Divyanshu67/squad_v2 huggingface dataset:
Textual_criticism

Whereas Greg had limited his illustrative examples to English Renaissance drama, where his expertise lay, Bowers argued that the rationale was "the most workable editorial principle yet contrived to produce a critical text that is authoritative in the maximum of its details whether the author be Shakespeare, Dryden, Fielding, Nathaniel Hawthorne, or Stephen Crane. The principle is sound without regard for the literary period." For works where an author's manuscript survived – a case Greg had not considered – Bowers concluded that the manuscript should generally serve as copy-text. Citing the example of Nathaniel Hawthorne, he noted:

Question: Is the idea formed by Greg limited to a specific time period?
Answer: The principle is sound without regard for the literary period.

Question: What will an editor do in the case where an author's work was not wiped out?
Answer: the manuscript should generally serve as copy-text

Question: What where the limitations of Greg's analyses?
Answer: English Renaissance drama

Question: What is the main criticism of Greg's work?
Answer: works where an author's manuscript survived

Question: Who limited their examples to French Renaissance drama?

Question: Greg was a novice in which period of drama?

Question: According to Bowers, the manuscript should not serve as what?

Question: The principle of copy-text is sound with regard to what?
Textual_criticism

McKerrow had articulated textual criticism's goal in terms of "our ideal of an author's fair copy of his work in its final state". Bowers asserted that editions founded on Greg's method would "represent the nearest approximation in every respect of the author's final intentions." Bowers stated similarly that the editor's task is to "approximate as nearly as possible an inferential authorial fair copy." Tanselle notes that, "Textual criticism ... has generally been undertaken with a view to reconstructing, as accurately as possible, the text finally intended by the author".

Question: What are editors trying to ultimately accomplish?
Answer: our ideal of an author's fair copy of his work in its final state

Question: If an editor can't achieve an exact reproduction of an authors work, what should be the goal?
Answer: approximate as nearly as possible an inferential authorial fair copy

Question: What did Bower's say about Greg's method?
Answer: represent the nearest approximation in every respect of the author's final intentions

Question: What did Tanselle say about textual criticism?
Answer: has generally been undertaken with a view to reconstructing, as accurately as possible, the text finally intended by the author

Question: What are editors trying to ultimately stop?

Question: What happens when an editor achieves an exact reproduction of an authors work?

Question:  What did Tanselle say about modern authors?

Question: Bowers asserted that editions founded on Greg's method would not represent what?
Textual_criticism

Bowers and Tanselle argue for rejecting textual variants that an author inserted at the suggestion of others. Bowers said that his edition of Stephen Crane's first novel, Maggie, presented "the author's final and uninfluenced artistic intentions." In his writings, Tanselle refers to "unconstrained authorial intention" or "an author's uninfluenced intentions." This marks a departure from Greg, who had merely suggested that the editor inquire whether a later reading "is one that the author can reasonably be supposed to have substituted for the former", not implying any further inquiry as to why the author had made the change.

Question: Who argued against works where the author listens to input from others?
Answer: Bowers and Tanselle

Question: Who wanted to determine why an author made changes to a work?
Answer: Tanselle

Question: Does Greg believe a later work can be substituted for a earlier one?
Answer: a later reading "is one that the author can reasonably be supposed to have substituted for the former

Question: What idea did Tanselle champion?
Answer: unconstrained authorial intention

Question: Who argued for works where the author listens to input from others?

Question: Who didn't want to determine why an author made changes to a work?

Question:  Who believes an earlier work can be substituted for a later one?

Question: Constrained authorial intention was whose idea?
Textual_criticism

Bowers confronted a similar problem in his edition of Maggie. Crane originally printed the novel privately in 1893. To secure commercial publication in 1896, Crane agreed to remove profanity, but he also made stylistic revisions. Bowers's approach was to preserve the stylistic and literary changes of 1896, but to revert to the 1893 readings where he believed that Crane was fulfilling the publisher's intention rather than his own. There were, however, intermediate cases that could reasonably have been attributed to either intention, and some of Bowers's choices came under fire – both as to his judgment, and as to the wisdom of conflating readings from the two different versions of Maggie.

Question: What alterations did Crane make to secure commercial publication?
Answer: remove profanity, but he also made stylistic revisions

Question: What was Bower's first step in editing multiple works into a single product?
Answer: to preserve the stylistic and literary changes of 1896

Question: What was Bower's second step in editing multiple works into a single product?
Answer: to revert to the 1893 readings where he believed that Crane was fulfilling the publisher's intention rather than his own

Question: What was one of the criticisms Bowers faced after editing Maggie?
Answer: his judgment

Question: I what year was Maggie printed for commercial use?
Answer: 1896

Question: What was the first step Bowers took in editing a single work with two versions?
Answer: to preserve the stylistic and literary changes of 1896,

Question: What was the second step Bowers took in editing a single work with two versions?
Answer: to revert to the 1893 readings where he believed that Crane was fulfilling the publisher's intention

Question: What changes were made for the commercial publication of Maggie?
Answer: to remove profanity, but he also made stylistic revisions

Question: When was Maggie first published?
Answer: 1893

Question:  What changes did Maggie make to secure commercial publication?

Question: When did Maggie publish her edition of Bowers?

Question: What was Bower's final step in editing a single work into multiple versions?

Question: When was the third version of Maggie published?

Question: When was the fifth and final version of Maggie published?
Textual_criticism

Some critics believe that a clear-text edition gives the edited text too great a prominence, relegating textual variants to appendices that are difficult to use, and suggesting a greater sense of certainty about the established text than it deserves. As Shillingsburg notes, "English scholarly editions have tended to use notes at the foot of the text page, indicating, tacitly, a greater modesty about the "established" text and drawing attention more forcibly to at least some of the alternative forms of the text".

Question: Are appendices easy to use for the average reader?
Answer: appendices that are difficult to use,

Question: Can a reader be certain of the validity of information found in a clear-text edition?
Answer: suggesting a greater sense of certainty about the established text than it deserves

Question: How do most editors work around the reference problems of clear-text editing?
Answer: notes at the foot of the text page

Question: Where can a reader find more information on text variants after noticing a footnote?
Answer: appendices

Question: Who believes that clear-text doesn't give enough prominence?

Question: What are generally easy to use?

Question: Shillingsburg says which editions don't use notes at the bottom of the page?

Question: What does not draw attention to alternative forms of text?
Textual_criticism

Cladistics is a technique borrowed from biology, where it was originally named phylogenetic systematics by Willi Hennig. In biology, the technique is used to determine the evolutionary relationships between different species. In its application in textual criticism, the text of a number of different manuscripts is entered into a computer, which records all the differences between them. The manuscripts are then grouped according to their shared characteristics. The difference between cladistics and more traditional forms of statistical analysis is that, rather than simply arranging the manuscripts into rough groupings according to their overall similarity, cladistics assumes that they are part of a branching family tree and uses that assumption to derive relationships between them. This makes it more like an automated approach to stemmatics. However, where there is a difference, the computer does not attempt to decide which reading is closer to the original text, and so does not indicate which branch of the tree is the "root"—which manuscript tradition is closest to the original. Other types of evidence must be used for that purpose.

Question: What is the biological basis for Cladistics?
Answer: to determine the evolutionary relationships between different species

Question: How is evolution applied to textual criticism?
Answer: manuscripts are then grouped according to their shared characteristics

Question: How is cladistics similar to the stemmatic method?
Answer: cladistics assumes that they are part of a branching family tree

Question: What is the main difference between cladistics and stemmatics?
Answer: does not indicate which branch of the tree is the "root"

Question: What is a technique borrowed from physics?

Question: Phylogenetic systematics was originally called what?

Question: How is cladistics the opposite of the stemmatic method?

Question: What is the mathmatical basis for Cladistics?
Textual_criticism

Although some earlier unpublished studies had been prepared, not until the early 1970s was true textual criticism applied to the Book of Mormon. At that time BYU Professor Ellis Rasmussen and his associates were asked by the LDS Church to begin preparation for a new edition of the Holy Scriptures. One aspect of that effort entailed digitizing the text and preparing appropriate footnotes, another aspect required establishing the most dependable text. To that latter end, Stanley R. Larson (a Rasmussen graduate student) set about applying modern text critical standards to the manuscripts and early editions of the Book of Mormon as his thesis project – which he completed in 1974. To that end, Larson carefully examined the Original Manuscript (the one dictated by Joseph Smith to his scribes) and the Printer’s Manuscript (the copy Oliver Cowdery prepared for the Printer in 1829–1830), and compared them with the 1st, 2nd, and 3rd editions of the Book of Mormon to determine what sort of changes had occurred over time and to make judgments as to which readings were the most original. Larson proceeded to publish a useful set of well-argued articles on the phenomena which he had discovered. Many of his observations were included as improvements in the 1981 LDS edition of the Book of Mormon.

Question: When did textual criticism applied to the Book of Mormon?
Answer: the early 1970s

Question: What was one portion of preparing a new edition of the Holy Scriptures?
Answer: digitizing the text and preparing appropriate footnotes

Question: How was the most reliable version of the Holy Scriptures determined?
Answer: applying modern text critical standards to the manuscripts

Question: When did Larson finish his project?
Answer: 1974

Question: Whose observations were included in the 1981 publication of the Book of Mormon?
Answer: Larson

Question: What year did true textual criticism stop being applied?

Question: What school did Ellis Rasmussen not teach at?

Question: What church did not want a new edition of the holy scriptures?

Question: What class did Larson teach at Rasmussen?

Question: When did Larson begin his thesis project?
Textual_criticism

By 1979, with the establishment of the Foundation for Ancient Research and Mormon Studies (FARMS) as a California non-profit research institution, an effort led by Robert F. Smith began to take full account of Larson’s work and to publish a Critical Text of the Book of Mormon. Thus was born the FARMS Critical Text Project which published the first volume of the 3-volume Book of Mormon Critical Text in 1984. The third volume of that first edition was published in 1987, but was already being superseded by a second, revised edition of the entire work, greatly aided through the advice and assistance of then Yale doctoral candidate Grant Hardy, Dr. Gordon C. Thomasson, Professor John W. Welch (the head of FARMS), Professor Royal Skousen, and others too numerous to mention here. However, these were merely preliminary steps to a far more exacting and all-encompassing project.

Question: What is FARMS?
Answer: Foundation for Ancient Research and Mormon Studies

Question: Who spearheaded the Critical Text of the Book of Mormon project?
Answer: Robert F. Smith

Question: How many years did it take to publish all three volumes of the Book of Mormon Critical Text?
Answer: the first volume of the 3-volume Book of Mormon Critical Text in 1984. The third volume of that first edition was published in 1987

Question: Was the third volume of the first edition deemed sufficient?
Answer: The third volume of that first edition was published in 1987, but was already being superseded by a second, revised edition of the entire work

Question: Who is the head of FARMS?
Answer: Professor John W. Welch

Question: When did FARMS stop existing?

Question: When was the fifth volume of Critical Text Project published?

Question: What book did Grant Hardy publish in 1987?

Question: Larson begin the research for what project?

Question: FARMS was funded by whom?
Textual_criticism

In 1988, with that preliminary phase of the project completed, Professor Skousen took over as editor and head of the FARMS Critical Text of the Book of Mormon Project and proceeded to gather still scattered fragments of the Original Manuscript of the Book of Mormon and to have advanced photographic techniques applied to obtain fine readings from otherwise unreadable pages and fragments. He also closely examined the Printer’s Manuscript (owned by the Community of Christ—RLDS Church in Independence, Missouri) for differences in types of ink or pencil, in order to determine when and by whom they were made. He also collated the various editions of the Book of Mormon down to the present to see what sorts of changes have been made through time.

Question: When was phase one completed?
Answer: 1988

Question: Who took over after the preliminary phase?
Answer: Professor Skousen

Question: Why did Professor Skousen gather fragments and have them analyzed?
Answer: to obtain fine readings

Question: What process what used to study the gathered fragments?
Answer: advanced photographic techniques

Question: On what did Skousen analyze ink and pencil remnants?
Answer: Printer’s Manuscript

Question: What year was the final phase of the project completed?

Question: Professor Skousen left what position in 1988?

Question: Who sold the community of christ church?

Question:  What did Skousen delete ink and pencil remnants from?
Textual_criticism

Shemaryahu Talmon, who summarized the amount of consensus and genetic relation to the Urtext of the Hebrew Bible, concluded that major divergences which intrinsically affect the sense are extremely rare. As far as the Hebrew Bible referenced by Old Testament is concerned, almost all of the textual variants are fairly insignificant and hardly affect any doctrine. Professor Douglas Stuart states: "It is fair to say that the verses, chapters, and books of the Bible would read largely the same, and would leave the same impression with the reader, even if one adopted virtually every possible alternative reading to those now serving as the basis for current English translations."

Question: How common are variations in text that alter the meaning of the Urtext of the Hebrew Bible?
Answer: extremely rare

Question: To what degree do variations in the Old Testament alter the meaning?
Answer: hardly affect any doctrine

Question: Who claims that the Old Testament is essentially the same throughout all variations?
Answer: Professor Douglas Stuart

Question: How many variations of the Old Testament offer the same meaning?
Answer: virtually every possible alternative reading

Question: What book did Douglas Stuart summarize?

Question: How many of the textual variants are significant?

Question: How many variants change the doctrine considerably?

Question: Stuart thought the Bible is largely different because of what?
Textual_criticism

While textual criticism developed into a discipline of thorough analysis of the Bible — both the Hebrew Bible and the New Testament — scholars also use it to determine the original content of classic texts, such as Plato's Republic. There are far fewer witnesses to classical texts than to the Bible, so scholars can use stemmatics and, in some cases, copy text editing. However, unlike the New Testament where the earliest witnesses are within 200 years of the original, the earliest existing manuscripts of most classical texts were written about a millennium after their composition. All things being equal, textual scholars expect that a larger time gap between an original and a manuscript means more changes in the text.

Question: Does the Bible or Plato's Republic have more witnesses?
Answer: There are far fewer witnesses to classical texts than to the Bible

Question: What's the gap between original Christian texts and subsequent editions of the same works?
Answer: within 200 years

Question: What's the gap between original classical texts and subsequent editions of the same works?
Answer: about a millennium after their composition

Question: How does the expanse of time correlate to authenticity with regard to original and subsequent versions of texts?
Answer: a larger time gap between an original and a manuscript means more changes in the text.

Question: Plato's Republic has more witnesses than what?

Question: The Bible has fewer witnesses than what types of work?

Question: When were the latest witnesses of the New Testament?

Question: Textual scholars expect there to be a smaller time gap between an original and what?

Question: There are fewer changes in a text when there is a larger what?
Textual_criticism

Scientific and critical editions can be protected by copyright as works of authorship if enough creativity/originality is provided. The mere addition of a word, or substitution of a term with another one believed to be more correct, usually does not achieve such level of originality/creativity. All the notes accounting for the analysis and why and how such changes have been made represent a different work autonomously copyrightable if the other requirements are satisfied. In the European Union critical and scientific editions may be protected also by the relevant neighboring right that protects critical and scientific publications of public domain works as made possible by art. 5 of the Copyright Term Directive. Not all EU member States have transposed art. 5 into national law.

Question: What is the criteria for copyright?
Answer: if enough creativity/originality is provided

Question: What minor things can be included and not invalidate a copyright?
Answer: The mere addition of a word, or substitution of a term with another one believed to be more correct

Question: Are footnotes included in the copyright of the original work?
Answer: All the notes accounting for the analysis and why and how such changes have been made represent a different work autonomously copyrightable

Question: What rights do scientific publications in the EU enjoy?
Answer: the relevant neighboring right that protects critical and scientific publications of public domain works

Question: What does not matter in order to be copyrighted?

Question: What minor things can be included and validate a copyright?

Question: Non-scientific editions can be protected by what?

Question: What are not protected by copyright?

Question: All EU member states have transposed what into law?
Gramophone_record

A gramophone record (phonograph record in American English) or vinyl record, commonly known as a "record", is an analogue sound storage medium in the form of a flat polyvinyl chloride (previously shellac) disc with an inscribed, modulated spiral groove. The groove usually starts near the periphery and ends near the center of the disc. Phonograph records are generally described by their diameter in inches (12", 10", 7"), the rotational speed in rpm at which they are played (16 2⁄3, 33 1⁄3, 45, 78), and their time capacity resulting from a combination of those parameters (LP – long playing 33 1⁄3 rpm, SP – 78 rpm single, EP – 12-inch single or extended play, 33 or 45 rpm); their reproductive quality or level of fidelity (high-fidelity, orthophonic, full-range, etc.), and the number of audio channels provided (mono, stereo, quad, etc.).

Question: What does LP stand for when it comes to time capacity?
Answer: long playing

Question: What are common diameters found in phonograph records?
Answer: 12", 10", 7"

Question: What is a gramophone or 'vinyl' record?
Answer: analogue sound storage medium

Question: Where does the groove on a vinyl record typically start?
Answer: near the periphery

Question: In what method is the rotational speed measured in?
Answer: rpm
Gramophone_record

The phonograph disc record was the primary medium used for music reproduction until late in the 20th century, replacing the phonograph cylinder record–with which it had co-existed from the late 1880s through to the 1920s–by the late 1920s. Records retained the largest market share even when new formats such as compact cassette were mass-marketed. By the late 1980s, digital media, in the form of the compact disc, had gained a larger market share, and the vinyl record left the mainstream in 1991. From the 1990s to the 2010s, records continued to be manufactured and sold on a much smaller scale, and were especially used by disc jockeys (DJ)s, released by artists in some genres, and listened to by a niche market of audiophiles. The phonograph record has made a niche resurgence in the early 21st century – 9.2 million records were sold in the U.S. in 2014, a 260% increase since 2009. Likewise, in the UK sales have increased five-fold from 2009 to 2014.

Question: What was the primary use of a phonographic disc record?
Answer: music reproduction

Question: Which year did vinyl records leave the main steam media market?
Answer: 1991

Question: From the 1990s to 2010s who was the primary consumer of vinyl records?
Answer: disc jockeys (DJ)s

Question: Approximately how many phonograph records were sold in 2014?
Answer: 9.2 million

Question: What is the niche market of phonograph record fans known as?
Answer: audiophiles
Gramophone_record

The phonautograph, patented by Léon Scott in 1857, used a vibrating diaphragm and stylus to graphically record sound waves as tracings on sheets of paper, purely for visual analysis and without any intent of playing them back. In the 2000s, these tracings were first scanned by audio engineers and digitally converted into audible sound. Phonautograms of singing and speech made by Scott in 1860 were played back as sound for the first time in 2008. Along with a tuning fork tone and unintelligible snippets recorded as early as 1857, these are the earliest known recordings of sound.

Question: What was the original intent of the phonautograph?
Answer: visual analysis

Question: In what years where phonautograms converted to audible sound?
Answer: 2000s

Question: What year were the earliest known recordings of sound?
Answer: 1857

Question: By whom was the phonautograms patented?
Answer: Léon Scott

Question: In what year was phonautograms patented?
Answer: 1857
Gramophone_record

In 1877, Thomas Edison invented the phonograph. Unlike the phonautograph, it was capable of both recording and reproducing sound. Despite the similarity of name, there is no documentary evidence that Edison's phonograph was based on Scott's phonautograph. Edison first tried recording sound on a wax-impregnated paper tape, with the idea of creating a "telephone repeater" analogous to the telegraph repeater he had been working on. Although the visible results made him confident that sound could be physically recorded and reproduced, his notes do not indicate that he actually reproduced sound before his first experiment in which he used tinfoil as a recording medium several months later. The tinfoil was wrapped around a grooved metal cylinder and a sound-vibrated stylus indented the tinfoil while the cylinder was rotated. The recording could be played back immediately. The Scientific American article that introduced the tinfoil phonograph to the public mentioned Marey, Rosapelly and Barlow as well as Scott as creators of devices for recording but, importantly, not reproducing sound. Edison also invented variations of the phonograph that used tape and disc formats. Numerous applications for the phonograph were envisioned, but although it enjoyed a brief vogue as a startling novelty at public demonstrations, the tinfoil phonograph proved too crude to be put to any practical use. A decade later, Edison developed a greatly improved phonograph that used a hollow wax cylinder instead of a foil sheet. This proved to be both a better-sounding and far more useful and durable device. The wax phonograph cylinder created the recorded sound market at the end of the 1880s and dominated it through the early years of the 20th century.

Question: In what year did Thomas Edison invent the phonograph?
Answer: 1877

Question: How did the phonograph differ from the phonautograph?
Answer: capable of both recording and reproducing sound

Question: What was unique about Einsteins invention?
Answer: reproducing sound

Question: At what era was the recorded sound market introduced?
Answer: 1880s
Gramophone_record

Lateral-cut disc records were developed in the United States by Emile Berliner, who named his system the "gramophone", distinguishing it from Edison's wax cylinder "phonograph" and Columbia's wax cylinder "graphophone". Berliner's earliest discs, first marketed in 1889, but only in Europe, were 5 inches (13 cm) in diameter, and were played with a small hand-propelled machine. Both the records and the machine were adequate only for use as a toy or curiosity, due to the limited sound quality. In the United States in 1894, under the Berliner Gramophone trademark, Berliner started marketing records with somewhat more substantial entertainment value, along with somewhat more substantial gramophones to play them. Berliner's records had poor sound quality compared to wax cylinders, but his manufacturing associate Eldridge R. Johnson eventually improved the sound quality. Abandoning Berliner's "Gramophone" trademark for legal reasons, in 1901 Johnson's and Berliner's separate companies reorganized to form the Victor Talking Machine Company, whose products would come to dominate the market for many years. Emile Berliner moved his company to Montreal in 1900. The factory which became RCA Victor stills exists. There is a dedicated museum in Montreal for Berliner.

Question: What is the name of lateral cut disc records?
Answer: gramophone

Question: What was an issue found with Berliner's records initially? 
Answer: poor sound quality

Question: Where were lateral cut disc records developed?
Answer: United States

Question: What is 'Victor Talking Machine now known as?
Answer: RCA Victor

Question: Where is the museum dedicated to Berliner located?
Answer: Montreal
Gramophone_record

In 1901, 10-inch disc records were introduced, followed in 1903 by 12-inch records. These could play for more than three and four minutes respectively, while contemporary cylinders could only play for about two minutes. In an attempt to head off the disc advantage, Edison introduced the Amberol cylinder in 1909, with a maximum playing time of 4½ minutes (at 160 rpm), which in turn were superseded by Blue Amberol Records, which had a playing surface made of celluloid, a plastic, which was far less fragile. Despite these improvements, during the 1910s discs decisively won this early format war, although Edison continued to produce new Blue Amberol cylinders for an ever-dwindling customer base until late in 1929. By 1919 the basic patents for the manufacture of lateral-cut disc records had expired, opening the field for countless companies to produce them. Analog disc records would dominate the home entertainment market until they were outsold by the digital compact disc in the late 1980s (which was in turn supplanted by digital audio recordings distributed via online music stores and Internet file sharing).

Question: What was the name of the discs Edison introduced in 1909?
Answer: Blue Amberol cylinders

Question: What year did the patent for lateral cut discs expire?
Answer: 1919

Question: What format dominated the market in the late 1980s?
Answer: digital compact disc

Question: What disc format was the least fragile prior to 1919?
Answer: Amberol cylinder

Question: What was the playing surface of the blue amerbol cylinder discs made of?
Answer: celluloid
Gramophone_record

Early recordings were made entirely acoustically, the sound being collected by a horn and piped to a diaphragm, which vibrated the cutting stylus. Sensitivity and frequency range were poor, and frequency response was very irregular, giving acoustic recordings an instantly recognizable tonal quality. A singer practically had to put his or her face in the recording horn. Lower-pitched orchestral instruments such as cellos and double basses were often doubled (or replaced) by louder wind instruments, such as tubas. Standard violins in orchestral ensembles were commonly replaced by Stroh violins, which became popular with recording studios.

Question: What were two drawback of early recordings?
Answer: Sensitivity and frequency range were poor

Question: How would one make to early recordings?
Answer: face in the recording horn

Question: What types of violins worked best with early recordings?
Answer: Stroh violins

Question: What instruments did not record well?
Answer: Lower-pitched orchestral instruments

Question: How was the frequency response in early recordings?
Answer: very irregular
Gramophone_record

Contrary to popular belief, if placed properly and prepared-for, drums could be effectively used and heard on even the earliest jazz and military band recordings. The loudest instruments such as the drums and trumpets were positioned the farthest away from the collecting horn. Lillian Hardin Armstrong, a member of King Oliver's Creole Jazz Band, which recorded at Gennett Records in 1923, remembered that at first Oliver and his young second trumpet, Louis Armstrong, stood next to each other and Oliver's horn could not be heard. "They put Louis about fifteen feet over in the corner, looking all sad." For fading instrumental parts in and out while recording, some performers were placed on a moveable platform, which could draw the performer(s) nearer or further away as required.[citation needed]

Question: What tool was used to improve sound quality in early recordings for special effects?
Answer: moveable platform

Question: Where were loud instruments best placed for good sound quality?
Answer: farthest away from the collecting horn

Question: How far away has a trumpeter been known to stand?
Answer: fifteen feet

Question: Were drums heard on early jazz recordings?
Answer: drums could be effectively used

Question: What was the item called that recorded the sounds?
Answer: collecting horn
Gramophone_record

Electrical recording preceded electrical home reproduction because of the initial high cost of the new system. In 1925, the Victor company introduced the Victor Orthophonic Victrola, an acoustical record player that was specifically designed to play electrically recorded discs, as part of a line that also included electrically reproducing Electrolas. The acoustical Orthophonics ranged in price from US$95 to US$300, depending on cabinetry; by comparison, the cheapest Electrola cost US$650, the price of a new Ford automobile in an era when clerical jobs paid about $20 a week.

Question: What was a drawback of early home recording systems?
Answer: high cost

Question: What was the initial cost range of early recording devices?
Answer: US$95 to US$300

Question: What year  was the  Victor Orthophonic Victrola released?
Answer: 1925

Question: What was the typical weekly pay of a worker in 1925?
Answer: $20

Question: What options were available that effected the cost of the Victor Orthophonic Victorla?
Answer: cabinetry
Gramophone_record

The earliest disc records (1889–1894) were made of various materials including hard rubber. Around 1895, a shellac-based compound was introduced and became standard. Exact formulas for this compound varied by manufacturer and over the course of time, but it was typically composed of about one-third shellac and about two-thirds mineral filler, which meant finely pulverized rock, usually slate and limestone, with an admixture of cotton fibers to add tensile strength, carbon black for color (without this, it tended to be a "dirty" gray or brown color that most record companies considered unattractive), and a very small amount of a lubricant to facilitate mold release during manufacture. Some makers, notably Columbia Records, used a laminated construction with a core disc of coarser material or fiber. The production of shellac records continued until the end of the 78 rpm format (i.e., the late 1950s in most developed countries, but well into the 1960s in some other places), but increasingly less abrasive formulations were used during its declining years and very late examples in truly like-new condition can have as low noise levels as vinyl.

Question: What materials were discs made of in 1889-1894?
Answer: hard rubber

Question: What was the standard material for discs around 1895?
Answer: a shellac-based compound

Question: What company was known for laminate construction of discs?
Answer: Columbia Records

Question: What material give the vinyl records their known black color?
Answer: carbon

Question: What material is used in order to release the vinyl records from their molds?
Answer: lubricant
Gramophone_record

Flexible or so-called "unbreakable" records made of unusual materials were introduced by a number of manufacturers at various times during the 78 rpm era. In the UK, Nicole records, made of celluloid or a similar substance coated onto a cardboard core disc, were produced for a few years beginning in 1904, but they suffered from an exceptionally high level of surface noise. In the United States, Columbia Records introduced flexible, fiber-cored "Marconi Velvet Tone Record" pressings in 1907, but the advantages and longevity of their relatively noiseless surfaces depended on the scrupulous use of special gold-plated Marconi Needles and the product was not a success. Thin, flexible plastic records such as the German Phonycord and the British Filmophone and Goodson records appeared around 1930 but also did not last long. The contemporary French Pathé Cellodiscs, made of a very thin black plastic, which uncannily resembles the vinyl "sound sheet" magazine inserts of the 1965–1985 era, were similarly short-lived. In the US, Hit of the Week records, made of a patented translucent plastic called Durium coated on a heavy brown paper base, were introduced in early 1930. A new issue came out every week and they were sold at newsstands like a weekly magazine. Although inexpensive and commercially successful at first, they soon fell victim to the Great Depression and production in the US ended in 1932. Related Durium records continued to be made somewhat later in the UK and elsewhere, and as remarkably late as 1950 in Italy, where the name "Durium" survived far into the LP era as a trademark on ordinary vinyl records. Despite all these attempts at innovation, shellac compounds continued to be used for the overwhelming majority of commercial 78 rpm records during the lifetime of the format.

Question: What was a major downfall of the success of Durium records?
Answer: Great Depression

Question: What year were Durium records no longer released in the US?
Answer: 1932

Question: What are most 78 rpm records made of?
Answer: shellac compounds

Question: What was a common problem found in early flexible records?
Answer: surface noise

Question: What was the thin translucent plastic most successfully used to make discs called?
Answer: Durium
Gramophone_record

In 1931, RCA Victor introduced their vinyl-based Victrolac compound as a material for some unusual-format and special-purpose records. By the end of the 1930s vinyl's advantages of light weight, relative unbreakability and low surface noise had made it the material of choice for prerecorded radio programming and other critical applications. When it came to ordinary 78 rpm records, however, the much higher cost of the raw material, as well as its vulnerability to the heavy pickups and crudely mass-produced steel needles still commonly used in home record players, made its general substitution for shellac impractical at that time. During the Second World War, the United States Armed Forces produced thousands of 12-inch vinyl 78 rpm V-Discs for use by the troops overseas. After the war, the wider use of vinyl became more practical as new record players with relatively lightweight crystal pickups and precision-ground styli made of sapphire or an exotic osmium alloy proliferated. In late 1945, RCA Victor began offering special transparent red vinyl De Luxe pressings of some classical 78s, at a de luxe price. Later, Decca Records introduced vinyl Deccalite 78s, while other record companies came up with vinyl concoctions such as Metrolite, Merco Plastic and Sav-o-flex, but these were mainly used to produce "unbreakable" children's records and special thin vinyl DJ pressings for shipment to radio stations.

Question: What material was used by RCA Victor for special purpose records?
Answer: vinyl-based Victrolac compound

Question: What was Metrolite and Sav-o-flex materials primarily used for?
Answer: children's records

Question: What year was the Victrolac compound released?
Answer: 1931

Question: What were advantages of vinyl in the 1930's?
Answer: light weight, relative unbreakability and low surface noise

Question: What was a downfall of ordinary 78 rpm vinyls in household house?
Answer: higher cost
Gramophone_record

In the 1890s, the recording formats of the earliest (toy) discs were mainly 12.5 cm (nominally five inches) in diameter; by the mid-1890s, the discs were usually 7 in (nominally 17.5 cm) in diameter. By 1910 the 10-inch (25.4 cm) record was by far the most popular standard, holding about three minutes of music or other entertainment on a side. From 1903 onwards, 12-inch records (30.5 cm) were also sold commercially, mostly of classical music or operatic selections, with four to five minutes of music per side. Victor, Brunswick and Columbia also issued 12-inch popular medleys, usually spotlighting a Broadway show score. However, other sizes did appear. Eight-inch discs with a 2-inch-diameter (51 mm) label became popular for about a decade in Britain, but they cannot be played in full on most modern record players because the tone arm cannot play far enough in toward the center without modification of the equipment.

Question: What was the most popular sized disc by 1910?
Answer: 10-inch

Question: How long could a recording be on a 10 inch disc in the 1903?
Answer: four to five minutes of music per side

Question: How small were the earliest discs released?
Answer: 12.5 cm

Question: What was one requirement issue with discs popular in Britain?
Answer: modification of the equipment

Question: Which disc could hold about three minutes of recording on either side?
Answer: 10-inch
Gramophone_record

The playing time of a phonograph record depended on the turntable speed and the groove spacing. At the beginning of the 20th century, the early discs played for two minutes, the same as early cylinder records. The 12-inch disc, introduced by Victor in 1903, increased the playing time to three and a half minutes. Because a 10-inch 78 rpm record could hold about three minutes of sound per side and the 10-inch size was the standard size for popular music, almost all popular recordings were limited to around three minutes in length. For example, when King Oliver's Creole Jazz Band, including Louis Armstrong on his first recordings, recorded 13 sides at Gennett Records in Richmond, Indiana, in 1923, one side was 2:09 and four sides were 2:52–2:59.

Question: What factors would effect playing time of a phonograph?
Answer: turntable speed and the groove spacing

Question: What was the playing time common in the early 20th century?
Answer: two minutes

Question: How many recordings did Kind Oliver's Creole Jazz band require?
Answer: 13

Question: What was the normal size disc for popular music?
Answer: 10-inch

Question: What was the recording time available on a 12 inch disc?
Answer: three and a half minutes
Gramophone_record

In January 1938, Milt Gabler started recording for his new label, Commodore Records, and to allow for longer continuous performances, he recorded some 12-inch records. Eddie Condon explained: "Gabler realized that a jam session needs room for development." The first two 12-inch recordings did not take advantage of the extra length: "Carnegie Drag" was 3:15; "Carnegie Jump", 2:41. But at the second session, on April 30, the two 12-inch recordings were longer: "Embraceable You" was 4:05; "Serenade to a Shylock", 4:32. Another way around the time limitation was to issue a selection on both sides of a single record. Vaudeville stars Gallagher and Shean recorded "Mr. Gallagher and Mr. Shean", written by Irving and Jack Kaufman, as two sides of a 10-inch 78 in 1922 for Cameo. An obvious workaround for longer recordings was to release a set of records. An early multi-record release was in 1903, when HMV in England made the first complete recording of an opera, Verdi's Ernani, on 40 single-sided discs. In 1940, Commodore released Eddie Condon and his Band's recording of "A Good Man Is Hard to Find" in four parts, issued on both sides of two 12-inch 78s. This limitation on the duration of recordings persisted from 1910 until the invention of the LP record, in 1948. In popular music, this time limitation of about 3:30 on a 10-inch 78 rpm record meant that singers usually did not release long pieces on record. One exception is Frank Sinatra's recording of Rodgers and Hammerstein's "Soliloquy", from Carousel, made on May 28, 1946. Because it ran 7:57, longer than both sides of a standard 78 rpm 10-inch record, it was released on Columbia's Masterwork label (the classical division) as two sides of a 12-inch record. The same was true of John Raitt's performance of the song on the original cast album of Carousel, which had been issued on a 78-rpm album set by American Decca in 1945.

Question: On which label did Frank Sinatra release his recording of Soliloquy?
Answer: Columbia's Masterwork label

Question: What was a typical recording time of a song in 1948?
Answer: about 3:30

Question: What was a way musicians got sounds such short recording times?
Answer: release a set of records

Question: How many sides of a disc commonly held a recording?
Answer: two sides
Gramophone_record

German record company Odeon is often said to have pioneered the album in 1909 when it released the Nutcracker Suite by Tchaikovsky on 4 double-sided discs in a specially designed package. (It is not indicated what size the records are.) However, Deutsche Grammophon had produced an album for its complete recording of the opera Carmen in the previous year. The practice of issuing albums does not seem to have been widely taken up by other record companies for many years; however, HMV provided an album, with a pictorial cover, for the 1917 recording of The Mikado (Gilbert & Sullivan).

Question: What was unique about Odeon's 1909 release of the Nutcracker Suite?
Answer: 4 double-sided discs in a specially designed package

Question: What was one of the first releases with a photo on the cover?
Answer: The Mikado (Gilbert & Sullivan)

Question: When were albums said to be pioneered?
Answer: 1909

Question: What was one of the very first albums released?
Answer: Nutcracker Suite by Tchaikovsky
Gramophone_record

By about 1910,[note 1] bound collections of empty sleeves with a paperboard or leather cover, similar to a photograph album, were sold as record albums that customers could use to store their records (the term "record album" was printed on some covers). These albums came in both 10-inch and 12-inch sizes. The covers of these bound books were wider and taller than the records inside, allowing the record album to be placed on a shelf upright, like a book, suspending the fragile records above the shelf and protecting them.

Question: When could record album covers first be found?
Answer: 1910

Question: What were early record album covers made of?
Answer: empty sleeves with a paperboard or leather cover

Question: What sizes were record album covers available in?
Answer: 10-inch and 12-inch sizes

Question: How were record album covers intended to be stored?
Answer: upright

Question: What was the purpose of record album covers?
Answer: protecting them
Gramophone_record

In the 1930s, record companies began issuing collections of 78 rpm records by one performer or of one type of music in specially assembled albums, typically with artwork on the front cover and liner notes on the back or inside cover. Most albums included three or four records, with two sides each, making six or eight tunes per album. When the 12-inch vinyl LP era began in 1949, the single record often had the same or similar number of tunes as a typical album of 78s, and was still often referred to as an "album".

Question: When were albums as we currently know them widely released?
Answer: 1930s

Question: What is typically found on the front cover of an album?
Answer: artwork

Question: How may records were commonly found in an album?
Answer: three or four

Question: When did the vinyl LP records Era begin?
Answer: 1949

Question: How many songs did most albums contain?
Answer: six or eight
Gramophone_record

For collectable or nostalgia purposes, or for the benefit of higher-quality audio playback provided by the 78 rpm speed with newer vinyl records and their lightweight stylus pickups, a small number of 78 rpm records have been released since the major labels ceased production. One of the first attempts at this was in the 1950s, when inventor Ewing Dunbar Nunn founded the label Audiophile Records, which released, in addition to standard 33 1/3 rpm LPs, 78 rpm-mastered albums that were microgroove and pressed on vinyl (as opposed to traditional 78s, with their shellac composition and wider 3-mil sized grooves). This was done by the label mainly to take advantage of the wider audio frequency response that faster speeds like 78 rpm can provide for vinyl microgroove records, hence the label's name (obviously catering to the audiophiles of the 1950s "hi-fi" era, when stereo gear could provide a much wider range of audio than before). Also in the late 1950s, Bell Records released a few budget-priced 7" microgrooved records at 78 rpm.

Question: What are reasons for recent releases of 78 rpm speed vinyls?
Answer: collectable or nostalgia purposes

Question: What is a benefit of newer releases of 78 rpm speed vinyls?
Answer: higher-quality audio playback

Question: Who released 7" microgrooved records in the 1950s?
Answer: Bell Records

Question: What benefits to vinyl have been found in the 1950s?
Answer: wider range of audio

Question: Who founded Audiophile Records?
Answer: Ewing Dunbar Nunn