number three asks which of the following

is the best electrophile so whereas a

nucleophile is something that has a lot

of electron excess an electrophile is

something that has an electron

deficiency so it seeks electron density

to coordinate to it electrophile file

meaning love loves electrons wants

electrons to come coordinate to it first

we have butane well there's no

electrophilicity there there is no

region of electron deficiency there's no

partial positive charge there's no

formal positive charge so that doesn't

work B ammonia we do have a positive

charge on that nitrogen because it is

coordinated to four hydrogens but it's

not really going to work as an

electrophile because it cannot

accommodate any more bonds right a

nucleophile cannot coordinate to the

nitrogen it's already coordinatively

saturated it cannot accommodate any more

bonds it's got a full octet so that's

not going to work water of course is not

really

Which is the Best Electrophile?


this video explains how the three types

of chemical bonding work first ionic

bonding between metal and non-metal

atoms for example sodium and chlorine

all metal atoms generally have between

one and three electrons in their outer

shell for example sodium has one in its

outer shell shown as a cross non-metal

atoms generally have between four and

eight electrons in their outer shell

chlorine for example has seven shown as

dots but all atoms want a full outer

shell so the metal and non-metal atoms

do a deal the metal sodium atom gives

its electron away and the non-metal

chlorine atom receives it now they both

have full outer shells but where does

the ionic bond come from both atoms were

neutral but after trading the electron

the sodium is now a positive ion and the

chlorine is now a negative ion the

oppositely charged ions attract causing

the ionic bond many ions attract to form

a giant lattice structure ionic

compounds have interesting properties

because ionic bonds are strong and act

in all directions in the lattice it

takes a lot of energy to break the ionic

bonds giving ionic compounds high

melting

points second Cove valent bonding

between non-metal atoms let's look at

water again all atoms want a full outer

shell oxygen has six outer shell

electrons but needs eight hydrogen has

one electron in its outer shell but

needs two but rather than swap electrons

like ionic bonding coent compounds share

electrons the oxygen atom shares one

pair of electrons with each hydrogen

atom each hydrogen now has two electrons

and the oxygen has eight all of them are

happy so where does the bond come from

the shared pairs of electrons are

negative and the nuclei of all atoms are

positive the attraction between them is

the Cove valent Bond and like ionic

bonds they're very strong water is one

of three kinds of calent compound called

a simple calent compound although calent

bonds are strong the forces between the

small molecules are weak so it takes

little energy to break these weak

intermolecular forces meaning that water

and other simple calent compounds have

very low boiling points however giant

calent compounds like diamond have very

high melting points due to the calent

bonds and finally we have metallic

bonding between metal atoms such as iron

ion has two electrons on its outer shell

But Metal at work as a group and share

their electrons between them the

electrons form a sea of delocalized

electrons which are free to roam

throughout the giant lattice where does

the bonding come from well the positive

nuclei are all held together by the ca

of delocalized electrons like a strong

glue the bonding is very strong meaning

that metal generally has very high

melting

points so these are the three types of

bonding for a closer look at calent

compounds with some examples see the

following video and don't forget to like

And subscribe

Chemical Bonding Explained | Ionic, Covalent and Metallic | GCSE Chemistry

Chemical bonding allows atoms to combine into more complex molecules. Learn how the 3 types of chemical bonding work in this video.


number two what is the iup pack name for

the following compound we have another

one here we need to find the longest

carbon chain this is not always going to

be just the chain that is given to you

from left to right we need to make sure

we get the longest one possible and so

this one snakes up over here that is

going to be the longest carbon chain now

we have to number left to right or right

to left and we want the first

substituent occurring soonest so we will

in this case number right to left 1 two

3 four five 6 7 eight because we have a

substituent on three if we numbered left

to right we wouldn't have a substituent

until carbon 4 then we see what

substituents we have we have a methyl

here we have a methyl here and we have

an ethyl there if we want to number

these alphabetically we will do the

ethyl first so we need five ethyl then

we would name the methyls at the same

time because they're the

IUPAC Nomenclature of Alkanes

This is an abbreviated version of this question for YouTube Shorts. Check out the full version in the linked video.


One day in physics class, you’re learning
about gravity, and your friend tells you that

they exert a stronger gravitational force
on you than the nearest star beyond our sun,

proxima centauri.

You have a mass of sixty kilograms, as does
your friend, who is sitting two meters away.

Proxima centauri has a mass of 2.45 times
ten to the twenty-nine kilograms, and it is

4.01 times ten to the sixteen meters away.

So is your friend correct?

Which exerts more gravity on you, your friend,
or the star?

To answer this, we will need to use Newton’s
law of universal gravitation, so if you missed

that tutorial, check it out right now.

If you know what to do, give this calculation
a try.

This is easy to solve if we know this equation.

All we do is plug in the masses and distances
involved, as well as the gravitational constant.

First, for your friend, we plug in sixty and
sixty as the masses, and two meters as the

distance between you.

We square that and evaluate, and we should
get six times ten to the negative eight Newtons.

This is an extremely tiny force, which explains
why people don’t slowly drift towards each

other when sitting in a room.

Now let’s do one for the star.

We replace the mass of your friend with the
mass of the star, but we also change this

value to the distance to the star, so we have
a huge number on top, but we have a pretty

big number on the bottom, too, and we have
to square it, so when we evaluate this, we

get 6.1 times ten to the negative thirteen
Newtons.

As small as the first number was, this one
is a hundred thousand times smaller, so it

looks like your friend was right, none of
the stars in the universe apart from the sun

can have any significant gravitational influence
on the earth.

Take that, astrology!

Practice Problem: Comparing Gravitational Forces

Gravity is mysterious, isn't it? If all matter exerts gravity, why don't we all just drift towards each other all the time? Well, as you know, it depends on the masses of the two objects and the distance between them. Your friend says that she exerts more gravity on you than a nearby star. Is that possible? Stars are so massive! But they're also so far away. Let's do some calculations and see what we can come up with.

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number three asks which of the following

functional groups does not contain a

carbonal so again what is a carbonal a

carbonal is cble Bond o and then there's

stuff on either side and different

functional groups will contain a

carbonal depending on what that stuff on

either side is we will call them

different functional groups so what is

an alahh an alahh is C double bond o

where we have alkal on one side and a

hydrogen on the the other side so the

thing that makes it an alahh is that one

side of the carbonal has hydrogen it is

basically the end of a carbon chain what

about a carboxilic acid a carboxilic

acid is cbond O and then o so instead of

just an H we have o there and the

presence of that other oxygen atom is

what makes this a carboxilic acid then

we have ether so an ether is an oxygen

atom with alkal on either side

Structure and Bonding OCHEM Exam Question 3


okay let's try a problem
regarding enthalpy of combustion this

one asks the standard enthalpies of
formation for carbon dioxide liquid

water and solid glucose at 25 degrees
Celsius are negative 400 negative 300

and negative 1,300 kilojoules per mole
respectively what is the standard

enthalpy of combustion per gram of
glucose at 25 degrees Celsius so if you

need to check out some of my thermo
chemistry tutorials to help you figure

this out and when you're ready give it a try

so first things first we're talking

about the standard enthalpy of
combustion and so this must be a

combustion reaction so let's write out
the combustion reaction we're performing

combustion on glucose so let's write
this out we have glucose which we know

is c6h12o6 and that's going to be a
solid and then combustion means we're

reacting with oxygen and so we're going
to need o2 gas and then in any

combustion we're always producing carbon
dioxide and water that is always going

to be the case and we need this to be
balanced so we have six six and six for

oxygen carbon dioxide and water so this
is our combustion reaction and now we

can do thermo chemical analysis on it as
we recall the standard enthalpy change

for any reaction is going to be equal to
the sum of the standard enthalpies of

formation of the products minus the sum
of the standard enthalpies of formation

of the reactants so let's go ahead and
plug in what we know

so first starting with the products
we're looking at carbon dioxide and we

know that that is negative 400 and we're
going to have to multiply that by six

because we have a coefficient of six in
the balanced equation

then we're adding to that because this
is a sum we're adding to that negative

300 for water again times six because we
have a coefficient of six then from all

of that we're going to subtract the
enthalpies of formation of the reactants

and so we have negative 1300 for glucose
and then we're going to have zero for

oxygen because as we know for any
element this is going to be zero we

don't have heats of formation for
elements only for compounds so we're

going to do the arithmetic and we find
that the enthalpy of combustion for

glucose is negative 2900 kilojoules per
mole so this is per mole of glucose but

the question asked per gram of glucose
so we have one more calculation to do

it's very simple we just have to take
negative 2900 kilojoules per mole and

then divide that by the molar mass of
glucose which is 180 grams per mole that

way the moles cancel and we're going to
end up with kilojoules per gram and we

do the arithmetic and we get negative
sixteen point one one kilojoules per gram of glucose.

IIT/JEE Chemistry Practice #26: Enthalpy of Combustion

Practice REAL problems from actual past IIT/JEE exams with Professor Dave!

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number two the following pair of

structures are and again we have these

options identical enantiomers derse and

constitutional isomers we want to

compare these structures in the same way

we have something in line notation and

then we have a Newman projection you can

go either way we could convert the line

notation to a Newan projection but I

think we're used to looking at molecules

in line notation so why don't we go

ahead and convert the Newan projection

to line notation what we want to do here

is clearly we are looking at a be

we have this methyl down and this methyl

up in the back that's these two right

here now what else do we have in order

to look at this Newman projection what

we're really doing is we're looking down

this Bond right here if we were to do

that what would we see well if we see

the bromine going up and to the left

that means that that must be on the dash

Bond here because the dash bond is going

to the left it's going past the screen

Identifying the Type of Isomer


s asks what is the relationship between

the compound in line notation and the

adjacent Newman projection very clearly

looking at this Newman projection we've

got an O on the front and a CL on the

back so we're definitely looking at this

like this we are looking down this

carboncarbon Bond right here so that is

the carboncarbon bond that we cannot see

it is obscured by the carbon atom that

we are looking at and so what do we

notice if we are looking down that Bond

we're going to have a methyl group

projecting directly upwards so that's

right there we will have o down and to

our right because if we are in the plane

of the screen and that o is projecting

forwards from the screen it is going to

be down and to our right and then the

implied hydrogen will be down and to the

left so that's fine then looking at the

back carbon we have a chlorine atom that

is going to be up and to our right

because again

Newman Projections and Isomerism


n

[Music]

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It’s Professor Dave, let’s learn the distance
formula.

As we navigate the coordinate plane in our
algebraic adventures, one thing we might want

to do is find the distance between two points.

Luckily, we are well equipped to do this,
since we know the Pythagorean Theorem.

If you need to review it, check out the tutorials
on how to use the theorem, as well as how

the theorem was derived, in the geometry portion
of this playlist.

Otherwise, let’s just select two points
in the coordinate plane, and draw a line between them.

The length of this line is what we are trying
to figure out, and in order to get it, we

can make a right triangle.

This line will be the hypotenuse, and the
legs will be the horizontal and vertical line

segments we need to construct the triangle.

Now let’s label the hypotenuse as D, the
distance we want to know.

The legs can be expressed as the difference
between the respective points that mark their ends.

This horizontal line segment has a length
of X two minus X one, since it only moves

in the X direction.

The vertical line segment has a length of
Y two minus Y one, since it only moves in

the Y direction.

Now, we just use the Pythagorean Theorem.

The square of this leg plus the square of
the other leg equals the hypotenuse squared,

or D squared.

Then, all we do is take the square root of
both sides to solve for D.

We will only take the positive value here,
as negative length doesn’t make any sense.

And there you have it, we have derived the
distance formula.

Let’s give it a shot.

Take the points negative two, two, and two,
five.

What is the distance covered by the line segment
that connects these two points?

Well, let’s take our X values and our Y
values, and plug them into the formula.

That gives us four, which squared is sixteen,
and three, which squared is nine.

Add them up and we get twenty-five, take the
square root, and that gives us five for the

distance.

This is the same value we would get if we
contructed a triangle and performed the Pythagorean

Theorem.

So the distance formula is a generalized way
to simply plug in the coordinates of two points,

and find the distance between them.

Let's check comprehension.

The Distance Formula: Finding the Distance Between Two Points

One thing we may want to do in algebra is compute the distance between two points on the coordinate plane. Luckily, there is a handy dandy equation for doing just that! Let's derive it first, and then practice using it.

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Book Depository: http://bit.ly/3aOVDlT


[Music]

Professor Dave and CH here an extremely

common type of reaction in organic

chemistry involves some nucleophile

attacking a carbonal carbon often in the

form of an alahh or Ketone what are

these nucleophiles and what kinds of

compounds can be produced let's check

out a few examples when a nucleophile

attacks a carbon carbon it will do so at

a specific angle called the Bergie dunit

angle which is around 75° from the

horizontal this is so that it can access

the lowest unoccupied molecular orbital

and bond to the carbon thus Shifting the

carbonal carbon from SP2 to sp3

hybridized this pushes the pi Bond up

onto the oxygen to generate the

oxyanion generally this is then

protonated to give the alcohol what

kinds of nucleophiles are capable of

this transformation many of them are

negatively charged such as hydroxide

hydde carbanion alkoxide or cyanide but

sometimes even neutral nucleophiles can

attack the carbonal these include water

alcohol ammonia or other

amines sometimes depending on the

identity of the nucleophile we don't

stop at the alcohol instead the alcohol

can be further proteinated and a second

Bond can form from the nucleophile to

what was originally the carbonal carbon

resulting in a pi bond this will

frequently happen with amines which will

attack the carbonal but then proton

transfer will occur such that the same

nitrogen can attack again kicking water

off and producing what is called an

imine in terms of reactivity alahh are

generally more reactive than ketones in

the context of nucleophilic addition

both for steric and and electronic

reasons sterically there is one less

alkal group projecting from the carbonal

so a nucleophile can more easily

approach but also an alahh carbonal is

slightly more polarized than a ketone

because alkal groups are slightly

electron donating through induction so

the carbonal carbon is not quite as

partially positive in a ketone as it is

for an alahh to extend this to aromatic

systems something like benzal deide will

be less reactive than an aliphatic alahh

because of the resonance from the

Benzene ring which makes the carbonal

carbon less

electrophilic there is much more we can

do with alahh and ketones in the way of

nucleophilic substitution but for now

that serves as a reasonable introduction

Professor Dave for che see you next time

[Music]

go

Nucleophilic Addition Reactions of Aldehydes and Ketones Ft. Professor Dave

An extremely common type of reaction in organic chemistry involves some nucleophile attacking a carbonyl carbon, often an aldehyde or ketones. Let's learn what these nucleophiles are, and what compounds are produced from these attacks. We'll also cover the concept of the Burgi-Dunitz angle—the angle at which nucleophilic attacks on carbonyls occur—as well as the reactivity of carbonyls.

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00:00 Intro
00:27 Burgi-Dunitz angle
01:04 Survey of nucleophiles
01:51 Comparing reactivity


हैं तो आज हम टीचर्स की नेम इन देखेंगे

कॉमन नेम और आईयूपीएसी नेम तो मैं एक

कंपाउंड लेने लगा हूं यह इसका पहले हम

कॉमन नेम लेंगे और अब यह इसका आईयूपीएसी

नेम लेंगे

है तो अ फोकस करिए ऑक्सीजन की दोनों साइड

एक साइड इफेक्ट फील तो यह इतना ही नहीं यह

मिसाइल तो पहले अल्फाबेटिकली लिखिए

क्योंकि

इस कंप्यूटर के कारण और फिर यह ग्रुप

मिठाई और बीच में जो बचा इसको बोलते हैं

है तो अ यूपी सीने में दोनों कार्बन

डिसल्फाइड बट व्हो विल हेल्प टो कंसीडर

करना है जहां पर लंबी चैन है तो यह बन गया

मिथक सी

है और मिथेन तो यह अ यूपीएससी ने अपने इस

तरह से इतर के नेम इन करनी है

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Coulomb's law

if two objects have electrical charges

q1 and Q2 and if they're separated by a

distance R then Coulomb's law says that

the electrical or coulombic force

between these objects is kq1 Q2 over r

squared

K which you write here as K sub e e for

electrical is a constant approximately

equal to 9 times 10 to the 9 newton

meters squared per coulomb squared

now matter could be electrically charged

charges can be positive negative or

neutral if an object is neutral it has

zero electrical charge

here's the representation we'll use for

a positive charge

a negative charge and a neutral charge

Coulomb's law says that like charges

that is charges with the same sign repel

each other while opposite charges

attract if we put two positive charges

close together they'll repel each other

since they have the same sign

the same goes for two negative charges

if a positive and a negative charge are

near each other they'll attract

and neutral charges won't interact with

electrically charged objects

now the closer two charges are the

stronger the force between them will be

so let's return to our positive and

negative charges when they're far apart

like we show them here the force between

them is relatively weak as indicated by

the short arrows as we move the charges

closer together the forces get stronger

which we show by the arrows getting

longer

Coulomb's law is also quantitative it

relates the force between two objects to

their electrical charges here's

Coulomb's law again the force is equal

to K times q1 times Q2 over r squared

where q1 and Q2 are the charges and R is

the distance between them one of the

keys to Coulomb's law is that the

charges are multiplied together which

means they're signs whether positive

negative or neutral also get multiplied

let's say q1 is positive and let's say

Q2 is positive as well multiplying two

positive charges results in a positive

force and when a force is positive here

it means repulsive pushing the charges

away from each other

now let's suppose q1 is negative and

that Q2 is also negative multiplying two

negatives again results in a positive

force so again q1 and Q2 will repel

if one of the charges is positive while

the other is negative then their product

will also be negative which means the

force is attractive

and finally if at least one of the

charges is neutral meaning it has zero

electrical charge this zero carries

through in the multiplication and the

force between them is zero

so multiplying the charges is one key to

Coulomb's law

the other key is the r squared in the

denominator suppose we doubled the

distance between two charges how would

the force change

doubling the distance means we're

changing the r to 2R

squaring 2R gives 4r squared now we can

move the 4 in front of the fraction

keeping it in the denominator

so now we have one quarter of our

original Force back when the distance

was r

doubling the distance results in a

quarter of the force similarly having

the distance would have quadrupled the

force in other words Coulomb's law is

what's known as an inverse Square law

like the law of gravity and so distances

are very important

finally just a little housekeeping but

not critical to understanding Coulomb's

law we've thrown around this number K 9

times 10 to the 9 newton meters squared

per coulomb squared another way to write

K is 1 over 4 Pi Epsilon naught where Pi

is the numerical constant 3.14159

Etc and Epsilon naught is what's known

as the vacuum permittivity also known as

the permittivity of free space and it's

approximately equal to 8.85 times 10 to

the minus 12 coulomb squared per Newton

meter squared

Coulomb's law

An explanation of Coulomb's law. For more content visit schoolyourself.org.


Hey everyone, Professor Dave here, I wanna talk a little more about nucleophilic substitutions

specifically, the SN1 reaction

so the SN1 is another nucleophilic substitution reaction

so it's similar to the SN2, but there's a couple key mechanistic differences.

so let's take a look at what's going on

the first difference here, is that it is a two-step reaction

so i know that's confusing, SN1 being two steps and SN2 being 1

but once again it's about the transition state of the reaction. so let's see here

so the first step is that the leaving group leaves

so this is prior to any contact with a nucleophile, this carbon is able to lose a bond to this chlorine

chloride is very stable by itself, we have a carbocation intermediate here. so one key thing to understand

is that we're going from an sp3 hybridized tetrahedral carbon, to an sp2 hybridized trigonal planar situation

because this carbon is losing an electron domain

so now that this carbon with a formal positive charge has only three electron domains is gonna have

trigonal planar geometry, so basically this molecule is a plane perpendicular to the board

we are looking at it edge on like this. now that we have the carbocation intermediate

the second step is for the nucleophile to attack

here let's say it's just a molecule of water solvent

it is gonna go ahead and attack here, and we'll have a water molecule attached

and then another molecule of water will go ahead, snag that proton, deprotonate, and we'll have just the alcohol

one very important part about the SN1 mechanism is that because a carbocation intermediate

is trigonal planar, that means that a nucleophile can attack from either side

remember that any time we have a reaction occurring

something is dumping electrons from its highest occupied molecular orbital

and putting them into the lowest unoccupied molecular orbital, and in this case, if we have a trigonal planar

situation, the lowest unoccupied molecular orbital is the unhybridized remaining p orbital

so these are sp2, and then the unhybridized third p orbital is each lobe extending in this direction

perpendicular to the plane of the molecule. so that means that water can attack from this side

or water can attack from that side. and if you are generating a chiral center you are gonna get something

called a racemic mixture

of enantiomers, or of stereoisomers at that location

which means in 50% of the resulting molecules you'll have an R stereocenter and in 50% you'll have S

so that's something to be mindful of.

thanks for watching, guys. subscribe to my channel for more tutorials

and as always feel free to email me with questions

SN1 Reaction

Why is SN2 a one-step reaction and SN1 a two-step reaction! Argh! Just listen to Dave, he'll tell you about the mechanism, intermediate, and lack of stereospecificity for the SN1 reaction. Look out for racemic mixtures!

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The skeleton has

bones in an adult

Babies have 270

which fuse for this result

The skeleton is divided

into two main zones

which are called the axial and appendicular bones

Your brain is in the cranium which acts as a hull

which is useful for talking, as you can understand

The ossicles are small bones found inside your ear

And then move to the cochlea which discerns the tones

The ribcage helps to protect the lungs and the heart

Are stacked up very neatly in a vertical array

The spinal cord keeps your reflexes on deck

Which holds your upper body and is found in your bum

Below it is the coccyx or the tailbone

The appendicular skeleton, 126 bones

In shoulders, arms and legs, as we have here shown

Your scapula, also known as your shoulderblade

Next to the clavicle or collarbone is laid

Here they come together to meet at the elbow

The humerus in the upper arm so don't you forget this

Of carpals, metacarpals and phalanges these consist

The proximal, intermediate and distal phalanges

Make up your fingers which you can move with ease

The hip bone can be divided into three

The ilium, ischium and pubis as you can see

The bones in your leg, well there are four

And the femur's found above it, as we can all agree

There are 52 bones in your ankles and your feet

There are the tarsals, metatarsals and phalanges

Remember that they are proximal, intermediate and distal

If you enjoyed this video, like and subscribe!

You can also support me by following the link to my Patreon

If you have any topics you'd like me to cover, please leave a comment :)

SKELETON BONES SONG - LEARN IN 3 MINUTES!!!

HAPPY HALLOWEEN! Here's a song for you to memorize the bones in 3 minutes!

The skeleton has 2-0-6 bones in an adult,
Babies have 2-70, which fuse for this result.
The skeleton is divided into two main zones,
Which are called the axial and appendicular bones.

The axial skeleton is topped by the skull,
Your brain is in the cranium, which acts as a hull.
The mandible or jawbone is able to expand,
Which is useful for talking, as you can understand.

The ossicles are small bones, found inside your ear,
The maleus, incus, stapes, which all help you hear.
Sound waves are amplified by these three bones,
And then move to the cochlea, which discerns the tones!

The rib cage helps to protect the lungs and the heart,
With 12 ribs on each side, the sternum in the front.
Your vertebral column, made up of vertebrae,
Are stacked up very neatly, in a vertical array.

The cervical vertebrae make up your neck,
The spinal chord keeps your reflexes on deck!
The ribs are supported by thoracic vertebrae,
Lumbar ones are at the end of the spinal cord pathway!

Five sacral vertebrae are fused to form your sacrum,
Which holds your upper body, and is found in your bum.
Below it is the coccyx, or the tailbone,
In humans the coccyx has not really grown.

The appendicular skeleton  - a  126  bones,
In shoulders, arms, and legs, as we have here shown,
Your scapula, also known, as your shoulder blade,
Next to the clavicle, or collarbone, is laid.

You have three arm bones, one above and two below,
Here they come together, to meet at the elbow.
The bones of the forearm are the ulna and the radius,
The humerus in the upper arm, so don’t you forget this.

You have 54 bones in one hand and one wrist,
Of carpals, metacarpals, and phalanges these consist.
The proximal, intermediate, and distal phalanges,
Make up your fingers, which you can move with ease.

Remember that your hands are where you find the carpals,
And the feet are where you will find all your tarsals.
The hip bone can be divided into three,
The ilium, ischium, and pubis, as you can see!

The bones in your leg? Well, there are four,
The patella is your kneecap, and then there are three more,
The tibia and fibula are found below the knee,
And the femur’s found above it, as we can all agree!

There are 52 bones, in your ankles and your feet,
Once you know the hand bones, these will be a treat!
There are the tarsals, metatarsals, and phalanges,
Remember that they are proximal, intermediate, and distal!

Music/Lyrics/Visual © Neural Academy

3D models:
https://videohive.net/item/skeleton-street-dance-/24358994
https://videohive.net/item/human-skeleton-transforming-2/19767274
https://videohive.net/item/running-human-skeleton-2pack/22684573
https://videohive.net/item/ear-anatomy-2k/23878870
https://videohive.net/item/skeleton-sexy-dance/18743642
https://videohive.net/item/skeleton-dubstep-dance/18594801


البروفيسور ديف هنا, لنتعلم عن الروابط الكيميائية

يتكون الجزيء من ذرات تشارك في روابط كيميائية مع بعضها البعض, يوجد

أنواع مختلفة من الروابط التي نريد أن نكون قادرين على وصفها والمفتاح

إلى تكوينها له علاقة بالاختلاف في الكهروسالبية بين

الذرتان المشاركتان في الرابطة, إذا كان الفرق أكثر من 2

مثل الصوديوم والكلور, يسلب الكلور إلكترونًا من الصوديوم

الكلور يريد حقًا إلكترونًا آخر, والصوديوم يريد حقًا التخلص من الكترون واحد

لذلك يفوز الجميع. والنتيجة هي أيون صوديوم موجب الشحنة

وأيون كلوريد سالب الشحنة, الجسيمات ذات الشحنة المعاكسة لها

جاذبية كهروستاتيكية بحيث يتجول هذين الأيونين معًا من مشكلين

رابطة أيونية, هذه  نقطة جذب قوية لأنه يحدث

بين الأيونات التي لها شحنة رسمية, رابطة, ا لرابطة الأيونية. الإلكترونات المأخوذة

غير مشتركة, بما اننا نتحدث عن الإلكترونات المشتركة إذا كان الفرق في الكهروسالبية

بين الذرتين أقل من 1.7 تقريبًا لا تنفصل الإلكترونات ولكن بدلاً من ذلك

تشترك الذرتان في إلكترونين, الإلكترون من هذه الذرة يشعر الالكترون

بالجاذبية من النواة الأخرى وكذلك الإلكترون من هذه الذرة, لذلك

تشترك الذرات في الإلكترونين لتشكيل رابطة تساهمية, يمكن أن تكون الروابط التساهمية

قطبية أو غير قطبية, إذا كان فرق السالبية الكهربائية بين

الذرات ليست عالية بما يكفي للتسبب في التأين ولكنها على الأقل أكثر من

0.5 ، مثل الهيدروجين والكلور, بدلا من الانفصال الكامل للالكترون

يقوم الكلور بالاحتفاظ بـ الألكترونات بطريقة غير عادلة في الرابطة التساهمية

الناتجة,  كلما زادت ذرة كهرسلبية في رابطة تساهمية قطبية تسحب

كثافة الإلكترونات تجاه نفسها ونتيجة لزيادة الإلكترون الطفيفة

نسمي هذه الذرة سالبة جزئيًا, يرمز إليها بالرمز: دلتا سالب

الذرة التي ينزع الإلكترون منها هي إلكترون ضعيف قليلاً

وبالتالي موجبة جزئيا أو دلتا زائد, إذا كان فرق الكهرسلبية

أقل من 0.5 ، يقال أن الرابطة التساهمية غير قطبية

في الرابطة التساهمية غير القطبية, يتم تقاسم الإلكترونات بشكل متساوٍ تقريبًا

أو في حالة ذرتين من نفس العنصر, متساويين بالتحديد

لن يكون للذرات شحنات جزئية على الإطلاق. بخلاف الظواهر الغريبة مثل

الرابطة الفلزية, هذه هي الطرق الرئيسية للذرات لكي
ترتبط ببعضها البعض

تذكر أنه يمكنك التنبؤ بنوع الرابطة التي ستتشكل بين عنصريين

بمقارنة نشاطهما الإلكتروني, إذا كان الفرق منخفض للغاية

أقل من 0.5 أو نحو ذلك, ستكون رابطة تساهمية غير قطبية حيث

يتم تقاسم الإلكترونات بالتساوي, ما بين حوالي 0.5 و 1.7 ستكون الرابطة قطبية

تساهمية مع الإلكترونات مشتركة ولكن ذرة واحدة تحملها تمسكها باحكام

إذا فوق 2 أو نحو ذلك ستقوم الذرة بسلب الكترون واحد من ذرة

وستحصل على أيونات مرتبطة برابطة أيوني

شكرا لكم على المشاهدة اشتراكو في قناتي لمزيد من الدروس

كما هو الحال دائما لا تتردد في مراسلتي على الايميل التالي

The Chemical Bond: Covalent vs. Ionic and Polar vs. Nonpolar

Ionic Bond, Covalent Bond, James Bond, so many bonds! What dictates which kind of bond will form? Electronegativity values, of course. Let's go through each type and what they're all about.

Watch the whole General Chemistry playlist: http://bit.ly/ProfDaveGenChem

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Bookshop: https://bit.ly/39cKADM

Barnes and Noble: https://bit.ly/3pUjmrn
Book Depository: http://bit.ly/3aOVDlT


[Music]

foreign

Professor Dave and Chegg here when using

line notation to depict molecules we

sometimes disregard the true geometry of

the molecule by flattening it out but if

we are depicting molecules with their

true geometry substituents must be on

Wedge or Dash Bonds in order to obey the

tetrahedral geometry that these sp3

centers demand and with that we have set

the stage for an important concept the

notion of

stereoisomerism and chirality we already

know what structural isomers are these

are molecules that have the same

molecular formula but differing

connectivity this would be like a

straight Chain alkane versus a branched

alkane with the same number of carbons

or even something like dimethyl ether

versus ethanol which produces different

functional groups but even when

molecules have precisely the same

connectivity we can still have

stereoisomerism

stereoisomers are molecules that have

the same molecular formula and the same

connectivity but differ in the way the

atoms are distributed in space

take this molecule to bromobutane this

bromo group must be on either a dash

Bond or a wedge Bond as we know but if

we draw both options we must understand

that these are not the same molecule

they are mirror images of one another if

we take this one on the wedge Bond and

reflect it across this mirror plane we

get this mirror image and if we then

flip it over to the other side to try to

line up the main chain this bromo group

pointing towards us will end up pointing

away from us and therefore on a dash

Bond and will not line up with this

first bromo group these molecules are

mirror images just like your hands are

mirror images your hands are not

superposable that is to say if one hand

is placed over the other with the Palms

facing the same direction we can't get

the fingers to line up properly when a

molecule is not superposable on its

Mirror Image in precisely this manner

this molecule is said to be chiral and

specifically this carbon is said to be a

chiral Center

there are a lot of synonyms for this

term we could say stereocenter or

stereogenic Center and we'd be talking

about the same thing we would generally

be talking about a carbon atom that is

connected to four different groups in

this case methyl ethyl bromo hydrogen

this is the reason the mirror image is

different if we changed this ethyl to a

methyl when we get the mirror image we

would find that it is absolutely

identical this is due to the internal

symmetry of the molecule because the

mirror image is identical this molecule

is not chiral which we can also call a

chiral

it will be very important to be able to

identify chiral centers take a look at

this molecule take a moment and see if

you can identify all the chiral centers

bear in mind that SP and SP2 hybridized

carbons will not qualify we are almost

always talking about sp3 carbons when

referring to chiral centers also

remember that hydrogen atoms bound to

carbon are implied and not shown so we

must keep these in mind as well when

considering the four groups bound to any

carbon

are you ready here are all the chiral

centers in this molecule marked with an

asterisk each of the four groups bound

to these carbons is different either

different elements or different kinds of

carbon chains that are not precisely

identical we must be able to do this

with any organic molecule

so we should Now understand what is

meant by the term chiral as well as the

chiral Center on a molecule and be able

to identify such chiral centers on any

molecule Professor Dave for Chegg see

you next time

Understanding Chirality in Molecules Ft. Professor Dave

Professor Dave delves into the notions of stereoisomerism and chirality in this video. We'll see how stereo isomers differ from structural isomers, learn the definition of a chiral molecule, and start learning how to label chiral centers and work with chirality.

Get more homework help from Chegg at https://che.gg/3HbtG8Y
Watch the whole Organic Chemistry playlist: https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLllCkartRRdMPnATf1X8qVdo5RzM8gA_M

About Chegg:
Chegg is a leading education technology company that provides students with affordable and accessible study resources. Chegg's mission is to help students save time, save money and get smarter.

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00:00 Intro
00:37 Structural isomers
00:59 Stereo isomers
02:01 Chirality
02:49 Identifying chiral centers


welcome to moomoomath and science in the

carbon cycle

carbon is an element that is vital to

most living organisms on earth

it is also a key component of our

atmosphere

carbon has the ability to cycle through

our earth the ocean

living factors abiotic factors in the

air

the carbon recycles among five major

locations

these items include the atmosphere

the terrestrial biosphere or land

the earth's interior the ocean

and human influence let's take a look at

what happens at each of these areas

carbon is found in the atmosphere in at

least two forms carbon dioxide and

methane

this atmospheric carbon can be absorbed

by autotrophs like plants and plankton

to be used for photosynthesis it can

also be absorbed by bodies of water

and the ocean when carbon is absorbed by

the ocean it reacts with the water and

creates carbonic acid

the terrestrial biosphere which is

another term for the earth's land

has several paths of carbon that it can

take

first there is an exchange between

plants and animals

plants absorb carbon in the form of

carbon dioxide for photosynthesis

and animals release carbon dioxide

during cellular respiration

also heterotrophs eat plants that

contain carbon

animals also release carbon as methane

during digestion

and the soil contains decomposers that

release carbon into the atmosphere and

the soil

carbon is also stored in the earth's

interior

carbon in the lithosphere includes

fossil fuels like coal

oil and natural gas along with deposits

like limestone

and volcanoes may release some of this

carbon stored

in the lithosphere when they erupt

up next the ocean the ocean has the

greatest

exchange quantity of cycled carbon and

stores a large amount of carbon

the ocean absorbs carbon in the form of

carbon dioxide

the ocean also has a large amount of

plankton

that absorbs carbon dioxide that it uses

for photosynthesis

humans also influence the movement of

carbon

humans burn fossil fuel which releases

carbon dioxide into the atmosphere

also the production of clinker which is

used for cement from limestone

also releases carbon in addition

deforestation from humans can cause

the amount of carbon in the atmosphere

to increase

so there you go an overview of the path

of an atom of carbon

that may take place during the carbon

cycle

thanks for watching and moon math

uploads a new map

and science video every day please

subscribe and

share

The Carbon Cycle Process

What is the Carbon cycle? The carbon cycle is one of several biogeochemical cycles found on Earth. Carbon is found in almost all living organisms and makes up around .04 percent of our atmosphere.
What are the steps of the carbon cycle and how does the Carbon cycle work?
Carbon may travel several paths including,
The atmosphere, the terrestrial biosphere, the earth’s interior which includes the lithosphere, the ocean, and human influence like burning fossil fuels and other objects that store carbon.
In the video, I go through a carbon cycle diagram and explain each step.
Carbon can be found in several forms including carbon dioxide and methane.
The carbon cycle is essential for many ecosystems on Earth.

The Carbon Cycle
https://moomoomath.com/explain-the-carbon-cycle/

Biogeochemical Cycles - How the Earth Recycles
https://moomoomath.com/how-the-earth-recycles-elements-biogeochemical-cycles/


Welcome to Professor Dave Explains.

I’m Dave, and this channel is for learning.

There are a lot of YouTube channels for learning,
but this one is different.

I’m not going to dazzle you with science-flavored
edutainment that’s fun to watch but falls

short at delivering real knowledge.

I’m also not going to just stand here and
lecture at a blackboard for two hours at a time.

I want to give you something in between.

The shortest, easiest route there has ever
been to a working understanding of everything

around you, from the infinitesimally small
to the incomprehensibly large.

I want to teach you chemistry, so you can
understand atoms and molecules.

I want to teach you biochemistry, so you can
understand big molecules, like proteins and DNA.

I want to teach you biology, so you can understand
the components that make up living organisms.

I want to teach you physics, so you can understand the way the universe works on the most fundamental level.

I want to teach you astronomy, so you can
understand all the fascinating objects we

can see in this great big universe.

I want to teach you mathematics, so you can
understand the important calculations that

scientists have to perform, and reproduce them yourself.

And that’s just the tip of the iceberg.

But why bother learning all this stuff?

Well for one thing, when you read about science-related
news, regarding nutrition, or medicine, or

technology, wouldn’t you like to know what’s
going on?

To make informed decisions for yourself, rather
than just repeating what others are saying?

The only way to get there is to learn the
fundamentals, and this channel is the fastest

way to do it.

I cover typical high school and undergraduate
curricula, so if you’re a student, stick around.

I will explain exactly what you are learning
in class in ways that will finally make sense.

My tutorials are succinct, with animations
geared towards maximizing comprehension rather

than amusement, and they stress the most important
details, while skipping all the fluff.

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hey it's Professor Dave let's talk about

carbon

science

Dave you may have heard that carbon is

the element of life but what does that

mean what determines whether an atom is

of carbon in the first place an atom

consists of positively charged protons

neutrons which have no charge and

negatively charged electrons an element

is defined by the number of protons in

the nucleus one proton is hydrogen two

is helium three lithium four burum five

Boron and six is carbon the number of

neutrons and electrons can change but by

definition any atom with six protons is

a carbon atom how do they form hydrogen

the simplest and most abundant of all

elements accumulates into clumps due to

gravity which becomes Stars the

tremendous inward pressure triggers

nuclear fusion which is when protons and

neutrons smash together in fuse many

elements including carbon and larger

ones like iron are made in Stars much

larger ones need the immense energy of a

supernova explosion or particle

accelerators here on Earth so what's so

special about carbon let's look at the

electrons carbon atoms have six the

first two are in the inner shell and the

other four are the so-called veence

electrons in the outer shell these are

the ones available for bonding with

other atoms which happens when two atoms

share two electrons because elements in

this part of the periodic table want to

have eight electrons in their outermost

shell carbon has a tendency to make four

bonds these can be single double or or

triple bonds and with many different

elements in addition while an atom

that's bound to two or three other atoms

will adopt a linear or flat shape a

carbon atom that's bound to four other

atoms will take on a three-dimensional

shape because that's how the electron

clouds on the four atoms can be as far

away from each other as possible so it's

the ability of carbon to bond in a wide

variety of shapes with so many elements

including itself that makes it so

special also carbon carbon bonds are

strong enough to be stable but not so

strong that they can't break and

rearrange which makes them excellent

building blocks when by itself carbon

has many allotropes or ways an element

can be arranged there's the graphite in

your pencil which consists of slippery

sheets of carbon that rub off easily

there's Diamond the hardest substance

known and we can even make interesting

structures like nanot tubes and

ferin that's just carbon by itself when

combined with hydrogen oxygen nitrogen

and a few other elements it makes all

the diverse structures in your body

including carbohydrates proteins and DNA

we can take nature a step further and

synthesize novel materials with an array

of purposes putting carbons in the empty

spots of an iron lattice makes it

stronger we call this steel which is

used in most of the large structures we

know today Teflon a carbon Florine

polymer is a non-stick substance that's

highly resistant to chemical degradation

and carbon-based synthetic drugs like

Inhibitors that can silence a faulty

enzyme hold the prospect of curing so

many diseases that's a lot of reasons to

love carbon it really is the element of

Life see you next time

Professor Dave Explains: Carbon – Dave Farina

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the rank of a matrix is the number of

linearly independent rows that it has or

equivalently the number of linearly

independent columns the rank of a matrix

is always positive except in the case of

the zero Matrix which has rank 0. let's

go through five examples of calculating

the rank of a matrix we'll do the first

four real quick and we'll be a bit more

thorough with the last one here's a

matrix a it's not the zero Matrix so its

rank is positive generally to find the

rank of a matrix we'll want to put it

into row Echelon form doing this to a

gives us this Matrix and this tells us

the number of linearly independent rows

that a has it's simply the number of

non-zero rows in the row Echelon form in

this case we see that's three so the

rank of a is equal to three similarly

for this Matrix B if we put it into row

Echelon form this is what we get the

number of linearly independent it rows

in B is the number of non-zero rows in

the row Echelon form in this case there

are two non-zero rows so the rank of B

is two some matrices are simple enough

that we don't need to put them in row

Echelon form this Matrix C is not the

zero Matrix so it does have a positive

rank but I notice the two rows are not

independent the second row is simply

equal to negative two times the first

row so C has only one independent row

and its rank which we could also denote

like this is equal to one this Matrix D

has fewer columns than it has rows so it

may be simpler to look at the columns we

notice the first two columns are

linearly independent there's no way to

multiply column one to get column two

however column three is a linear

combination of the first two columns in

fact if we just add column one in in

column 2 that gives us column three so

the Matrix D has only two linearly

independent columns and we would say

that the rank of D is equal to two if

all else fails we can always put the

Matrix into row Echelon form and count

the non-zero rows let's do one more

example of that with this Matrix e we

want to make the entries below each

leading entry equal to zero so below

this two we want only zeros to get that

we'll set row two equal to row two minus

row four so those ones will cancel out

to get rid of this one we will subtract

row two from row four to again cancel

out the ones that gets us here we have

zeros below the two like we want now we

want to get zeros below the next leading

entry of negative one to make this two

equal to zero We'll add two copies of

row two into this third row and that

gets us here now we also want to get rid

of this one that's below the leading

entry of negative one and in order to do

that we'll simply add Row 2 to Row 4

which will eliminate Row 4 completely so

Row 4 is all zeros and we can see we are

now in row Echelon form and there are

three non-zero rows thus the rank of E

equals three thanks for watching let me

know if you have any questions

How to Find the Rank of a Matrix (with echelon form) | Linear Algebra

The rank of a matrix is the number of linearly independent rows or the number of linearly independent columns the matrix has. These definitions are equivalent. To find this number, we can reduce a matrix to row echelon form and count the nonzero rows, whose leading entries are called pivot numbers. We'll solve five rank of a matrix examples in this lesson. #linearalgebra

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okay number two asks convert the

following compound in condensed notation

into the appropriate line notation so

now we're going the other way we're

taking our condensed notation and we're

expanding that into line notation we

start with ch3 so we have a methyl group

and then that is going to connect to co

So Co is our carbonal group so here is

our methyl and then we have our carbonal

next is going to be ch ch looking ahead

a little bit we know that we have a

carbon and then that is going to be

bound to just one hydrogen and then

another carbon that is also bound to

just one hydrogen but if both of these

carbons are just bound to one hydrogen

that means that there must be a double

bond between them because all these

carbons have to have four bonds and so

the way we get ch ch is by making a pi

Bond there between those carbons after

chch we have ch2 so that's just a

regular ch2

Condensed Notation to Line Notation: CH3COCHCHCH2CCH #organicchemistry

This is a clip from Professor Dave's Structure and Bonding Organic Chemistry Exam.

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Professor Dave here, let's discuss the

zeroth law of thermodynamics.

Thermodynamics is a tricky subject that

must be studied in chemistry, physics,

engineering, and many other courses of

academic study, because it has an

incredible impact on the behavior of

matter and energy. At first, thermodynamic

concepts may seem impossible to

understand, but if you go over the basics

enough times they start to make sense

and you can continue to learn more about

the subject as needed for your field of

study or level of desired knowledge.

We will begin our analysis with the

infamous laws of thermodynamics. Just

like Newton's laws of motion there is a

first, second, and third law, but later in

the development of the field a more

fundamental law was added and dubbed the

zeroth law, so let's start there.

The zeroth law of thermodynamics deals with

thermal equilibrium, which as we recall

describes a situation in which there is

no net heat flow between two systems.

The zeroth law states that if two systems

are in thermal equilibrium with a third

system, then those two systems are also

in thermal equilibrium with each other.

In other words, if A is in thermal

equilibrium with B which is in thermal

equilibrium with C, A and C are also in

equilibrium. This may seem like a trivial

statement but it is an important one

because it means that two objects at the

same temperature will not exhibit heat

flow when they come into contact with

one another. This marks temperature as

the indicator of thermal equilibrium.

If two objects are in thermal equilibrium

with thermometers that read the same

temperature, the objects will be in

thermal equilibrium with each other

which therefore allows us to gather all

kinds of thermodynamic data in our

laboratories. In studying thermodynamics

we must also learn certain definitions.

We will want to be able to define a

system as the collection of objects we

are examining while the surroundings

represent the environment surrounding

the system, which is technically the rest

of the universe. Some systems allow heat

to flow in and out. These systems have

diathermal walls. Some systems do not

allow heat to flow in and out. These

systems have adiabatic walls. No system

can be truly adiabatic, but it is a

useful approximation when we do

calculations involving systems that

permit only negligible heat transfer.

With these definitions out of the way, we

can move on to the first law of thermodynamics.

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The Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics: Thermal Equilibrium

You've heard of the laws of thermodynamics, but did you know there are actually four of them? It's true, and since they already had laws one, two, and three, but then wanted to formulate another more fundamental one, the number right before one is zero so that's what they called it! Also, "zeroth" is fun to say. Let's say it together.

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[Music]

Professor Dave and CH here now that we

know what infrared spectroscopy is and

what simple IR Spectra depict it's time

to get more thorough and see how a wide

variety of functional groups will show

up on an IR spectrum first let's recall

what we are looking at the horizontal

axis tells us the wave number which is a

way of expressing frequency in inverse

centimeters so all the different

wavelengths of infrared light are

represented at different places on the

horizontal axis and the vertical axis

tells us the present transmittance at

that wave number if the transmittance is

very high almost all of that light got

through so almost none of it was

absorbed by the sample if the

transmittance is very low then very

little of it got through so most of it

was absorbed by the sample that is what

we see with these Peaks that dip down in

a pronounced way wherever we see these

Peaks we can be certain that the

corresponding functional group is

present in the molecule there are Peaks

that we will see over and over again so

let's simply list what they are give the

associated wave numbers and discuss

other characteristics when necessary for

alkanes an IR spectrum isn't too

interesting since all we have is the

saturated CH stretch and the CC stretch

most organic compounds have these bonds

so these Peaks will show up almost all

the time for alkenes we see stretches

for the vinyl proton and the

carboncarbon double bond there is also

outof plane bending for the vinyl proton

which helps determine the substitution

pattern with alkin we get a stretch for

the triple bond and the intensity tells

us whether this is terminal or internal

then for aromatic compounds we see

aromatic CH stretching there is also

data for the carbon carbon bonds in the

ring

itself moving on to functional groups

with hetero atoms there is the hydroxy

stretch this is perhaps the easiest to

spot of any functional group as the peak

will be very Broad and rounded which is

due to hydrogen bonding if you see this

and you can't miss it there is a hydroxy

group present amines have an NH stretch

that is easy to spot as well as it is

much sharper and less intense than the

hydroxy stretch car carbonal containing

compounds are also easy to spot as the

carbonal stretch is unmistakably long

and narrow the precise position of this

stretch will help us determine what kind

of carbonal it is whether aldah Ketone

carboxilic acid Esther amid or

otherwise once again every functional

group will have its own characteristic

Peak and we can refer to a table like

this to identify them we will never have

to memorize this information but the

characteris istic shapes of some of the

Peaks will be easy to remember all of

this allows us to figure out which

functional groups are on the molecule as

well as which functional groups are not

on the molecule if their peaks are not

present Professor Dave for see you next

time

Infrared Spectra of Common Functional Groups Ft. Professor Dave

Now that we've covered infrared spectroscopy, let's take a look at the IR spectra of some common functional groups. We'll revisit how to interpret IR spectra, including wavenumbers and transmittance, and then we'll take a look at the IR spectra of functional groups like alkanes, alkenes, alkynes, aromatics, amines, and more.

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00:00 Intro
00:24 Defining the axes
01:34 Alkyl FGs
02:22 Amines


[Music]

foreign

Professor Dave and Chegg here we know

that spectroscopy is the study of the

interaction of light and matter we can

use this interaction to gather

information regarding the structure of a

molecule irradiating substances with

electromagnetic radiation of specific

wavelengths and observing the

interaction IR spectroscopy is one such

technique so let's learn how this works

now

the IR in IR spectroscopy stands for

infrared so as one might guess this

technique involves irradiating a sample

with infrared radiation this is the

region of the electromagnetic spectrum

shown here the next section lower in

energy after visible light the reason we

do this is that infrared light is able

to induce specific types of motion in

the molecules in the sample we already

know that molecules are involved in

translational and rotational motion

translational motion allows molecules to

move around in space with respect to

each other and rotational motion allows

for all the sigma Bonds in the molecule

to be rotating all the time producing

the various conformations but chemical

bonds are also doing other things as

they can exhibit vibrational motion

bonds can stretch which means they can

expand and contract slightly this can be

done in a symmetric way with respect to

a central atom which looks like this or

in asymmetric fashion we call this

symmetric stretch and asymmetric stretch

we can also get bending where atoms will

twist a bit to expand and contract the

bond angles again this can be done in

symmetric or asymmetric fashion to

produce what we call symmetric Bend and

asymmetric Bend all of these vibrational

modes are induced by infrared light and

the specific frequency that will cause

these behaviors will depend on the

precise identity of the bond so carbon

carbon carbon oxygen carbon hydrogen

oxygen hydrogen these will all absorb

infrared light of differing wavelengths

so when light of varying wavelengths

passes through the sample the

wavelengths that don't make it to the

detector must have been absorbed by the

sample and this tells us what kinds of

functional groups are present in the

molecule the way we will be reporting

the wavelengths of ir radiation is using

their wave numbers wave number

represented by new with a bar over it is

the reciprocal of wavelength in

centimeters so it is expressed in

inverse centimeters

the useful region in an IR spectrum is

from 4000 to 400 inverse centimeters

meaning that 400 to 4000 Cycles fit in

one centimeter

the main thing to understand is that

with ir spectroscopy we are irradiating

a sample with infrared radiation seeing

which wavelengths pass through the

sample to the detector and which do not

and taking those that are not

transmitted as inducing some kind of

molecular motion which will be

characteristic of the missing

frequencies this tells us about the

functional groups present on a molecule

Professor Dave for check see you next

time

foreign

Introduction to Infrared Spectroscopy Ft. Professor Dave

Professor Dave walks us through the interpretation of infrared spectra. We'll learn how to use spectroscopy — the study of the interaction of light and matter — to gather information about the structure of a molecule. Specifically, we'll look at the technique of infrared (IR) spectroscopy, how it relates to vibrational motion, and how IR spectroscopy can reveal wavenumbers that will tell us more information about a molecule.

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00:00 Intro
00:09 Spectroscopy
00:30 Infrared light and chemical bonds
01:12 Types of vibrational motion
02:22 Wavenumbers


hey everyone, it's professor Dave, I want to tell you some things about ozonolysis.

ozonolysis is a reaction that utilizes ozone as a reagent

ozone is a triatomic allotrope of oxygen that exists as a zwitterion

that's ozone, that's the stuff up in the atmosphere

ozonolysis utilizes an alkene substrate and what happens is that this double bond

gets cleaved and pulled apart, and each of the carbons that was participating in the double bond

is now a carbonyl.

so this is useful for transforming alkenes into ketones and aldehydes.

we won't look at the mechanism here, but that is available on the internet for you to take a look at

it's a little bit interesting to look at

the reason this is a very useful reaction is that we can do some things like transforming

terminal alkenes into aldehydes which is something that can be very useful for synthesis

so basically any time you are looking at an ozonolysis reaction, remember that we are cleaving

that double bond and pulling apart the fragments and on each of the carbons that was participating

in the double bond, we will place an oxygen atom, and it will be in the form of a carbonyl

here we are generating this aldehyde and formaldehyde

which can easily be separated, we've changed the functionality of a part of this molecule

which may be useful for the next step in a synthesis

the other thing that's interesting about ozonolysis is if you perform ozonolysis on a cyclic alkene

you won't then get two molecules, you will simply pull apart that ring and get one linear product

this is useful to number sometimes when we have cyclic structures like this

we want to take these seven carbons

it's very easy to draw an incorrect product if we don't do something like numbering the carbons

what this is going to do for us is show that if we cleave this double bond and pull that molecule apart

we know that the resulting carbonyls when we draw the linear product must be on carbons 2 and 7

because those were the carbons that were participating in the double bond

that's just a trick to help you draw the correct ozonolysis product.

thanks for watching, guys. subscribe to my channel for more tutorials

and as always feel free to email me with questions

Ozonolysis

Ozonolysis? Ozone is in the sky, right? That thing that shields us from UV light? That's right friend, but ozone is also used in the lab to cleave carbon-carbon double bonds. Check it out if you don't believe me.

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my girl is meant in equation is

mathematical model that describes the

rate at which an enzyme catalyzes a

chemical reaction it is based on the

idea that enzymes work by binding to

their substrate the chemical that they

are acting on and then converting it

into a product as the amount of

substrate decreases with time the amount

of product increases with time here you

can see the equation where V is the rate

of the reaction as measured by the

formation of product V Max is the

maximum velocity of the reaction which

is the rate of the reaction when the

s is the concentration of substrate and

km is the Michael Ellis constant which

is a measure of the Affinity of the

enzyme for the substrate it is equal to

velocity

the equation describes how the rate of

Direction B changes as the substrate

concentration s changes at low substrate

concentrations the rate of direction is

relatively slow because there are not

enough substrate molecules present for

the enzyme to work on as the substrate

concentration increases the rate of the

reaction increases until it reaches a

maximum V Max Beyond this point

increasing the substrate concentration

does not increase the rate of the

reaction because the enzyme is already

working at its maximum capacity the

Michael is constant km represents the

substrate concentration at which the

velocity if km is large it means that

the enzyme has a low affinity for the

substrate and requires a higher

substrate concentration to reach its

maximum velocity if km is small it means

that the enzyme has a high affinity for

the substrate and can reach its maximum

velocity at a lower substrate

concentration the the michaelisment

enzymes work and how they can be

affected by changes in substrate

concentration and other factors it is

often used in Biochemistry and

pharmacology to study the kinetics of

enzyme catalyzed reactions

Michaelis Menten Equation Explained For Beginners

The Michaelis-Menten equation is a mathematical model that describes the rate at which an enzyme catalyzes a chemical reaction. It is based on the idea that enzymes work by binding to their substrate (the chemical that they are acting on) and then converting it into a product. As the amount of substrate decreases with time, the amount of product increases with time.

The equation is written as:

v = Vmax[S]/(Km + [S])

Where:

- v is the rate of the reaction (as measured by the formation of product)
- Vmax is the maximum velocity of the reaction, which is the rate of the reaction when the enzyme is fully saturated with substrate
- [S] is the concentration of substrate
- Km is the Michaelis constant, which is a measure of the affinity of the enzyme for the substrate. It is equal to the substrate concentration at which the enzyme is working at half of its maximum velocity.

The equation describes how the rate of the reaction (v) changes as the substrate concentration ([S]) changes. At low substrate concentrations, the rate of the reaction is relatively slow because there are not enough substrate molecules present for the enzyme to work on. As the substrate concentration increases, the rate of the reaction increases until it reaches a maximum (Vmax). Beyond this point, increasing the substrate concentration does not increase the rate of the reaction because the enzyme is already working at its maximum capacity.

The Michaelis constant (Km) represents the substrate concentration at which the enzyme is working at half of its maximum velocity. If Km is large, it means that the enzyme has a low affinity for the substrate and requires a higher substrate concentration to reach its maximum velocity. If Km is small, it means that the enzyme has a high affinity for the substrate and can reach its maximum velocity at a lower substrate concentration.

The Michaelis-Menten equation is useful for understanding how enzymes work and how they can be affected by changes in substrate concentration and other factors. It is often used in biochemistry and pharmacology to study the kinetics of enzyme-catalyzed reactions.


ok guys for today's problem we've got
this epoxide and we are going to react

with methoxide in methanol, we're going
to get this product so what we need to

do is show the mechanism. if this
confusing you will want to take a look at

my lecture on epoxides and then give
this a shot.

ok guys so to draw this mechanism we
have to recall a couple things about

epoxides. number one: eooxides are very
susceptible to nucleophilic attack

because there's a lot of ring stream
from that small three-membered ring, that

means that either of these carbons could
potentially be attacked by a nucleophile

so we do have a nucleophile, we've got
methoxide, that's gonna be a good

nucleophile, so we want to ask ourselves:
which carbon is it gonna attack in the

epoxide? now sterics are going to
dictate that it is going to go over here

it is the less sterically hindered side so
it is more available for nucleophilic

attack, so if it attacks right there, it's
gonna pop open the epoxide, we're

gonna get this here, so this is the
methoxide that attacked, this used to be

the epoxide here but now that popped open
to leave the oxyanion

there and now the second step here is
kinda like the second step of Williamson

ether synthesis, except that it's
intramolecular because this oxyanion

can do an SN2 right here to kick off
this bromide and that'll lead us to the

product. and so what we can do just to
make sure we're able to draw that

properly, we can see that this is gonna
create a five-membered ring because this

oxyanion is going to attack this
carbon so that generates this

five-membered ring, and then this group
over here will still be there so there

we go we have an opening of the epoxide
followed by intramolecular ring closure.

thanks for watching, guys, subscribe to my channel for more tutorials and as always feel free to email me

Practice Problem: Mechanism - Reaction of an Epoxide

For this one we will have to know what epoxides do! It's a pretty neat little mechanism.

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It’s Professor Dave, I want to tell you
about superlatives.

There are certain things that the Italian
language does that are fun and unique, like

the altered words we learned before.

Another such construct is the way Italian
uses superlatives.

It often does this by adding a suffix to a
particular adjective.

But before we see these, let’s distinguish
between two types of superlatives.

There is the absolute superlative, and the
relative superlative.

Let’s see an example of each.

The first of these is an absolute superlative.

It says that Fabio is very good.

There is no specific limit to how good he is.

Notice the suffix, issimo.

The second example is a relative superlative.

This is because his talent is limited to his school.

The relative superlative is formed like the
comparative, but with an article in front.

So let’s go back to the absolute superlative.

Let’s practice forming these.

If something is sweet, we would say that it is dolce.

If we want to say that it is very sweet, we
could say molto dolce, but if we want to use

another form of superlative, we could say
that it is dolcissimo.

Let’s try a few more.

That’s how you make superlatives in Italian,
so let’s check comprehension.

Superlatives in Italian: Relative and Absolute

One of the most delightful features of the Italian language is the way we can add certain suffixes to modify words in specific ways, the way we learned for our altered words. Superlatives are another way this can happen, which you may know if you've ever shouted: Bravissimo! Let's learn the ways that we can form superlatives in Italian.

Script by Patrizia Farina, Professor of Italian at Western Connecticut State University and Purchase College.

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now I want you to observe something

about all of these different sets that

I've been talking about so you're just

one such example that we've been looking

at this is the even integers notice

however that the inside of my definition

of the even integers began n is an

element of the integers such that some

property is true so this a in its

definition is sort of living within the

larger set of this integers and this was

going to introduce this to the idea of a

universal set so imagine I just have

some sets floating around I got my a

I've got my B but what domain what

contents do we have are we talking about

integers are we talking about people or

we're talking about functions where are

we broadly living what's our larger

context so what we have is the notion of

a universe and we usually denote it by

this a big square box on the outside we

call it you for universe here and all of

the sets that we're talking about are

all contained within this sort of larger

contextual set in other words we're

going to say that the universe U is the

larger context for whatever we are

talking about it's just some big set and

all of the other sets are subsets of it

and then we can do an operation if we

know what the universal set is going to

be so for example let me just take one

set a and it's living inside of the

universal set I can define something

where I set a notice I put a little C up

here this stands for complement I'm

claiming that a complement is not a it's

all this stuff over here

all of the stuff which is around my set

a and all of the things that are not in

a but are still broadly in my universe

so for example what is the complement of

the even integers well it does depend on

what my universe is as the complement of

the even integers like within the all of

the integers is going to be the odd

integers right every integer that is not

even as odd so if my universe is

all of the integers the complement of

the evens is the odd but if my broader

universe that I'm considering is all

real integers things like pies and

things like 1/2 then the complement of

the even integers include the odd

integers but includes all of those other

rational and irrational numbers as well

that are not even integers so what

universe you're talking into is usually

contextually understood or perhaps

explicitly written down and if you know

what the universe is you can take the

complement of a set within a particular

universe

Universes and Complements in Set Theory

Learning Objectives: Given a set living in a Universe, compute the compliment of that set, relative to that universe.

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the next argument form on our list is

something referred to as generalization

and it is basically the idea that if I

have some statement I can always take

that statement over another statement if

the original is true then that statement

or something else is also going to be

true because an or statement only needs

one so if I have any statement P I can

generalize it to this larger statement P

or Q so for example I said I'm a

Canadian that's a statement P and I can

therefore conclude that I am a Canadian

or I am a unicorn one of those two

things must be true and indeed because

I'm a Canadian the I am a Canadian

portion of the I am Canadian or I am a

unicorn part is true and so this this

whole disjunction this whole or

statement is going to be true and this

says nothing about whether I am or am

not a unicorn it doesn't matter I only

need one of the two things I've got the

Canadian part that's all I need sort of

the opposite of generalization is

specialization if I have one statement

and some other statement so in other

words I have I have both of the

statements true at the same time I might

not care about both of them equally I

have both of them but I don't need both

of them I only care about one of them I

can just get rid of the one I don't care

about and I'm left with just therefore

say P so for example if I say I'm a

Canadian and I have a PhD but for my

argument about being the president

United States it didn't matter whether I

had a PhD or not that is nothing to do

with it so so well I have this statement

I am Canadian and I have a PhD I was

gonna toss away the PhD portion of it

and just specialize down to the

statement I'm Canadian which is needed

do both generalization and

specialization are both sort of quite

trivial and easy things and in fact in

everyday language we use this all the

time but we don't we don't use it in the

explicit structure that I'm talking

about here however when we're trying to

translate complicated long arguments to

mathematics we want to make sure that

that every single step is truly valid

and so even for relatively simple steps

like the generalization are this

chelation we want to make sure that we

know that this is true we could write

down the truth tables for it if we

really wanted to and therefore be

completely confident that I'm not making

any sort of mistake a final one a very

very important one in mathematics one

we're going to be using a whole bunch is

arguing by contradiction and the idea is

this I'm trying to prove statement P

what are you do is I assume I take as my

conditional if not P I assume that that

my statement is actually false

and I go along and I derive some sort of

contradiction or for example a

contradiction might be something like

zero is equal to one or I'm a mammal and

I'm a reptile something like this that

just makes no sense at all so if

assuming my statement was false leads me

to this nonsensical contradiction the

contradiction is always false then my

initial statement must indeed be true so

this is the logical form of a

contradiction not P implies a

contradiction then my initial claim must

be true and I'm actually going to delay

showing you an example of this until a

later video

Logical Argument Forms: Generalizations, Specialization, Contradiction

Learning Objectives:
1) State the argument forms for generalization, specialization and contradiction
2) Analyze a written argument as being of these forms

Together with Modus Tollens and Modus Ponens introduced in the previous video, these logical forms provide a collection of ways to construct valid arguments. In this video we see each of the logical forms symbolically and use them to interpret sentences.

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