Druvith/medqa huggingface dataset:
How to diagnose Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia ? 

Tests that examine the blood, bone marrow, and lymph nodes are used to detect (find) and diagnose chronic lymphocytic leukemia. The following tests and procedures may be used:         -   Physical exam and history : An exam of the body to check general signs of health, including checking for signs of disease, such as lumps or anything else that seems unusual. A history of the patients health habits and past illnesses and treatments will also be taken.     -   Complete blood count (CBC) with differential : A procedure in which a sample of blood is drawn and checked for the following:                -  The number of red blood cells and platelets.      - The number and type of white blood cells.      - The amount of hemoglobin (the protein that carries oxygen) in the red blood cells.      - The portion of the blood sample made up of red blood cells.              -   Immunophenotyping : A laboratory test in which the antigens or markers on the surface of a blood or bone marrow cell are checked to see if they are lymphocytes or myeloid cells. If the cells are malignant lymphocytes (cancer), they are checked to see if they are B lymphocytes or T lymphocytes.    -   FISH (fluorescence in situ hybridization): A laboratory technique used to look at genes or chromosomes in cells and tissues. Pieces of DNA that contain a fluorescent dye are made in the laboratory and added to cells or tissues on a glass slide. When these pieces of DNA bind to specific genes or areas of chromosomes on the slide, they light up when viewed under a microscope with a special light.     -   Flow cytometry : A laboratory test that measures the number of cells in a sample, the percentage of live cells in a sample, and certain characteristics of cells, such as size, shape, and the presence of tumor markers on the cell surface. The cells are stained with a light-sensitive dye, placed in a fluid, and passed in a stream before a laser or other type of light. The measurements are based on how the light-sensitive dye reacts to the light.    -   IgVH gene mutation test: A laboratory test done on a bone marrow or blood sample to check for an IgVH gene mutation. Patients with an IgVH gene mutation have a better prognosis.    -   Bone marrow aspiration and biopsy : The removal of bone marrow, blood, and a small piece of bone by inserting a hollow needle into the hipbone or breastbone. A pathologist views the bone marrow, blood, and bone under a microscope to look for abnormal cells.
What is the outlook for Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia ? 

Certain factors affect treatment options and prognosis (chance of recovery). Treatment options depend on:         - The stage of the disease.    - Red blood cell, white blood cell, and platelet blood counts.    - Whether there are signs or symptoms, such as fever, chills, or weight loss.    - Whether the liver, spleen, or lymph nodes are larger than normal.    - The response to initial treatment.    - Whether the CLL has recurred (come back).        The prognosis (chance of recovery) depends on:         - Whether there is a change in the DNA and the type of change, if there is one.    - Whether lymphocytes are spread throughout the bone marrow.    - The stage of the disease.    - Whether the CLL gets better with treatment or has recurred (come back).    - Whether the CLL progresses to lymphoma or prolymphocytic leukemia.    - The patient's general health.
What is (are) Chronic Myeloproliferative Neoplasms ? 

Key Points
                    - Myeloproliferative neoplasms are a group of diseases in which the bone marrow makes too many red blood cells, white blood cells, or platelets.     - There are 6 types of chronic myeloproliferative neoplasms.    - Tests that examine the blood and bone marrow are used to detect (find) and diagnose chronic myeloproliferative neoplasms.
                
                
                    Myeloproliferative neoplasms are a group of diseases in which the bone marrow makes too many red blood cells, white blood cells, or platelets.
                    Normally, the bone marrow makes blood stem cells (immature cells) that become mature blood cells over time.     A blood stem cell may become a myeloid stem cell or a lymphoid stem cell. A lymphoid stem cell becomes a white blood cell. A myeloid stem cell becomes one of three types of mature blood cells:         -  Red blood cells that carry oxygen and other substances to all tissues of the body.    - White blood cells that fight infection and disease.    -  Platelets that form blood clots to stop bleeding.          In myeloproliferative neoplasms, too many blood stem cells become one or more types of blood cells. The neoplasms usually get worse slowly as the number of extra blood cells increases.
                
                
                    There are 6 types of chronic myeloproliferative neoplasms.
                    The type of myeloproliferative neoplasm is based on whether too many red blood cells, white blood cells, or platelets are being made. Sometimes the body will make too many of more than one type of blood cell, but usually one type of blood cell is affected more than the others are. Chronic myeloproliferative neoplasms include the following 6 types:         -  Chronic myelogenous leukemia.    -  Polycythemia vera.    -  Primary myelofibrosis (also called chronic idiopathic myelofibrosis).     -  Essential thrombocythemia.    -  Chronic neutrophilic leukemia.    -  Chronic eosinophilic leukemia.        These types are described below. Chronic myeloproliferative neoplasms sometimes become acute leukemia, in which too many abnormal white blood cells are made.
How to diagnose Chronic Myeloproliferative Neoplasms ? 

Tests that examine the blood and bone marrow are used to detect (find) and diagnose chronic myeloproliferative neoplasms. The following tests and procedures may be used:         -   Physical exam and history : An exam of the body to check general signs of health, including checking for signs of disease, such as lumps or anything else that seems unusual. A history of the patients health habits and past illnesses and treatments will also be taken.    -   Complete blood count (CBC) with differential : A procedure in which a sample of blood is drawn and checked for the following:                - The number of red blood cells and platelets.       - The number and type of white blood cells.      - The amount of hemoglobin (the protein that carries oxygen) in the red blood cells.       - The portion of the blood sample made up of red blood cells.              -   Peripheral blood smear : A procedure in which a sample of blood is checked for the following:                - Whether there are red blood cells shaped like teardrops.      - The number and kinds of white blood cells.      - The number of platelets.      - Whether there are blast cells.              -   Blood chemistry studies : A procedure in which a blood sample is checked to measure the amounts of certain substances released into the blood by organs and tissues in the body. An unusual (higher or lower than normal) amount of a substance can be a sign of disease.    -   Bone marrow aspiration and biopsy : The removal of bone marrow, blood, and a small piece of bone by inserting a hollow needle into the hipbone or breastbone. A pathologist views the bone marrow, blood, and bone under a microscope to look for abnormal cells.    -   Cytogenetic analysis : A test in which cells in a sample of blood or bone marrow are viewed under a microscope to look for certain changes in the chromosomes. Certain diseases or disorders may be diagnosed or ruled out based on the chromosomal changes.    -   Gene mutation test: A laboratory test done on a bone marrow or blood sample to check for mutations in  JAK2 ,  MPL , or  CALR genes. A JAK2 gene mutation is often found in patients with polycythemia vera, essential thrombocythemia, or primary myelofibrosis. MPL or CALR gene mutations are found in patients with essential thrombocythemia or primary myelofibrosis.
What are the stages of Chronic Myeloproliferative Neoplasms ? 

Key Points
                    - There is no standard staging system for chronic myeloproliferative neoplasms.
                
                
                    There is no standard staging system for chronic myeloproliferative neoplasms.
                    Staging is the process used to find out how far the cancer has spread. There is no standard staging system for chronic myeloproliferative neoplasms. Treatment is based on the type of myeloproliferative neoplasm the patient has. It is important to know the type in order to plan treatment.
What is (are) Skin Cancer ? 

Key Points
                    - Skin cancer is a disease in which malignant (cancer) cells form in the tissues of the skin.    - Nonmelanoma skin cancer is the most common cancer in the United States.    - Being exposed to ultraviolet radiation may increase the risk of skin cancer.
                
                
                    Skin cancer is a disease in which malignant (cancer) cells form in the tissues of the skin.
                    The skin is the body's largest organ. It protects against heat, sunlight, injury, and infection. Skin also helps control body temperature and stores water, fat, and vitamin D. The skin has several layers, but the two main layers are the epidermis (top or outer layer) and the dermis (lower or inner layer). Skin cancer begins in the epidermis, which is made up of three kinds of cells:         -  Squamous cells: Thin, flat cells that form the top layer of the epidermis. Cancer that forms in squamous cells is called squamous cell carcinoma.    -  Basal cells: Round cells under the squamous cells. Cancer that forms in basal cells is called basal cell carcinoma.    -  Melanocytes: Found in the lower part of the epidermis, these cells make melanin, the pigment that gives skin its natural color. When skin is exposed to the sun, melanocytes make more pigment and cause the skin to tan, or darken. Cancer that forms in melanocytes is called melanoma.
                
                
                    Nonmelanoma skin cancer is the most common cancer in the United States.
                    Basal cell carcinoma and squamous cell carcinoma are also called nonmelanoma skin cancer and are the most common forms of skin cancer. Most basal cell and squamous cell skin cancers can be cured.    Melanoma is more likely to spread to nearby tissues and other parts of the body and can be harder to cure. Melanoma is easier to cure if the tumor is found before it spreads to the dermis (inner layer of skin). Melanoma is less likely to cause death when it is found and treated early.    In the United States, the number of cases of nonmelanoma skin cancer seems to have increased in recent years. The number of cases of melanoma has increased over the last 30 years. Part of the reason for these increases may be that people are more aware of skin cancer. They are more likely to have skin exams and biopsies and to be diagnosed with skin cancer.   Over the past 20 years, the number of deaths from melanoma has decreased slightly among white men and women younger than 50 years. During that time, the number of deaths from melanoma has increased slightly among white men older than 50 years and stayed about the same among white women older than 50 years.   The number of cases of childhood melanoma diagnosed in the United States is low, but increasing over time. The number of childhood deaths from melanoma has stayed about the same.   See the following PDQ summaries for more information about skin cancer:         -   Skin Cancer Prevention     -  Skin Cancer Treatment     -  Melanoma Treatment     -  Genetics of Skin Cancer
Who is at risk for Skin Cancer? ? 

Being exposed to ultraviolet radiation may increase the risk of skin cancer. Anything that increases your chance of getting a disease is called a risk factor. Having a risk factor does not mean that you will get cancer; not having risk factors doesn't mean that you will not get cancer. People who think they may be at risk should discuss this with their doctor.    Being exposed to ultraviolet (UV) radiation and having skin that is sensitive to UV radiation are risk factors for skin cancer. UV radiation is the name for the invisible rays that are part of the energy that comes from the sun. Sunlamps and tanning beds also give off UV radiation.   Risk factors for nonmelanoma and melanoma cancers are not the same.         -  Nonmelanoma skin cancer risk factors include:               - Being exposed to natural sunlight or artificial sunlight (such as from tanning beds) over long periods of time.      - Having a fair complexion, which includes the following:                        - Fair skin that freckles and burns easily, does not tan, or tans poorly.         - Blue or green or other light-colored eyes.          - Red or blond hair.                      - Having actinic keratosis.       - Past treatment with radiation.      - Having a weakened immune system.       - Being exposed to arsenic.             -  Melanoma skin cancer risk factors include:               - Having a fair complexion, which includes the following:                         - Fair skin that freckles and burns easily, does not tan, or tans poorly.          - Blue or green or other light-colored eyes.          - Red or blond hair.                     - Being exposed to natural sunlight or artificial sunlight (such as from tanning beds) over long periods of time.       - Having a history of many blistering sunburns, especially as a child or teenager.       - Having several large or many small moles.      - Having a family history of unusual moles (atypical nevus syndrome).      -  Having a family or personal history of melanoma.       - Being white.
What is (are) Myelodysplastic/ Myeloproliferative Neoplasm, Unclassifiable ? 

Key Points
                    - Myelodysplastic/myeloproliferative neoplasm, unclassifiable, is a disease that has features of both myelodysplastic and myeloproliferative diseases but is not chronic myelomonocytic leukemia, juvenile myelomonocytic leukemia, or atypical chronic myelogenous leukemia.    - Signs and symptoms of myelodysplastic/myeloproliferative neoplasm, unclassifiable, include fever, weight loss, and feeling very tired.
                
                
                    Myelodysplastic/myeloproliferative neoplasm, unclassifiable, is a disease that has features of both myelodysplastic and myeloproliferative diseases but is not chronic myelomonocytic leukemia, juvenile myelomonocytic leukemia, or atypical chronic myelogenous leukemia.
                    In myelodysplastic /myeloproliferative neoplasm, unclassifiable (MDS/MPD-UC), the body tells too many blood stem cells to become red blood cells, white blood cells, or platelets. Some of these blood stem cells never become mature blood cells. These immature blood cells are called blasts. Over time, the abnormal blood cells and blasts in the bone marrow crowd out the healthy red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets.   MDS/MPN-UC is a very rare disease. Because it is so rare, the factors that affect risk and prognosis are not known.
What are the symptoms of Myelodysplastic/ Myeloproliferative Neoplasm, Unclassifiable ? 

Signs and symptoms of myelodysplastic/myeloproliferative neoplasm, unclassifiable, include fever, weight loss, and feeling very tired. These and other signs and symptoms may be caused by MDS/MPN-UC or by other conditions. Check with your doctor if you have any of the following:         -  Fever or frequent infections.    - Shortness of breath.    - Feeling very tired and weak.    - Pale skin.    - Easy bruising or bleeding.    -  Petechiae (flat, pinpoint spots under the skin caused by bleeding).    - Pain or a feeling of fullness below the ribs.
What are the treatments for Myelodysplastic/ Myeloproliferative Neoplasm, Unclassifiable ? 

Because myelodysplastic /myeloproliferative neoplasm, unclassifiable (MDS/MPN-UC) is a rare disease, little is known about its treatment. Treatment may include the following:         -  Supportive care treatments to manage problems caused by the disease such as infection, bleeding, and anemia.     -  Targeted therapy (imatinib mesylate).        Check the list of NCI-supported cancer clinical trials that are now accepting patients with myelodysplastic/myeloproliferative neoplasm, unclassifiable. For more specific results, refine the search by using other search features, such as the location of the trial, the type of treatment, or the name of the drug. Talk with your doctor about clinical trials that may be right for you. General information about clinical trials is available from the NCI website.
What is (are) Penile Cancer ? 

Key Points
                    - Penile cancer is a disease in which malignant (cancer) cells form in the tissues of the penis.    - Human papillomavirus infection may increase the risk of developing penile cancer.    - Signs of penile cancer include sores, discharge, and bleeding.    - Tests that examine the penis are used to detect (find) and diagnose penile cancer.    - Certain factors affect prognosis (chance of recovery) and treatment options.
                
                
                    Penile cancer is a disease in which malignant (cancer) cells form in the tissues of the penis.
                    The penis is a rod-shaped male reproductive organ that passes sperm and urine from the body. It contains two types of erectile tissue (spongy tissue with blood vessels that fill with blood to make an erection):          - Corpora cavernosa: The two columns of erectile tissue that form most of the penis.    -  Corpus spongiosum: The single column of erectile tissue that forms a small portion of the penis. The corpus spongiosum surrounds the urethra (the tube through which urine and sperm pass from the body).        The erectile tissue is wrapped in connective tissue and covered with skin. The glans (head of the penis) is covered with loose skin called the foreskin.
Who is at risk for Penile Cancer? ? 

Human papillomavirus infection may increase the risk of developing penile cancer. Anything that increases your chance of getting a disease is called a risk factor. Having a risk factor does not mean that you will get cancer; not having risk factors doesn't mean that you will not get cancer. Talk with your doctor if you think you may be at risk. Risk factors for penile cancer include the following:    Circumcision may help prevent infection with the human papillomavirus (HPV). A circumcision is an operation in which the doctor removes part or all of the foreskin from the penis. Many boys are circumcised shortly after birth. Men who were not circumcised at birth may have a higher risk of developing penile cancer.    Other risk factors for penile cancer include the following:         - Being age 60 or older.    - Having phimosis (a condition in which the foreskin of the penis cannot be pulled back over the glans).    - Having poor personal hygiene.    - Having many sexual partners.    - Using tobacco products.
What are the symptoms of Penile Cancer ? 

Signs of penile cancer include sores, discharge, and bleeding. These and other signs may be caused by penile cancer or by other conditions. Check with your doctor if you have any of the following:         - Redness, irritation, or a sore on the penis.    - A lump on the penis.
How to diagnose Penile Cancer ? 

Tests that examine the penis are used to detect (find) and diagnose penile cancer. The following tests and procedures may be used:         -   Physical exam and history : An exam of the body to check general signs of health, including checking the penis for signs of disease, such as lumps or anything else that seems unusual. A history of the patients health habits and past illnesses and treatments will also be taken.    -   Biopsy : The removal of cells or tissues so they can be viewed under a microscope by a pathologist to check for signs of cancer. The tissue sample is removed during one of the following procedures:                -  Fine-needle aspiration (FNA) biopsy : The removal of tissue or fluid using a thin needle.      -  Incisional biopsy : The removal of part of a lump or a sample of tissue that doesn't look normal.      -  Excisional biopsy : The removal of an entire lump or area of tissue that doesnt look normal.
What is the outlook for Penile Cancer ? 

Certain factors affect prognosis (chance of recovery) and treatment options. The prognosis (chance of recovery) and treatment options depend on the following:         - The stage of the cancer.    - The location and size of the tumor.    - Whether the cancer has just been diagnosed or has recurred (come back).
what research (or clinical trials) is being done for Penile Cancer ? 

New types of treatment are being tested in clinical trials.
                    This summary section describes treatments that are being studied in clinical trials. It may not mention every new treatment being studied. Information about clinical trials is available from the NCI website.     Radiosensitizers     Radiosensitizers are drugs that make tumor cells more sensitive to radiation therapy. Combining radiation therapy with radiosensitizers helps kill more tumor cells.       Sentinel lymph node biopsy followed by surgery     Sentinel lymph node biopsy is the removal of the sentinel lymph node during surgery. The sentinel lymph node is the first lymph node to receive lymphatic drainage from a tumor. It is the first lymph node the cancer is likely to spread to from the tumor. A radioactive substance and/or blue dye is injected near the tumor. The substance or dye flows through the lymph ducts to the lymph nodes. The first lymph node to receive the substance or dye is removed. A pathologist views the tissue under a microscope to look for cancer cells. If cancer cells are not found, it may not be necessary to remove more lymph nodes. After the sentinel lymph node biopsy, the surgeon removes the cancer.
                
                
                    Patients may want to think about taking part in a clinical trial.
                    For some patients, taking part in a clinical trial may be the best treatment choice. Clinical trials are part of the cancer research process. Clinical trials are done to find out if new cancer treatments are safe and effective or better than the standard treatment.   Many of today's standard treatments for cancer are based on earlier clinical trials. Patients who take part in a clinical trial may receive the standard treatment or be among the first to receive a new treatment.   Patients who take part in clinical trials also help improve the way cancer will be treated in the future. Even when clinical trials do not lead to effective new treatments, they often answer important questions and help move research forward.
                
                
                    Patients can enter clinical trials before, during, or after starting their cancer treatment.
                    Some clinical trials only include patients who have not yet received treatment. Other trials test treatments for patients whose cancer has not gotten better. There are also clinical trials that test new ways to stop cancer from recurring (coming back) or reduce the side effects of cancer treatment.   Clinical trials are taking place in many parts of the country. See the Treatment Options section that follows for links to current treatment clinical trials. These have been retrieved from NCI's listing of clinical trials.