination of color and blotching per site ( = 480 total models ) . models were left in place for a period of 14 d . we secured individual models to rocks with adhesive backed velcro® at approximately 10 m intervals within typical c . l . lepidus habitat . where possible , models were placed along a single linear transect ( all following the edge of a cliff ) ; and multiple transects were used to accommodate all 40 models when a single linear transect was not possible ( multiple transects stacked above the cliff edge ) . models were randomly placed on rocks with the lowest amount of overhead obstruction ( vegetation , large rock formations , etc . ) as possible .
patrones de alimentación fueron investigados en la composición de la dieta de 452 ejemplares de crotalus durissus de brasil central . treinta y tres ítems fueron registrados , correspondientes a cuatro categorías : roedores ( 75 . 76 % ) , marsupiales ( 6 . 6 % ) , mamíferos no identificados ( 9 . 09 % ) y reptiles ( 9 . 09 % ) . los adultos de ambos sexos e individuos jóvenes se alimentaron básicamente de mamíferos , en específico de roedores , esta es la presa más activa y abundante durante todo el año , principalmente en las áreas de cerrado . además fue observado que en c . durissus existe una tendencia a que la dieta de las hembras sea más diversa , factor que podría estar relacionado a las diferencias sexuales que implican diferentes estrategias de alimentación en la biología de esta serpiente cascabel .
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home » resources » categories and criteria » 2001 iucn red list categories and criteria version 3 . 1
see below for the rules and requirements outlined in the iucn red list categories and criteria . version 3 . 1 ( second edition ) . for translations of this document into other languages , click here .
the iucn red list categories and criteria are intended to be an easily and widely understood system for classifying species at high risk of global extinction . the general aim of the system is to provide an explicit , objective framework for the classification of the broadest range of species according to their extinction risk . however , while the red list may focus attention on those taxa at the highest risk , it is not the sole means of setting priorities for conservation measures for their protection .
extensive consultation and testing in the development of the system strongly suggest that it is robust across most organisms . however , it should be noted that although the system places species into the threatened categories with a high degree of consistency , the criteria do not take into account the life histories of every species . hence , in certain individual cases , the risk of extinction may be under - or over - estimated .
before 1994 the more subjective threatened species categories used in iucn red data books and red lists had been in place , with some modification , for almost 30 years . although the need to revise the categories had long been recognized ( fitter and fitter 1987 ) , the current phase of development only began in 1989 following a request from the iucn species survival commission ( ssc ) steering committee to develop a more objective approach . the iucn council adopted the new red list system in 1994 .
to give people using threatened species lists a better understanding of how individual species were classified .
since their adoption by iucn council in 1994 , the iucn red list categories have become widely recognized internationally , and they are now used in a range of publications and listings produced by iucn , as well as by numerous governmental and non - governmental organizations . such broad and extensive use revealed the need for a number of improvements , and ssc was mandated by the 1996 world conservation congress ( wcc res . 1 . 4 ) to conduct a review of the system ( iucn 1996 ) . this document presents the revisions accepted by the iucn council .
the proposals presented in this document result from a continuing process of drafting , consultation and validation . the production of a large number of draft proposals has led to some confusion , especially as each draft has been used for classifying some set of species for conservation purposes . to clarify matters , and to open the way for modifications as and when they become necessary , a system for version numbering has been adopted as follows :
version 1 . 0 : mace and lande ( 1991 ) the first paper discussing a new basis for the categories , and presenting numerical criteria especially relevant for large vertebrates .
version 2 . 0 : mace et al . ( 1992 ) a major revision of version 1 . 0 , including numerical criteria appropriate to all organisms and introducing the non - threatened categories .
version 2 . 1 : iucn ( 1993 ) following an extensive consultation process within ssc , a number of changes were made to the details of the criteria , and fuller explanation of basic principles was included . a more explicit structure clarified the significance of the non - threatened categories .
version 2 . 2 : mace and stuart ( 1994 ) following further comments received and additional validation exercises , some minor changes to the criteria were made . in addition , the susceptible category present in versions 2 . 0 and 2 . 1 was subsumed into the vulnerable category . a precautionary application of the system was emphasised .
version 2 . 3 : iucn ( 1994 ) iucn council adopted this version , which incorporated changes as a result of comments from iucn members , in december 1994 . the initial version of this document was published without the necessary bibliographic details , such as date of publication and isbn number , but these were included in the subsequent reprints in 1998 and 1999 . this version was used for the 1996 iucn red list of threatened animals ( baillie and groombridge 1996 ) , the world list of threatened trees ( oldfield et al 1998 ) and the 2000 iucn red list of threatened species ( hilton - taylor 2000 ) .
version 3 . 0 : iucn / ssc criteria review working group ( 1999 ) following comments received , a series of workshops were convened to look at the iucn red list criteria following which , changes were proposed affecting the criteria , the definitions of some key terms and the handling of uncertainty .
version 3 . 1 : iucn ( 2001 ) the iucn council adopted this latest version , which incorporated changes as a result of comments from the iucn and ssc memberships and from a final meeting of the criteria review working group , in february 2000 .
all new assessments from january 2001 should use the latest adopted version and cite the year of publication and version number .
in the rest of this document , the proposed system is outlined in several sections . section ii , the preamble , presents basic information about the context and structure of the system , and the procedures that are to be followed in applying the criteria to species . section iii provides definitions of key terms used . section iv presents the categories , while section v details the quantitative criteria used for classification within the threatened categories . annex i provides guidance on how to deal with uncertainty when applying the criteria ; annex ii suggests a standard format for citing the red list categories and criteria ; and annex iii outlines the documentation requirements for taxa to be included on iucn ' s global red lists . it is important for the effective functioning of the system that all sections are read and understood to ensure that the definitions and rules are followed .
the information in this section is intended to direct and facilitate the use and interpretation of the categories ( critically endangered , endangered , etc . ) , criteria ( a to e ) , and subcriteria ( 1 , 2 , etc . ; a , b , etc . ; i , ii , etc . ) .
extinction is a chance process . thus , a listing in a higher extinction risk category implies a higher expectation of extinction , and over the time - frames specified more taxa listed in a higher category are expected to go extinct than those in a lower one ( without effective conservation action ) . however , the persistence of some taxa in high - risk categories does not necessarily mean their initial assessment was inaccurate .
all taxa listed as critically endangered qualify for vulnerable and endangered , and all listed as endangered qualify for vulnerable . together these categories are described as ' threatened ' . the threatened categories form a part of the overall scheme . it will be possible to place all taxa into one of the categories ( see figure 1 ) .
for listing as critically endangered , endangered or vulnerable there is a range of quantitative criteria ; meeting any one of these criteria qualifies a taxon for listing at that level of threat . each taxon should be evaluated against all the criteria . even though some criteria will be inappropriate for certain taxa ( some taxa will never qualify under these however close to extinction they come ) , there should be criteria appropriate for assessing threat levels for any taxon . the relevant factor is whether any one criterion is met , not whether all are appropriate or all are met . because it will never be clear in advance which criteria are appropriate for a particular taxon , each taxon should be evaluated against all the criteria , and all criteria met at the highest threat category must be listed .
the different criteria ( a - e ) are derived from a wide review aimed at detecting risk factors across the broad range of organisms and the diverse life histories they exhibit . the quantitative values presented in the various criteria associated with threatened categories were developed through wide consultation , and they are set at what are generally judged to be appropriate levels , even if no formal justification for these values exists . the levels for different criteria within categories were set independently but against a common standard . broad consistency between them was sought .
the criteria for the threatened categories are to be applied to a taxon whatever the level of conservation action affecting it . it is important to emphasise here that a taxon may require conservation action even if it is not listed as threatened . conservation actions which may benefit the taxon are included as part of the documentation requirements ( see annex 3 ) .
taxa at risk from threats posed by future events of low probability but with severe consequences ( catastrophes ) should be identified by the criteria ( e . g . small distributions , few locations ) . some threats need to be identified particularly early , and appropriate actions taken , because their effects are irreversible or nearly so ( e . g . , pathogens , invasive organisms , hybridization ) .
the data used to evaluate taxa against the criteria are often estimated with considerable uncertainty . such uncertainty can arise from any one or all of the following three factors : natural variation , vagueness in the terms and definitions used , and measurement error . the way in which this uncertainty is handled can have a strong influence on the results of an evaluation . details of methods recommended for handling uncertainty are included in annex 1 , and assessors are encouraged to read and follow these principles .
in general , when uncertainty leads to wide variation in the results of assessments , the range of possible outcomes should be specified . a single category must be chosen and the basis for the decision should be documented ; it should be both precautionary and credible .
when data are very uncertain , the category of ' data deficient ' may be assigned . however , in this case the assessor must provide documentation showing that this category has been assigned because data are inadequate to determine a threat category . it is important to recognize that taxa that are poorly known can often be assigned a threat category on the basis of background information concerning the deterioration of their habitat and / or other causal factors ; therefore the liberal use of ' data deficient ' is discouraged .
listing in the categories of not evaluated and data deficient indicates that no assessment of extinction risk has been made , though for different reasons . until such time as an assessment is made , taxa listed in these categories should not be treated as if they were non - threatened . it may be appropriate ( especially for data deficient forms ) to give them the same degree of attention as threatened taxa , at least until their status can be assessed .
all assessments should be documented . threatened classifications should state the criteria and subcriteria that were met . no assessment can be accepted for the iucn red list as valid unless at least one criterion is given . if more than one criterion or subcriterion is met , then each should be listed . if a re - evaluation indicates that the documented criterion is no longer met , this should not result in automatic reassignment to a lower category of threat ( downlisting ) . instead , the taxon should be re - evaluated against all the criteria to clarify its status . the factors responsible for qualifying the taxon against the criteria , especially where inference and projection are used , should be documented ( see annexes 2 and 3 ) . the documentation requirements for other categories are also specified in annex 3 .
the category of threat is not necessarily sufficient to determine priorities for conservation action . the category of threat simply provides an assessment of the extinction risk under current circumstances , whereas a system for assessing priorities for action will include numerous other factors concerning conservation action such as costs , logistics , chances of success , and other biological characteristics of the subject .
re - evaluation of taxa against the criteria should be carried out at appropriate intervals . this is especially important for taxa listed under near threatened , data deficient and for threatened taxa whose status is known or suspected to be deteriorating .
a taxon may be moved from a category of higher threat to a category of lower threat if none of the criteria of the higher category has been met for five years or more .
if the original classification is found to have been erroneous , the taxon may be transferred to the appropriate category or removed from the threatened categories altogether , without delay ( but see point 10 above ) .
the term ' population ' is used in a specific sense in the red list criteria that is different to its common biological usage . population is here defined as the total number of individuals of the taxon . for functional reasons , primarily owing to differences between life forms , population size is measured as numbers of mature individuals only . in the case of taxa obligately dependent on other taxa for all or part of their life cycles , biologically appropriate values for the host taxon should be used .
subpopulations are defined as geographically or otherwise distinct groups in the population between which there is little demographic or genetic exchange ( typically one successful migrant individual or gamete per year or less ) .
the number of mature individuals is the number of individuals known , estimated or inferred to be capable of reproduction . when estimating this quantity , the following points should be borne in mind :
mature individuals that will never produce new recruits should not be counted ( e . g . densities are too low for fertilization ) .
in the case of populations with biased adult or breeding sex ratios , it is appropriate to use lower estimates for the number of mature individuals , which take this into account .
where the population size fluctuates , use a lower estimate . in most cases this will be much less than the mean .
reproducing units within a clone should be counted as individuals , except where such units are unable to survive alone ( e . g . corals ) .
in the case of taxa that naturally lose all or a subset of mature individuals at some point in their life cycle , the estimate should be made at the appropriate time , when mature individuals are available for breeding .
re - introduced individuals must have produced viable offspring before they are counted as mature individuals .
generation length is the average age of parents of the current cohort ( i . e . newborn individuals in the population ) . generation length therefore reflects the turnover rate of breeding individuals in a population . generation length is greater than the age at first breeding and less than the age of the oldest breeding individual , except in taxa that breed only once . where generation length varies under threat , the more natural , i . e . pre - disturbance , generation length should be used .
a reduction is a decline in the number of mature individuals of at least the amount ( % ) stated under the criterion over the time period ( years ) specified , although the decline need not be continuing . a reduction should not be interpreted as part of a fluctuation unless there is good evidence for this . the downward phase of a fluctuation will not normally count as a reduction .
a continuing decline is a recent , current or projected future decline ( which may be smooth , irregular or sporadic ) which is liable to continue unless remedial measures are taken . fluctuations will not normally count as continuing declines , but an observed decline should not be considered as a fluctuation unless there is evidence for this .
extreme fluctuations can be said to occur in a number of taxa when population size or distribution area varies widely , rapidly and frequently , typically with a variation greater than one order of magnitude ( i . e . a tenfold increase or decrease ) .
the phrase ' severely fragmented ' refers to the situation in which increased extinction risk to the taxon results from the fact that most of its individuals are found in small and relatively isolated subpopulations ( in certain circumstances this may be inferred from habitat information ) . these small subpopulations may go extinct , with a reduced probability of recolonization .
extent of occurrence is defined as the area contained within the shortest continuous imaginary boundary which can be drawn to encompass all the known , inferred or projected sites of present occurrence of a taxon , excluding cases of vagrancy ( see figure 2 ) . this measure may exclude discontinuities or disjunctions within the overall distributions of taxa ( e . g . large areas of obviously unsuitable habitat ) ( but see ' area of occupancy ' , point 10 below ) . extent of occurrence can often be measured by a minimum convex polygon ( the smallest polygon in which no internal angle exceeds 180 degrees and which contains all the sites of occurrence ) .
figure 2 . two examples of the distinction between extent of occurrence and area of occupancy . ( a ) is the spatial distribution of known , inferred or projected sites of present occurrence . ( b ) shows one possible boundary to the extent of occurrence , which is the measured area within this boundary . ( c ) shows one measure of area of occupancy which can be achieved by the sum of the occupied grid squares .
the term ' location ' defines a geographically or ecologically distinct area in which a single threatening event can rapidly affect all individuals of the taxon present . the size of the location depends on the area covered by the threatening event and may include part of one or many subpopulations . where a taxon is affected by more than one threatening event , location should be defined by considering the most serious plausible threat .
a quantitative analysis is defined here as any form of analysis which estimates the extinction probability of a taxon based on known life history , habitat requirements , threats and any specified management options . population viability analysis ( pva ) is one such technique . quantitative analyses should make full use of all relevant available data . in a situation in which there is limited information , such data as are available can be used to provide an estimate of extinction risk ( for instance , estimating the impact of stochastic events on habitat ) . in presenting the results of quantitative analyses , the assumptions ( which must be appropriate and defensible ) , the data used and the uncertainty in the data or quantitative model must be documented .
extinct ( ex ) a taxon is extinct when there is no reasonable doubt that the last individual has died . a taxon is presumed extinct when exhaustive surveys in known and / or expected habitat , at appropriate times ( diurnal , seasonal , annual ) , throughout its historic range have failed to record an individual . surveys should be over a time frame appropriate to the taxon ' s life cycle and life form .
extinct in the wild ( ew ) a taxon is extinct in the wild when it is known only to survive in cultivation , in captivity or as a naturalized population ( or populations ) well outside the past range . a taxon is presumed extinct in the wild when exhaustive surveys in known and / or expected habitat , at appropriate times ( diurnal , seasonal , annual ) , throughout its historic range have failed to record an individual . surveys should be over a time frame appropriate to the taxon ' s life cycle and life form .
critically endangered ( cr ) a taxon is critically endangered when the best available evidence indicates that it meets any of the criteria a to e for critically endangered ( see section v ) , and it is therefore considered to be facing an extremely high risk of extinction in the wild .
endangered ( en ) a taxon is endangered when the best available evidence indicates that it meets any of the criteria a to e for endangered ( see section v ) , and it is therefore considered to be facing a very high risk of extinction in the wild .
vulnerable ( vu ) a taxon is vulnerable when the best available evidence indicates that it meets any of the criteria a to e for vulnerable ( see section v ) , and it is therefore considered to be facing a high risk of extinction in the wild .
near threatened ( nt ) a taxon is near threatened when it has been evaluated against the criteria but does not qualify for critically endangered , endangered or vulnerable now , but is close to qualifying for or is likely to qualify for a threatened category in the near future .
least concern ( lc ) a taxon is least concern when it has been evaluated against the criteria and does not qualify for critically endangered , endangered , vulnerable or near threatened . widespread and abundant taxa are included in this category .
not evaluated ( ne ) a taxon is not evaluated when it is has not yet been evaluated against the criteria .
note : as in previous iucn categories , the abbreviation of each category ( in parenthesis ) follows the english denominations when translated into other languages ( see annex 2 ) .
( e ) the effects of introduced taxa , hybridization , pathogens , pollutants , competitors or parasites .
e . quantitative analysis showing the probability of extinction in the wild is at least 50 % within 10 years or three generations , whichever is the longer ( up to a maximum of 100 years ) .