whiteleg shrimp ( litopenaeus vannamei , formerly penaeus vannamei ) , also known as pacific white shrimp , king prawn , is a variety of prawn of the eastern pacific ocean commonly caught or farmed for food .

whiteleg shrimp

the most common species substitution was farmed whiteleg shrimp ( l . vannamei ) sold as “wild” shrimp and “gulf” shrimp ;
whiteleg shrimp ( vannamei ) output to cross 4 . 5 lakh tonnes in 2017
en - whiteleg shrimp , fr - crevette pattes blanches , sp - camarón patiblanco .
this guide from the fao cultured aquatic species information programme provides information on farming whiteleg shrimp .
proteasome properties of hemocytes differ between the whiteleg shrimp penaeus vannamei and the brown shrimp crangon crangon ( crustacea , decapoda ) .
proteasome properties of hemocytes differ between the whiteleg shrimp penaeus vannamei and the brown shrimp crangon crangon ( crustacea , decapoda ) . - pubmed - ncbi
india’s whiteleg shrimp or vannamei output is expected to see an overall 10 per cent growth hike over 2015 - 16 .
kitani h , 1993 . morphology of postlarvae of the whiteleg shrimp penaeus vannamei . nippon suisan gakkaishi , 59 ( 2 ) : 223 - 227 .
this species is native to the eastern pacific ocean - ranging from mexico to peru . whiteleg can be found on muddy bottoms at depths of 0 – 240 feet .
whiteleg shrimp is native to the pacific ocean and is farmed in central and south america as well as in asia . our product portfolio includes hatchery diets for the larval and post - larval stages as well as grower and broodstock diets .
rosenberry b , 2003 . world shrimp farming , no . 16 . shrimp news international . san diego , california , usa .
the whiteleg shrimp is native to the eastern pacific coast from sonora , mexico in the north , through central and south america as far south as tumbes in peru , in areas where water temperatures are normally > 20 °c throughout the year .
has led to serious price depression in the international markets . similarly , farm gate value for 15–20 g size whiteleg shrimp has steadily decreased from usd 5 / kg in 2000 to about usd 3 . 0–3 . 5 / kg in 2005 .
› litopenaeus vannamei ( boone , 1931 ) › pacific white shrimp › penaeus ( litopenaeus ) vannamei › penaeus sp . at - 2008 › penaeus vanameii › penaeus vannameii › white pacific shrimp › white shrimp
aquaculture in belize formally began in 1982 with the development of ten acres ( 4 ha ) of experimental ponds by a private company , in the southern part of the country . this initiative was designed to test certain primary production functions of the whiteleg shrimp (
rosenberry b , 1995 . ecuadorian white shrimp prices - - january to november 1994 . shrimp news international , 20 ( 1 ) : 24 .
aquaculture in belize formally began in 1982 with the development of ten ( 10 ) acres ( 4 ha ) of experimental ponds by a private company , in the south of the country . this initiative was designed to test certain primary production functions of the whiteleg shrimp (
most mislabeling relates to whether the shrimp was caught in the wild , a problem that cuts both ways—either saying shrimp is wild - caught when it ' s not , or failing to say it ' s wild - caught when it is . according to warner , one of the most common instances of mislabeling was for farmed whiteleg shrimp to be passed off as wild - caught , especially as wild - caught from the gulf .
cite as : «volstorf , jenny . 2018 . pacific whiteleg shrimp ( findings ) . in : fishethobase , ed . fishethobase research group . world wide web electronic publication . version 1 . 22 . www . fishethobase . fair - fish . net . » © fair - fish international
lightner dv , 1996 . a handbook of shrimp pathology and diagnostic procedure for diseases of cultured penaeid shrimp . world aquaculture society , baton rouge , la .
replacement of non - environmental friendly and costly fishmeal and artemia in shrimp feeds .
matsuda , keishi , and marcy n . wilder . 2010 . difference in light perception capability and spectral response between juveniles and sub - adults of the whiteleg shrimp litopenaeus vannamei as determined by electroretinogram . fisheries science 76 : 633–641 . doi : 10 . 1007 / s12562 - 010 - 0253 - 3 .
aparicio - simón , benjamin , manuel piñón , radu racotta , and ilie s . racotta . 2010 . neuroendocrine and metabolic responses of pacific whiteleg shrimp litopenaeus vannamei exposed to acute handling stress . aquaculture 298 : 308–314 . doi : 10 . 1016 / j . aquaculture . 2009 . 10 . 016 .
shrimp is displayed for sale in galveston , texas , in 2010 . americans eat 3 . 8 pounds of shrimp per capita , more than any other seafood item .
by 2012 , 89 percent of the shrimp consumed in the u . s . was imported . most of the domestically produced shrimp is caught in 19 states , with 70 percent coming from the gulf of mexico . about 21 percent comes from the pacific northwest in the form of smaller coldwater shrimp , often called
ocean shrimp .
shrimp are highly resilient to overfishing because they have a short lifespan , are fast growers and produce many young . farmed whiteleg shrimp have been ranked on the “avoid” list by environmental organizations . this ranking is due to pollution including - nutrient effluent discharge , use of banned antibiotics and habitat degradation . in addition - depending on the country - management practices are sometimes non - existent or poorly enforced .
nicaragua : white shrimp ( this name is used for all species of litopenaeus ) .
ecuador : white shrimp ( this name is used for all species of litopenaeus ) .
moss sm , 1998 . proceedings us marine shrimp farming biosecurity workshop . usmsfp publications .
zhang , peidong , xiumei zhang , jian li , and guoqiang huang . 2006 . swimming ability and physiological response to swimming fatigue in whiteleg shrimp , litopenaeus vannamei . comparative biochemistry and physiology part a : molecular integrative physiology 145 : 26–32 . doi : 10 . 1016 / j . cbpa . 2006 . 04 . 014 .
while also suggesting two additional principles to be considered by the noc committee , the southern shrimp alliance’s comments included a presentation to noaa’s office of international affairs and seafood inspection titled “overview of fraud in shrimp trade . ” this presentation provided a broad overview of historical issues confronted by the domestic shrimp industry regarding competition with falsely labeled and fraudulently - traded imported shrimp .
costa rica : white shrimp ( this name is used for all species of litopenaeus ) .
more than one - third of u . s . shrimp may be mislabeled , study says
according to gavin gibbons , a spokesperson for the national fisheries institute —the leading trade group for the u . s . seafood industry—many shrimp buyers don ' t view wild and farmed shrimp as interchangeable . they may buy some wild shrimp for higher - end uses and farmed shrimp for other uses , and often place specific orders far in advance , depending on market prices .
farm discharges , causing self - pollution in shrimp growing areas as well as viral disease outbreaks .
to meet this growing appetite , the shrimp aquaculture industry has grown dramatically since the 1980s . farmed shrimp usually can be produced for a lower price and generally comes from southeast asia and india .
mercier , laurence , elena palacios , ángel i . campa - córdova , dariel tovar - ramírez , roberto hernández - herrera , and ilie s . racotta . 2006 . metabolic and immune responses in pacific whiteleg shrimp litopenaeus vannamei exposed to a repeated handling stress . aquaculture 258 : 633–640 . doi : 10 . 1016 / j . aquaculture . 2006 . 04 . 036 .
mexico : camarón blanco , white shrimp ( this name is used for all species of litopenaeus ) .
panama : white shrimp ( this name is used for all species of litopenaeus ) , camarón patiblanco .
colombia : white shrimp ( this name is used for all species of litopenaeus ) , camarón café .
national marine fisheries service , 2004 . tokyo wholesale shrimp prices . internet urltoken accessed 30 september 2004 .
yu , xiaoming , xiumei zhang , yan duan , peidong zhang , and zhenqing miao . 2010 . effects of temperature , salinity , body length , and starvation on the critical swimming speed of whiteleg shrimp , litopenaeus vannamei . comparative biochemistry and physiology part a : molecular integrative physiology 157 : 392–397 . doi : 10 . 1016 / j . cbpa . 2010 . 08 . 021 .
introduced species remark in thailand ( nation ) : impacts of shrimp aquaculture are controversial , and include loss of mangroves and other coastal habitat , salinization of groundwater , escape of nonindigenous shrimp species , and spread of viral shrimp diseases ( senanan et al . 2007 ; food and agriculture organization 2011 ) . [ details ]
introduced species remark in venezuela ( nation ) : impacts of shrimp aquaculture are controversial , and include loss of mangroves and other coastal habitat , salinization of groundwater , escape of nonindigenous shrimp species , and spread of viral shrimp diseases ( senanan et al . 2007 ; food and agriculture organization 2011 ) . [ details ]
introduced species remark in india ( nation ) : impacts of shrimp aquaculture are controversial , and include loss of mangroves and other coastal habitat , salinization of groundwater , escape of nonindigenous shrimp species , and spread of viral shrimp diseases ( senanan et al . 2007 ; food and agriculture organization 2011 ) . [ details ]
introduced species remark in china ( nation ) : impacts of shrimp aquaculture are controversial , and include loss of mangroves and other coastal habitat , salinization of groundwater , escape of nonindigenous shrimp species , and spread of viral shrimp diseases ( senanan et al . 2007 ; food and agriculture organization 2011 ) . [ details ]
suppliers of pathology expertise no specific institutes or laboratories named , but shrimp pathology expertise is now readily available .
advances and innovations for managing shrimp diseases speaker : dr . gourav rathore , deputy director , nbfgr , lucknow
mpeda chairman a jayathilak states the coastal shrimp aquaculture production has grown consistently during the last couple of years .
. social conflicts remain , but the shrimp culture industry employs thousands of rural people , who would be far worse off without it . the adoption of more eco - friendly shrimp culture practices should further reduce such conflicts .
if shrimp are sold directly to processing plants , specialized teams for harvesting and handling are commonly used to maintain shrimp quality . after sorting , shrimp are washed , weighed and immediately killed in iced water at 0–4 °c . often sodium metabisulphate is added to the chilled water to prevent melanosis and red - head . shrimp are then kept in ice in insulated containers and transported by truck either to processing plants or domestic shrimp markets . in processing plants , shrimp are placed in iced bins and cleaned and sorted according to standard export sizes . shrimp are processed , quickly frozen at - 10 °c and stored at - 20 °c for export by ship or air cargo . due to an increasing demand , no taxes and higher profit margins , many processing plants operate value - added product lines .
boyd ce , 1989 . water quality management and aeration in shrimp farming . alabama agricultural experiment station , auburn .
hawaii department of agriculture , 2004 . kauai’s ceatech shrimp farm under state quarantine . news release nr04 - 04 .
introduced species remark in united states exclusive economic zone ( eez ) : impacts of shrimp aquaculture are controversial , and include loss of mangroves and other coastal habitat , salinization of groundwater , escape of nonindigenous shrimp species , and spread of viral shrimp diseases ( senanan et al . 2007 ; food and agriculture organization 2011 ) . [ details ]
overall , americans eat 3 . 8 pounds of shrimp per capita , more than any other seafood item . shrimp is now the most highly traded seafood product by value in the u . s . and around the world .
also common , though to an extent that was harder to quantify , was gulf shrimp that was sold simply as
shrimp ,
with no information on the source . she considered that to be a lost marketing opportunity , denying producers the chance to get the price premium that many consumers are willing to pay for wild - caught shrimp .
taw , n . 2005 . indonesia shrimp production . presented in the indonesian shrimp farmers session of world aquaculture 2005 , may 9–13 , 2005 , nusa dua , bali , indonesia . charoen pokphand , jakarta indonesia . 18 pp .
the situation is different for farmed shrimp , however . most foreign farmed shrimp is on monterey bay aquarium ' s
avoid
list because of concerns about habitat destruction , overfishing of other organisms to serve as feed , waste pollution , spread of diseases , and overuse of chemical treatments . some shrimp farmers in thailand have even been linked to human trafficking .
fox jm ; treece gd , 2000 . shrimp nutrition and feed management . in : haws mc , boyd ce , eds . methods for improvement of shrimp farming in central america . managua , nicaragua : uca press , 65 - 90 .
the close relation between skretting and farmers helps the farmers achieve their goals . watch our video from shrimp farming in vietnam .
each were paired in glass aquaria with a 0 . 5 g - piece of fresh shrimp meat put in the middle .
) , the husbandry of other penaeid species has also been attempted in belize . these include the exotic pacific blue shrimp (
concluding that wild - caught shrimp imports from mexico , amongst other products , carried “particularly high levels” of possible iuu infection .
senanan w ; tangkrock - olan n ; panutrakul s ; barnette p ; wongwiwatanawute c ; niphonkit n ; anderson dj , 2007 . the presence of the pacific whiteleg shrimp ( litopenaeus vannamei , boone , 1931 ) in the wild in thailand . journal of shellfish research , 26 ( 4 ) : 1187 - 1192 . urltoken ; = 10 . 2983 % 2f0730 - 8000 % 282007 % 2926 % 5b1187 % 3atpotpw % 5d2 . 0 . co % 3b2
quackenbush ls ; keeley ll , 1987 . vitellogenesis in the shrimp , p . vannamei . american zoologist , 26 : 810a .
with regard to the area devoted to shrimp farming in 2004 , there were 6 888 acres ( 2 789 ha ) under production with fourteen farms in operation . this represents a 12 . 5 percent of the overall area under the tenureship of shrimp farmers .
the ngo community has expressed no known concerns with regards to the social impacts of shrimp farming , or other forms of aquaculture .
innovations in shrimp culture – farmers perspective speaker : mr . saji chacko , senior vice president , onaway industries , navsari , gujarat
treece gd , 2002 . inland shrimp farming in west texas . global aquaculture advocate , 5 ( 3 ) : 46 - 47 .
in addition to the comments from the southern shrimp alliance , the noc committee received dozens of comments from other individuals , businesses , governments , and non - governmental organizations . some of these also highlighted continuing significant concerns with iuu fishing and seafood fraud in shrimp trade .
all shrimp farmers are becoming acutely aware of the growing need to farm shrimp in a responsible , traceable and low impact manner which can enhance biosecurity , and help protect the environment , whilst producing shrimp in a cost efficient manner . the newly developed intensive bacterial floc and super - intensive systems may have potential to address all of these concerns and should be investigated more thoroughly . in order to continue the growth of shrimp farming smoothly in the long term , domestic consumption should be promoted ( as in china ) to supplement the problematic export markets .
such rules can lead , for instance , to a bag of shrimp that is native to north america being marked
product of india .
was the shrimp processed in india or somehow mixed up ?
she asks .
we don ' t know .
peru : white shrimp ( this name is used for all species of litopenaeus ) , langostino ( used for all species of litopenaeus ) .
are very efficient at utilizing the natural productivity of shrimp ponds , even under intensive culture conditions . additionally , feed costs are generally less for
boyd ce ; clay jw , 1998 . shrimp aquaculture and the environment . scientific american , 278 ( 6 ) : 42 - 49 .
jory de , 2003 . stock domestication and genetic improvement in shrimp culture . aquaculture magazine , 29 ( 2 ) : 66 - 72 .
there were fourteen shrimp farms operational in belize at the end of 2004 . these farms were utilizing four distinct husbandry systems . these were :
forty percent of the 20 shrimp species or categories collected and identified were not previously known to be sold in the u . s . ;
the farmed shrimp supply chain is complex , consisting of approximately 400 , 000 producers worldwide , numerous processing plants , and multiple distributors , the aquarium notes on its website .
this makes it difficult for consumers to know the origin of their shrimp and how it was farmed .
alcivar - warren a , 2004 . us marine shrimp farming industry report . online at www . usmsfp . org . accessed 30 september 2004 .
the policy responses have dealt with : disease management , aquatic pollution , the movement of exotic species , education and training , diversification of the shrimp farming industry , and the integration of small - , and medium - scale producers in shrimp farming , tilapia farming and other aspects of aquaculture .
adapting to a new reality : shrimp nurseries speaker : mr . s chandrasekhar , area manager , india & south asia , inve aquaculture , thailand
eurofish , 2004 . fishinfo network : market report on shrimp , may 2004 . online at www . eurofish . dk . accessed 27 august 2004 .
lightner dv ; redman rm , 1998 . shrimp diseases and current diagnostic methods . aquaculture , 164 ( 1 / 4 ) : 201 - 220 .
the next most important market is the european union ( importing 183 000 tonnes in the first half of 2005 ) , which favours small ( 31 / 40 count ) , whole , frozen shrimp . japan , whose market mainly requires large headless ( 16 / 20 count ) shrimp , is typically supplied by
the mislabeling that oceana uncovered can interfere with people ' s ability to choose their shrimp according to whatever matters to them , whether it be taste , price , or environmental concerns .
if everything is simply called ' shrimp , '
says warner ,
consumers are left in the dark .
finally , nfi’s comments also downplayed mislabeling concerns regarding certain seafood species , including shrimp , indicating that the following “should represent lower concern” to the noc committee : “species that are mislabeled within the same genus or within the same acceptable market name grouping , e , g , shrimp , cod or grouper . ”
lethargy , anorexia , dark coloured shrimp ; reduced feeding & growth rates ; often increased surface & gill fouling with various epibiotic & epicommensal organisms ; severely affected larvae & postlarvae may exhibit a white midgut line through the abdomen ; acute mbv causes loss of hepatopancreatic tubule & midgut epithelia & , consequently , dysfunction of these organs , often followed by secondary bacterial infections ; linked with high mortalities ( > 90 % ) in late postlarvae & juvenile shrimp in many culture facilities ; usually juvenile & adult p . monodon are more resistant to mbv than larval shrimp ; mbv may predispose infected shrimp to infections by other pathogens ;
aquatic network , 2003 . shrimp - farming report strong on attack , weak on focus . online at urltoken ; = 1 . accessed 27 august 2004 .
massaut l , 1999 . mangrove management and shrimp aquaculture . research and development series no . 44 . alabama , usa : auburn university , 45 pp .
treece gd , 2001 . shrimp maturation and spawning . ujnr technical report no . 28 : 121 - 134 . online at urltoken accessed 29 july 2004 .
had higher frequency of antenna - to - body contact with males than with females . no such difference in males and neither females nor males of snapping shrimp
diversification of brackishwater aquaculture with special reference to indigenous species of shrimp speaker : dr . k k vijayan , director , central institute of brackishwater aquaculture , chennai
americans eat more shrimp than any other seafood product , yet they are often given little information about where it comes from or even if it is wild or farmed . in our 2014 shrimp testing report , we found that 30 percent of the 143 shrimp products sampled from 111 vendors visited nationwide were misrepresented . of the 70 restaurants visited , 31 percent sold misrepresented products , while 41 percent of the 41 grocery stores and markets visited sold misrepresented products . highlights include :
yesterday , the southern shrimp alliance submitted formal comments to the national ocean council ( noc ) committee regarding “principles” to be used in determining which seafood species are “at risk” for illegal , unreported , and unregulated ( iuu ) fishing and seafood fraud . in those comments , the southern shrimp alliance observed that the “possible principles” identified in the request for comments published in the federal register strongly support a determination that shrimp is a seafood species “at risk” for iuu fishing and seafood fraud .
wyban , j . a . & sweeney , j . n . 1991 . intensive shrimp production technology . high health aquaculture , hawaii , usa . 158 pp .
he h ; lawrence al , 1993 . vitamin c requirements of the shrimp penaeus vannamei . . aquaculture , 114 ( 3 / 4 ) : 305 - 316 .
in 2004 , the volume of exported shrimp continued to increase in a significant way . total farmed shrimp exports were 16 . 86 million pounds ( 7 664 tons ) valued at bz $ 84 . 28 million ( us $ 42 . 14 thousand ) , with an increase in export volume of 5 . 6 percent . for this time period however , there was a decline of 8 . 2 percent in export value when compared to the 2003 scenario . the downward trend in export value has been as a result of a continued decline in global shrimp prices since 2000 due to increased volumes of shrimp by the asian countries , at very low and competitive prices .
farmed shrimp production in belize is expected to remain fairly stable for the next two years . shrimp farmers have been hesitant to continue farm expansion over the past years and are examining options that would ostensibly allow them to survive the current crisis . while improvements in shrimp farming technology are expected to gradually lower production costs , with strong price declines such as those experienced in the past years , farmers are in the process of reducing operational costs at the farm level and improving on production per unit area over time .
boyd , c . e . & clay , j . w . 2002 . evaluation of belize aquaculture ltd : a superintensive shrimp aquaculture system . report prepared under the world bank , naca , wwf and fao consortium program on shrimp farming and the environment . published by the consortium and obtainable through naca , bangkok , thailand . 17 pp .
aquacop , 1977 . observations on the maturation and reproduction of penaeid shrimp in captivity in a tropical medium . aquaculture workshop , ices , may 1977 , brest , france .
all commercial aquaculture production activities are in the hands of the private sector . after some vacillation in the mid - , and late - 1990s , a shrimp farmers association was formed in belize in mid - 2000 . the association has a broad mandate that is to conceptually attend all issues relating to the interest and livelihood of the shrimp farmers .
acutely infected shrimp show reduced food consumption ; lethargy ; high mortality of 100 % within 3–10 days of onset of clinical signs ; loose cuticles with white spots of 0 . 5–2 . 0 mm diameter , most apparent inside the carapace ; moribund shrimp often have pink to reddish - brown colouration due to expansion of cuticular chromatophores & few if any white spots
kulakovskii ee ; baturin ya , 1979 . the sinus gland of the shrimp eualus gaimardi and its state related to environmental salinity variations . tsitologiya , 21 : 1200 - 1203 .
shrimp may be america ' s favorite seafood , but consumers may not always get what they ask for . according to dna analyses conducted by the environmental advocacy group oceana , 35 percent of shrimp sold in u . s . grocery stores and restaurants was improperly labeled by species or type , raising questions about food safety and complicating efforts to promote sustainability .
in its report on shrimp , oceana found misrepresentation almost everywhere it looked : farmed shrimp passed off as wild or
gulf caught ,
one species swapped for another , unidentified mixing of species . the problem was worst in new york city , where 43 percent of shrimp samples were improperly labeled , and almost as bad in washington , d . c . , and the gulf coast , with mislabeling in 30 percent of the samples . portland , oregon , had the best result , with a mislabeling rate of only 5 percent .
oddly , the group also found some unknown shrimp species , or at least species that weren ' t usually considered fit for human consumption . of the 20 species the oceana team identified , eight were not previously known to be on the market for consumption . these included coral
cleaner
shrimp that pick parasites off reefs and are popular in the aquarium trade .
according to oceana ' s warner , a problem with foreign shrimp is that asian shrimp farms might be using toxic chemicals that are banned in the u . s . and consumers can ' t always rely on the mandatory country - of - origin label system , she says , because the rules state that only the last country where seafood was processed must be listed .
acutely infected shrimp show rapid reduction in food consumption ; lethargy ; high mortality rates with cumulative mortalities reaching 100 percent within 3 to 10 days of the onset of clinical signs ; acutely infected shrimp often have loose cuticle with white spots ( which represent abnormal deposits of calcium salts by the cuticular epidermis ) of 0 . 5 - 2 . 0 mm in diameter that are most apparent on the inside surface of the carapace ; in many cases moribund shrimp display a pink to reddish - brown colouration due to expansion of cuticular chromatophores & few if any white spots
caillouet cw , 1972 . ovarian maturation induced by eyestalk ablation in pink shrimp , penaeus duorarum ( burkenroad ) . proc . world maricul . soc . , 3 : 205 - 225 .
johnson sk , 1996 . summary of key virus diseases of shrimp aquaculture . prepared for the texas senate natural resources interim subcommittee , texas a & m ; university , 19 april 1996 .
preston np ; clifford hc , 2002 . genetic improvement of farmed shrimp : summary and implications of a global survey . global aquaculture advocate , 5 ( 1 ) : 48 - 50 .
overall , 30 % of the shrimp products surveyed in grocery stores lacked information on country of origin , 29 % lacked farmed / wild information and one in five did not provide either .
akiyma dm , 1986 . the development of a purified diet and nutritional requirement of lysine in penaeid shrimp . phd thesis . texas , usa : texas a & m ; university college station .
moss sm ; arce sm ; argua bj ; otoshi ca ; calderon fro ; tacon agc , 2001 . greening of the blue revolution : efforts toward environmentally responsible shrimp culture . in : browdy cl , jory de , eds . the new wave , proceedings of the special session on sustainable shrimp culture , aquaculture 2001 . the world aquaculture society , baton rouge , louisiana , usa .
there has been a slowly increasing demand for shrimp in world markets , as capture fisheries stagnate and people became more affluent and conscious of healthy food choices . despite the increased demand , the price for
brock ja , 1997 . special topic review : taura syndrome , a disease important to shrimp farms in the americas . world journal of microbiology & biotechnology , 13 ( 4 ) : 415 - 418 .
clifford hc , 2000 . personal communication . in : haws mc , boyd ce , eds . methods for improving shrimp farming in central america : fertilization . managua , nicaragua : uca press , 304pp .
kureshy n ; davis da , 2002 . protein requirement for maintenance and maximum weight gain for the pacific white shrimp , litopenaeus vannamei . aquaculture , 204 ( 1 / 2 ) : 125 - 143 .
magarelli pc , 1981 . nutritional and behavioral components of reproduction in the blue shrimp , penaeus stylirostris , reared under controlled environment conditions . phd thesis . tucson , arizona , usa : university of arizona .
cultured shrimp harvested from ponds ( after 4–5 months at 15–25 g ) , are on - grown for 2–3 months and then transferred to maturation facilities at > 7 months of age when they weigh 30–35 g .
castille fl ; lawrence al , 1989 . the effect of deleting dietary constituents from pelleted feeds on the growth of shrimp in the presence of natural foods . j . world aquacul . soc . , 20 : 22a .
secretariat of the convention on biological diversity , 2004 . solutions for sustainable mariculture penaeus [ litopenaeus ] vannamei - avoiding the adverse affects of mariculture on biological diversity - b . case study shrimp farming , 51 - 52 .
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treece gd ; yates me , 1990 . laboratory manual for the culture of penaeid shrimp larvae . texas a & m ; university sea grant college program , bryan , tx , pub . 88 - 202 ( r ) .
arcos fg ; racotta is ; ibarra am , 2004 . genetic parameter estimates for reproductive traits and egg composition in pacific white shrimp penaeus ( litopenaeus ) vannamei . aquaculture , 236 ( 1 / 4 ) : 151 - 165 .
bradfield jy ; berlin rl ; rankin sm ; keeley ; ll , 1989 . cloned cdna and antibody for an ovarian cortical granule polypeptide of the shrimp p . vannamei . biol . bull . , 177 : 344 - 349 .
laubier - bonichon a ; laubier l , 1976 . reproduction control with the shrimp p . japonicus fao tech . conf . aqua . kyoto , japan fir : aq / conf . / 76 / e . 38 , 6pp .
extensive and semi - intensive ponds are harvested by draining the pond at low tide through a bag net installed in the outlet sluice gate . if the tide does not allow harvesting , the water can be pumped out . in some larger farms , harvesting machines pump shrimp and water up to the pond bank where they are dewatered . intensive ponds may be harvested similarly and small 2–6 man seine nets are dragged around the pond to corral shrimp to the side of the pond from where they are removed by cast or dip net or perforated buckets . partial harvesting is common in asian intensive culture after the first 3 months . in thailand , artificial sluice gates are temporarily installed inside one corner of the pond to harvest closed system ponds . shrimp are then trapped in nets attached to this temporary gate when the pond is pumped out . in super - intensive systems , the shrimp are simply harvested with large scoop nets when required for processing .
bonami jr ; hasson kw ; mari j ; poulos bt ; lightner dv , 1997 . taura syndrome of marine penaeid shrimp : characterization of the viral agent . journal of general virology , 78 ( 2 ) : 313 - 319 .
abandoning the suffering paradigm we are able to discover other and at least as meaningful criteria for animal welfare , like e . g . joy , the opposite of pleasure . another criterion , deception , has been investigated with the shrimp species
griffith , d . r . w . , and j . m . wigglesworth . 1993 . growth rhythms in the shrimp penaeus vannamei and p . schmitti . marine biology 115 : 295–299 . doi : 10 . 1007 / bf00346347 .
duronslet m ; yudin ai ; wheller rs ; clark wh jr , 1975 . light and fine structural studies of natural and artificially induced egg growth of penaeid shrimp . proc . world maricul . soc . , 6 : 105 - 122 .
lightner dv , 1995 . taura syndrome : an economically important viral disease impacting the shrimp farming industries of the americas including the united states . proceedings of the annual meeting of the united states animal health association , 99 : 36 - 52 .
these results clearly show that misrepresentation and mislabeling of shrimp is prevalent in the marketplace . lack of clear labeling not only leaves consumers in the dark , but it also hurts honest fishermen who are trying to sell their products into the market .
dittel ai ; epifanio ce ; cifuentes la ; kirchman dl , 1997 . carbon and nitrogen sources for shrimp postlarvae fed natural diets from a tropical mangrove system . estuarine , coastal and shelf science , 45 ( 5 ) : 629 - 637 .
lightner dv , 1996 . the penaeid shrimp viruses ihhnv and tsv : epizootiology , production impacts and role of international trade in their distribution in the americas . ‘revues scientifique et technique office interantional des epizooties’ 15 ( 2 ) : 579 - 601 .
otoshi , clete a . , scott s . naguwa , frank c . falesch , and shaun m . moss . 2007 . shrimp behavior may affect culture performance at super - intensive stocking densities . global aquaculture advocate march / april : 67–69 .
kumlu , metin , serhat türkmen , mehmet kumlu , and o . tufan eroldoğan . 2011 . off - season maturation and spawning of the pacific white shrimp litopenaeus vannamei in sub - tropical conditions . turkish journal of fisheries and aquatic sciences 11 .
although not mentioned in wwf / traffic’s comments , the latest official statistics show significant growth in the volume of imports from areas identified by these ngos . for example , the official statistics indicate that through the first third of this year , frozen non - breaded warmwater shrimp imports from pakistan are over 1 , 000 % larger than they were during the first four months of 2014 . in fact , the total volume of shrimp imports from pakistan between january and april of this year is more than what the united states has imported from that country in any single year since 2001 . further , frozen non - breaded warmwater shrimp imports from mexico are 90 % higher through the first four months of this year than they were over the first four months of 2014 . and the total volume of frozen non - breaded warmwater shrimp imported from argentina into the united states in 2014 was larger , by a substantial margin , than any previous year , with imports remaining at nearly the same level in 2015 .
otoshi ca ; montgomery ad ; look am ; moss sm , 2001 . effects of diet and water source on the nursery production of pacific white shrimp litopenaeus vannamei . journal of the world aquaculture society , 32 ( 2 ) : 243 - 249 .
parnes s ; mills e ; segall c ; raviv s ; davis c ; sagi a , 2004 . reproductive readiness of the shrimp litopenaeus vannamei grown in a brackish water system . aquaculture , 236 ( 1 / 4 ) : 593 - 606 .
obaldo , leonard g . , and reiji masuda . 2006 . effect of diet size on feeding behavior and growth of pacific white shrimp , litopenaeus vannamei . journal of applied aquaculture 18 : 101–110 . doi : 10 . 1300 / j028v18n01 _ 07 .
kitani , hiroshi . 1986 . larval development of the white shrimp penaeus vannamei boone reared in the laboratory and the statistical observation of its naupliar stages . nippon suisan gakkaishi 52 : 1131–1139 . doi : 10 . 2331 / suisan . 52 . 1131 .
parker , j . c . , conte , f . s . , macgrath , w . s . & miller , b . w . 1974 . an intensive culture system for penaeid shrimp . proceedings of the world mariculture society , 5 : 65–79 .
bray wa ; lawrence al , 1992 . reproduction of penaeus species in captivity . in : fast a , lester aj , eds . culture of marine shrimp : principles and practices . amsterdam , netherlands : elsevier sci . publ . , 93 - 170 .
kitani h , 1986 . larval development of the white shrimp penaeus vannamei boone reared in the laboratory and the statistical observation of its naupliar stages . bull . jap . soc . of sci . fish . , 52 ( 7 ) : 1131 - 1139 .
middleditch bs ; missler sr ; hines hb ; mcvey jp ; brown a ; ward dg ; lawrence al , 1980 . metabolic profiles of penaeid shrimp : dietary lipids and ovarian maturation . journal of chromatography , 195 ( 3 ) : 359 - 368 .
balakrishnan , gunalan , soundarapandian peyail , kumaran ramachandran , anand theivasigamani , maheswaran chokkaiah , and pushparaj nataraj . 2011 . growth of cultured white leg shrimp litopenaeus vannamei ( boone 1931 ) in different stocking density . advances in applied science research 2 : 107–113 .
but it ' s not just about the taste or the pricing ; it ' s also about sustainability . farmed and wild shrimp are not equal when it comes to environmental impact , says the monterey bay aquarium . ( also learn about illegal fishing . )
is expected to become more competitive , due mainly to the saturation of export markets and reduction in world economic growth , as well as the emergence of non - tariff barriers in shrimp trade . additionally , the industry will need to accommodate importing countries requirements on :
rye m , 2002 . applied genetic improvement programs for shrimp species – the selection approach . in : book of abstracts , was annual meeting , beijing , people’s republic of china . world aquaculture society , baton rouge , louisiana , usa , p . 664 .
yano , i . , r . a . kanna , r . n . oyama , and j . a . wyban . 1988 . mating behaviour in the penaeid shrimp penaeus vannamei . marine biology 97 : 171–175 . doi : 10 . 1007 / bf00391299 .
chang pohshing ; lo chufang ; wang yuchi ; kou guanghsiung , 1996 . identification of white spot syndrome associated baculovirus ( wsbv ) target organs in the shrimp penaeus monodon by in situ hybridization . diseases of aquatic organisms , 27 ( 2 ) : 131 - 139 .
vickery , rachel , kathleen hollowell , and melissa hughes . 2012 . why have long antennae ? exploring the function of antennal contact in snapping shrimp . marine and freshwater behaviour and physiology 45 : 161–176 . doi : 10 . 1080 / 10236244 . 2012 . 699644 .
the participation of the ngo community in issues of aquaculture development is limited to the conservation - oriented ngo ' s . the involvement of these ngo ' s with issues relating to shrimp farming or other aspects of aquaculture has been relatively limited . the most significant intervention of the conservation - oriented ngo ' s was by the belize audubon society ( bas ) in the early - 1990s in regard to the impacts of shrimp farming on waterfowl , and in more recent times the probable impacts of tilapia on the ecology of the crooked tree lagoon .
akiyama dm ; coelho sr ; lawrence al ; robinson eh , 1989 . apparent digestibility of feedstuffs by the marine shrimp penaeus vannamei boone . nippon suisan gakkaishi = bulletin of the japanese society of scientific fisheries , 55 ( 1 ) : 91 - 98 ; 28 ref .
balboa , william a . , timothy l . king , and paul c . hammerschmidt . 1991 . occurrence of pacific white shrimp in lower laguna madre , texas . proc . annu . conf . southeast . assoc . fish . and wildl . agencies 45 : 288–292 .
sanudin , noorsyarinah , audrey daning tuzan , and annita seok kian yong . 2014 . feeding activity and growth performance of shrimp post larvae litopenaeus vannamei under light and dark condition . journal of agricultural science 6 : p103 . doi : 10 . 5539 / jas . v6n11p103 .
momoyana k ; hiraoka m ; nakano h ; koube h ; inouye k ; oseko n , 1994 . mass mortalities of cultured kuruma shrimp , penaeus japonicus , in japan in 1993 : histopathological study . gyobyo kenkyu = fish pathology , 29 ( 2 ) : 141 - 148 .
in belize shrimp farming is at a transition between stage iv ( accelerated development ) and stage v ( immature development ) - where the development of aquaculture is accelerated as a result of the activities of producers and institutions , and where production is predominantly oriented to the generation of income .
barnette p ; khururat o ; sananan w ; tangkrad - olan n ; upatham s ; pantuwatana s ; wongwiwatanawute c , 2006 . the prevalence of taura syndrome virus , white spot syndrome virus and yellow head virus in wild shrimp species in thailand . in : icais conference proceedings . urltoken
for shrimp farming to succeed to the stage of ' mature development ' , where it is self - sufficient at an advanced technological level and external assistance or aid from donor agencies is not required - it is necessary to synthesize and implement a definitive and comprehensive development plan for the sector .
bailey - brock jh ; moss sm , 1992 . penaeid taxonomy , biology and zoogeography . in : fast aw , lester lj , eds . marine shrimp culture : principles and practices . developments in aquaculture and fisheries science , volume 23 . the netherlands : elsevier science , 9 - 27 .
varadharajan , d . , and n . pushparajan . 2013 . food and feeding habits of aquaculture candidate a potential crustacean of pacific white shrimp litopenaeus vannamei , south east coast of india . j aquac res development 4 : 5 . doi : 10 . 4172 / 2155 - 9546 . 1000161 .
super - intensive farming systems with one stocking and one harvest per cycle after four to five months - stocking densities were 500 000 pl ' s per acre ( 1 235 million pl ' s per ha ) with yields of 9 700 lbs / acre / crop ( 10 890 kg / ha / crop ) of shrimp tails and harvested shrimp being in the medium to large size classes ( 15 - 18g ) , the system is based on re - circulation technology with a diminished demand for water , and little or no immediate effluents : the system also relies heavily on artificial aeration .
the aquarium ' s seafood watch program considers u . s . - caught wild shrimp to be a
best choice
or
good alternative
from an environmental point of view , thanks to rigorous fisheries laws that reduce unintended bycatch of turtles , marine mammals , and other threatened organisms .
takahashi y ; itami t ; kondo m ; maeda m ; fuji r ; tomonaga s ; supamattaya k ; boonyaratpalin s , 1994 . electron microscopic evidence of bacilliform virus infection in kuruma shrimp ( penaeus japonicus ) . gyobyo kenkyu = fish pathology , 29 ( 2 ) : 121 - 125 .
parnes , s , e mills , c segall , s raviv , c davis , and a sagi . 2004 . reproductive readiness of the shrimp litopenaeus vannamei grown in a brackish water system . aquaculture 236 : 593–606 . doi : 10 . 1016 / j . aquaculture . 2004 . 01 . 040 .
lu y ; tapay lm ; brock ja ; loh pc , 1994 . infection of the yellow head baculo - virus ( yhv ) in two species of penaeid shrimp , penaeus stylirostris ( stimpson ) and penaeus vannamei ( boone ) . journal of fish diseases , 17 ( 6 ) : 649 - 656 .
moss , dustin r . , and shaun m . moss . 2006 . effects of gender and size on feed acquisition in the pacific white shrimp litopenaeus vannamei . journal of the world aquaculture society 37 : 161–167 . doi : 10 . 1111 / j . 1749 - 7345 . 2006 . 00022 . x .
inouye k ; miwa s ; oseko n ; nakano h ; kimura t ; momoyama k ; hiraoka m , 1994 . mass mortalities of cultured kuruma shrimp penaeus japonicus in japan in 1993 : electron microscopic evidence of the causative virus . gyobyo kenkyu = fish pathology , 29 ( 2 ) : 149 - 158 .
nakano h ; koube h ; umezawa s ; momoyama k ; hiraoka m ; inouye k ; oseko n , 1994 . mass mortalities of cultures kuruma shrimp , penaeus japonicus , in japan in 1993 : epizootiological survey and infection trials . gyobyo kenkyu = fish pathology , 29 ( 2 ) : 135 - 139 .
baloi , manecas , rafael arantes , rodrigo schveitzer , caio magnotti , and luis vinatea . 2013 . performance of pacific white shrimp litopenaeus vannamei raised in biofloc systems with varying levels of light exposure . aquacultural engineering 52 : 39–44 . doi : 10 . 1016 / j . aquaeng . 2012 . 07 . 003 .
the oceana team tested shrimp from 111 vendors ( 70 restaurants and 41 grocery stores ) in the second half of 2013 , and found that 35 percent had at least some mislabeled products—31 percent of the restaurants and 41 percent of the grocery stores . when calculated by overall volume , the mislabeling rate was 30 percent .
the major market for shrimp is the united states of america , which was expected to import approximately 477 000 tonnes worth usd 3 . 1 billion in 2005 , 1 . 8 times more than the 264 000 tonnes imported in 2000 . the united states of america was traditionally supplied with small frozen or processed headless shrimp from latin america . more recently , the united states of america has looked to asia to supply its increasing demand ( 1 . 9 kg / capita in 2004 ) . major suppliers to the united states of america in 2005 were thailand , ecuador , india , china and viet nam . however , the rapidly increasing production of
aquacop , 1975 . maturation and spawning in captivity of penaeid shrimp : p . merguiensis de man , p . japonicus bate , p . aztecus ives , metap . ensis de haan , and p . semiculcatus de haan . proceedings of the 6th annual meeting of the world mariculture society , 6 : 123 - 132 .
luchiari , a . c . , a . o . marques , and f . a . m . freire . 2012 . effects of substrate colour preference on growth of the shrimp litopenaeus vannamei ( boone , 1931 ) ( decapoda , penaeoidea ) . crustaceana 85 : 789–800 . doi : 10 . 1163 / 156854012x650232 .
that means , in part , more testing and more inspecting by the fda , says williams of the southern shrimp alliance .
the agencies are doing a heck of a job ,
he says .
but they need more resources , more manpower , and more dollars if you want to see better enforcement .
brock ja ; gose r ; lightner dv ; hasson k , 1995 . an overview on taura syndrome , an important disease of farmed penaeus vannamei . swimming through troubled water . proceedings of the special session on shrimp farming , san diego , california , usa , 1 - 4 february , 1995 . , 84 - 94 .
you , kui , hongsheng yang , ying liu , shilin liu , yi zhou , and tao zhang . 2006 . effects of different light sources and illumination methods on growth and body color of shrimp litopenaeus vannamei . aquaculture 252 : 557–565 . doi : 10 . 1016 / j . aquaculture . 2005 . 06 . 041 .
white shrimp are short - lived prawns with ranges that include the gulf of mexico and the eastern coast of the united states from florida to new york . this species is the largest prawn in its range , reaching lengths of nearly 8 inches ( 20 cm ) , and is one of the more highly sought seafood species wherever it lives . it therefore supports a highly lucrative fishery in the gulf of mexico and in the southeast united states . along with true crabs , lobsters , and other prawns , the white shrimp is a decapod ; it has ten legs , and it is covered with a spiny exoskeleton that provides it some protection from potential predators .
) . the growth performance of this aspect of the sector is reflected in the increase in export production and revenues from 189 thousand pounds ( 86 tons ) and bz $ 1 . 8 million ( us $ 900 thousand ) respectively in 1990 to 15 . 9 million pounds ( 7 227 tons ) and bz $ 91 . 8 million ( us $ 45 . 9 million ) respectively in 2003 . in 2004 , the volume of exported shrimp continued to increase in a significant way . total farmed shrimp exports were 16 . 86 million pounds ( 7 664 tons ) valued at bz $ 84 . 28 million ( us $ 42 . 14 million ) .
alikunhi kh ; poernomo a ; adisufresno s ; budiono m ; busman s , 1975 . preliminary observations on induction of maturity and spawning in penaeus monodon ( fabricius ) and penaeus merquiensis ( de man ) by eyestalk extirpation . bull . shrimp cult . res . cent . jepara , 1 ( 1 ) : 1 - 11 .
garza - torres , rodolfo , rafael campos - ramos , and alejandro m . maeda - martínez . 2009 . organogenesis and subsequent development of the genital organs in female and male pacific white shrimp penaeus ( litopenaeus ) vannamei . aquaculture 296 : 136–142 . doi : 10 . 1016 / j . aquaculture . 2009 . 08 . 012 .
oceana ' s study of shrimp mislabeling , released thursday , is part of a broader effort to uncover and address fraud in the american seafood marketplace . in february 2013 , oceana released a study of mislabeling in finfish , which found that one - third of the fish sold at retail outlets was not what the label said it was .
• escapes : escapees from shrimp farms have negative or at most unpredictable influences on the local ecosystem [ 9 ] [ 10 ] [ 11 ] , for example as competitor for food and space [ 9 ] [ 12 ] [ 11 ] or distributor of pathogens [ 9 ] [ 11 ] ( taura syndrome virus [ 10 ] ) .
is conducted in tidal areas where minimal or no water pumping or aeration is provided . ponds are of irregular shape , usually 5–10 ha ( up to 30 ha ) and 0 . 7–1 . 2 m deep . originally , wild seeds entering the pond tidally through the gate , or purchased from collectors were used ; since the 1980s hatchery reared pl are stocked at 4–10 / m² . shrimp feed mainly on natural foods enhanced by fertilization , and once - daily feeding with low protein formulated diets . despite low stocking densities , small shrimp of 11–12 g are harvested in 4–5 months . the yield in these extensive systems , is 150–500 kg / ha / crop , with 1–2 crops per year .
john williams , the executive director of the southern shrimp alliance , agrees that his producers sometimes miss out on fetching a higher price .
those who live around the gulf coast can look at or taste the product and know where it comes from , but people in other parts of the country aren ' t as aware ,
he says .
rivera - velázquez , g . , l . a . soto , i . h . salgado - ugarte , and e . j . naranjo . 2008 . growth , mortality and migratory pattern of white shrimp ( litopenaeus vannamei , crustacea , penaeidae ) in the carretas - pereyra coastal lagoon system , mexico . revista de biología tropical 56 : 523–533 .
pontes , cibele soares , maria de fatima arruda , alexandre augusto de lara menezes , and patrícia pereira de lima . 2006 . daily activity pattern of the marine shrimp litopenaeus vannamei ( boone 1931 ) juveniles under laboratory conditions . aquaculture research 37 : 1001–1006 . doi : 10 . 1111 / j . 1365 - 2109 . 2006 . 01519 . x .
rodríguez , sergio rendón , emilio macías regalado , josé antonio calderón pérez , arturo núñez pastén , and rafael solís ibarra . 2007 . comparison of some reproductive characteristics of farmed and wild white shrimp males litopenaeus vannamei ( decapoda : penaeidae ) . international journal of tropical biology and conservation 55 . doi : 10 . 15517 / rbt . v55i1 . 6071 .
proteasome activities in shrimp hemocytes . hemocytes from crangon crangon showed fluorescence after incubation with specific substrates for a try - , b chy - , and c cas - like activities . the bars represent 20 μm . d no fluorescence was detected when hemocytes were simultaneously incubated with the substrate for chy - like activity and the inhibitor epoxomicin . the bar represents 20 μm
wakida - kusunoki , armando t . , luis enrique amador - del angel , patricia carrillo alejandro , and cecilia quiroga brahms . 2011 . presence of pacific white shrimp litopenaeus vannamei ( boone , 1931 ) in the southern gulf of mexico . aquatic invasions 6 : s139–s142 . doi : 10 . 3391 / ai . 2011 . 6 . s1 . 031 .
palacios , elena , ilie s . racolta , and acuacultores de la paz . 1999 . spawning frequency analysis of wild and pond - reared pacific white shrimp penaeus vannamei broodstock under large - scale hatchery conditions . journal of the world aquaculture society 30 : 180–191 . doi : 10 . 1111 / j . 1749 - 7345 . 1999 . tb00865 . x .
reaction kinetics of proteasome activities of shrimp hemocytes . means , n = 3 . a trypsin - like activity of penaeus vannamei , b trypsin - like activity of crangon crangon , c chymotrypsin - like activity of penaeus vannamei , d chymotrypsin - like activity of crangon crangon , e caspase - like activity of penaeus vannamei , and f caspase - like activity of crangon crangon


the pavonine cuckoo ( dromococcyx pavoninus ) is a neotropical cuckoo with a long graduated tail and a short crest .

it is one of three species of neoptropical cuckoo which are known to be brood parasites .

pavonine cuckoo

pavonine cuckoo ( dromococcyx pavoninus ) is a species of bird in the cuculidae family .
these long - legged and long - tailed cuckoos have variable breeding habits . three of them are brood - parasitic species , the striped cuckoo ( tapera naevia ) , and the two species of genus dromococcyx , the pheasant cuckoo ( dromococcyx phasianellus ) and the pavonine cuckoo ( dromococcyx pavoninus ) . these three species occur in south america and central america , except the pavonine cuckoo which is only present in ne south america .
the pavonine cuckoo is a medium - sized , long - tailed cuckoo found in the understory of forests of south america . the pavonine cuckoo is known to be a brood parasite , laying its eggs in the nests of other species . but otherwise very little is known of the behavior of this widespread but reclusive species , which is heard far more often than it is seen .
this reed warbler is raising the young of a common cuckoo , the best - known cuckoo .
cuckoo ' s nest
redirects here . for other uses , see cuckoo ' s nest ( disambiguation ) .
in some species the migration is diurnal , as in the channel - billed cuckoo , or nocturnal , as in the yellow - billed cuckoo .
the pavonine cuckoo is rare and difficult to see as it does not move much and remains inconspicuous . it favors terra firme and mature floodplain forests . it is known to range at elevations of up to 900 m along the foothill of the andes . it also occurs in
the african cuckoo was identified as a separate species on the basis of its call .
some species , like the asian emerald cuckoo ( chrysococcyx maculatus ) exhibit iridescent plumage .
, the god of desire and longing , whereas in japan , the cuckoo symbolises unrequited love .
the plumage typically is a dull grayish brown , but some , such as the bronze cuckoos—shining bronze - cuckoo ( chrysococcyx lucidus ) , horsfield ' s bronze - cuckoo ( chrysococcyx basalis ) , and so forth—are brightly colored or iridescent . cuckoo genera differ in the number of primary wing feathers as below .
in this case , raising the cuckoo chick is less of a cost than the alternative—total clutch destruction .
this species is a recent split from fork - tailed drongo - cuckoo surniculus dicruroides . both were previously lumped as
asian drongo - cuckoo
in southeast asia . the square - tailed , however , is the only one to reach palawan , the south - easternmost of the philippine islands . in the rest of the philippines the resident is philippine drongo - cuckoo surniculus velutinus . a final drongo - cuckoo inhabits the moluccas .
payne , r . ( 2018 ) . pavonine cuckoo ( dromococcyx pavoninus ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .
other species of cuckoo lay
cryptic
eggs , which are dark in color when their hosts ' eggs are light .
quite a number of species of cuckoo , such as the well - known european cuckoo ( cuculus canorus ) , practice brood parasitism , laying eggs in the nests of other bird species for rearing . such an instinctual behavior adds to the diversity and wonder of the animal world and has made the cuckoo a well - known bird , especially the unforgettable sight of a small parent bird feeding a very large cuckoo nestling—a nestling that may have ejected the parent bird ' s other eggs or nestlings from the nest .
most species of cuckoo are sedentary , but some undertake regular seasonal migrations and others undertake partial migrations over part of their range .
the cuckoo egg hatches earlier than the host ' s , and the cuckoo chick grows faster ; in most cases the chick evicts the eggs or young of the host species . the chick has no time to learn this behavior , so it must be an
karubian , j ; carrasco , l ( 2008 ) .
home range and habitat preferences of the banded ground - cuckoo (
cuckoo chicks start to mimic the cries that their foster parents ' young make from the moment they hatch , a scientist has proved .
stoddard mc , stevens m ( july 2011 ) .
avian vision and the evolution of egg color mimicry in the common cuckoo
.
the cuckoo family gets its english and scientific names from the call of the common cuckoo , which is also familiar from cuckoo clocks . some of the names of other species and genera are also derived from their calls , for example the koels of asia and australasia . in most cuckoos the calls are distinctive to particular species , and are useful for identification . several cryptic species are best identified on the basis of their calls .
. the pavonine cuckoo has multi - toned rufous head and neck with a dusky streak from behind the eye . the rest of the underparts are pale . the throat and breast are unmarked ( no black specks ) . it has a buffy superciliary line from above the eye . the tail is long , broad , and graduated with long and ornate rump feathers and uppertail coverts . it forages on the ground where it extends the wings and tail to flush insects before it chases and catches them . it is similar to the
the cuckoo family gets its english and scientific names from the familiar , two - note call of the common cuckoo , which is also familiar from cuckoo clocks . some of the names of other species and genera are also derived from their calls , for example the koels of asia and australasia . in most cuckoos , the calls are distinctive to particular species , and are useful for identification . several cryptic species have been identified on the basis of their calls .
levaillant ' s cuckoo ( below ) — quite a large cuckoo of arid woodlands— parasitizes mostly turdoides babblers , such as arrow - marked babbler t . jardineii , but also uses chestnut - bellied starling spreo pulcher as a host . these hosts are resident in the dry country but they breed in the wet season , and that is when levaillant ' s cuckoo arrives . after the wet season it is an intra - continental migrant back to the equatorial primary forests .
this article is part of project cucuiformes / idae , a all birds project that aims to write comprehensive articles on each cuckoo , including made - up species .
several koels , couas , and the channel - billed cuckoo feed mainly on fruit ( corlett and ping 1995 ) , but they are not exclusively frugivores . the parasitic koels and channel - billed cuckoo in particular consume mainly fruit when raised by fruigivore hosts such as the figbird and pied currawong . other species will occasionally take fruit as well .
, being around the same size as the channel - billed cuckoo . the subfamily coccyzinae are arboreal and long tailed as well , with a number of large insular forms . the
not globally threatened . a solitary cuckoo , uncommon to rare , not well known , and sensitive to habitat disturbance . its distribution is patchy and discontinuous , though the . . .
the other ani — the yellow - eyed greater ani c . major — and guira cuckoo are only in south america , favoring , respectively , marshy edges and dry brushy country .
antonov , anton ; stokke , bard g . ; moksnes , arne ; roeskaft , eivin ( 2008 ) .
does the cuckoo benefit from laying unusually strong eggs ?
.
about 56 of the old world species and 3 of the new world species are brood parasites , laying their eggs in the nests of other birds ( payne 2005 ) . the best - known example is the european common cuckoo ( cuculus canorus ) . the cuckoo egg hatches earlier than the host ' s , and the cuckoo chick grows faster ; in most cases , the chick evicts the eggs or young of the host species . the chick has no time to learn this behavior , so it must be an instinct passed on genetically . the mother still feeds the cuckoo chick as if it were her own , the chick ' s open mouth serving as a sign stimulus for the host to feed it ( campbell 1996 ) .
different species and even populations of cuckoo select different host species , laying eggs that closely resemble the eggs of their chosen host . this also seems to have been aided by natural selection , as some birds are able to distinguish cuckoo eggs from their own , leading to those eggs least like the host ' s being thrown out of the nest ( campbell 1996 ) .
in central & south america , squirrel cuckoo piaya cayana is common and do seem
squirrel - like
as they move through the canopy . a very small version is little cuckoo ( left ) . several south american cuckoos are migratory , moving to the equator in the southern winter ( our summer ) . one of these is ash - colored cuckoo c . cinereus . in july 1975 , i discovered this tiny cuckoo on the banks of the amazon river at leticia where it proved to be a first record for colombia ( hilty & brown 1986 ) . it was one of my best personal finds , even though i didn ' t know what it was at the time . i showed the bird to others and together we sorted it out using meyer de schauensee ( 1966 ) .
gaines , d . , and s . a . laymon . 1984 . decline , status and preservation of the yellow - billed cuckoo in california . w . birds 15 : 49 - 80 .
cuckoos have played a role in human culture for thousands of years , appearing in greek mythology as sacred to the goddess hera . in europe , the cuckoo is associated with spring , and with cuckoldry , for example in shakespeare ' s love ' s labours lost . in india , cuckoos are sacred to kamadeva , the god of desire and longing , whereas in japan , the cuckoo symbolises unrequited love .
, but there are exceptions . the anis and the guira cuckoo lay their eggs in communal nests , although this behaviour is not completely cooperative ; a female may remove others ' eggs when laying hers .
avilés jm , stokke bg , moksnes a , røskaft e , asmul m , møller ap ( november 2006 ) .
rapid increase in cuckoo egg matching in a recently parasitized reed warbler population
.
in the far east are four species of drongo - cuckoo , named for a resemblance to drongos ( genus dicurus ) . this ( right ) is square - tailed drongo - cuckoo . notice it has a shiny plumage like a drongo . here it looks to be consuming a hairy caterpillar . it parasitizes a variety of bulbuls , babblers and tit - babblers . no drongo is known to be a host .
38–40 cm ; 116–163 g . the largest hawk - cuckoo . adult dark morph is brown above , ashy - grey on crown , nape and neck , tail barred brownish grey and black , tipped . . .
laymon , s . a . , and m . d . halterman . 1987 . can the western subspecies of the yellow - billed cuckoo be saved from extinction . w . birds 18 : 19 - 26 .
bogert , c ( 1937 ) birds collected during the whitney south sea expedition . 34 , the distribution and the migration of the long - tailed cuckoo ( urodynamis taitensis sparrman ) . american museum novitates 933 12 p .
they tend to conform to the classic shape , with ( usually ) long tails , short legs , long narrow wings and an arboreal lifestyle . the largest species , the channel - billed cuckoo , also has the most outsized
this is a trick to hide the egg from the host , and is exhibited in cuckoos that parasitize hosts with dark , domed nests . some adult parasitic cuckoos completely destroy the host ' s clutch if they reject the cuckoo egg .
some host species may directly try to prevent cuckoos laying eggs in their nest in the first place – birds whose nests are at high risk of cuckoo - contamination are known to ' mob ' cuckoos to drive them out of the area .
most of the nest - building cuckoos are monogamous , but the anis and the guira cuckoo lay their eggs in communal nests . their behavior is not completely cooperative ; a female may remove others ' eggs when laying hers ( payne 2005 ) .
the common cuckoo shown at near right is typically gray male from a population in china . to the far right is a ' hepatic ' ( rufous ) morph female in its first autumn . females of this and other cuculus species often have gray morphs and hepatic morphs . this particular hepatic morph female represents california ' s first and only record of this old world species . long - distance migration can sometimes spin off vagrants on the ' wrong ' side of the pacific . there are a handful of records of common cuckoo and oriental cuckoo c . optatus in alaska , but this one was found by friends ( lois goldfrank , steve gerow ) at watsonville , in nearby santa cruz co . , and lingered from 28 sep–2 oct 2012 .
female parasitic cuckoos sometimes specialize and lay eggs that closely resemble the eggs of their chosen host . some birds are able to distinguish cuckoo eggs from their own , leading to those eggs least like the host ' s being thrown out of the nest .
cuckoos are birds of variable size with slender bodies , long tails , pointed wings , down - curved bills , and strong legs . the feet are zygodactyl : the two inner toes pointed forward and the two outer toes pointed backward . cuckoos range in size from the little bronze cuckoo , at 17 grams ( 0 . 6 ounces ) and 15 centimeters ( 6 inches ) , to the channel - billed cuckoo , at 630 grams ( 1 . 4 pounds ) and 63 centimeters ( 25 inches ) .
there are four species of lizard - cuckoos in the caribbean , almost all are single - island endemics and each has a dramatic long and impressive tail , and an equally dramatic long bill . this is puerto rican lizard - cuckoo ( above right ) .
on the other hand , the large forest species of south america often follow swarms of army - ants . these species belong to the genus neomorphus . they are uncommon to rare , and the banded ground - cuckoo ( neomorphus radiolosus ) is evaluated as endangered due to forest destruction .
some hosts do not exhibit egg rejection behavior and the cuckoo eggs look very dissimilar from the host eggs . it has also been shown in a study of the european cuckoos that females will lay their egg in the nest of a host that has eggs that look similar to its own .
the parasitism is not necessarily entirely detrimental to the host species . a 16 - year dataset was used in 2014 to find that parasitized crows ' nests were more successful overall ( more likely to produce at least one crow fledgling ) than cuckoo - free nests . the researchers attributed this to a strong - smelling substance secreted by cuckoo chicks when attacked that repels predators , and commented
interactions that have been clearly classified as ' parasitic ' or ' mutualistic ' might be more complex . perhaps we need to look more closely at these interactions before giving species such tags or labels
.
the roadrunners are fairly common in their habitat . the striped cuckoo is variably common to uncommon while the dromococcyx species are rare and local , as the neomorphus . all are resident in their range . they are sensitive to habitat disturbance , land clearance and overgrazing which destroys the low vegetation , and some species have restricted range .
the majority of cuckoo species , including malkohas , couas , coucals , and roadrunners , and most other american cuckoos , build their own nests . most of these species nest in trees or bushes , but the coucals lay their eggs in nests on the ground or in low shrubs . though on some occasions non - parasitic cuckoos parasitize other species , the parent still helps feed the chick .
payne , r . ( 2018 ) . pheasant cuckoo ( dromococcyx phasianellus ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .
the stripped cuckoo is the smallest of this subfamily with a length of 26 - 29 cm . this species frequents the open country with scattered trees , low seasonally wet grasslands , clearing in forest , brush at tropical forest edge and roadsides . it feeds on large insects and caterpillars , and forages alone on the ground . it often sways from side to side and fans the alula , probably to flush insects .
the three cuckoos mentioned represent different subfamilies . the variation among the cuculidae ranges from parasitic songsters that lay eggs in the nests of other birds ( the classic old world cuckoo ) to rangy ground - feeders in the new world to secretive skulkers whose gurgling
water - bottle
calls dominate an african swamp . this diversity supports the feeling among some that these wonderfully strange birds might better be separated into several families .
payne , r . & kirwan , g . m . ( 2018 ) . large hawk - cuckoo ( hierococcyx sparverioides ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .
payne , r . , de juana , e . & kirwan , g . m . ( 2018 ) . lesser cuckoo ( cuculus poliocephalus ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .
the final subfamily [ crotophaginae ] consists of three species of anis ( genus crotophaga ) — all of them all - black birds like the smooth - billed ani ( right ) — and one species in the genus guira , the guira cuckoo ( below ) which is sort - of like a blonde ani . all these birds forage on the ground or in small bushes in small flocks . they are communal birds that often roost together , and are co - operative breeders .
del hoyo , j . , collar , n . , kirwan , g . m . & sharpe , c . j . ( 2018 ) . moluccan cuckoo ( cacomantis aeruginosus ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 10 july 2018 ) .
this species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing , the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .
recommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : dromococcyx pavoninus . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .
) , version 1 . 0 . in neotropical birds online ( t . s . schulenberg , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , ny , usa .
id certainty 100 % . ( archiv . tape 15 side a track 44 seq . a )
el individuo se manifestó espontáneamente desde el estrato bajo , en un borde de selva marginal secundaria del río paraná con capueras y vegetación cerrada . posado en un gajo visible y bastante confiado , marcaba acústicamente su territorio . el canto de este registro presenta cierta variación con respecto al habitual .
individuo vocalizando de manera espontánea perchando a menos de un metro de altura del suelo en un sector de vegetación arbustiva aledaño a un camino de la isla . todo el sector se encontraba rodeado de bañados .
id accurancy : 95 % . habitat : low montane second growth forest . distance to mic : 20 m . tascam dr - 100mkii reference : 150409 _ 0037
id certainty 100 % . ( archiv . tape 16 side a track 2 seq . b )
sonogram images © xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .
proposed race perijanus ( from sierra de perijá , on n colombia–nw venezuela border ) generally considered inseparable . monotypic .
very patchily from colombia # r # r , venezuela and guyana through e peru and bolivia to brazil ( s to mato grosso , paraná , são paulo and rio de janeiro ) , paraguay and n argentina ( misiones ) ; recorded once in e ecuador ( napo ) # r .
27–30·5 cm ; 40·5–54 g . adult small - headed , thin - necked , dark above , with scaly feathers edged white on outer webs ( frosted appearance ) , crown , face . . .
call a whistled “püü , pee , püü - pe - pe” , first note lowest , last note . . .
lowland tropical evergreen forest , montane evergreen forest , scrub thickets , tangled forests with . . .
brood - parasitic : hosts include species with closed or bag - shaped nests ( tyrannidae , formicariidae ) . eggs white with purplish spots ; 21 mm . . .
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a bird looking around while perched on a low branch above the forest floor .
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most cuckoos reside in forests , but some prefer more open country . most are insect eaters , with hairy caterpillars , which are avoided by many birds , being a specialty .
parasitic female cuckoos are grouped into gentes ( singular
gens
) , that is , populations favoring a particular host species ' nest , with each gens laying eggs that match those of the host species in color and pattern . brood parasites , such as cuckoos , which use multiple host species to raise their chicks , evolve different gentes , each one specific to its host species . this specialization allows the parasites to lay eggs that mimic those of their hosts , which in turn reduces the chances of the eggs being rejected by the hosts . there is some evidence that the gentes are genetically different from one another .
non - parasitic cuckoos , like most other non - passerines , lay white eggs , but many of the parasitic species lay colored eggs to match those of their passerine hosts .
the young of all species are altricial ( newly hatched young are relatively immobile , have closed eyes , lack feathers , and must be cared for by the adults ) . non - parasitic cuckoos leave the nest before they can fly , and some new world species have the shortest incubation periods among birds ( payne 2005 ) .
cuckoos are often highly secretive and in many cases best known for their wide repertoire of calls . calls are usually relatively simple , resembling whistles , flutes , or hiccups ( brooke and horsfall 2003 .
although cuckoos are diurnal , many species call at night ( payne 2005 ) .
the following is the systematics of the family cuculidae including coucals and anis as subfamilies within this taxon .
genus cursoricoccyx — fossil ( early miocene of logan county , u . s . ) —neomorphinae
cuculidae gen . et sp . indet . — fossil ( early pliocene of lee creek mine , u . s . : olson 1985 )
genus eocuculus — fossil ( late eocene of teller county , u . s . )
brooke , m . de l . , and j . a . horsfall . 2003 . cuckoos . in c . perrins ( ed . ) , firefly encyclopedia of birds . firefly books . isbn 1552977773 .
corlett , r . , and i . ping . 1995 . frugivory by koels in hong kong . memoirs of the hong kong natural history society 20 : 221 - 222 .
feduccia , a . 1996 . the origin and evolution of birds . new haven : yale university press . isbn 0300064608 .
kaiser , g . w . 2007 . the inner bird ; anatomy and evolution . vancouver , bc : ubc press . isbn 9780774813433 .
olson , s . l . 1985 . section vii . c . cuculidae . in d . s . farner , j . r . king , and k . c . parkes ( eds . ) , avian biology 8 : 110 - 111 .
payne , r . b . 2005 . the cuckoos . oxford university press . isbn 0198502133 .
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has been thought to be closely related to c . rochii , the two sometimes being treated as conspecific ; dna data , however , do not support a sister relationship between them # r . c . lepidus has been placed in present species , but available evidence does not support that treatment . monotypic .
n pakistan # r and kashmir e through himalayan foothills to khasi and naga hills , n myanmar and n indochina , and across china ( including taiwan and hainan , where seems to be resident # r # r ) to ussuriland , korea and japan . winters in sri lanka and e africa .
22–27 cm ; 40–59 g . adult male slate - grey above , tail and uppertail - coverts contrastingly blackish , tail with white tip and white spots at sides ; bend of wing . . .
loud , husky chattering song , “eat your chóky pepper” , comprising six notes at 1 . . .
forests , both broadleaf and pine , scrub , second growth ; in ussuriland in broadleaf forests of . . .
insects , mainly caterpillars ( geometrids , noctuids ) , also beetles , hymenoptera , mantids .
migratory , entire breeding population apparently moving sw or s to wintering grounds . winters in . . .
not globally threatened . few data on abundance ; common to fairly common locally in nepal . populations depend on maintaining habitat and numbers of its host species . not . . .
usually treated as conspecific with h . bocki . thought to be closer to h . varius , the two forming a clade with h . bocki as sister # r . monotypic .
himalayas from n pakistan and india to nepal , naga hills , manipur and meghalaya , thence e to china ( sichuan , n to lower yellow r valley ) , taiwan , and s to myanmar , thailand and indochina . winters mainly from ne india and thailand s to s & e india , peninsular malaysia , andaman is # r , greater and lesser sundas and philippines .
in breeding season , calls at dawn and at sunset into night ( especially during overcast weather ) , a . . .
deciduous and evergreen wooded areas , especially with oaks ( or oak - rhododendron in nepal ) , also in . . .
insects , mainly caterpillars ( including hairy species ) ; also hemiptera , crickets , grasshoppers , beetles , bugs , roaches , ants and spiders ; . . .
breeds apr–jul in w himalayas , apr–jun in assam ; eggs apr–may in myanmar ( where vocalizes late feb–jun ) . brood - . . .
mainly migratory : most individuals , at least from n of range and over most of china , move s to . . .
not globally threatened ( least concern ) . common or fairly common breeder in many parts of range , notably thailand , nepal and india , and considered abundant in bhutan , but . . .
often subsumed within cuculus but shows notable morphological differences ( e . g . in wing shape and tail - barring ) , and genetic data support this grouping # r .
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the other major question is how many families to create out of the diversity in the cuculiformes . sibley & ahlquist ( 1990 ) and sibley & monroe ( 1990 ) settled on five families but the handbook of the birds of the world account ( payne 1997 ) considers these five groups to be subfamilies , and further separates the malkohas and couas as another subfamily , making six subfamilies in all . then the malkohas and the couas are given
tribe
status , thus forming at least seven distinctive groups of cuckoos . i recommend that birders learn all seven groups , and that you search for each as you enjoy birding the world . here are the hbw six subfamilies :
prum et al . ( 2015 ) matched molecular evidence with fossil evidence to construct a phylogeny of modern birds . their evidence showed that the old world subfamily cuculinae diverged from the new world coccyzinae group about 22 million years ago ( mya ) and that the combined clade of old and new world cuckoos diverged from the coucals about 32 mya .
smooth - billed and groove - billed c . sulcirostris anis are very widespread species in the neotropics , and both reach north into the united states in south florida and south texas , respectively . smooth - bills , though , have become quite scarce and hard to find in florida ; groove - bills are interesting because vagrants can turn up widely throughout the u . s . ( i have chased three in california and finally got the third one ) . a recent survey on their u . s . status , plus good identification points , is in mlodinow & karlson ( 1999 ) .
was at intervales np , brazil , on 31 july 2010 . the party of
( at the top ) and the lone bird ( bottom of page ) were both taken at porte jofre , pantanal , brazil , on 21 july 2010 . the
was taken from a blind in kruger nat ' l park , south africa , in july 1996 . the
was at rajah sikatuna park , bohol , philippines on 20 dec 2005 . the drying
at mt . makiling , luzon , philippines , on 10 dec 2005 . dan singer shot the
were taken , respectively , at huzu , china , on 23 june 2004 , and watsonville , california , on 28 sep 2012 . the male
was at kalkapa reserve , ghana , on 29 nov 2013 . both shots of
were of a single male at antwikwaa , ghana , on 3 dec 2013 . the
was in puerto princesa np , palawan , philippines , on 23 dec 2005 . the
was in the hills above the baliem valley , irian jaya , new guinea , in aug 1994 . the
was at the olobogu river grasslands , sulawesi , indonesia , on 1 oct 2011 .
was in shirttail canyon , monterey county , california , on 19 oct 2014 . marc fenner photographed the
above lagartos , costa rica , on the road to monteverde , in april 1990 . kevin j . zimmer photographed the
at el valle , panama , on 29 mar 2010 . sarah hamilton took the photos of
that was netted and banded at the big sur ornithology lab , monterey co . , california , on 4 june 2003 . the
was along the rio cuiba , pantanal , brazil , on 22 july 2010 . the
was amongst a small party at ft . lauderdale , florida , on 21 dec 2006 .
uncredited photos © don roberson . credited photos © blake matheson , dan singer , marc fenner , kevin zimmer , and sarah hamilton of big sur ornithology lab , as credited , and used with permission ; all rights reserved .
payne , robert b . 2005 . the cuckoos . oxford univ . press , oxford .
beehler , b . m . , and t . k . pratt . 2016 . birds of new guinea : distribution , taxonomy , and systematics , princeton univ . press , princeton , n . j .
collar , n . j . , and a . j . long . 1995 . taxonomy and names of carpococcyx cuckoos from the greater sundas . forktail 11 : 135 - 150 .
fry , c . h . , s . keith , and e . k . urban , eds . 1988 . the birds of africa . vol iii . academic press , london .
hilty , s . l . , and w . l . brown . 1986 . a guide to the birds of colombia . princeton univ . press , princeton , n . j .
meyer de schauensee , r . 1966 . the species of birds of south america and their distribution . livingston publ . , narbeth , pa .
mlodinow , s . g . , and k . t . karlson . 1999 . anis in the united states and canada . n . am . birds 53 : 237 - 245 .
payne , r . b . 1997 . family cuculidae ( cuckoos ) , pp . 508–607 in handbook of the birds of the world ( del hoyo , j . , a . elliott , & j . sargatal , eds . ) . vol . 4 . lynx edicions , barcelona .
prum , r . o . , j . s . bery , a . dornburg , d . j . field , j . p . townsend , e . m . lemmon , and a . r . lemmon . 2015 . a comprehensive phylogeny of birds ( aves ) using targeted next - generation dna sequencing . nature 526 : 569–573 .
sibley , c . g . , and j . e . ahlquist . 1990 . phylogeny and classification of birds : a study in molecular evolution . yale univ . press , new haven , ct .
sibley , c . g . , and b . l . monroe , jr . 1990 . distribution and taxonomy of birds of the world . yale univ . press , new haven , ct . .
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the cuckoos are generally medium - sized slender birds . the majority are arboreal , with a sizeable minority that are terrestrial . the family has a cosmopolitan distribution , with the majority of species being tropical . some species are migratory . the cuckoos feed on insects , insect larvae and a variety of other animals , as well as fruit . many species are brood parasites , laying their eggs in the nests of other species , but the majority of species raise their own young .
the chestnut - breasted malkoha is typical of the phaenicophaeinae in having brightly coloured skin around the eye .
in size , but where it exists , it can be either the male or the female that is larger . one of the most important distinguishing features of the family are the feet , which are
, meaning that the two inner toes point forward and the two outer backward . there are two basic body forms , arboreal species ( like the
) which are more heavy set and have long tarsi . almost all species have long tails which are used for steering in terrestrial species and as a rudder during
in the arboreal species . the wing shape also varies with lifestyle , with the more
. the subfamily phaenicophaeinae are the non - parasitic cuckoos of the old world , and include the couas , malkohas , and ground - cuckoos . they are more terrestrial cuckoos , with strong and often long legs and short rounded wings . the subfamily typically has brighter plumage and brightly coloured bare skin around the eye . the
are another terrestrial subfamily of long tailed long legged and short winged cuckoos . they are large heavyset birds with the largest , the
of the cuckoos are generally soft , and often become waterlogged in heavy rain . cuckoos often sun themselves after rain , and the anis hold their wings open in the manner of a
plumage , whereas others have bright and elaborate plumage . this is particularly true of the
plumage . some cuckoos have a resemblance to hawks with barring on the underside ; this apparently alarms potential hosts , allowing the female to access a host nest .
the young of some brood parasites are coloured so as to resemble the young of the host . for example , the
in plumage is uncommon in the cuckoos , being most common in the parasitic old world species .
cuculinae is the most widespread subfamily of cuckoos , and is distributed across europe , asia , africa , australia and oceania . amongst the phaenicophaeinae cuckoos the malkohas and asian ground - cuckoos are restricted to southern asia , the couas are endemic to madagascar and the yellowbill widespread across africa . the coucals are distributed from africa through tropical asia down into australia and the solomon islands . the remaining three subfamilies have a new world distribution , all three are found in both north and south america . the coccyzinae reaches the furthest north of the three subfamilies , breeding in canada , whereas the anis reach as far north as florida and the typical ground - cuckoos the south west united states .
species breeding at higher latitudes migrate to warmer climates during the winter due to food availability . the
, which breeds in new zealand , flies to its wintering grounds in polynesia , micronesia , and melanesia , a feat described as
perhaps the most remarkable overwater migration of any land bird .
within africa , ten species make regular intra - continental migrations that are described as polarised ; that is , they spend the non - breeding season in the tropical centre of the continent and move north and south to breed in the more arid and open savannah and deserts .
this is the same as the situation in the neotropics , where no species have this migration pattern , or tropical asia , where a single species does . 83 % of the australian species are partial migrants within australia or travel to
, including noxious hairy types avoided by other birds . they are unusual among birds in processing their prey prior to swallowing , rubbing it back and forth on hard objects such as branches and then crushing it with special bony plates in the back of the mouth .
, specialised in taking lizards . larger , ground types such as coucals and roadrunners also feed variously on snakes , lizards , small rodents , and other birds , which they bludgeon with their strong bills . ground species may employ different techniques to catch prey . a study of two
ran and pounced on prey . both species also showed seasonal flexibility in prey and foraging techniques .
, although some studies in eastern australia found several species participated in the non - breeding season , but were mobbed and unable to do so in the breeding season .
they snatch prey flushed by the cattle and enjoy higher foraging success rates in this way .
. other species occasionally take fruit as well . couas consume fruit in the dry season when prey is harder to find .
the cuckoos are an extremely diverse group of birds with regards to breeding systems .
and is suspected to occur in the other coucals , perhaps explaining the reversed sexual dimorphism in the group .
( see below ) . most of these species nest in trees or bushes , but the coucals lay their eggs in nests on the ground or in low shrubs . though on some occasions non - parasitic cuckoos parasitize other species , the parent still helps feed the chick .
non - parasitic cuckoos , like most other non - passerines , lay white eggs , but many of the parasitic species lay coloured eggs to match those of their passerine hosts .
. non - parasitic cuckoos leave the nest before they can fly , and some new world species have the shortest incubation periods among birds .
these species are obligate brood parasites , meaning that they only reproduce in this fashion . in addition to the above noted species , yet others sometimes engage in non - obligate brood parasitism , laying their eggs in the nests of members of their own species in addition to raising their own young . the best - known example is the european
they have two distinct layers with an outer chalky layer that is believed to provide resistance to cracking when the eggs are dropped in the host nest .
cuckoos have various strategies for getting their egg into a host nest . different species use different strategies based on host defensive strategies . female cuckoos have secretive and fast laying behaviors , but in some cases , males have been shown to lure host adults away from their nests so that the female can lay her egg in the nest .
, with each gens specializing in a particular host . there is some evidence that the gentes are genetically different from one another .
parasitic cuckoos that show the highest levels of egg mimicry are those whose hosts exhibit high levels of egg rejection behavior .
. calls are usually relatively simple , resembling whistles , flutes , or hiccups .
and to attract a mate . within a species the calls are remarkably consistent across the range , even in species with very large ranges . this suggests , along with the fact that many species are not raised by their true parents , that the calls of cuckoos are innate and not learnt . although cuckoos are diurnal , many species call at night .
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