Druvith/medqa huggingface dataset:
How to diagnose Parasites - Leishmaniasis ? 

Various laboratory methods can be used to diagnose leishmaniasis—to detect the parasite as well as to identify the Leishmania species (type). Some of the methods are available only in reference laboratories. In the United States, CDC staff can assist with the testing for leishmaniasis.
    
Tissue specimens—such as from skin sores (for cutaneous leishmaniasis) or from bone marrow (for visceral leishmaniasis)—can be examined for the parasite under a microscope, in special cultures, and in other ways. Blood tests that detect antibody (an immune response) to the parasite can be helpful for cases of visceral leishmaniasis; tests to look for the parasite itself usually also are done.
    
More on: Resources for Health Professionals: Diagnosis
What are the treatments for Parasites - Leishmaniasis ? 

Before considering treatment, the first step is to make sure the diagnosis is correct.
    
Treatment decisions should be individualized. Health care providers may consult CDC staff about the relative merits of various approaches. Examples of factors to consider include the form of leishmaniasis, the Leishmania species that caused it, the potential severity of the case, and the patient's underlying health.
    
The skin sores of cutaneous leishmaniasis usually heal on their own, even without treatment. But this can take months or even years, and the sores can leave ugly scars. Another potential concern applies to some (not all) types of the parasite found in parts of Latin America: certain types might spread from the skin and cause sores in the mucous membranes of the nose (most common location), mouth, or throat (mucosal leishmaniasis). Mucosal leishmaniasis might not be noticed until years after the original sores healed. The best way to prevent mucosal leishmaniasis is to ensure adequate treatment of the cutaneous infection.
    
If not treated, severe (advanced) cases of visceral leishmaniasis typically are fatal.
    
More on: Resources for Health Professionals: Treatment
How to prevent Parasites - Leishmaniasis ? 

No vaccines or drugs to prevent infection are available. The best way for travelers to prevent infection is to protect themselves from sand fly bites. To decrease the risk of being bitten, follow these preventive measures:
    
Avoid outdoor activities, especially from dusk to dawn, when sand flies generally are the most active.
    
When outdoors (or in unprotected quarters):
    
     - Minimize the amount of exposed (uncovered) skin. To the extent that is tolerable in the climate, wear long-sleeved shirts, long pants, and socks; and tuck your shirt into your pants. (See below about wearing insecticide-treated clothing.)
     - Apply insect repellent to exposed skin and under the ends of sleeves and pant legs. Follow the instructions on the label of the repellent. The most effective repellents generally are those that contain the chemical DEET (N,N-diethylmetatoluamide).
    
    
     
       
       
        
         
          
         
        
        
        
      
     
    
    
When indoors:
    
     - Stay in well-screened or air-conditioned areas.
     - Keep in mind that sand flies are much smaller than mosquitoes and therefore can get through smaller holes.
     - Spray living/sleeping areas with an insecticide to kill insects.
     - If you are not sleeping in a well-screened or air-conditioned area, use a bed net and tuck it under your mattress. If possible, use a bed net that has been soaked in or sprayed with a pyrethroid-containing insecticide. The same treatment can be applied to screens, curtains, sheets, and clothing (clothing should be retreated after five washings).
    
    
More on: Insect Bite Prevention
What is (are) Parasites - Toxoplasmosis (Toxoplasma infection) ? 

A single-celled parasite called Toxoplasma gondii causes a disease known as toxoplasmosis. While the parasite is found throughout the world, more than 60 million people in the United States may be infected with the Toxoplasma parasite. Of those who are infected, very few have symptoms because a healthy person’s immune system usually keeps the parasite from causing illness. However, pregnant women and individuals who have compromised immune systems should be cautious; for them, a Toxoplasma infection could cause serious health problems.
How to diagnose Parasites - Toxoplasmosis (Toxoplasma infection) ? 

The diagnosis of toxoplasmosis is typically made by serologic testing. A test that measures immunoglobulin G (IgG) is used to determine if a person has been infected. If it is necessary to try to estimate the time of infection, which is of particular importance for pregnant women, a test which measures immunoglobulin M (IgM) is also used along with other tests such as an avidity test.
    
Diagnosis can be made by direct observation of the parasite in stained tissue sections, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), or other biopsy material. These techniques are used less frequently because of the difficulty of obtaining these specimens.
    
Parasites can also be isolated from blood or other body fluids (for example, CSF) but this process can be difficult and requires considerable time.
    
Molecular techniques that can detect the parasite's DNA in the amniotic fluid can be useful in cases of possible mother-to-child (congenital) transmission.
    
Ocular disease is diagnosed based on the appearance of the lesions in the eye, symptoms, course of disease, and often serologic testing.
What are the treatments for Parasites - Toxoplasmosis (Toxoplasma infection) ? 

Healthy people (nonpregnant)
    
Most healthy people recover from toxoplasmosis without treatment. Persons who are ill can be treated with a combination of drugs such as pyrimethamine and sulfadiazine, plus folinic acid.
    
     
    Pregnant women, newborns, and infants
    
Pregnant women, newborns, and infants can be treated, although the parasite is not eliminated completely. The parasites can remain within tissue cells in a less active phase; their location makes it difficult for the medication to completely eliminate them.
    
     
    Persons with ocular disease
    
Persons with ocular toxoplasmosis are sometimes prescribed medicine to treat active disease by their ophthalmologist. Whether or not medication is recommended depends on the size of the eye lesion, the location, and the characteristics of the lesion (acute active, versus chronic not progressing).
    
     
    Persons with compromised immune systems
    
Persons with compromised immune systems need to be treated until they have improvement in their condition. For AIDS patients, continuation of medication for the rest of their lives may be necessary, or for as long as they are immunosuppressed.
    
More on: Resources for Health Professionals: Treatment
How to prevent Parasites - Toxoplasmosis (Toxoplasma infection) ? 

People who are healthy should follow the guidelines below to reduce risk of toxoplasmosis. If you have a weakened immune system, please see guidelines for Immunocompromised Persons.
   Reduce Risk from Food
   
To prevent risk of toxoplasmosis and other infections from food:
   
    - Freeze meat for several days at sub-zero (0° F) temperatures before cooking to greatly reduce chance of infection.
    - Peel or wash fruits and vegetables thoroughly before eating. 
     
      
     
    - Wash cutting boards, dishes, counters, utensils, and hands with hot soapy water after contact with raw meat, poultry, seafood, or unwashed fruits or vegetables.
   
   
More on: Handwashing
   
The U.S. Government and the meat industry continue their efforts to reduce T. gondii in meat.
   Reduce Risk from the Environment
   
To prevent risk of toxoplasmosis from the environment:
   
    - Avoid drinking untreated drinking water.
    - Wear gloves when gardening and during any contact with soil or sand because it might be contaminated with cat feces that contain Toxoplasma. Wash hands with soap and warm water after gardening or contact with soil or sand.
    - Teach children the importance of washing hands to prevent infection.
    - Keep outdoor sandboxes covered. 
     
      
     
    - Feed cats only canned or dried commercial food or well-cooked table food, not raw or undercooked meats.
    - Change the litter box daily if you own a cat. The Toxoplasma parasite does not become infectious until 1 to 5 days after it is shed in a cat's feces. If you are pregnant or immunocompromised: 
     
      - Avoid changing cat litter if possible. If no one else can perform the task, wear disposable gloves and wash your hands with soap and warm water afterwards.
      - Keep cats indoors.
      - Do not adopt or handle stray cats, especially kittens. Do not get a new cat while you are pregnant.
What is (are) Parasites - Hookworm ? 

Hookworm is an intestinal parasite of humans. The larvae and adult worms live in the small intestine can cause intestinal disease. The two main species of hookworm infecting humans are Ancylostoma duodenale and Necator americanus.
Who is at risk for Parasites - Hookworm? ? 

Hookworm is a soil-transmitted helminth (STH) and is one of the most common roundworm of humans. Infection is caused by the nematode parasites Necator americanus and Ancylostoma duodenale. Hookworm infections often occur in areas where human feces are used as fertilizer or where defecation onto soil happens.
    Geographic Distribution
    
The geographic distributions of the hookworm species that are intestinal parasites in human, Ancylostoma duodenale and Necator americanus, are worldwide in areas with warm, moist climates and are widely overlapping. Necator americanus was widespread in the Southeastern United States until the early 20th century.
How to diagnose Parasites - Hookworm ? 

The standard method for diagnosing the presence of hookworm is by identifying hookworm eggs in a stool sample using a microscope. Because eggs may be difficult to find in light infections, a concentration procedure is recommended.
What are the treatments for Parasites - Hookworm ? 

Anthelminthic medications (drugs that rid the body of parasitic worms), such as albendazole and mebendazole, are the drugs of choice for treatment of hookworm infections. Infections are generally treated for 1-3 days. The recommended medications are effective and appear to have few side effects. Iron supplements may also be prescribed if the infected person has anemia.
    
More on: Resources for Health Professionals: Treatment
How to prevent Parasites - Hookworm ? 

The best way to avoid hookworm infection is not to walk barefoot in areas where hookworm is common and where there may be human fecal contamination of the soil. Also, avoid other skin contact with such soil and avoid ingesting it.
    
Infection can also be prevented by not defecating outdoors and by effective sewage disposal systems.
What is (are) Parasites - American Trypanosomiasis (also known as Chagas Disease) ? 

Chagas disease is caused by the parasite Trypanosoma cruzi, which is transmitted to animals and people by insect vectors that are found only in the Americas (mainly, in rural areas of Latin America where poverty is widespread). Chagas disease (T. cruzi infection) is also referred to as American trypanosomiasis.
It is estimated that as many as 8 million people in Mexico, Central America, and South America have Chagas disease, most of whom do not know they are infected. If untreated, infection is lifelong and can be life threatening.
The impact of Chagas disease is not limited to the rural areas in Latin America in which vectorborne transmission occurs. Large-scale population movements from rural to urban areas of Latin America and to other regions of the world have increased the geographic distribution and changed the epidemiology of Chagas disease. In the United States and in other regions where Chagas disease is now found but is not endemic, control strategies should focus on preventing transmission from blood transfusion, organ transplantation, and mother-to-baby (congenital transmission).
Who is at risk for Parasites - American Trypanosomiasis (also known as Chagas Disease)? ? 

Chagas disease, or American trypanosomiasis, is caused by the parasite Trypanosoma cruzi. Infection is most commonly acquired through contact with the feces of an infected triatomine bug (or "kissing bug"), a blood-sucking insect that feeds on humans and animals.
    
Infection can also occur from:
    
     - mother-to-baby (congenital),
     - contaminated blood products (transfusions),
     - an organ transplanted from an infected donor,
     - laboratory accident, or
     - contaminated food or drink (rare)
    
    
Chagas disease is endemic throughout much of Mexico, Central America, and South America where an estimated 8 million people are infected. The triatomine bug thrives under poor housing conditions (for example, mud walls, thatched roofs), so in endemic countries, people living in rural areas are at greatest risk for acquiring infection. Public health efforts aimed at preventing transmission have decreased the number of newly infected people and completely halted vectorborne transmission in some areas. Infection acquired from blood products, organ transplantation, or congenital transmission continues to pose a threat.
    
By applying published seroprevalence figures to immigrant populations, CDC estimates that more than 300,000 persons with Trypanosoma cruzi infection live in the United States. Most people with Chagas disease in the United States acquired their infections in endemic countries. Although there are triatomine bugs in the U.S. , only rare vectorborne cases of Chagas disease have been documented.
    
More on: Triatomine Bugs
How to diagnose Parasites - American Trypanosomiasis (also known as Chagas Disease) ? 

The diagnosis of Chagas disease can be made by observation of the parasite in a blood smear by microscopic examination. A thick and thin blood smear are made and stained for visualization of parasites. However, a blood smear works well only in the acute phase of infection when parasites are seen circulating in blood.
    
Diagnosis of chronic Chagas disease is made after consideration of the patient's clinical findings, as well as by the likelihood of being infected, such as having lived in an endemic country. Diagnosis is generally made by testing with at least two different serologic tests.
What are the treatments for Parasites - American Trypanosomiasis (also known as Chagas Disease) ? 

Treatment for Chagas disease is recommended for all people diagnosed with an acute infection, congenital infection, and for those with suppressed immune systems, and for all children with chronic infection. Adults with chronic infection may also benefit from treatment.
    
For cardiac or gastrointestinal problems resulting from Chagas disease, symptomatic treatment may be helpful. Patients should consult with their primary health care provider. Some patients may be referred to a specialist, such as a cardiologist, gastroenterologist, or infectious disease specialist.
    
In the U.S., medication for Chagas is available only through CDC. Your health care provider can talk with CDC staff about whether and how you should be treated.
    
More on: Resources for Health Professionals: Antiparasitic Treatment
How to prevent Parasites - American Trypanosomiasis (also known as Chagas Disease) ? 

In endemic areas of Mexico, Central America, and South America improved housing and spraying insecticide inside housing to eliminate triatomine bugs has significantly decreased the spread of Chagas disease. Further, screening of blood donations for Chagas is another important public health tool in helping to prevent transfusion-acquired disease. Early detection and treatment of new cases, including mother-to-baby (congenital) cases, will also help reduce the burden of disease.
    
In the United States and in other regions where Chagas disease is now found but is not endemic, control strategies are focused on preventing transmission from blood transfusion, organ transplantation, and mother-to-baby.
Who is at risk for Nocardiosis? ? 

The bacteria that cause nocardiosis are commonly found in soil and water.
    
You could become sick with nocardiosis if:
    
     - You inhale (breathe in) the bacteria
     - Bacteria gets into an open wound or cut
    
    
In rare cases, infection can occur during surgical procedures.
    
Fortunately, nocardiosis is not spread person to person, so being around someone who has the disease will not make you sick.
Who is at risk for Nocardiosis? ? 

People with very weak immune (body defense) systems are at risk for getting nocardiosis. 
    
Several diseases and circumstances can cause the immune system to be weak. These include:
    
     - Diabetes
     - Cancer
     - HIV/AIDS
     - Pulmonary alveolar proteinosis (an illness that causes the air sacs of the lungs to become plugged)
     - Connective tissue disorder (a disease that affects the tissue that connects and supports different parts of the body)
     - Alcoholism
     - Having a bone marrow or solid organ transplant
     - Taking high doses of drugs called corticosteroids
    
    
In the United States, it has been estimated that 500-1,000 new cases of nocardiosis infection occur every year. Approximately 60% of nocardiosis cases are associated with pre-existing immune compromise. 
    
In addition, men have a greater risk of getting the infection than women; for every female who gets sick with nocardiosis, there are about 3 males who get the disease.
What are the symptoms of Nocardiosis ? 

The symptoms of nocardiosis vary depending on which part of your body is affected.
    
Nocardiosis infection most commonly occurs in the lung. If your lungs are infected, you can experience:
    
     - Fever
     - Weight loss
     - Night sweats
     - Cough
     - Chest pain
     - Pneumonia
    
    
When lung infections occur, the infection commonly spreads to the brain. If your central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) is infected, you can experience:
    
     - Headache
     - Weakness
     - Confusion
     - Seizures (sudden, abnormal electrical activity in the brain)
    
    
Skin infections can occur when open wounds or cuts come into contact with contaminated soil. If your skin is affected, you can experience:
    
     - Ulcers
     - Nodules sometimes draining and spreading along lymph nodes
What are the treatments for Nocardiosis ? 

If you think you might be sick with nocardiosis, talk to your doctor.
    
He or she can help find out if you have the disease by performing tests that can identify the bacteria that causes nocardiosis.
    
Testing may involve taking tissue samples from the part of the body that is infected. Tissue samples may include the:
    
     - Brain
     - Skin
     - Lungs (or other parts of the lower airways)
     - Mucus from the lower airways
Who is at risk for Chapare Hemorrhagic Fever (CHHF)? ? 

Like all arenaviruses, Chapare virus has a rodent host as its reservoir. Humans can contract CHHF through contact with an infected rodent. Contact can be direct or through inhalation of aerosolized Chapare virus from the urine or feces of infected rodents. 
 
Although arenaviruses have been isolated from insects, neither they nor any other intermediary host appear to spread CHHF. 
 
Person-to-person transmission of arenaviruses through aerosolization, although possible, is rare. From the only observed cluster of cases of CHHF, there was no evidence of person-to-person transmission. 
 
Transmission, if it can occur with CHHF, is most likely the result of direct contact with an infected person.
What are the symptoms of Chapare Hemorrhagic Fever (CHHF) ? 

The symptoms of CHHF, as reported in the only described patient, resemble those of other South American hemorrhagic fevers, such as Argentine HF or Bolivian HF. The incubation period is unknown, but for Argentine hemorrhagic fever (AHF) is 6 to 16 days. 
   
The CHHF clinical course included: 
    
    - fever 
    - headache 
    - articulation and muscle pain 
    - vomiting 
    
   
These symptoms were followed by deterioration with multiple hemorrhagic signs. The only described CHHF patient died 14 days after onset of symptoms. 
   
Since Arenaviruses may enter the fetus through infection of the mother, and anecdotal evidence suggests that infected pregnant women may suffer miscarriages, it is reasonable to assume that both infection of the fetus and miscarriage may be associated with CHHF infection in the mother.
Who is at risk for Chapare Hemorrhagic Fever (CHHF)? ? 

CHHF occurs in the Cochabamba region of Bolivia. 
Field workers 
                
Field workers are at greatest risk because of increased human contact with the reservoir rodent population. Sexual partners of field workers may be at greater risk as well. Laboratory infections have been frequently described with Arenaviruses and Chapare virus can certainly be transmitted to laboratory workers during manipulation of the virus especially during experimental infections of rodents.
How to diagnose Chapare Hemorrhagic Fever (CHHF) ? 

CHHF virus has been successfully isolated from both blood and serum during the acute febrile phase of illness. Although not undertaken at the time of the initial cluster, virus can certainly be isolated from tissue obtained post-mortem if available. A subsequent complete genomic analysis of Chapare virus facilitated the development of specific molecular detection (RT-PCR) assays. 
   
Serologic diagnosis of CHHF can be made by indirect immunofluorescent assay and ELISA. However, individuals from endemic areas who show fever, dizziness, and myalgia, accompanied by laboratory findings of low white blood cell and platelet counts and excess protein in the urine, should be suspected of having one of the South American hemorrhagic fever viruses. Clinical specimens should be tested using specific assays.
What are the treatments for Chapare Hemorrhagic Fever (CHHF) ? 

Supportive therapy is important in CHHF. This includes: 
    
    - maintenance of hydration 
    - management of shock 
    - sedation 
    - pain relief 
    - usual precautions for patients with bleeding disorders 
    - transfusions (when necessary) 
    
   
Use of convalescent plasma therapy for treatment of AHF reduces mortality significantly and anecdotal evidence shows that the antiviral drug ribavirin may also hold promise for treating AHF. Ribavirin has also been considered for preventing development of disease in people exposed to other arenaviruses. 
   Recovery 
   
The precise mortality of CHHF is unknown and the only described case was fatal. 
   
Patients who have suffered from other arenaviruses may continue to excrete virus in urine or semen for weeks after recovery. For this reason, these fluids should be monitored for infectivity, since convalescent patients have the potential to infect others (particularly sexual partners) via these fluids.
How to prevent Chapare Hemorrhagic Fever (CHHF) ? 

Although rodent control would be desirable, it will not be a successful strategy for preventing Chapare hemorrhagic fever cases caused by exposures outdoors. 
   
As for other hemorrhagic fevers, full barrier nursing procedures should be implemented during management of suspected or confirmed CHHF cases.
what is yersiniosis for Yersinia ? 

Yersiniosis is an infectious disease caused by a bacterium of the genus Yersinia. In the United States, most human illness is caused by one species, Y. enterocolitica. Infection with Y. enterocolitica can cause a variety of symptoms depending on the age of the person infected. Infection with Y. enterocolitica occurs most often in young children. Common symptoms in children are fever, abdominal pain, and diarrhea, which is often bloody. Symptoms typically develop 4 to 7 days after exposure and may last 1 to 3 weeks or longer. In older children and adults, right-sided abdominal pain and fever may be the predominant symptoms, and may be confused with appendicitis. In a small proportion of cases, complications such as skin rash, joint pains, or spread of bacteria to the bloodstream can occur.