EMBO/SourceData huggingface dataset:
Figure 7ARepresentative micrographs of tubulin‐stained PC‐12 NS‐1 subclone cells stimulated with sustained and multi‐pulse GF regimes. Scale bar = 20 μm.B, CQuantification of neuronal differentiation fate. (B) Total neurite outgrowth per cell normalized to the major axis length of cell soma for sustained and multi‐pulse GF regimes. (C) Differentiation ratio calculated as the fraction of cells with normalized total neurite outgrowth per cell larger than 1. At least 5,000 cells quantified in at least 2 independent experiments for each condition. Boxplots with median, interquartile (Box), and 1.5 IQR (Whiskers) are shown.
Figure 1A Heatmap depiction of the 3,731 DNA hypomethylation loci in ago4‐6. Each hypomethylated region corresponds to a colored horizontal bar, and the bars are clustered numerically into a column (y‐axis). Cytosines were examined as CG, CHG, and CHH. The color‐scaled methylation levels indicate the ratios of each type of methylated cytosines over total cytosines of the same type within the examined hypomethylated regions.B Heatmap depiction of the 3,678 DNA hypomethylation loci in ago6‐2.
Figure 2B Box plots showing methylation patterns of different groups of loci as categorized in (A).
Figure 3B DNA methylation levels in different mutants. The 2,174 loci where AGO4 and AGO6 are mutually dependent are numerically clustered (y‐axis). Cytosines were examined as CG, CHG, and CHH.C DNA methylation levels at TAS1a, TAS1c, and TAS3a loci. Snapshots from whole‐genome bisulfite sequencing results are shown.D RT-qPCR measurements of transposon RNA levels. Double: ago4‐6 ago6‐2 double mutant. Actin 2 was used as an internal control. RNA levels in the mutants are relative to those in the wild‐type (Col‐0). Means ± SD are shown, n = 3.
Figure 4A AGO4 and AGO6 were visualized by immunofluorescence microscopy using their specific antibodies. Yellow signals would be expected in the merged images if the two proteins co‐localize, as a result of the overlap of red and green channels. DNA (blue) was stained with DAPI.B The largest subunit of Pol IV, NRPD1 (red), was visualized by its specific antibody in cells expressing FLAG‐tagged AGO4 or AGO6 (green).
Figure 5A The largest subunit of Pol V, NRPE1 (red), was visualized by immunofluorescence microscopy using its specific antibody in cells expressing FLAG‐tagged AGO4 (green). AGO4‐NRPE1 co‐localized to nucleolar dot (yellow dot, marked with white arrow, upper panel) but not in nucleoplasmic foci (lower panel).B NRPE1 (red) was visualized by its specific antibody in cells expressing FLAG‐tagged AGO6 (green). The yellow signals due to the overlap of red and green channels in merged images indicate protein co‐localization. DNA (blue) was stained with DAPI. AGO6‐NRPE1 co‐localized to nucleoplasmic foci (yellow dots, marked with white arrow).
Figure 6A AGO6 dysfunction reduces levels of Pol V‐dependent transcripts. RNA levels were measured by RT-qPCR. Means ± SD are shown, n = 3.B AGO6 dysfunction decreases Pol V occupancy at chromatin of loci where Pol V transcript levels are affected by AGO6. Anti‐NRPE1 antibody was used for ChIP assays. Means ± SD are shown, n = 3.
Figure 7A Heatmap depiction of the dependence of AGO4‐ and AGO6‐bound siRNAs on Pol IV. Identities of siRNAs were retrieved from Havecker et al (), and siRNAs were grouped into 1,210 AGO4‐bound clusters and 1,486 AGO6‐bound clusters (see Materials and Methods for details), each of which corresponds to a colored horizontal bar; the bars are stacked numerically into a column (y‐axis). Information on siRNA levels in Pol IV mutant and wild‐type plants was retrieved from Zhang et al ().B Heatmap depiction of the dependence of AGO4‐ and AGO6‐bound siRNAs on Pol V.C Quantification of individual 24‐nt siRNAs by TaqMan small RNA assays. Double: ago4‐6 ago6‐2 double mutant. snoR101 was used as an internal control. RNA levels in the mutants were relative to those of the wild‐type (Col‐0). Error bars indicate SD, n ≥ 3.
Figure 1(B,C) HEK293T cells were co‐transfected with the indicated constructs. Cell lysates were subjected to IP using anti‐FLAG antibodies. The resulting precipitates were examined by immunoblot analysis with anti‐FLAG and anti‐HA antibodies.(D) HEK293T cells were cultured in regular or starvation medium for 2 h. Cells were harvested and treated with DSP.(E) HEK293T cells were harvested and treated with DSP.(F) HEK293T cells were cultured in regular DMEM or starvation medium in the presence or absence of 200 nM wortmannin for 2 h. After treatment with DSP, cell lysates were subjected to IP analysis.(G) Atg14F/F (undeleted) or Atg14Δ/Δ (deleted) MEFs were harvested and treated with DSP. * (E) and ** (G) indicate the positions of the immunoglobulin light and heavy chains, respectively. aa, amino acid; DSP, dithiobis(succinimidyl propionate); IP, immunoprecipitation; MEFs, mouse embryonic fibroblasts.
Figure 2(A) Immunoblot analysis of Atg proteins in the indicated MEFs.(B) m5‐7 cells were cultured in regular medium containing 10 ng/ml Dox for 8 days, and then cultured in the absence of Dox for a further 2 days.(C, D) m5‐7 cells were cultured in regular medium with or without 10 ng/ml Dox for 4 days, and then cultured in the presence of 50 μg/ml CHX for the indicated time periods (C). mRNA levels of the indicated genes were measured by quantitative PCR following the 4‐day Dox treatment. Data represent mean±s.e. (*P0.05) (D). CHX, cycloheximide; Dox, doxycycline; MEFs, mouse embryonic fibroblasts; mRNA, messenger RNA; WT, wild‐type.
Figure 3(B, C) HEK293T cells were co‐transfected with the indicated constructs. Cell lysates were analysed by IP. IP, immunoprecipitation; ND, not determined.
Figure 4(A) WT MEFs, Atg16L1 KO MEFs or Atg16L1 KO MEFs stably expressing either full‐length Atg16L1(1-588), Atg16L1(1-230) or Atg16L1Δ(230-300) were cultured in regular DMEM or starvation medium in the presence or absence of 100 nM BafA1 for 2 h. * indicates nonspecific immunoreactive bands.(B, C) Atg16L1 KO MEFs stably expressing GFP-ULK1 and either full‐length Atg16L1(1-588), Atg16L1(1-230) or Atg16L1Δ(230-300) were cultured in regular DMEM (C) or starvation medium (B,C) for 1 h. Cells were fixed and analysed by immunofluorescence microscopy using anti‐GFP, anti‐Atg16L1 and anti‐LC3 antibodies. Arrowheads indicate the perinuclear localization of Atg16L1(1-230). The number of dots was quantified from more than 30 randomly selected cells from three independent samples as described in the Methods. Data represent mean±s.e. (*P0.001, analysis of variance followed by Bonferroni/Dunn post hoc test). Scale bar, 10 μm, and 2 μm in inset.(D, E) Cells stably expressing GFP-LC3 were cultured in regular DMEM, starvation medium or starvation medium in the presence of 0.2 μM WM or 100 nM BafA1 for 6 h. Total cellular GFP-LC3 signals were analysed by flow cytometry. Representative FACS data were shown (D). The geometric mean of fluorescence intensity was determined. Values are expressed as a percentage of the mean of control cells cultured in regular DMEM. Data represent mean±s.e. (*P0.05) (E). BafA1, bafilomycin A1; GFP, green fluorescent protein; KO, knockout; MEFs, mouse embryonic fibroblasts; NS, not significant; WM, wortmannin; WT, wild‐type.
Figure 5(A) Atg16L1 KO MEFs stably expressing either full‐length Atg16L1(1-588), Atg16L1(1-230) or Atg16L1Δ(230-300) were cultured in regular DMEM or starvation medium for 1 h. Cells were fixed and subjected to immunofluorescence microscopy using anti‐Atg16L1 antibody. Note that full‐length Atg16L1 and Atg16L1(1-230), but not Atg16L1Δ(230-300), showed punctate structures under starvation conditions (inset).(B) FIP200 KO MEFs stably expressing either CFP-Atg16L1(1-588), CFP-Atg16L1(1-230) or CFP-Atg16L1Δ(230-300) were cultured in regular DMEM or starvation medium for 1 h. Cells were fixed and analysed by immunofluorescence microscopy using anti‐GFP antibody. Arrowheads indicate the perinuclear localization of Atg16L1(1-230).(C, D) FIP200 KO MEFs stably expressing CFP-Atg16L1(1-230) were cultured in regular DMEM. Scale bar, 10 μm, and 2 μm in inset.
Figure 1(a) Representative micro-CT pictures of hind legs of 20-30 week-old control (A20WT) and A20myel-KO littermates. Note the severe osteoporosis in A20myel-KO mice. (b) Trabecular parameters, calculated on micro-CT scans of hind legs of 20-30 week-old control (A20WT) and A20myel-KO littermates. Each dot represents an individual mouse (A20WT, n=10; A20myel-KO, n=8).
Figure 2(a) Levels of TNF and IL-6 in serum of A20WT, A20OC-KO and A20myel-KO mice. Each dot represents an individual mouse (A20WT, n=11; A20OC-KO, n=11 and A20myel-KO, n=14). Data are expressed as mean ± SEM. *(c) Trabecular parameters, calculated on micro-CT scans of hind legs of 20-30 week-old control (A20WT) and A20OC-KO littermates. Each dot represents an individual mouse (A20WT, n=6; A20OC-KO, n=9).(e) Representative pictures of TRAP-stained sections from tibia of 20 week-old A20WT and A20OC-KO mice. Red arrows indicate osteoclasts.(f) Quantification of the number of TRAP-positive cells on sections from tibia of 20 week-old A20WT and A20OC-KO mice. Each dot represents an individual mouse (A20WT, n=5; A20OC-KO, n=6).
Figure 3(d) Measurement of NF-κB luciferase activity in lysates of HEK293T cells transiently transfected with an NF-κB reporter plasmid, an expression plasmid for β-galactosidase (βgal), an expression plasmid for RANK, and with either an empty vector or a vector expressing wild-type A20. Cell lysates were analysed for luciferase and βgal activity and values are plotted as Luc/βgal to normalize for possible differences in transfection efficiency.(e) Western blot analysis of whole cell lysates from BMDMs cultures isolated from A20WT and A20myel-KO mice and stimulated with RANKL (100ng/ml) for the indicated time periods. Actin is shown as a loading control.(f) Wild-type and A20 deficient BMDMs were stimulated with GST-RANKL (1 μg/ml) for the indicated time periods. The RANK signaling complex was immunoprecipitated using glutathione-sepharose beads and immunoblotted for RANK, A20, TRAF6, HOIP and Sharpin.(g) BMDMs from A20WT and A20myel-KO mice were stimulated with RANKL (100ng/ml) for the indicated time periods and immunoblotted to visualize p100 processing to p52. Actin is shown as a loading control.
Figure 4(a) Measurement of NF-κB luciferase activity in lysates of HEK293T cells transfected with an NF-κB luciferase reporter plasmid, an expression plasmid for β-galactosidase (βgal), an expression plasmid for RANK, and plasmids encoding different A20 variants: A20WT, A20DUB (C103A mutation), A20ZnF4 (C624A/C627A), A20ZnF7 (C775A/C779A), and A20ZnF4ZnF7 (C624A/C627A/C775A/C779A). Cell lysates were analysed for luciferase and βgal activity and values are plotted as Luc/βgal to normalize for possible differences in transfection efficiency. Data are expressed as the mean of technical triplicates ± SD.(c-d) Western blot analysis of whole cell lysates from BMDMs differentiated from A20WT and A20ZnF4ZnF7 mice, stimulated with RANKL (100ng/ml) for the indicated time periods. Actin is shown as a loading control.(e) BMDMs isolated from control (A20WT), A20ZnF7, A20ZnF4ZnF7 and A20DUB mice were stimulated with GST-RANKL (1 μg/ml) for the indicated time periods. The RANK signaling complex was immunoprecipitated using glutathione-sepharose beads and immunoblotted for A20. Actin was used as a loading control.(f) Wild-type BMDMs were pretreated for 1h with HOIPIN-8 (50µM) or left untreated and stimulated with GST-RANKL (1 μg/ml) for the indicated time periods. The RANK signaling complex was immunoprecipitated using glutathione-sepharose beads and immunoblotted for A20. Actin was used as a loading control.
Figure 1Immunoblots of acyl-biotin exchange purifications from Hela cells transiently transfected with WT Golga7b or a palmitoylation-deficient mutant form of the protein with cysteines replaced with alanine residues. The hydroxylamine sensitivity of the Golga7b signal in the + HA condition of the WT pull-down and not in either the - HA condition or the + HA condition of the mutant shows that Golga7b is a palmitoylated protein.Immunoblots of acyl-biotin exchange purifications from Hela cells treated with either DHHC5 siRNA or control non-targeting siRNA.Immunoblots showing rescue of Golga7b palmitoylation in DHHC5 depleted cells after transfection of WT DHHC5 but not by the DHHC5 catalytic mutant.A significant reduction in the Golga7b signal is observed in the + HA condition of the pull-down when DHHC5 is depleted with siRNA. The graph displays mean +/- s.e.m. N=4, *=p<0.05, paired t-test.Immunoblots of WT and non-palmitoylatable mutant Golga7b from immunoprecipitations of WT DHHC5 and a pair of DHHC5 mutants (DHHS5 = catalytically inactive mutant where catalytic cysteine has been mutated to serine, C-terminal mutant = mutant where the 3 C-terminal palmitoylation sites of DHHC5 have been mutated to alanine residues.). WT and DHHS5 immunoprecipitates both WT and mutant Golga7b but the C-terminal mutant is unable to immunoprecipitate either form of Golga7b showing that the palmitoylation of the C-terminus of DHHC5 is essential for the stability of this interaction.
Figure 2Tagged constructs with palmitoylation site mutations in DHHC5 and Golga7b were expressed in in HeLa cells depleted of endogenous DHHC5. Confocal images of HeLa cells co-expressing WT Golga7b (1st column) and DHHC5 (2nd column), with a merged image (3rd column). Confocal images of HeLa cells co-expressing palmitoylation deficient mutant Golga7b (1st column) and DHHC5 (2nd column), with a merged image (3rd column). Confocal images of HeLa cells co-expressing WT Golga7b (1st column) and the catalytic mutant DHHS5 (2nd column), with a merged image (3rd column). Confocal images of HeLa cells co-expressing palmitoylation deficient mutant Golga7b (1st column) and DHHS5 (2nd column), with a merged image (3rd column). Confocal images of HeLa cells co-expressing WT Golga7b (1st column) and DHHC5 C-terminal palmitoylation deficient mutant (2nd column), with a merged image (3rd column). Confocal images of HeLa cells co-expressing palmitoylation deficient mutant Golga7b (1st column) and DHHC5 C-terminal palmitoylation deficient mutant (2nd column), with a merged image (3rd column). Quantification of the plasma membrane signal of DHHC5 in each of the images (A-F), the graph displays mean +/- s.e.m. ****=p<0.001, n.s. = not significant, unpaired t-test. N=35, DHHC5 + WT Golga7b. N=41, DHHC5 + mutant Golga7b. N=35, DHHS5 + WT Golga7b. N=31, DHHS5 + Golga7b mutant. N=29, C-terminal mutant + WT Golga7b. N=30, C-terminal mutant + mutant Golga7b. Co expression of palmitoylation-deficient mutant Golga7b significantly reduces DHHC5 as well as DHHCS5 signal at the plasma membrane. The majority of the DHHC5 C-terminal palmitoylation-deficient mutant is localised to the plasma membrane in a Golga7b independent manner. All N numbers refer to the number of cells imaged and quantified, all experiments repeated 4 times. Data information: All images show ectopic protein expression only. All scale bars 10µm.
Figure 3Confocal images of endogenous DHHC5 in HeLa cells expressing FLAG-tagged WT Golga7b. Confocal images of endogenous DHHC5 in HeLa cells expressing FLAG-tagged mutant Golga7b.Confocal images of endogenous Golga7b and DHHC5 in HeLa cells treated with negative control non-targeting siRNA. Confocal images of endogenous Golga7b and DHHC5 in HeLa cell treated with Golga7b siRNA.Quantification of plasma membrane signal of endogenous DHHC5 when co-expressed with WT or mutant Golga7b or without any transfected Golga7b. ****=P<0.001, t-test, endogenous + WT Golga7b n=37, endogenous + mutant Golga7b n=23, endogenous n=42. Expression of the palmitoylation deficient mutant Golga7b causes endogenous DHHC5 to be internalised in the cell, while WT Golga7b stabilises DHHC5 at the plasma membrane.Quantification of the plasma membrane signal of DHHC5 in (C and D), ****=p<0.001 t-test, control siRNA n=23, Golga7b siRNA n=23.
Figure 4FLAG-DHHC5 immunoprecipitations were performed using lysates from Hela cells co-expressing either wild-type (WT) or palmitoylation deficient mutant (m) Golga7b. The interaction of DHHC5 with its substrate Flot2 was measured by immunoblotting and is significantly reduced in the presence of palmitoylation deficient mutant Golga7b, quantification normalised to input, *=p<0.05, ratio paired t-test, n=3.Venn diagram comparing the overlap of numbers of proteins immunoprecipitated when FLAG-DHHC5 is expressed alone or co-expressed with either WT or mutant Golga7b. IF images are taken from figures EV2 and EV3 to illustrate DHHC5 localisation.Volcano plot of DHHC5 interactors from AP-MS analysis from HeLa cells co-expressing FLAG-DHHC5 and WT Golga7b highlighting interacting proteins involved in clathrin-mediated endocytosis, cell:cell adhesion and known substrates of DHHC5.Validation of novel DHHC5 interactors by co-IP: immunoblots of Dsg2from Hela cells co-expressing DHHC5 and either Wild-type (WT) or mutant (m) Golga7b and quantification normalised to input, *=p<0.05, ratio paired t-test, n=3. Co-IP immunoblots of clathrin heavy chain from Hela cells co-expressing DHHC5 and either wild-type (WT) or mutant (m) Golga7b and quantification normalised to input, *=p<0.05, ratio paired t-test, n=3. Co-IP immunoblots of ZO-1 protein from Hela cells co-expressing DHHC5 and either wild-type (WT) or mutant (m) Golga7b and quantification normalised to input, **=p<0.01 ratio paired t-test, n=3.
Figure 530 minute DMSO treatment of HeLa cells co-expressing WT DHHC5 (FLAG tagged) and mutant Golga7b (HA tagged). 30 minute Dynasore treatment (25µM) of HeLa cells co-expressing WT DHHC5 (FLAG tagged) and mutant Golga7b (HA tagged).Non-targeting control siRNA treatment (10nM) of HeLa cells expressing mutant Golga7b (HA tagged). Images are detecting endogenous DHHC5 and the HA tagged Golga7b AP2µ siRNA treatment (10nM) of HeLa cells that were subsequently transfected with mutant Golga7b (HA tagged). Images are detecting endogenous DHHC5 and the HA tagged Golga7b.Quantification of plasma membrane signal of DHHC5 in (A and B). ****=p<0.001, unpaired t-test. N=37, +Dynasore. N=28, +DMSO.Quantification of plasma membrane signal of DHHC5 in (C and D). ****=p<0.001, unpaired t-test. All scale bars 10μm.Biotin endocytosis assays of HeLa cells with endogenous DHHC5, over-expression of DHHC5 alone, co-expression of DHHC5 and WT Golga7b, co-expression of DHHC5 and mutant Golga7b or expression of the DHHC5 C-terminal mutant. Biotinylated cell surface proteins endocytosed within 15 minutes were purified using streptavidin resin and blots probed with an antibody to DHHC5. The lack of signal in the pull-down of the DHHC5 C-terminal mutant or when DHHC5 and WT Golga7b are co-expressed indicates that DHHC5 is stabilised at the plasma membrane in these conditions. The robust signal in the pull-down of endocytosed proteins from cells co-expressing DHHC5 and mutant Golga7b shows a high rate of endocytosis of DHHC5 in this condition. N=3, *=p<0.05, paired t test"
Figure 6ABE purifications from HeLa cells treated with 10nM non-targeting siRNA (nt siRNA) or DHHC5 siRNA were immunoblotted for Dsg2. Loss of the band in the +HA pull-down in the DHHC5 siRNA condition shows that Dsg2 palmitoylation is dependent on DHHC5.Confocal images of DHHC5 and Dsg2 in nt siRNA treated A431 cells three hours after calcium was reintroduced to the media in calcium switch experiments. Confocal images of DHHC5 and Dsg2 in DHHC5 depleted A431 cells three hours after calcium was reintroduced to the media in calcium switch experiments.Confocal images of DHHC5, Dsg2 and Golga7b in Golga7b depleted A431 cells three hours after calcium was reintroduced to the media in calcium switch experiments. See Appendix Figure S6 for quantification of data in panels B-D.Immunoblots and quantification of Dsg2 pulled-down in cell surface biotinylation assays in nt siRNA, DHHC5 siRNA or Golga7b siRNA treated conditions. Quantification of the intensity of the DSG2 signal in the pulldown is normalised to input. A significant reduction of cell surface Dsg2 occurs when DHHC5 or Golga7b are depleted by siRNA. *=Immunoblot of an ABE purification for Dsg2 in cells with either normal media or low calcium (5µM calcium) conditions, with quantification of the intensity of the DSG2 signal in the pulldown normalised to input. There is a significant reduction in the Dsg2 signal in the +HA pull-down from low calcium cells showing that Dsg2 is significantly less palmitoylated in this condition. *=p<0.05, paired t-test, N=4, error bars represent s.e.m. All scale bars 10μm.
Figure 710x brightfield images of A431 cells treated with non-targeting siRNA at time 0 (left) and after 48 hours (right) of 5 ng/ml EGF treatment. 10x brightfield images of A431 cells treated with DHHC5 siRNA at time 0 (left) and after 48 hours (right) of 5ng/ml EGF treatment. Quantification of cell scattering of A431 cells, showing a significant increase in cell scatter after 48 hours of DHHC5 knockdown and therefore a decrease in cell adhesion was observed.10x brightfield images of A431 cells treated with non-targeting siRNA at time 0 (left) and after 48 hours (right) of 5ng/ml EGF treatment. 10x brightfield images of A431 cells treated with Golga7b siRNA at time 0 (left) and after 48 hours (right) of 5ng/ml EGF treatment. Quantification of cell scattering of A431 cells, showing a significant increase in cell scatter after 48 hours of Golga7b knockdown and therefore a decrease in cell adhesion, was observed.Plot showing the resistance of A431 cells from a trans-epithelial electrical resistance assay treated with either DHHC5 siRNA, Golga7b siRNA or non-targeting siRNA. A significant reduction in TEER demonstrates a decrease in cell adhesion after both DHHC5 and Golga7b depletion.
Figure 1B. Chromatin accessibility and p300 binding at differential ATAC-seq peaks visualized using K-means clustering.
Figure 2B. Boxplots showing differential gene expression (AC versus DMZ) and associated ATAC-seq signals (Two biological replicates). The central band within the boxplot represents the median and the whiskers show 1.5 times the range between the first and third quartile (IQR).F. Genomic tracks showing aggregated accessibility of single-cell ATAC-seq clusters at the t (tbxt), tfap2a, gsc, ctcf, lhx1 and sox11 loci.
Figure 4C. Feature maps, showing the expression of selected genes in single cells (cf. Appendix Fig. S2). Color scale represents the gene expression value (log1p-transformed counts per 10,000 unique reads) for each cell for a given gene, from low (grey) to high (orange).
Figure 6A. Heat map showing log2 fold expression changes of differentially expressed genes in AC tissues overexpressing Foxb1, Foxb1-Eomes, Eomes, Irx3, Irx3-Otx2, Otx2 and Lhx8.C. Fold enrichment of genes with zygotically defined (ZyD) H3K4me3 at their promoter in AC with transcription factor overexpression. Asterisk indicates hypergeometric p-value <= 0.01.
Figure 1(A, B) Actively dividing cells labelled by BrdU and Ki67 are reduced in the SGZ of DSCR1 mutants compared to that of wild type mice. Brain sections were prepared 1 day after BrdU injection. The white box area is magnified in the lower panels: DAPI (blue), Ki67 (green), and BrdU (red). Arrow heads indicate BrdU and Ki-67 double positive cells in the SGZ.(C, D) Differentiating cells are identified by staining with BrdU and DCX. Brain sections were prepared 10 days after BrdU injection.(E, F) Maturation of progenitor cells are assessed by staining with BrdU and NeuN. Brain sections were prepared 21 days after BrdU injection Each hippocampal section was 40 μm in thickness, and a total of 24 sections were obtained from one hippocampus. Scale bars:100 μm in the large panel, and 10 μm in the magnified images. Values are shown as mean ± SEM and tested for statistical significance by one-way ANOVA followed by Bonferroni post hoc test. N = 3 animals for each condition, *P< 0.05, **P< 0.01.