Druvith/medqa huggingface dataset:
What to do for Henoch-Schnlein Purpura ? 

- Henoch-Schnlein purpura (HSP) is a disease that causes small blood vessels in the body to become inflamed and leak.  - HSP is caused by an abnormal immune system response in which the bodys immune system attacks the bodys own cells and organs. The factors that cause this immune system response are not known.  - The symptoms of HSP include the following:      - rash    - digestive tract problems    - arthritis    - kidney involvement    - In children, the risk of kidney damage leading to long-term problems may be as high as 15 percent, but kidney failure affects only about 1 percent of children with HSP. Up to 40 percent of adults with HSP will have CKD or kidney failure within 15 years after diagnosis.  - A diagnosis of HSP is suspected when a person has the characteristic rash and one of the following:      - abdominal pain    - joint pain    - antibody deposits on the skin    - hematuria or proteinuria    - Antibody deposits on the skin can confirm the diagnosis of HSP.  - No specific treatment for HSP exists. The main goal of treatment is to relieve symptoms such as joint pain, abdominal pain, and swelling. People with kidney involvement may receive treatment aimed at preventing long-term kidney disease.
What is (are) Glomerular Diseases ? 

The two kidneys are bean-shaped organs located just below the rib cage, one on each side of the spine. Everyday, the two kidneys filter about 120 to 150 quarts of blood to produce about 1 to 2 quarts of urine, composed of wastes and extra fluid.
                
Blood enters the kidneys through arteries that branch inside the kidneys into tiny clusters of looping blood vessels. Each cluster is called a glomerulus, which comes from the Greek word meaning filter. The plural form of the word is glomeruli. There are approximately 1 million glomeruli, or filters, in each kidney. The glomerulus is attached to the opening of a small fluid-collecting tube called a tubule. Blood is filtered in the glomerulus, and extra fluid and wastes pass into the tubule and become urine. Eventually, the urine drains from the kidneys into the bladder through larger tubes called ureters.
                
Each glomerulus-and-tubule unit is called a nephron. Each kidney is composed of about 1 million nephrons. In healthy nephrons, the glomerular membrane that separates the blood vessel from the tubule allows waste products and extra water to pass into the tubule while keeping blood cells and protein in the bloodstream.
What are the symptoms of Glomerular Diseases ? 

The signs and symptoms of glomerular disease include
                
- albuminuria: large amounts of protein in the urine  - hematuria: blood in the urine  - reduced glomerular filtration rate: inefficient filtering of wastes from the blood  - hypoproteinemia: low blood protein  - edema: swelling in parts of the body
                
One or more of these symptoms can be the first sign of kidney disease. But how would you know, for example, whether you have proteinuria? Before seeing a doctor, you may not. But some of these symptoms have signs, or visible manifestations:
                
- Proteinuria may cause foamy urine.  - Blood may cause the urine to be pink or cola-colored.  - Edema may be obvious in hands and ankles, especially at the end of the day, or around the eyes when awakening in the morning, for example.
How to diagnose Glomerular Diseases ? 

Patients with glomerular disease have significant amounts of protein in the urine, which may be referred to as "nephrotic range" if levels are very high. Red blood cells in the urine are a frequent finding as well, particularly in some forms of glomerular disease. Urinalysis provides information about kidney damage by indicating levels of protein and red blood cells in the urine. Blood tests measure the levels of waste products such as creatinine and urea nitrogen to determine whether the filtering capacity of the kidneys is impaired. If these lab tests indicate kidney damage, the doctor may recommend ultrasound or an x ray to see whether the shape or size of the kidneys is abnormal. These tests are called renal imaging. But since glomerular disease causes problems at the cellular level, the doctor will probably also recommend a kidney biopsya procedure in which a needle is used to extract small pieces of tissue for examination with different types of microscopes, each of which shows a different aspect of the tissue. A biopsy may be helpful in confirming glomerular disease and identifying the cause.
What is (are) Glomerular Diseases ? 

Renal failure is any acute or chronic loss of kidney function and is the term used when some kidney function remains. Total kidney failure, sometimes called end-stage renal disease (ESRD), indicates permanent loss of kidney function. Depending on the form of glomerular disease, renal function may be lost in a matter of days or weeks or may deteriorate slowly and gradually over the course of decades.
                
Acute Renal Failure
                
A few forms of glomerular disease cause very rapid deterioration of kidney function. For example, PSGN can cause severe symptoms (hematuria, proteinuria, edema) within 2 to 3 weeks after a sore throat or skin infection develops. The patient may temporarily require dialysis to replace renal function. This rapid loss of kidney function is called acute renal failure (ARF). Although ARF can be life-threatening while it lasts, kidney function usually returns after the cause of the kidney failure has been treated. In many patients, ARF is not associated with any permanent damage. However, some patients may recover from ARF and subsequently develop CKD.
                
Chronic Kidney Disease
                
Most forms of glomerular disease develop gradually, often causing no symptoms for many years. CKD is the slow, gradual loss of kidney function. Some forms of CKD can be controlled or slowed down. For example, diabetic nephropathy can be delayed by tightly controlling blood glucose levels and using ACE inhibitors and ARBs to reduce proteinuria and control blood pressure. But CKD cannot be cured. Partial loss of renal function means that some portion of the patient's nephrons have been scarred, and scarred nephrons cannot be repaired. In many cases, CKD leads to total kidney failure.
                
Total Kidney Failure
                
To stay alive, a patient with total kidney failure must go on dialysishemodialysis or peritoneal dialysisor receive a new kidney through transplantation. Patients with CKD who are approaching total kidney failure should learn as much about their treatment options as possible so they can make an informed decision when the time comes. With the help of dialysis or transplantation, many people continue to lead full, productive lives after reaching total kidney failure.
What to do for Glomerular Diseases ? 

- The kidneys filter waste and extra fluid from the blood.  - The filtering process takes place in the nephron, where microscopic blood vessel filters, called glomeruli, are attached to fluid-collecting tubules.  - A number of different disease processes can damage the glomeruli and thereby cause kidney failure. Glomerulonephritis and glomerulosclerosis are broad terms that include many forms of damage to the glomeruli.  - Some forms of kidney failure can be slowed down, but scarred glomeruli can never be repaired.  - Treatment for the early stages of kidney failure depends on the disease causing the damage.  - Early signs of kidney failure include blood or protein in the urine and swelling in the hands, feet, abdomen, or face. Kidney failure may be silent for many years.
                
The Nephrotic Syndrome
                
- The nephrotic syndrome is a condition marked by very high levels of protein in the urine; low levels of protein in the blood; swelling, especially around the eyes, feet, and hands; and high cholesterol.  - The nephrotic syndrome is a set of symptoms, not a disease in itself. It can occur with many diseases, so prevention relies on controlling the diseases that cause it.  - Treatment of the nephrotic syndrome focuses on identifying and treating the underlying cause, if possible, and reducing high cholesterol, blood pressure, and protein in the urine through diet, medication, or both.  - The nephrotic syndrome may go away once the underlying cause, if known, is treated. However, often a kidney disease is the underlying cause and cannot be cured. In these cases, the kidneys may gradually lose their ability to filter wastes and excess water from the blood. If kidney failure occurs, the patient will need to be on dialysis or have a kidney transplant.
What is (are) Prolactinoma ? 

A prolactinoma is a benign noncancerous tumor of the pituitary gland that produces a hormone called prolactin. Prolactinomas are the most common type of pituitary tumor. Symptoms of prolactinoma are caused by hyperprolactinemia --- too much prolactin in the blood --- or by pressure of the tumor on surrounding tissues.
                
Prolactin stimulates the breast to produce milk during pregnancy.  After giving birth, a mothers prolactin levels fall unless she breastfeeds her infant. Each time the baby nurses, prolactin levels rise to maintain milk production.
What is (are) Prolactinoma ? 

The pituitary gland, sometimes called the master gland, plays a critical role in regulating growth and development, metabolism, and reproduction. It produces prolactin and other key hormones including
                
- growth hormone, which regulates growth  - adrenocorticotropin (ACTH), which stimulates the adrenal glands to produce cortisol, a hormone important in metabolism and the body's response to stress  - thyrotropin, which signals the thyroid gland to produce thyroid hormone, also involved in metabolism and growth  - luteinizing hormone and follicle-stimulating hormone, which regulate ovulation and estrogen and progesterone production in women and sperm formation and testosterone production in men
                
The pituitary gland sits in the middle of the head in a bony box called the sella turcica. The optic nerves sit directly above the pituitary gland. Enlargement of the gland can cause symptoms such as headaches or visual disturbances. Pituitary tumors may also impair production of one or more pituitary hormones, causing reduced pituitary function, also called hypopituitarism.
How many people are affected by Prolactinoma ? 

Although small benign pituitary tumors are fairly common in the general population, symptomatic prolactinomas are uncommon. Prolactinomas occur more often in women than men and rarely occur in children.
What are the symptoms of Prolactinoma ? 

In women, high levels of prolactin in the blood often cause infertility and changes in menstruation. In some women, periods may stop. In others, periods may become irregular or menstrual flow may change. Women who are not pregnant or nursing may begin producing breast milk. Some women may experience a loss of libido-interest in sex. Intercourse may become painful because of vaginal dryness.
                
In men, the most common symptom of prolactinoma is erectile dysfunction. Because men have no reliable indicator such as changes in menstruation to signal a problem, many men delay going to the doctor until they have headaches or eye problems caused by the enlarged pituitary pressing against nearby optic nerves. They may not recognize a gradual loss of sexual function or libido. Only after treatment do some men realize they had a problem with sexual function.
What causes Prolactinoma ? 

The cause of pituitary tumors remains largely unknown. Most pituitary tumors are sporadic, meaning they are not genetically passed from parents to their children.
What causes Prolactinoma ? 

In some people, high blood levels of prolactin can be traced to causes other than prolactinoma.
                
Prescription drugs. Prolactin secretion in the pituitary is normally suppressed by the brain chemical dopamine. Drugs that block the effects of dopamine at the pituitary or deplete dopamine stores in the brain may cause the pituitary to secrete prolactin. These drugs include older antipsychotic medications such as trifluoperazine (Stelazine) and haloperidol (Haldol); the newer antipsychotic drugs risperidone (Risperdal) and molindone (Moban); metoclopramide (Reglan), used to treat gastroesophageal reflux and the nausea caused by certain cancer drugs; and less often, verapamil, alpha-methyldopa (Aldochlor, Aldoril), and reserpine (Serpalan, Serpasil), used to control high blood pressure. Some antidepressants may cause hyperprolactinemia, but further research is needed.
                
Other pituitary tumors. Other tumors arising in or near the pituitary may block the flow of dopamine from the brain to the prolactin-secreting cells. Such tumors include those that cause acromegaly, a condition caused by too much growth hormone, and Cushing's syndrome, caused by too much cortisol. Other pituitary tumors that do not result in excess hormone production may also block the flow of dopamine.
                
Hypothyroidism. Increased prolactin levels are often seen in people with hypothyroidism, a condition in which the thyroid does not produce enough thyroid hormone. Doctors routinely test people with hyperprolactinemia for hypothyroidism.
                
Chest involvement. Nipple stimulation also can cause a modest increase in the amount of prolactin in the blood. Similarly, chest wall injury or shingles involving the chest wall may also cause hyperprolactinemia.
How to diagnose Prolactinoma ? 

A doctor will test for prolactin blood levels in women with unexplained milk secretion, called galactorrhea, or with irregular menses or infertility and in men with impaired sexual function and, in rare cases, milk secretion. If prolactin levels are high, a doctor will test thyroid function and ask first about other conditions and medications known to raise prolactin secretion. The doctor may also request magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), which is the most sensitive test for detecting pituitary tumors and determining their size. MRI scans may be repeated periodically to assess tumor progression and the effects of therapy. Computerized tomography (CT) scan also gives an image of the pituitary but is less precise than the MRI.
                
The doctor will also look for damage to surrounding tissues and perform tests to assess whether production of other pituitary hormones is normal. Depending on the size of the tumor, the doctor may request an eye exam with measurement of visual fields.
Who is at risk for Prolactinoma? ? 

Women whose ovaries produce inadequate estrogen are at increased risk for osteoporosis. Hyperprolactinemia can reduce estrogen production. Although estrogen production may be restored after treatment for hyperprolactinemia, even a year or 2 without estrogen can compromise bone strength. Women should protect themselves from osteoporosis by increasing exercise and calcium intake through diet or supplements and by not smoking. Women treated for hyperprolactinemia may want to have periodic bone density measurements and discuss estrogen replacement therapy or other bone-strengthening medications with their doctor.
What is (are) Perineal Injury in Males ? 

Perineal injury is an injury to the perineum, the part of the body between the anus and the genitals, or sex organs. In males, the perineum is the area between the anus and the scrotum, the external pouch of skin that holds the testicles. Injuries to the perineum can happen suddenly, as in an accident, or gradually, as the result of an activity that persistently puts pressure on the perineum. Sudden damage to the perineum is called an acute injury, while gradual damage is called a chronic injury.
What are the complications of Perineal Injury in Males ? 

Injury to the blood vessels, nerves, and muscles in the perineum can lead to complications such as
                
- bladder control problems  - sexual problems
                
Bladder control problems. The nerves in the perineum carry signals from the bladder to the spinal cord and brain, telling the brain when the bladder is full. Those same nerves carry signals from the brain to the bladder and pelvic floor muscles, directing those muscles to hold or release urine. Injury to those nerves can block or interfere with the signals, causing the bladder to squeeze at the wrong time or not to squeeze at all. Damage to the pelvic floor muscles can cause bladder and bowel control problems.
                
Sexual problems. The perineal nerves also carry signals between the genitals and the brain. Injury to those nerves can interfere with the sensations of sexual contact.
                
Signals from the brain direct the smooth muscles in the genitals to relax, causing greater blood flow into the penis. In men, damaged blood vessels can cause erectile dysfunction (ED), the inability to achieve or maintain an erection firm enough for sexual intercourse. An internal portion of the penis runs through the perineum and contains a section of the urethra. As a result, damage to the perineum may also injure the penis and urethra.
What causes Perineal Injury in Males ? 

Chronic perineal injury most often results from a job-or sport-related practicesuch as bike, motorcycle, or horseback ridingor a long-term condition such as chronic constipation.
                
Bike Riding
                
Sitting on a narrow, saddle-style bike seatwhich has a protruding nose in the frontplaces far more pressure on the perineum than sitting in a regular chair. In a regular chair, the flesh and bone of the buttocks partially absorb the pressure of sitting, and the pressure occurs farther toward the back than on a bike seat. The straddling position on a narrow seat pinches the perineal blood vessels and nerves, possibly causing blood vessel and nerve damage over time. Research shows wider, noseless seats reduce perineal pressure.1
                
Occasional bike riding for short periods of time may pose no risk. However, men who ride bikes several hours a weeksuch as competitive bicyclists, bicycle couriers, and bicycle patrol officershave a significantly higher risk of developing mild to severe ED.2 The ED may be caused by repetitive pressure on blood vessels, which constricts them and results in plaque buildup in the vessels.
                
Other activities that involve riding saddle-style include motorcycle and horseback riding. Researchers have studied bike riding more extensively than these other activities; however, the few studies published regarding motorcycle and horseback riding suggest motorcycle riding increases the risk of ED and urinary symptoms.3 Horseback riding appears relatively safe in terms of chronic injury,4 although the action of bouncing up and down, repeatedly striking the perineum, has the potential for causing damage.
                
Constipation
                
Constipation is defined as having a bowel movement fewer than three times per week. People with constipation usually have hard, dry stools that are small in size and difficult to pass. Some people with constipation need to strain to pass stools. This straining creates internal pressure that squeezes the perineum and can damage the perineal blood vessels and nerves. More information is provided in the NIDDK health topic, Constipation.
Who is at risk for Perineal Injury in Males? ? 

Men who have perineal surgery are most likely to have an acute perineal injury. Straddle injuries are most common among people who ride motorcycles, bikes, or horses and children who use playground equipment. Impalement injuries are most common in military personnel engaged in combat. Impalement injuries can also occur in construction or farm workers.
                
Chronic perineal injuries are most common in people who ride bikes as part of a job or sport, or in people with constipation.
What are the treatments for Perineal Injury in Males ? 

Treatments for perineal injury vary with the severity and type of injury. Tears or incisions may require stitches. Traumatic or piercing injuries may require surgery to repair damaged pelvic floor muscles, blood vessels, and nerves. Treatment for these acute injuries may also include antibiotics to prevent infection. After a health care provider stabilizes an acute injury so blood loss is no longer a concern, a person may still face some long-term effects of the injury, such as bladder control and sexual function problems. A health care provider can treat high-flow priapism caused by a blunt injury to the perineum with medication, blockage of the burst blood vessel under x-ray guidance, or surgery.
                
In people with a chronic perineal injury, a health care provider will treat the complications of the condition. More information is provided in the NIDDK health topics:
                
- Erectile Dysfunction  - Urinary Incontinence in Men
                
More information about the lower urinary tract is provided in the NIDDK health topic, The Urinary Tract and How It Works.
How to prevent Perineal Injury in Males ? 

Preventing perineal injury requires being aware of and taking steps to minimize the dangers of activities such as construction work or bike riding:
                
- People should talk with their health care provider about the benefits and risks of perineal surgery well before the operation.  - People who play or work around moving equipment or sharp objects should wear protective gear whenever possible.  - People who ride bikes, motorcycles, or horses should find seats or saddles designed to place the most pressure on the buttocks and minimize pressure on the perineum. Many health care providers advise bike riders to use noseless bike seats and to ride in an upright position rather than lean over the handle bars. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, part of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, recommends noseless seats for people who ride bikes as part of their job.1  - People with constipation should talk with their health care provider about whether to take a laxative or stool softener to minimize straining during a bowel movement.
What to do for Perineal Injury in Males ? 

To prevent constipation, a diet with 20 to 35 grams of fiber each day helps the body form soft, bulky stool that is easier to pass. High-fiber foods include beans, whole grains and bran cereals, fresh fruits, and vegetables such as asparagus, brussels sprouts, cabbage, and carrots. For people prone to constipation, limiting foods that have little or no fiber, such as ice cream, cheese, meat, and processed foods, is also important. A health care provider can give information about how changes in eating, diet, and nutrition could help with constipation.
What to do for Perineal Injury in Males ? 

- Perineal injury is an injury to the perineum, the part of the body between the anus and the genitals, or sex organs. In males, the perineum is the area between the anus and the scrotum, the external pouch of skin that holds the testicles.  - Injury to the blood vessels, nerves, and muscles in the perineum can lead to complications such as      - bladder control problems    - sexual problems    - Common causes of acute perineal injury in males include      - perineal surgery    - straddle injuries    - sexual abuse    - impalement    - Chronic perineal injury most often results from a job- or sport-related practicesuch as bike, motorcycle, or horseback ridingor a long-term condition such as chronic constipation.  - Traumatic or piercing injuries may require surgery to repair damaged pelvic floor muscles, blood vessels, and nerves. Treatment for these acute injuries may also include antibiotics to prevent infection.  - In people with a chronic perineal injury, a health care provider will treat the complications of the condition, such as erectile dysfunction (ED) and urinary incontinence.  - Preventing perineal injury requires being aware of and taking steps to minimize the dangers of activities such as construction work or bike riding.  - The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, part of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, recommends noseless seats for people who ride bikes as part of their job.