Divyanshu67/squad_v2 huggingface dataset:
Annelid

Nearly all polychaetes have parapodia that function as limbs, while other major annelid groups lack them. Parapodia are unjointed paired extensions of the body wall, and their muscles are derived from the circular muscles of the body. They are often supported internally by one or more large, thick chetae. The parapodia of burrowing and tube-dwelling polychaetes are often just ridges whose tips bear hooked chetae. In active crawlers and swimmers the parapodia are often divided into large upper and lower paddles on a very short trunk, and the paddles are generally fringed with chetae and sometimes with cirri (fused bundles of cilia) and gills.

Question: What are cirri?
Answer: fused bundles of cilia

Question: What kind of parapodia do burrowing annelids often have?
Answer: ridges whose tips bear hooked chetae

Question: What type of annelids have limb-like parapodia?
Answer: polychaetes

Question: What are parapodia?
Answer: unjointed paired extensions of the body wall

Question: Where are cirri never found?

Question: What kind of parapodia do aerial annelids often have?

Question: What type of annelids have dream-like parapodia?

Question: What are parapodia no longer considered?
Annelid

The brain generally forms a ring round the pharynx (throat), consisting of a pair of ganglia (local control centers) above and in front of the pharynx, linked by nerve cords either side of the pharynx to another pair of ganglia just below and behind it. The brains of polychaetes are generally in the prostomium, while those of clitellates are in the peristomium or sometimes the first segment behind the peristomium. In some very mobile and active polychaetes the brain is enlarged and more complex, with visible hindbrain, midbrain and forebrain sections. The rest of the central nervous system is generally "ladder-like", consisting of a pair of nerve cords that run through the bottom part of the body and have in each segment paired ganglia linked by a transverse connection. From each segmental ganglion a branching system of local nerves runs into the body wall and then encircles the body. However, in most polychaetes the two main nerve cords are fused, and in the tube-dwelling genus Owenia the single nerve chord has no ganglia and is located in the epidermis.

Question: What are ganglia?
Answer: local control centers

Question: What is an annelid's brain in a ring around?
Answer: the pharynx

Question: What is a pharynx?
Answer: throat

Question: Where are clitellates' brains?
Answer: in the peristomium or sometimes the first segment behind the peristomium

Question: Where are polychaetes' brains?
Answer: in the prostomium

Question: What is an annelid's brain in a sphere around?

Question: Where are clitellates' teeth?

Question: Where are polychaetes' bodies?

Question: What is rarely "ladder-like"?

Question: What nerve cords are never fused in polychaetes?
Annelid

As in arthropods, each muscle fiber (cell) is controlled by more than one neuron, and the speed and power of the fiber's contractions depends on the combined effects of all its neurons. Vertebrates have a different system, in which one neuron controls a group of muscle fibers. Most annelids' longitudinal nerve trunks include giant axons (the output signal lines of nerve cells). Their large diameter decreases their resistance, which allows them to transmit signals exceptionally fast. This enables these worms to withdraw rapidly from danger by shortening their bodies. Experiments have shown that cutting the giant axons prevents this escape response but does not affect normal movement.

Question: What species group are annelids' muscle control similar to?
Answer: arthropods

Question: What are giant axons?
Answer: the output signal lines of nerve cells

Question: How do annelids withdraw from danger?
Answer: shortening their bodies

Question: What species group are annelids' mind control similar to?

Question: What do giant axons destroy?

Question: How do annelids increase danger?

Question: What worms are very slow to retreat from danger?
Annelid

The sensors are primarily single cells that detect light, chemicals, pressure waves and contact, and are present on the head, appendages (if any) and other parts of the body. Nuchal ("on the neck") organs are paired, ciliated structures found only in polychaetes, and are thought to be chemosensors. Some polychaetes also have various combinations of ocelli ("little eyes") that detect the direction from which light is coming and camera eyes or compound eyes that can probably form images. The compound eyes probably evolved independently of arthropods' eyes. Some tube-worms use ocelli widely spread over their bodies to detect the shadows of fish, so that they can quickly withdraw into their tubes. Some burrowing and tube-dwelling polychaetes have statocysts (tilt and balance sensors) that tell them which way is down. A few polychaete genera have on the undersides of their heads palps that are used both in feeding and as "feelers", and some of these also have antennae that are structurally similar but probably are used mainly as "feelers".

Question: What kind of things can annelids' sensors detect?
Answer: light, chemicals, pressure waves and contact

Question: What does 'nuchal' mean?
Answer: on the neck

Question: What type of annelids have nuchal organs?
Answer: polychaetes

Question: What are the nuchal organs thought to do?
Answer: chemosensors

Question: What term means 'little eyes'?
Answer: ocelli

Question: What kind of things can annelids' sensors remove?

Question: What type of annelids have human organs?

Question: What are nuchal organs thought to kill?

Question: What term means 'massive eyes'?
Annelid

Most annelids have a pair of coelomata (body cavities) in each segment, separated from other segments by septa and from each other by vertical mesenteries. Each septum forms a sandwich with connective tissue in the middle and mesothelium (membrane that serves as a lining) from the preceding and following segments on either side. Each mesentery is similar except that the mesothelium is the lining of each of the pair of coelomata, and the blood vessels and, in polychaetes, the main nerve cords are embedded in it. The mesothelium is made of modified epitheliomuscular cells; in other words, their bodies form part of the epithelium but their bases extend to form muscle fibers in the body wall. The mesothelium may also form radial and circular muscles on the septa, and circular muscles around the blood vessels and gut. Parts of the mesothelium, especially on the outside of the gut, may also form chloragogen cells that perform similar functions to the livers of vertebrates: producing and storing glycogen and fat; producing the oxygen-carrier hemoglobin; breaking down proteins; and turning nitrogenous waste products into ammonia and urea to be excreted.

Question: What are coelomata?
Answer: body cavities

Question: What are annelids' body cavities separated from other segments by?
Answer: septa

Question: What are annelids' body cavities separated from each other by?
Answer: vertical mesenteries

Question: What is the mesothelium made of?
Answer: modified epitheliomuscular cells

Question: What are coelomata removed from?

Question: What are annelids' body cavities combined with other segments by?

Question: What are annelids' body cavities separated from eyes by?

Question: What is the mesothelium never made of?
Annelid

Many annelids move by peristalsis (waves of contraction and expansion that sweep along the body), or flex the body while using parapodia to crawl or swim. In these animals the septa enable the circular and longitudinal muscles to change the shape of individual segments, by making each segment a separate fluid-filled "balloon". However, the septa are often incomplete in annelids that are semi-sessile or that do not move by peristalsis or by movements of parapodia – for example some move by whipping movements of the body, some small marine species move by means of cilia (fine muscle-powered hairs) and some burrowers turn their pharynges (throats) inside out to penetrate the sea-floor and drag themselves into it.

Question: How does peristalsis work?
Answer: waves of contraction and expansion that sweep along the body

Question: Why are annelids' segments like water-balloons?
Answer: the septa enable the circular and longitudinal muscles to change the shape of individual segments

Question: What are phrynges?
Answer: throats

Question: What are cilia?
Answer: fine muscle-powered hairs

Question: How does peristalsis stop working?

Question: Why are annelids' segments like helium-balloons?

Question: What are often complete in annelids?

Question: What do not have throats?
Annelid

The fluid in the coelomata contains coelomocyte cells that defend the animals against parasites and infections. In some species coelomocytes may also contain a respiratory pigment – red hemoglobin in some species, green chlorocruorin in others (dissolved in the plasma) – and provide oxygen transport within their segments. Respiratory pigment is also dissolved in the blood plasma. Species with well-developed septa generally also have blood vessels running all long their bodies above and below the gut, the upper one carrying blood forwards while the lower one carries it backwards. Networks of capillaries in the body wall and around the gut transfer blood between the main blood vessels and to parts of the segment that need oxygen and nutrients. Both of the major vessels, especially the upper one, can pump blood by contracting. In some annelids the forward end of the upper blood vessel is enlarged with muscles to form a heart, while in the forward ends of many earthworms some of the vessels that connect the upper and lower main vessels function as hearts. Species with poorly developed or no septa generally have no blood vessels and rely on the circulation within the coelom for delivering nutrients and oxygen.

Question: What can coelomocyte cells defend against?
Answer: parasites and infections

Question: What type of pigment is dissolved in annelids' blood?
Answer: Respiratory

Question: What runs the length of annelids' bodies with well-developed septa?
Answer: blood vessels

Question: What do annelids without septa have to use for circulation?
Answer: circulation within the coelom

Question: What can coelomocyte cells heal?

Question: What type of pigment is created in annelids' blood?

Question: What runs the length of annelids' brains with well-developed septa?

Question: What do annelids with septa have to use for blood?
Annelid

However, leeches and their closest relatives have a body structure that is very uniform within the group but significantly different from that of other annelids, including other members of the Clitellata. In leeches there are no septa, the connective tissue layer of the body wall is so thick that it occupies much of the body, and the two coelomata are widely separated and run the length of the body. They function as the main blood vessels, although they are side-by-side rather than upper and lower. However, they are lined with mesothelium, like the coelomata and unlike the blood vessels of other annelids. Leeches generally use suckers at their front and rear ends to move like inchworms. The anus is on the upper surface of the pygidium.

Question: What type of annelids are very different from others?
Answer: leeches and their closest relatives

Question: What type of tissue takes up most of the body of a leech?
Answer: connective tissue layer of the body wall

Question: How many coelomata do leeches have?
Answer: two

Question: What lines the coelomata of leeches?
Answer: mesothelium

Question: What do leeches use to move?
Answer: suckers at their front and rear ends

Question: What type of annelids are very identical to others?

Question: What type of tissue eats most of the body of a leech?

Question: How many brains do leeches have?

Question: What lines the bones of leeches?

Question: What do leeches use to fly?
Annelid

Feeding structures in the mouth region vary widely, and have little correlation with the animals' diets. Many polychaetes have a muscular pharynx that can be everted (turned inside out to extend it). In these animals the foremost few segments often lack septa so that, when the muscles in these segments contract, the sharp increase in fluid pressure from all these segments everts the pharynx very quickly. Two families, the Eunicidae and Phyllodocidae, have evolved jaws, which can be used for seizing prey, biting off pieces of vegetation, or grasping dead and decaying matter. On the other hand, some predatory polychaetes have neither jaws nor eversible pharynges. Selective deposit feeders generally live in tubes on the sea-floor and use palps to find food particles in the sediment and then wipe them into their mouths. Filter feeders use "crowns" of palps covered in cilia that wash food particles towards their mouths. Non-selective deposit feeders ingest soil or marine sediments via mouths that are generally unspecialized. Some clitellates have sticky pads in the roofs of their mouths, and some of these can evert the pads to capture prey. Leeches often have an eversible proboscis, or a muscular pharynx with two or three teeth.

Question: What does 'everted' mean?
Answer: turned inside out to extend

Question: What part of a polychaete can be everted?
Answer: pharynx

Question: What types of annelids have evolved jaws?
Answer: Eunicidae and Phyllodocidae

Question: What do annelids use jaws for?
Answer: seizing prey, biting off pieces of vegetation, or grasping dead and decaying matter

Question: What do some annelids have 'crowns' of?
Answer: palps covered in cilia

Question: What part of a polychaete can be inverted?

Question: What types of annelids are missing jaws?

Question: What do annelids use robots for?

Question: What do some annelids have 'trophies' of?
Annelid

The gut is generally an almost straight tube supported by the mesenteries (vertical partitions within segments), and ends with the anus on the underside of the pygidium. However, in members of the tube-dwelling family Siboglinidae the gut is blocked by a swollen lining that houses symbiotic bacteria, which can make up 15% of the worms' total weight. The bacteria convert inorganic matter – such as hydrogen sulfide and carbon dioxide from hydrothermal vents, or methane from seeps – to organic matter that feeds themselves and their hosts, while the worms extend their palps into the gas flows to absorb the gases needed by the bacteria.

Question: What type of annelids are tube-dwelling?
Answer: Siboglinidae

Question: What blocks the Siboglinidae's gut?
Answer: a swollen lining

Question: How much of a Siboglinidae's weight is symbiotic bacteria?
Answer: 15%

Question: What gases come from hydrothermal vents?
Answer: hydrogen sulfide and carbon dioxide

Question: What gases come from seeps?
Answer: methane

Question: What type of annelids are brain-dwelling?

Question: What blocks the Siboglinidae's blood?

Question: How much of a Siboglinidae's consciousness is symbiotic bacteria?

Question: What liquids come from hydrothermal bottles?

Question: What foods come from seeps?
Annelid

Annelids with blood vessels use metanephridia to remove soluble waste products, while those without use protonephridia. Both of these systems use a two-stage filtration process, in which fluid and waste products are first extracted and these are filtered again to re-absorb any re-usable materials while dumping toxic and spent materials as urine. The difference is that protonephridia combine both filtration stages in the same organ, while metanephridia perform only the second filtration and rely on other mechanisms for the first – in annelids special filter cells in the walls of the blood vessels let fluids and other small molecules pass into the coelomic fluid, where it circulates to the metanephridia. In annelids the points at which fluid enters the protonephridia or metanephridia are on the forward side of a septum while the second-stage filter and the nephridiopore (exit opening in the body wall) are in the following segment. As a result, the hindmost segment (before the growth zone and pygidium) has no structure that extracts its wastes, as there is no following segment to filter and discharge them, while the first segment contains an extraction structure that passes wastes to the second, but does not contain the structures that re-filter and discharge urine.

Question: What do metanephridia remove?
Answer: soluble waste products

Question: What do annelids without blood vessels do to remove waste?
Answer: protonephridia

Question: How many stages are there in annelids' waste filtration?
Answer: two

Question: What annelid system combines both filtration states in one organ?
Answer: protonephridia

Question: What do metanephridia produce?

Question: What do annelids without blood vessels do to increase waste?

Question: How many stages are there in annelids' water filtration?

Question: What annelid system combines both filtration states in eight organs?
Annelid

It is thought that annelids were originally animals with two separate sexes, which released ova and sperm into the water via their nephridia. The fertilized eggs develop into trochophore larvae, which live as plankton. Later they sink to the sea-floor and metamorphose into miniature adults: the part of the trochophore between the apical tuft and the prototroch becomes the prostomium (head); a small area round the trochophore's anus becomes the pygidium (tail-piece); a narrow band immediately in front of that becomes the growth zone that produces new segments; and the rest of the trochophore becomes the peristomium (the segment that contains the mouth).

Question: How many sexes of annelids were there originally?
Answer: two

Question: What releases sperm from annelids?
Answer: nephridia

Question: What do annelid eggs become?
Answer: trochophore larvae

Question: What do annelids' larvae live like?
Answer: plankton

Question: What does the trochophore become when annelids mature?
Answer: the prostomium (head)

Question: What releases sperm from annelids eyes?

Question: What do annelid eggs explode inside?

Question: What do annelids' larvae like to eat?

Question: What does the trochophore become when annelids die?
Annelid

However, the lifecycles of most living polychaetes, which are almost all marine animals, are unknown, and only about 25% of the 300+ species whose lifecycles are known follow this pattern. About 14% use a similar external fertilization but produce yolk-rich eggs, which reduce the time the larva needs to spend among the plankton, or eggs from which miniature adults emerge rather than larvae. The rest care for the fertilized eggs until they hatch – some by producing jelly-covered masses of eggs which they tend, some by attaching the eggs to their bodies and a few species by keeping the eggs within their bodies until they hatch. These species use a variety of methods for sperm transfer; for example, in some the females collect sperm released into the water, while in others the males have a penis that inject sperm into the female. There is no guarantee that this is a representative sample of polychaetes' reproductive patterns, and it simply reflects scientists' current knowledge.

Question: How many species of polychaetes have known lifecycles?
Answer: about 25%

Question: What percent of polychaetes produce yolk-rich eggs?
Answer: 14%

Question: What is the benefit of yolk-rich eggs?
Answer: reduce the time the larva needs to spend among the plankton

Question: What are most polychaetes' eggs covered in?
Answer: jelly

Question: How many species of polychaetes have impossible lifecycles?

Question: What percent of polychaetes produce milk?

Question: What is the benefit of rotten eggs?

Question: What are all polychaetes' eggs covered in?
Annelid

Some polychaetes breed only once in their lives, while others breed almost continuously or through several breeding seasons. While most polychaetes remain of one sex all their lives, a significant percentage of species are full hermaphrodites or change sex during their lives. Most polychaetes whose reproduction has been studied lack permanent gonads, and it is uncertain how they produce ova and sperm. In a few species the rear of the body splits off and becomes a separate individual that lives just long enough to swim to a suitable environment, usually near the surface, and spawn.

Question: What do some non-single-sex polychaetes do?
Answer: change sex

Question: What are most polychaetes lacking for reproduction?
Answer: permanent gonads

Question: How do some annelids get a one-time chance at a better spawning spot?
Answer: the rear of the body splits off and becomes a separate individual

Question: What do all non-single-sex polychaetes do?

Question: What are no polychaetes lacking for reproduction?

Question: How do some annelids get a three-time chance at a better spawning spot?

Question: How many polychaetes breed an infinite amount of times?
Annelid

Most mature clitellates (the group that includes earthworms and leeches) are full hermaphrodites, although in a few leech species younger adults function as males and become female at maturity. All have well-developed gonads, and all copulate. Earthworms store their partners' sperm in spermathecae ("sperm stores") and then the clitellum produces a cocoon that collects ova from the ovaries and then sperm from the spermathecae. Fertilization and development of earthworm eggs takes place in the cocoon. Leeches' eggs are fertilized in the ovaries, and then transferred to the cocoon. In all clitellates the cocoon also either produces yolk when the eggs are fertilized or nutrients while they are developing. All clitellates hatch as miniature adults rather than larvae.

Question: What annelid group includes leeches and earthworms?
Answer: clitellates

Question: What type of sex are most earthworms?
Answer: hermaphrodites

Question: Where are leeches' eggs fertilized?
Answer: in the ovaries

Question: Where do leeches move their eggs to?
Answer: the cocoon

Question: What type of annelids hatch as miniature adults?
Answer: clitellates

Question: What annelid group dislikes leeches and earthworms?

Question: What type of creature are most earthworms?

Question: Where are leeches' gardens fertilized?

Question: Where do leeches eat their eggs?

Question: What type of annelids hatch as giant adults?
Annelid

Charles Darwin's book The Formation of Vegetable Mould through the Action of Worms (1881) presented the first scientific analysis of earthworms' contributions to soil fertility. Some burrow while others live entirely on the surface, generally in moist leaf litter. The burrowers loosen the soil so that oxygen and water can penetrate it, and both surface and burrowing worms help to produce soil by mixing organic and mineral matter, by accelerating the decomposition of organic matter and thus making it more quickly available to other organisms, and by concentrating minerals and converting them to forms that plants can use more easily. Earthworms are also important prey for birds ranging in size from robins to storks, and for mammals ranging from shrews to badgers, and in some cases conserving earthworms may be essential for conserving endangered birds.

Question: Who published a book about worms in 1881?
Answer: Charles Darwin

Question: What was the first scientific study of how earthworms help soil?
Answer: The Formation of Vegetable Mould through the Action of Worms

Question: Where do earthworms prefer to live on the surface?
Answer: generally in moist leaf litter

Question: How does burrowers' loosening help the soil?
Answer: oxygen and water can penetrate it

Question: What is the largest bird that eats earthworms?
Answer: storks

Question: Who published a book about worms in 1781?

Question: What was the only scientific study of how earthworms help soil?

Question: Where do earthworms prefer to live in space?

Question: How does burrowers' tightening help the soil?

Question: What is the only bird that can eat earthworms?
Annelid

Terrestrial annelids can be invasive in some situations. In the glaciated areas of North America, for example, almost all native earthworms are thought to have been killed by the glaciers and the worms currently found in those areas are all introduced from other areas, primarily from Europe, and, more recently, from Asia. Northern hardwood forests are especially negatively impacted by invasive worms through the loss of leaf duff, soil fertility, changes in soil chemistry and the loss of ecological diversity. Especially of concern is Amynthas agrestis and at least one state (Wisconsin) has listed it as a prohibited species.

Question: Where were native earthworms killed by glaciers?
Answer: glaciated areas of North America

Question: Where did most of the current earthworms in glacial areas come from?
Answer: Europe

Question: What type of forests can be hurt by invasive worms?
Answer: Northern hardwood forests

Question: Where were asian earthworms killed by glaciers?

Question: Where did all of the current earthworms in glacial areas come from?

Question: What type of forests are immune to invasive worms?

Question: What are no longer considered an invasive species?
Annelid

Earthworms make a significant contribution to soil fertility. The rear end of the Palolo worm, a marine polychaete that tunnels through coral, detaches in order to spawn at the surface, and the people of Samoa regard these spawning modules as a delicacy. Anglers sometimes find that worms are more effective bait than artificial flies, and worms can be kept for several days in a tin lined with damp moss. Ragworms are commercially important as bait and as food sources for aquaculture, and there have been proposals to farm them in order to reduce over-fishing of their natural populations. Some marine polychaetes' predation on molluscs causes serious losses to fishery and aquaculture operations.

Question: What type of annelid tunnels through coral?
Answer: Palolo worm

Question: What annelid's rear end do Samoans like to eat?
Answer: Palolo worm

Question: What type of bait do experienced anglers prefer?
Answer: spawning modules

Question: What do some polychaetes eat that has been causing problems?
Answer: molluscs

Question: What type of worm have there been proposals to farm?
Answer: Ragworms

Question: What type of annelid tunnels through gold?

Question: What annelid's rear end do Samoans like to drink?

Question: What type of bait do experienced anglers dislike?

Question: What do some polychaetes eat that is harmless?

Question: What type of worm have there been proposals to kill?
Annelid

Accounts of the use of leeches for the medically dubious practise of blood-letting have come from China around 30 AD, India around 200 AD, ancient Rome around 50 AD and later throughout Europe. In the 19th century medical demand for leeches was so high that some areas' stocks were exhausted and other regions imposed restrictions or bans on exports, and Hirudo medicinalis is treated as an endangered species by both IUCN and CITES. More recently leeches have been used to assist in microsurgery, and their saliva has provided anti-inflammatory compounds and several important anticoagulants, one of which also prevents tumors from spreading.

Question: When did leeches begin being used for blood-letting?
Answer: 30 AD

Question: Where did leeches begin being used for blood-letting?
Answer: China

Question: When did Rome begin using leeches?
Answer: 50 AD

Question: When did India begin using leeches?
Answer: 200 AD

Question: Which organizations list Hirudo medicinalis as endangered?
Answer: IUCN and CITES

Question: Where did leeches begin being used for blood transfusions?

Question: When did Russia begin using leeches?

Question: Which organizations list Hirudo medicinalis as extinct?

Question: When did India stop using leeches?
Annelid

Since annelids are soft-bodied, their fossils are rare. Polychaetes' fossil record consists mainly of the jaws that some species had and the mineralized tubes that some secreted. Some Ediacaran fossils such as Dickinsonia in some ways resemble polychaetes, but the similarities are too vague for these fossils to be classified with confidence. The small shelly fossil Cloudina, from 549 to 542 million years ago, has been classified by some authors as an annelid, but by others as a cnidarian (i.e. in the phylum to which jellyfish and sea anemones belong). Until 2008 the earliest fossils widely accepted as annelids were the polychaetes Canadia and Burgessochaeta, both from Canada's Burgess Shale, formed about 505 million years ago in the early Cambrian. Myoscolex, found in Australia and a little older than the Burgess Shale, was possibly an annelid. However, it lacks some typical annelid features and has features which are not usually found in annelids and some of which are associated with other phyla. Then Simon Conway Morris and John Peel reported Phragmochaeta from Sirius Passet, about 518 million years old, and concluded that it was the oldest annelid known to date. There has been vigorous debate about whether the Burgess Shale fossil Wiwaxia was a mollusc or an annelid. Polychaetes diversified in the early Ordovician, about 488 to 474 million years ago. It is not until the early Ordovician that the first annelid jaws are found, thus the crown-group cannot have appeared before this date and probably appeared somewhat later. By the end of the Carboniferous, about 299 million years ago, fossils of most of the modern mobile polychaete groups had appeared. Many fossil tubes look like those made by modern sessile polychaetes  , but the first tubes clearly produced by polychaetes date from the Jurassic, less than 199 million years ago.

Question: When did Cloudina exist?
Answer: 549 to 542 million years ago

Question: What do some people think Cloudina should be called instead of an annelid?
Answer: cnidarian

Question: How old were the fossils of Canadia and Burgessochaeta found in Canada?
Answer: 505 million years

Question: What era was underway 505 million years ago?
Answer: early Cambrian

Question: Where was Myoscolex found?
Answer: Australia

Question: When did Cloudina disappear?

Question: What do all people think Cloudina should be called instead of an annelid?

Question: How old were the fossils of Canadia and Burgessochaeta found in Australia?

Question: Where was Myoscolex unknown?
Annelid

The earliest good evidence for oligochaetes occurs in the Tertiary period, which began 65 million years ago, and it has been suggested that these animals evolved around the same time as flowering plants in the early Cretaceous, from 130 to 90 million years ago. A trace fossil consisting of a convoluted burrow partly filled with small fecal pellets may be evidence that earthworms were present in the early Triassic period from 251 to 245 million years ago. Body fossils going back to the mid Ordovician, from 472 to 461 million years ago, have been tentatively classified as oligochaetes, but these identifications are uncertain and some have been disputed.

Question: When did the Tertiary period begin?
Answer: 65 million years ago

Question: What era did oligochaetes evolve in?
Answer: early Cretaceous

Question: What type of annelid fossils have been found from the mid Ordovician period?
Answer: oligochaetes

Question: When were the earliest annelid fossils found?
Answer: 472 to 461 million years ago

Question: When did the Tertiary period stop existing?

Question: What era did oligochaetes devolve in?

Question: What type of annelid fossils have been lost during the mid Ordovician period?

Question: When were the only annelid fossils found?
Annelid

Traditionally the annelids have been divided into two major groups, the polychaetes and clitellates. In turn the clitellates were divided into oligochaetes, which include earthworms, and hirudinomorphs, whose best-known members are leeches. For many years there was no clear arrangement of the approximately 80 polychaete families into higher-level groups. In 1997 Greg Rouse and Kristian Fauchald attempted a "first heuristic step in terms of bringing polychaete systematics to an acceptable level of rigour", based on anatomical structures, and divided polychaetes into:

Question: What two groups are annelids traditionally divided among?
Answer: polychaetes and clitellates

Question: What subtype of clitellates contains earthworms?
Answer: oligochaetes

Question: What subtype of clitellates contains leeches?
Answer: hirudinomorphs

Question: How many polychaete families are there?
Answer: approximately 80

Question: When did Greg Rouse begin trying to categorize polychaetes?
Answer: 1997

Question: What three groups are annelids traditionally divided among?

Question: What subtype of clitellates contains spaceworms?

Question: What subtype of clitellates contains lemurs?

Question: How many polychaete political parties are there?

Question: When did Greg Rouse begin trying to categorize planets?
Annelid

In 2007 Torsten Struck and colleagues compared 3 genes in 81 taxa, of which 9 were outgroups, in other words not considered closely related to annelids but included to give an indication of where the organisms under study are placed on the larger tree of life. For a cross-check the study used an analysis of 11 genes (including the original 3) in 10 taxa. This analysis agreed that clitellates, pogonophorans and echiurans were on various branches of the polychaete family tree. It also concluded that the classification of polychaetes into Scolecida, Canalipalpata and Aciculata was useless, as the members of these alleged groups were scattered all over the family tree derived from comparing the 81 taxa. In addition, it also placed sipunculans, generally regarded at the time as a separate phylum, on another branch of the polychaete tree, and concluded that leeches were a sub-group of oligochaetes rather than their sister-group among the clitellates. Rouse accepted the analyses based on molecular phylogenetics, and their main conclusions are now the scientific consensus, although the details of the annelid family tree remain uncertain.

Question: Who compared annelid genes in 2007?
Answer: Torsten Struck and colleagues

Question: How many annelid genes did Torsten Struck first compare?
Answer: 3

Question: How many annelid genes did Torsten Struck compare for a cross-check?
Answer: 11

Question: What subtypes of polychaetes were useless classifications, according to the 2007 study?
Answer: Scolecida, Canalipalpata and Aciculata

Question: What did Rouse decide leeches were a subgroup of?
Answer: oligochaetes

Question: Who compared annelid genes in 1807?

Question: How many annelid genes did Torsten Struck first discover?

Question: How many annelid genes did Torsten Struck never compare for a cross-check?

Question: What subtypes of polychaetes were useless classifications, according to the 1997 study?

Question: What did Rouse decide leeches were a supergroup of?
Annelid

In addition to re-writing the classification of annelids and 3 previously independent phyla, the molecular phylogenetics analyses undermine the emphasis that decades of previous writings placed on the importance of segmentation in the classification of invertebrates. Polychaetes, which these analyses found to be the parent group, have completely segmented bodies, while polychaetes' echiurans and sipunculan offshoots are not segmented and pogonophores are segmented only in the rear parts of their bodies. It now seems that segmentation can appear and disappear much more easily in the course of evolution than was previously thought. The 2007 study also noted that the ladder-like nervous system, which is associated with segmentation, is less universal previously thought in both annelids and arthropods.[n 2]

Question: How many previously-separate phyla did the 2007 study reclassify?
Answer: 3

Question: What did the 2007 study decide was the parent group for annelids?
Answer: Polychaetes

Question: What offshoots of polychaetes are unsegmented?
Answer: echiurans and sipunculan

Question: What offshoots of polychaetes are only segmented in the rear?
Answer: pogonophores

Question: What nervous system structure is less univeral among annelids than was thought before 2007?
Answer: ladder-like

Question: How many previously-separate phyla did the 1837 study reclassify?

Question: What did the 2007 study decide was the slave group for annelids?

Question: What offshoots of polychaetes are immortal?

Question: What offshoots of polychaetes are only segmented in the head?

Question: What nervous system structure is less universal among annelids than was thought before 1907?
Annelid

Annelids are members of the protostomes, one of the two major superphyla of bilaterian animals – the other is the deuterostomes, which includes vertebrates. Within the protostomes, annelids used to be grouped with arthropods under the super-group Articulata ("jointed animals"), as segmentation is obvious in most members of both phyla. However, the genes that drive segmentation in arthropods do not appear to do the same in annelids. Arthropods and annelids both have close relatives that are unsegmented. It is at least as easy to assume that they evolved segmented bodies independently as it is to assume that the ancestral protostome or bilaterian was segmented and that segmentation disappeared in many descendant phyla. The current view is that annelids are grouped with molluscs, brachiopods and several other phyla that have lophophores (fan-like feeding structures) and/or trochophore larvae as members of Lophotrochozoa. Bryzoa may be the most basal phylum (the one that first became distinctive) within the Lophotrochozoa, and the relationships between the other members are not yet known. Arthropods are now regarded as members of the Ecdysozoa ("animals that molt"), along with some phyla that are unsegmented.

Question: What superphylum are annelids in?
Answer: protostomes

Question: What is the other superphylum besides protostomes?
Answer: deuterostomes

Question: What superphylum are vertebrates in?
Answer: deuterostomes

Question: What does 'Articulata' mean?
Answer: jointed animals

Question: What are lophophores?
Answer: fan-like feeding structures

Question: What superphylum are annelids now excluded from?

Question: What is one of many superphylums besides protostomes?

Question: What superpower are vertebrates in?

Question: What are lophosmores?
Annelid

The "Lophotrochozoa" hypothesis is also supported by the fact that many phyla within this group, including annelids, molluscs, nemerteans and flatworms, follow a similar pattern in the fertilized egg's development. When their cells divide after the 4-cell stage, descendants of these 4 cells form a spiral pattern. In these phyla the "fates" of the embryo's cells, in other words the roles their descendants will play in the adult animal, are the same and can be predicted from a very early stage. Hence this development pattern is often described as "spiral determinate cleavage".

Question: Which Lophotrochozoa phyla have similar egg development?
Answer: annelids, molluscs, nemerteans and flatworms

Question: How do the cells of Lophotrochozoa eggs arrange themselves?
Answer: after the 4-cell stage, descendants of these 4 cells form a spiral pattern

Question: What is the Lophotrochozoa spiral egg-cell pattern sometimes called?
Answer: spiral determinate cleavage

Question: Which Lophotrochozoa phyla have no egg development?

Question: How do the cells of Lophotrochozoa eggs destroy themselves?

Question: What is the Lophotrochozoa spiral egg-cell pattern required to be called?

Question: What animal contains no cells?

Question: What phyla is no longer able to make eggs?
God

In monotheism and henotheism, God is conceived of as the Supreme Being and principal object of faith. The concept of God as described by theologians commonly includes the attributes of omniscience (infinite knowledge), omnipotence (unlimited power), omnipresence (present everywhere), omnibenevolence (perfect goodness), divine simplicity, and eternal and necessary existence. God is also usually defined as a non-corporeal being without any human biological gender, but the concept of God actively (as opposed to receptively) creating the universe has caused some religions to give "Him" the metaphorical name of "Father". Because God is conceived as not being a corporeal being, God cannot(some say should not) be portrayed in a literal visual image; some religious groups use a man (sometimes old and bearded) to symbolize God because of His deed of creating man's mind in the image of His own.

Question: What does it mean to say that God is omnipotent?
Answer: unlimited power

Question: What is the feeling of God being everywhere?
Answer: omnipresence

Question: What is the extent of God's knowledge?
Answer: infinite knowledge

Question: What is infinite knowledge classified as?
Answer: omniscience

Question: What is the benevolence of God called?
Answer: omnibenevolence

Question: Does God have a gender?
Answer: without any human biological gender

Question: What type of human is God portrayed as in some religions?
Answer: a man (sometimes old and bearded)

Question: What is a God in monotheism?
Answer: Supreme Being and principal object of faith

Question: How should monotheism not be portrayed?

Question: What gender do theologians usually use to define human biological gender?

Question: What has creating a non-corporeal being caused some religions to do regarding divine simplicity?

Question: In biological gender, what is the universe conceived of?

Question: What are some concepts of the universe according to theologians?
God

In theism, God is the creator and sustainer of the universe, while in deism, God is the creator, but not the sustainer, of the universe. Monotheism is the belief in the existence of one God or in the oneness of God. In pantheism, God is the universe itself. In atheism, God is not believed to exist, while God is deemed unknown or unknowable within the context of agnosticism. God has also been conceived as being incorporeal (immaterial), a personal being, the source of all moral obligation, and the "greatest conceivable existent". Many notable philosophers have developed arguments for and against the existence of God.

Question: In what belief is God the creator and sustainer of the universe?
Answer: theism

Question: What does deism believe God's role in the universe is?
Answer: the creator, but not the sustainer

Question: Which belief is that God is the universe?
Answer: pantheism

Question: Which belief system definitively believes in no Higher Power or Supreme Being?
Answer: atheism

Question: Which belief system belives in some form of higher powwer, or something, but not organized religion?
Answer: agnosticism

Question: What is God in theism?
Answer: creator and sustainer of the universe

Question: What is God in deism?
Answer: the creator

Question: What is monotheism?
Answer: belief in the existence of one God

Question: What is atheism?
Answer: God is not believed to exist

Question: What two attributes describe God in deism?

Question: In theism what does God not do regarding the universe?

Question: According to monotheism, what does God consist of?

Question: When you are an agnostic, what do you think doesn't exist?

Question: What have many notable agnostics developed about pantheism?
God

There are many names for God, and different names are attached to different cultural ideas about God's identity and attributes. In the ancient Egyptian era of Atenism, possibly the earliest recorded monotheistic religion, this deity was called Aten, premised on being the one "true" Supreme Being and Creator of the Universe. In the Hebrew Bible and Judaism, "He Who Is", "I Am that I Am", and the tetragrammaton YHWH are used as names of God, while Yahweh and Jehovah are sometimes used in Christianity as vocalizations of YHWH. In the Christian doctrine of the Trinity, God, consubstantial in three persons, is called the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit. In Judaism, it is common to refer to God by the titular names Elohim or Adonai, the latter of which is believed by some scholars to descend from the Egyptian Aten. In Islam, the name Allah, "Al-El", or "Al-Elah" ("the God") is used, while Muslims also have a multitude of titular names for God. In Hinduism, Brahman is often considered a monistic deity. Other religions have names for God, for instance, Baha in the Bahá'í Faith, Waheguru in Sikhism, and Ahura Mazda in Zoroastrianism.

Question: What are vocalizations of the name of God, YHWH?
Answer: Yahweh and Jehovah

Question: What is the Holy Trinity?
Answer: the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit

Question: In the time of Atenism, what was God called?
Answer: Aten

Question: What is the Islamic name for God?
Answer: Allah

Question: What do members of the Bahá'í Faith call God?
Answer: Baha

Question: What was the first monotheistic religion?
Answer: Atenism

Question: What is the God of the Hebrew Bible called?
Answer: YHWH

Question: What is the Christian God called?
Answer: Yahweh and Jehovah

Question: What are the 2 titular names of God in the Jewish religion?
Answer: Elohim or Adonai

Question: Where do scholars believe the name Adonai came from?
Answer: Aten

Question: In the Egyptian era of Atenism, what were YHWH and I am that I am used as?

Question: What are Yaweh and Jehovah used in Atenism as?

Question: In Christianity what is Bramen considered?

Question: In Aten what is the name for the Holy Spirit?

Question: In Sikhism, how many persons are attributed to God?
God

The earliest written form of the Germanic word God (always, in this usage, capitalized) comes from the 6th-century Christian Codex Argenteus. The English word itself is derived from the Proto-Germanic * ǥuđan. The reconstructed Proto-Indo-European form * ǵhu-tó-m was likely based on the root * ǵhau(ə)-, which meant either "to call" or "to invoke". The Germanic words for God were originally neuter—applying to both genders—but during the process of the Christianization of the Germanic peoples from their indigenous Germanic paganism, the words became a masculine syntactic form.

Question: Where is the English word God derived from?
Answer: the Proto-Germanic * ǥuđan

Question: Where the first Germanic words for God masculine or feminine?
Answer: neuter—applying to both genders

Question: When did the Germanic words for God take on a masculine form?
Answer: Christianization of the Germanic peoples

Question: What was practiced by the Germanic people before their Christianization?
Answer: Germanic paganism

Question: What did the gaelic root of the word for God mean?
Answer: "to call" or "to invoke"

Question: Where does the word God come from originally?
Answer: Codex Argenteus

Question: What language does the English word God come from?
Answer: German

Question: What gender where the original Germanic words meaning God in?
Answer: neuter

Question: Where does the earliest masculine form of the English word for God come from?

Question: Where is the Codex form of the word from?

Question: What was the Argenteus usage based on?

Question: What does Argenteus mean?

Question: How were the English words for to call originally applied?