Divyanshu67/squad_v2 huggingface dataset:
History_of_science

The synthesis of urea by Friedrich Wöhler opened a new research field, organic chemistry, and by the end of the 19th century, scientists were able to synthesize hundreds of organic compounds. The later part of the 19th century saw the exploitation of the Earth's petrochemicals, after the exhaustion of the oil supply from whaling. By the 20th century, systematic production of refined materials provided a ready supply of products which provided not only energy, but also synthetic materials for clothing, medicine, and everyday disposable resources. Application of the techniques of organic chemistry to living organisms resulted in physiological chemistry, the precursor to biochemistry. The 20th century also saw the integration of physics and chemistry, with chemical properties explained as the result of the electronic structure of the atom. Linus Pauling's book on The Nature of the Chemical Bond used the principles of quantum mechanics to deduce bond angles in ever-more complicated molecules. Pauling's work culminated in the physical modelling of DNA, the secret of life (in the words of Francis Crick, 1953). In the same year, the Miller–Urey experiment demonstrated in a simulation of primordial processes, that basic constituents of proteins, simple amino acids, could themselves be built up from simpler molecules.

Question: What scientific act is Friedrich Wohler known for?
Answer: The synthesis of urea

Question: What scientific field did Wohler discover?
Answer: organic chemistry

Question: Late 19th century is marked by what event?
Answer: the exploitation of the Earth's petrochemicals

Question: Mixing organic chemistry with living organisms created what early form of biochemistry?
Answer: physiological chemistry

Question: Who wrote The Nature of the Chemical Bond?
Answer: Linus Pauling
History_of_science

Geology existed as a cloud of isolated, disconnected ideas about rocks, minerals, and landforms long before it became a coherent science. Theophrastus' work on rocks, Peri lithōn, remained authoritative for millennia: its interpretation of fossils was not overturned until after the Scientific Revolution. Chinese polymath Shen Kua (1031–1095) first formulated hypotheses for the process of land formation. Based on his observation of fossils in a geological stratum in a mountain hundreds of miles from the ocean, he deduced that the land was formed by erosion of the mountains and by deposition of silt.

Question: What was the work of Theophrastus on rocks called?
Answer: Peri lithōn

Question: When were Theophrastus' ideas about fossils proven false?
Answer: the Scientific Revolution

Question: When did Shen Kua live?
Answer: 1031–1095

Question: What science did Shen Kua observe?
Answer: land formation
History_of_science

Geology did not undergo systematic restructuring during the Scientific Revolution, but individual theorists made important contributions. Robert Hooke, for example, formulated a theory of earthquakes, and Nicholas Steno developed the theory of superposition and argued that fossils were the remains of once-living creatures. Beginning with Thomas Burnet's Sacred Theory of the Earth in 1681, natural philosophers began to explore the idea that the Earth had changed over time. Burnet and his contemporaries interpreted Earth's past in terms of events described in the Bible, but their work laid the intellectual foundations for secular interpretations of Earth history.

Question: What happened to geology during the Scientific Revolution?
Answer: individual theorists made important contributions

Question: What did Robert Hooke study?
Answer: earthquakes

Question: What theory did Nicholas Steno discover?
Answer: the theory of superposition

Question: What book did Thomas Burnet right in 1681?
Answer: Sacred Theory of the Earth

Question: What text did Burnet base his work off of?
Answer: the Bible
History_of_science

Modern geology, like modern chemistry, gradually evolved during the 18th and early 19th centuries. Benoît de Maillet and the Comte de Buffon saw the Earth as much older than the 6,000 years envisioned by biblical scholars. Jean-Étienne Guettard and Nicolas Desmarest hiked central France and recorded their observations on some of the first geological maps. Aided by chemical experimentation, naturalists such as Scotland's John Walker, Sweden's Torbern Bergman, and Germany's Abraham Werner created comprehensive classification systems for rocks and minerals—a collective achievement that transformed geology into a cutting edge field by the end of the eighteenth century. These early geologists also proposed a generalized interpretations of Earth history that led James Hutton, Georges Cuvier and Alexandre Brongniart, following in the steps of Steno, to argue that layers of rock could be dated by the fossils they contained: a principle first applied to the geology of the Paris Basin. The use of index fossils became a powerful tool for making geological maps, because it allowed geologists to correlate the rocks in one locality with those of similar age in other, distant localities. Over the first half of the 19th century, geologists such as Charles Lyell, Adam Sedgwick, and Roderick Murchison applied the new technique to rocks throughout Europe and eastern North America, setting the stage for more detailed, government-funded mapping projects in later decades.

Question: How old did biblical scholars think the Earth was?
Answer: 6,000 years

Question: Jean-Etienne Guettard and NIcolas Desmarest went to France and recorded what?
Answer: the first geological maps

Question: In the 18th century, what changed geology drastically?
Answer: comprehensive classification systems for rocks and minerals

Question: What are used to create geological maps?
Answer: index fossils

Question: What geological theory was applied to the Paris Basin?
Answer: layers of rock could be dated by the fossils they contained
History_of_science

Midway through the 19th century, the focus of geology shifted from description and classification to attempts to understand how the surface of the Earth had changed. The first comprehensive theories of mountain building were proposed during this period, as were the first modern theories of earthquakes and volcanoes. Louis Agassiz and others established the reality of continent-covering ice ages, and "fluvialists" like Andrew Crombie Ramsay argued that river valleys were formed, over millions of years by the rivers that flow through them. After the discovery of radioactivity, radiometric dating methods were developed, starting in the 20th century. Alfred Wegener's theory of "continental drift" was widely dismissed when he proposed it in the 1910s, but new data gathered in the 1950s and 1960s led to the theory of plate tectonics, which provided a plausible mechanism for it. Plate tectonics also provided a unified explanation for a wide range of seemingly unrelated geological phenomena. Since 1970 it has served as the unifying principle in geology.

Question: What changed about the way geology was implemented during the 19th century?
Answer: shifted from description and classification to attempts to understand how the surface of the Earth had changed

Question: The idea of an ice-age that completely covered a continent was suggested by whom?
Answer: Louis Agassiz

Question: What group did Andrew Crombie Ramsay belong to?
Answer: fluvialists

Question: What did Ramsay believe about river valleys?
Answer: were formed, over millions of years by the rivers that flow through them

Question: What happened after radioactivity was realized?
Answer: radiometric dating methods were developed
History_of_science

In 1847, Hungarian physician Ignác Fülöp Semmelweis dramatically reduced the occurrency of puerperal fever by simply requiring physicians to wash their hands before attending to women in childbirth. This discovery predated the germ theory of disease. However, Semmelweis' findings were not appreciated by his contemporaries and came into use only with discoveries by British surgeon Joseph Lister, who in 1865 proved the principles of antisepsis. Lister's work was based on the important findings by French biologist Louis Pasteur. Pasteur was able to link microorganisms with disease, revolutionizing medicine. He also devised one of the most important methods in preventive medicine, when in 1880 he produced a vaccine against rabies. Pasteur invented the process of pasteurization, to help prevent the spread of disease through milk and other foods.

Question: What was Ignac Fulop Semmelweis' profession?
Answer: physician

Question: How did Semmelweis reduce puerperal fever?
Answer: requiring physicians to wash their hands

Question: What came after the realization that physicians should was their hands before childbirth?
Answer: the germ theory of disease

Question: What did Joseph Lister prove?
Answer: antisepsis

Question: Who did Joseph Lister base his work off of?
Answer: Louis Pasteur
History_of_science

Perhaps the most prominent, controversial and far-reaching theory in all of science has been the theory of evolution by natural selection put forward by the British naturalist Charles Darwin in his book On the Origin of Species in 1859. Darwin proposed that the features of all living things, including humans, were shaped by natural processes over long periods of time. The theory of evolution in its current form affects almost all areas of biology. Implications of evolution on fields outside of pure science have led to both opposition and support from different parts of society, and profoundly influenced the popular understanding of "man's place in the universe". In the early 20th century, the study of heredity became a major investigation after the rediscovery in 1900 of the laws of inheritance developed by the Moravian monk Gregor Mendel in 1866. Mendel's laws provided the beginnings of the study of genetics, which became a major field of research for both scientific and industrial research. By 1953, James D. Watson, Francis Crick and Maurice Wilkins clarified the basic structure of DNA, the genetic material for expressing life in all its forms. In the late 20th century, the possibilities of genetic engineering became practical for the first time, and a massive international effort began in 1990 to map out an entire human genome (the Human Genome Project).

Question: Which scientist championed the idea of evolution?
Answer: Charles Darwin

Question: What was the name of the book that Darwin wrote about evolution?
Answer: On the Origin of Species

Question: What was the reception of Darwin's ideas about evolution?
Answer: both opposition and support from different parts of society

Question: Who rediscovered the laws of inheritance?
Answer: Moravian monk Gregor Mendel

Question: What was the major break through for the study of genetics?
Answer: the basic structure of DNA
History_of_science

The discipline of ecology typically traces its origin to the synthesis of Darwinian evolution and Humboldtian biogeography, in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Equally important in the rise of ecology, however, were microbiology and soil science—particularly the cycle of life concept, prominent in the work Louis Pasteur and Ferdinand Cohn. The word ecology was coined by Ernst Haeckel, whose particularly holistic view of nature in general (and Darwin's theory in particular) was important in the spread of ecological thinking. In the 1930s, Arthur Tansley and others began developing the field of ecosystem ecology, which combined experimental soil science with physiological concepts of energy and the techniques of field biology. The history of ecology in the 20th century is closely tied to that of environmentalism; the Gaia hypothesis, first formulated in the 1960s, and spreading in the 1970s, and more recently the scientific-religious movement of Deep Ecology have brought the two closer together.

Question: The discipline of ecology is a combination of what two subjects?
Answer: Darwinian evolution and Humboldtian biogeography

Question: What did the work of Louis Pasteur and Ferdinand Cohn focus on?
Answer: the cycle of life concept

Question: Who came up with the word "ecology"?
Answer: Ernst Haeckel

Question: When was the Gaia hypothesis discovered?
Answer: in the 1960s

Question: What movement occurred during the 1970s?
Answer: Deep Ecology
History_of_science

Political science is a late arrival in terms of social sciences[citation needed]. However, the discipline has a clear set of antecedents such as moral philosophy, political philosophy, political economy, history, and other fields concerned with normative determinations of what ought to be and with deducing the characteristics and functions of the ideal form of government. The roots of politics are in prehistory. In each historic period and in almost every geographic area, we can find someone studying politics and increasing political understanding.

Question: What larger group does political science belong to?
Answer: social sciences

Question: Where did the ideas of political science begin?
Answer: prehistory

Question: In history, where could you find someone studying politics?
Answer: in almost every geographic area
History_of_science

In Western culture, the study of politics is first found in Ancient Greece. The antecedents of European politics trace their roots back even earlier than Plato and Aristotle, particularly in the works of Homer, Hesiod, Thucydides, Xenophon, and Euripides. Later, Plato analyzed political systems, abstracted their analysis from more literary- and history- oriented studies and applied an approach we would understand as closer to philosophy. Similarly, Aristotle built upon Plato's analysis to include historical empirical evidence in his analysis.

Question: Where did studying politics originate?
Answer: Ancient Greece

Question: What did Plato study?
Answer: political systems

Question: What method did Plato use to understand political systems?
Answer: philosophy

Question: What did Aristotle add to Plato's work?
Answer: historical empirical evidence
History_of_science

An ancient Indian treatise on statecraft, economic policy and military strategy by Kautilya and Viṣhṇugupta, who are traditionally identified with Chāṇakya (c. 350–-283 BCE). In this treatise, the behaviors and relationships of the people, the King, the State, the Government Superintendents, Courtiers, Enemies, Invaders, and Corporations are analysed and documented. Roger Boesche describes the Arthaśāstra as "a book of political realism, a book analysing how the political world does work and not very often stating how it ought to work, a book that frequently discloses to a king what calculating and sometimes brutal measures he must carry out to preserve the state and the common good."

Question: Who are Kautilya and Vishnugupta usually grouped with?
Answer: Chāṇakya

Question: What did the Arthasastra say a king must use?
Answer: brutal measures

Question: When was Chanakya alive?
Answer: 350–-283 BCE
History_of_science

With the fall of the Western Roman Empire, there arose a more diffuse arena for political studies. The rise of monotheism and, particularly for the Western tradition, Christianity, brought to light a new space for politics and political action[citation needed]. During the Middle Ages, the study of politics was widespread in the churches and courts. Works such as Augustine of Hippo's The City of God synthesized current philosophies and political traditions with those of Christianity, redefining the borders between what was religious and what was political. Most of the political questions surrounding the relationship between Church and State were clarified and contested in this period.

Question: What allowed political studies to spread?
Answer: the fall of the Western Roman Empire

Question: What new idea caused politics to cover a larger spectrum?
Answer: monotheism

Question: Where did politics touch in the Middle Ages?
Answer: churches and courts

Question: Who wrote The City of God?
Answer: Augustine of Hippo

Question: What did The City of God change?
Answer: the borders between what was religious and what was political
History_of_science

Historical linguistics emerged as an independent field of study at the end of the 18th century. Sir William Jones proposed that Sanskrit, Persian, Greek, Latin, Gothic, and Celtic languages all shared a common base. After Jones, an effort to catalog all languages of the world was made throughout the 19th century and into the 20th century. Publication of Ferdinand de Saussure's Cours de linguistique générale created the development of descriptive linguistics. Descriptive linguistics, and the related structuralism movement caused linguistics to focus on how language changes over time, instead of just describing the differences between languages. Noam Chomsky further diversified linguistics with the development of generative linguistics in the 1950s. His effort is based upon a mathematical model of language that allows for the description and prediction of valid syntax. Additional specialties such as sociolinguistics, cognitive linguistics, and computational linguistics have emerged from collaboration between linguistics and other disciplines.

Question: What new subject surface at the end of the 18th century?
Answer: Historical linguistics

Question: Who realized that languages like Sanskrit, Persian, and Greek share the same foundation?
Answer: Sir William Jones

Question: What did Sir William Jones do to document his work?
Answer: catalog all languages of the world

Question: What did Noam Chomsky add to the study of linguistics?
Answer: the development of generative linguistics

Question: What method did Chomsky use to develop generative linguistics?
Answer: a mathematical model of language
History_of_science

The basis for classical economics forms Adam Smith's An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, published in 1776. Smith criticized mercantilism, advocating a system of free trade with division of labour. He postulated an "invisible hand" that regulated economic systems made up of actors guided only by self-interest. Karl Marx developed an alternative economic theory, called Marxian economics. Marxian economics is based on the labor theory of value and assumes the value of good to be based on the amount of labor required to produce it. Under this assumption, capitalism was based on employers not paying the full value of workers labor to create profit. The Austrian school responded to Marxian economics by viewing entrepreneurship as driving force of economic development. This replaced the labor theory of value by a system of supply and demand.

Question: Who wrote An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations?
Answer: Adam Smith

Question: What did Adam Smith's work cover?
Answer: The basis for classical economics

Question: What idea did Adam Smith disagree with?
Answer: mercantilism

Question: What idea did Adam Smith propose?
Answer: an "invisible hand"

Question: Who is Marxian economics named after?
Answer: Karl Marx
History_of_science

In the 1920s, John Maynard Keynes prompted a division between microeconomics and macroeconomics. Under Keynesian economics macroeconomic trends can overwhelm economic choices made by individuals. Governments should promote aggregate demand for goods as a means to encourage economic expansion. Following World War II, Milton Friedman created the concept of monetarism. Monetarism focuses on using the supply and demand of money as a method for controlling economic activity. In the 1970s, monetarism has adapted into supply-side economics which advocates reducing taxes as a means to increase the amount of money available for economic expansion.

Question: What did John Maynard Keynes want to separate?
Answer: microeconomics and macroeconomics

Question: What concept did Milton Friedman propose after World War II?
Answer: monetarism

Question: How did monaterism aim to control the economy?
Answer: using the supply and demand of money

Question: In the 1970s, what did monaterism turn into?
Answer: supply-side economics

Question: How did supply-side economics try to increase the amount of money in the market?
Answer: reducing taxes
History_of_science

The above "history of economics" reflects modern economic textbooks and this means that the last stage of a science is represented as the culmination of its history (Kuhn, 1962). The "invisible hand" mentioned in a lost page in the middle of a chapter in the middle of the to "Wealth of Nations", 1776, advances as Smith's central message.[clarification needed] It is played down that this "invisible hand" acts only "frequently" and that it is "no part of his [the individual's] intentions" because competition leads to lower prices by imitating "his" invention. That this "invisible hand" prefers "the support of domestic to foreign industry" is cleansed—often without indication that part of the citation is truncated. The opening passage of the "Wealth" containing Smith's message is never mentioned as it cannot be integrated into modern theory: "Wealth" depends on the division of labour which changes with market volume and on the proportion of productive to Unproductive labor.

Question: When was Wealth of Nations written?
Answer: 1776

Question: How present was Smith's invisible hand intended to be?
Answer: frequently

Question: What happens in a market when there is competition?
Answer: lower prices

Question: What is the most important part of "Wealth"?
Answer: the division of labour
History_of_science

The end of the 19th century marks the start of psychology as a scientific enterprise. The year 1879 is commonly seen as the start of psychology as an independent field of study. In that year Wilhelm Wundt founded the first laboratory dedicated exclusively to psychological research (in Leipzig). Other important early contributors to the field include Hermann Ebbinghaus (a pioneer in memory studies), Ivan Pavlov (who discovered classical conditioning), William James, and Sigmund Freud. Freud's influence has been enormous, though more as cultural icon than a force in scientific psychology.

Question: What was the beginning of psychology classified as?
Answer: a scientific enterprise

Question: What year is most commonly referred to as the beginning of psychology?
Answer: 1879

Question: Who has the first lab completely dedicated to psychology?
Answer: Wilhelm Wundt

Question: What did Hermann Ebbinghaus study?
Answer: memory studies

Question: What was Ivan Pavlov known for?
Answer: classical conditioning
History_of_science

The final decades of the 20th century have seen the rise of a new interdisciplinary approach to studying human psychology, known collectively as cognitive science. Cognitive science again considers the mind as a subject for investigation, using the tools of psychology, linguistics, computer science, philosophy, and neurobiology. New methods of visualizing the activity of the brain, such as PET scans and CAT scans, began to exert their influence as well, leading some researchers to investigate the mind by investigating the brain, rather than cognition. These new forms of investigation assume that a wide understanding of the human mind is possible, and that such an understanding may be applied to other research domains, such as artificial intelligence.

Question: What is the group that human psychology belongs to?
Answer: cognitive science

Question: What is investigated in cognitive science?
Answer: the mind

Question: What inventions advanced the study of cognitive science?
Answer: PET scans and CAT scans

Question: What new technology could be created as a result of studying cognitive science?
Answer: artificial intelligence
History_of_science

Ibn Khaldun can be regarded as the earliest scientific systematic sociologist. The modern sociology, emerged in the early 19th century as the academic response to the modernization of the world. Among many early sociologists (e.g., Émile Durkheim), the aim of sociology was in structuralism, understanding the cohesion of social groups, and developing an "antidote" to social disintegration. Max Weber was concerned with the modernization of society through the concept of rationalization, which he believed would trap individuals in an "iron cage" of rational thought. Some sociologists, including Georg Simmel and W. E. B. Du Bois, utilized more microsociological, qualitative analyses. This microlevel approach played an important role in American sociology, with the theories of George Herbert Mead and his student Herbert Blumer resulting in the creation of the symbolic interactionism approach to sociology.

Question: What was Ibn Khaldun's profession?
Answer: scientific systematic sociologist

Question: When did modern sociology surface?
Answer: early 19th century

Question: What is the main goal of sociology?
Answer: understanding the cohesion of social groups

Question: How did Max Weber view rationalization?
Answer: he believed would trap individuals in an "iron cage"
History_of_science

American sociology in the 1940s and 1950s was dominated largely by Talcott Parsons, who argued that aspects of society that promoted structural integration were therefore "functional". This structural functionalism approach was questioned in the 1960s, when sociologists came to see this approach as merely a justification for inequalities present in the status quo. In reaction, conflict theory was developed, which was based in part on the philosophies of Karl Marx. Conflict theorists saw society as an arena in which different groups compete for control over resources. Symbolic interactionism also came to be regarded as central to sociological thinking. Erving Goffman saw social interactions as a stage performance, with individuals preparing "backstage" and attempting to control their audience through impression management. While these theories are currently prominent in sociological thought, other approaches exist, including feminist theory, post-structuralism, rational choice theory, and postmodernism.

Question: Who was the major proponent of American sociology?
Answer: Talcott Parsons

Question: What did Parsons believe made a functional society?
Answer: structural integration

Question: What was the problem with the views of Parsons?
Answer: inequalities present in the status quo

Question: What idea from Karl Marx was used to combat the problems with structural integration?
Answer: conflict theory

Question: What is the main belief of conflict theory?
Answer: different groups compete for control over resources
History_of_science

Computer science, built upon a foundation of theoretical linguistics, discrete mathematics, and electrical engineering, studies the nature and limits of computation. Subfields include computability, computational complexity, database design, computer networking, artificial intelligence, and the design of computer hardware. One area in which advances in computing have contributed to more general scientific development is by facilitating large-scale archiving of scientific data. Contemporary computer science typically distinguishes itself by emphasising mathematical 'theory' in contrast to the practical emphasis of software engineering.

Question: What science is based on linguistics, mathematics, and engineering?
Answer: Computer science

Question: How has computer science helped science as a whole?
Answer: by facilitating large-scale archiving of scientific data

Question: What is the differing characteristic of contemporary computer science?
Answer: emphasising mathematical 'theory'
History_of_science

As an academic field, history of science began with the publication of William Whewell's History of the Inductive Sciences (first published in 1837). A more formal study of the history of science as an independent discipline was launched by George Sarton's publications, Introduction to the History of Science (1927) and the Isis journal (founded in 1912). Sarton exemplified the early 20th-century view of the history of science as the history of great men and great ideas. He shared with many of his contemporaries a Whiggish belief in history as a record of the advances and delays in the march of progress. The history of science was not a recognized subfield of American history in this period, and most of the work was carried out by interested scientists and physicians rather than professional historians. With the work of I. Bernard Cohen at Harvard, the history of science became an established subdiscipline of history after 1945.

Question: What text is the foundation of the study of the history of science?
Answer: History of the Inductive Sciences

Question: Who wrote a more professional version of History of the Inductive Sciences?
Answer: George Sarton's

Question: What was the history of science during the 20th century?
Answer: the history of great men and great ideas

Question: How could Sarton's ideas be described?
Answer: Whiggish

Question: Who studied the history of science?
Answer: interested scientists and physicians
History_of_science

Much of the study of the history of science has been devoted to answering questions about what science is, how it functions, and whether it exhibits large-scale patterns and trends. The sociology of science in particular has focused on the ways in which scientists work, looking closely at the ways in which they "produce" and "construct" scientific knowledge. Since the 1960s, a common trend in science studies (the study of the sociology and history of science) has been to emphasize the "human component" of scientific knowledge, and to de-emphasize the view that scientific data are self-evident, value-free, and context-free. The field of Science and Technology Studies, an area that overlaps and often informs historical studies of science, focuses on the social context of science in both contemporary and historical periods.

Question: What is the large question that the history of science answers?
Answer: what science is

Question: What did sociology in science explain?
Answer: the ways in which scientists work

Question: What was the most popular method in the 1960s regarding science studies?
Answer: to emphasize the "human component" of scientific knowledge
History_of_science

Humboldtian science refers to the early 19th century approach of combining scientific field work with the age of Romanticism sensitivity, ethics and aesthetic ideals. It helped to install natural history as a separate field, gave base for ecology and was based on the role model of scientist, naturalist and explorer Alexander von Humboldt. The later 19th century positivism asserted that all authentic knowledge allows verification and that all authentic knowledge assumes that the only valid knowledge is scientific.

Question: What did Humboldtian science aim to do?
Answer: combining scientific field work with the age of Romanticism sensitivity, ethics and aesthetic ideals

Question: Who was the model for Humboldtian science?
Answer: Alexander von Humboldt

Question: What idea did positivism provide?
Answer: the only valid knowledge is scientific
History_of_science

Further studies, e.g. Jerome Ravetz 1971 Scientific Knowledge and its Social Problems referred to the role of the scientific community, as a social construct, in accepting or rejecting (objective) scientific knowledge. The Science wars of the 1990 were about the influence of especially French philosophers, which denied the objectivity of science in general or seemed to do so. They described as well differences between the idealized model of a pure science and the actual scientific practice; while scientism, a revival of the positivism approach, saw in precise measurement and rigorous calculation the basis for finally settling enduring metaphysical and moral controversies. However, more recently some of the leading critical theorists have recognized that their postmodern deconstructions have at times been counter-productive, and are providing intellectual ammunition for reactionary interests. Bruno Latour noted that "dangerous extremists are using the very same argument of social construction to destroy hard-won evidence that could save our lives. Was I wrong to participate in the invention of this field known as science studies? Is it enough to say that we did not really mean what we meant?"

Question: What did Scientific Knowledge and its Social Problems describe the scientific community as?
Answer: a social construct

Question: What was the era called when scientists were rejecting the notion of objectivity of science?
Answer: The Science wars

Question: What was positivism called after it was revived?
Answer: scientism

Question: What did scientism aim to do?
Answer: settling enduring metaphysical and moral controversies
Digimon

(デジモン Dejimon, branded as Digimon: Digital Monsters, stylized as DIGIMON), short for "Digital Monsters" (デジタルモンスター Dejitaru Monsutā), is a Japanese media franchise encompassing virtual pet toys, anime, manga, video games, films and a trading card game. The franchise focuses on Digimon creatures, which are monsters living in a "Digital World", a parallel universe that originated from Earth's various communication networks. In many incarnations, Digimon are raised by humans called "Digidestined" or "Tamers", and they team up to defeat evil Digimon and human villains who are trying to destroy the fabric of the Digital world.

Question: What does Digimon stand for?
Answer: Digital Monsters

Question: What forms of entertainment does the Digimon franchise include?
Answer: virtual pet toys, anime, manga, video games, films and a trading card game

Question: What is the Digital World in which the Digimon creatures live?
Answer: a parallel universe that originated from Earth's various communication networks

Question: What are the people who raise Digimon called?
Answer: "Digidestined" or "Tamers"

Question: What are the Digimon villians main goals?
Answer: trying to destroy the fabric of the Digital world

Question: What does Digi Monster stand for?

Question: What term refers to the Chinese media franchise?

Question: What you Digi tamers do?

Question: What are digidestined trying to destroy?

Question: What is a world far from Earth?
Digimon

The franchise was first created in 1997 as a series of virtual pets, akin to—and influenced in style by—the contemporary Tamagotchi or nano Giga Pet toys. The creatures were first designed to look cute and iconic even on the devices' small screens; later developments had them created with a harder-edged style influenced by American comics. The franchise gained momentum with its first anime incarnation, Digimon Adventure, and an early video game, Digimon World, both released in 1999. Several seasons of the anime and films based on them have aired, and the video game series has expanded into genres such as role-playing, racing, fighting, and MMORPGs. Other media forms have also been released.

Question: When did Digimon first appear?
Answer: 1997

Question: Name the original Digimon anime.
Answer: Digimon Adventure

Question: Name the Digimon video game that was released in 1999.
Answer: Digimon World

Question: Name two types of toys the original Digimon bore a close resemblence to.
Answer: Tamagotchi or nano Giga Pet toys

Question: When was the Digimon series created?
Answer: 1997

Question: What influenced the look of the Digimons?
Answer: Tamagotchi or nano Giga Pet toys

Question: In what year was the Digimon video game released?
Answer: 1999

Question: What started with a series of real pets?

Question: What cause the franchise to lose momentum?

Question: What was released in 1990

Question: What is aired for several seasons based on the films?

Question: What American media for the original did you mom based on?
Digimon

Digimon was first conceived as a virtual pet toy in the vein of Tamagotchis and, as such, took influence from Tamagotchis' cute and round designs. The small areas of the screens (16 by 16 pixels) meant that character designers had to create monsters whose forms would be easily recognizable. As such, many of the early Digimon—including Tyrannomon, the first one ever created—were based on dinosaurs. Many further designs were created by Kenji Watanabe, who was brought in to help with the "X-Antibody" creatures and art for the Digimon collectible card game. Watanabe was one influenced by American comics, which were beginning to gain popularity in Japan, and as such began to make his characters look stronger and "cool." The character creation process, however, has for most of the franchise's history been collaborative and reliant on conversation and brainstorming.

Question: What kind of toy were the original Digimon?
Answer: virtual pet toy

Question: What kind of creatures where the early digimon patterned after?
Answer: dinosaurs

Question: What properties of american comics were the later generations of digimon trying to capture?
Answer: stronger and "cool."

Question: Who was the designer responsible for the westernization of Digimon character design?
Answer: Kenji Watanabe

Question: What was the name of the original Digimon character?
Answer: Tyrannomon

Question: What was the screen size of the Digimon toy?
Answer: 16 by 16 pixels

Question: What animals were the digimon based off of?
Answer: dinosaurs

Question: Who was the designer of the Digimon card game?
Answer: Kenji Watanabe

Question: How did Watanabe get his influence?
Answer: American comics

Question: What was originally based on an actual pet?

Question:  Many of the most popular Digimon on?

Question: What American media influenced the first Digimon?

Question: What were becoming unpopular in Japan?

Question: What has mostly been in individual process throughout the franchise history?
Digimon

Digimon hatch from types of eggs which are called Digi-Eggs (デジタマ, Dejitama?). In the English iterations of the franchise there is another type of Digi-Egg that can be used to digivolve, or transform, Digimon. This second type of Digi-Egg is called a Digimental (デジメンタル, Dejimentaru?) in Japanese. (This type of Digi-Egg was also featured as a major object throughout season 2 as a way of Digivolution available only to certain characters at certain points throughout the season.) They age via a process called "Digivolution" which changes their appearance and increases their powers. The effect of Digivolution, however, is not permanent in the partner Digimon of the main characters in the anime, and Digimon who have digivolved will most of the time revert to their previous form after a battle or if they are too weak to continue. Some Digimon act feral. Most, however, are capable of intelligence and human speech. They are able to digivolve by the use of Digivices that their human partners have. In some cases, as in the first series, the DigiDestined (known as the 'Chosen Children' in the original Japanese) had to find some special items such as crests and tags so the Digimon could digivolve into further stages of evolution known as Ultimate and Mega in the dub.

Question: How do digimon evolve?
Answer: Digimental

Question: How are digimon born?
Answer: Digimon hatch from types of eggs which are called Digi-Eggs

Question: What is the process of aging called for digimon?
Answer: Digivolution

Question: What effect does digivolution have on digimon?
Answer: changes their appearance and increases their powers

Question: Are digimon all mindless monsters?
Answer: Some Digimon act feral. Most, however, are capable of intelligence and human speech

Question: What were the eggs called that the Digimon were hatched from?
Answer: Digi-Eggs

Question: What is the second type of Digi-Eggs called?
Answer: Digimental

Question: What is the process called of how Digi-Eggs age?
Answer: Digivolution

Question: What items were used to help the Digimon evolve? 
Answer: Digivices

Question: Did you birds hatched from what?

Question: What kind of egg do Digimon use to evolve mentally?

Question: How do Digi eggs evolve

Question: What permanently increases when Digimon evolve?

Question: How do most Digimon act?
Digimon

The first Digimon anime introduced the Digimon life cycle: They age in a similar fashion to real organisms, but do not die under normal circumstances because they are made of reconfigurable data, which can be seen throughout the show. Any Digimon that receives a fatal wound will dissolve into infinitesimal bits of data. The data then recomposes itself as a Digi-Egg, which will hatch when rubbed gently, and the Digimon goes through its life cycle again. Digimon who are reincarnated in this way will sometimes retain some or all their memories of their previous life. However, if a Digimon's data is completely destroyed, they will die.

Question: Are there any circumstances under which a digimon cannot be reborn?
Answer: if a Digimon's data is completely destroyed, they will die

Question: What typically happens when digimon are killed?
Answer: Any Digimon that receives a fatal wound will dissolve into infinitesimal bits of data

Question: What are digimon made of?
Answer: reconfigurable data

Question: How is a digimon reborn?
Answer: The data then recomposes itself as a Digi-Egg, which will hatch when rubbed gently

Question: When was the digimon life cycle first described?
Answer: The first Digimon anime

Question: What was introduced during the first Digimon anime?
Answer: Digimon life cycle

Question: What happened to a digimon that receives a fatal wound?
Answer: dissolve into infinitesimal bits of data

Question: What happens to a digimon after it dissolves?
Answer: goes through its life cycle again

Question: What happens if a Digimons data is completely destroyed?
Answer: they will die

Question: Under what conditions must Digimon be reborn?

Question: What happens when a Digimon receives a nonfatal wound?

Question: What did the first Digimon game introduce?

Question: Doing what to the causes the Digimon to be reborn?

Question: What is made of a set configuration of data?
Digimon

Digimon started out as digital pets called "Digital Monsters", similar in style and concept to the Tamagotchi. It was planned by WiZ and released by Bandai on June 26, 1997. The toy began as the simple concept of a Tamagotchi mainly for boys. The V-Pet is similar to its predecessors, with the exceptions of being more difficult and being able to fight other Digimon v-pets. Every owner would start with a Baby Digimon, train it, evolve it, take care of it, and then have battles with other Digimon owners to see who was stronger. The Digimon pet had several evolution capabilities and abilities too, so many owners had different Digimon. In December, the second generation of Digital Monster was released, followed by a third edition in 1998.

Question: What companies were responsible for the creation and subsequent release of the original digimon?
Answer: planned by WiZ and released by Bandai

Question: What made digimon different from similar digital pets?
Answer: being more difficult and being able to fight other Digimon v-pets

Question: What year was the second generation of digimon released?
Answer: 1997

Question: What was involved in the original digimon virtual pet gameplay?
Answer: Every owner would start with a Baby Digimon, train it, evolve it, take care of it, and then have battles with other Digimon owners

Question: Who was the main market for the original digimon?
Answer: mainly for boys

Question: What did the Digimon pets originally start out as?
Answer: Digital Monsters

Question: When was the Digimon released by WiZ?
Answer: June 26, 1997

Question: In what month was the second generation of the Digital Monsters Released?
Answer: December

Question: What year was the third edition released?
Answer: 1998

Question: What companies were responsible for the re-release Digimon

Question: What was originally intended for mainly girls?

Question: What predecessor's a Digimon similar to?

Question: What do many owners have the same Digimon?
Digimon

"Digimon" are "Digital Monsters". According to the stories, they are inhabitants of the "DigiWorld", a manifestation of Earth's communication network. The stories tell of a group of mostly pre-teens, who accompany special Digimon born to defend their world (and ours) from various evil forces. To help them surmount the most difficult obstacles found within both realms, the Digimon have the ability to evolve (Digivolve) In this process, the Digimon change appearance and become much stronger, often changing in personality as well. The group of children who come in contact with the Digital World changes from series to series.

Question: What is the world in which the digimon live?
Answer: a manifestation of Earth's communication network

Question: What happens to a digimon after they evolve?
Answer: the Digimon change appearance and become much stronger, often changing in personality as well

Question: Who accompanies the digimon as they work to save their world?
Answer: a group of mostly pre-teens

Question: Are the children who accompany the digimon always the same?
Answer: The group of children who come in contact with the Digital World changes from series to series

Question: What is the world of the digimon called?
Answer: DigiWorld

Question: Where are Digimon the inhabitants of?
Answer: DigiWorld

Question: What group of kids are in charge of the Digimons?
Answer: mostly pre-teens

Question: What is the process called when Digimon get stronger?
Answer: Digivolve

Question: What is a manifestation of a world far from work?

Question: What are specially trained Digimon defending the world from?

Question: Who accompanies special humans born to save the world?

Question: What children stay the same from series to series?

Question: What stays the same as Digimon become stronger?
Digimon

As of 2011, there have been six series — Digimon Adventure, the follow-up sequel Digimon Adventure 02, Digimon Tamers, Digimon Frontier, Digimon Data Squad and Digimon Fusion. The first two series take place in the same fictional universe, but the third, fourth, fifth and sixth each occupy their own unique world. Each series is commonly based on the original storyline but things are added to make them unique. However, in Tamers, the Adventure universe is referred to as a commercial enterprise — a trading card game in Japan, plus a show-within-a-show in the English dub. It also features an appearance by a character from the Adventure universe. In addition, each series has spawned assorted feature films. Digimon still shows popularity, as new card series, video games, and movies are still being produced and released: new card series include Eternal Courage, Hybrid Warriors, Generations, and Operation X; the video game, Digimon Rumble Arena 2; and the previously unreleased movies Revenge of Diaboromon, Runaway Locomon, Battle of Adventurers, and Island of Lost Digimon. In Japan, Digital Monster X-Evolution, the eighth TV movie, was released on January 3, 2005, and on December 23, 2005 at Jump Festa 2006, the fifth series, Digimon Savers was announced for Japan to begin airing after a three-year hiatus of the show. A sixth television series, Digimon Xros Wars, began airing in 2010, and was followed by a second season, which started on October 2, 2011 as a direct sequel to Digimon Xros Wars.

Question: How many series have aired since 2011?
Answer: six series

Question: What is the name of the second Digimon series?
Answer: Digimon Adventure 02

Question: When was the movie Digital Monster X-Evolution released?
Answer: January 3, 2005

Question: When did Digimon Xros Wars begin airing?
Answer: 2010

Question: How many series of aired as of 2001?

Question: What world the first 5 Series Take Pl. in?

Question: What is unique in each series?

Question: What was announced in December 2006?

Question: Which series began in 2011