Divyanshu67/squad_v2 huggingface dataset:
University

The university culture developed differently in northern Europe than it did in the south, although the northern (primarily Germany, France and Great Britain) and southern universities (primarily Italy) did have many elements in common. Latin was the language of the university, used for all texts, lectures, disputations and examinations. Professors lectured on the books of Aristotle for logic, natural philosophy, and metaphysics; while Hippocrates, Galen, and Avicenna were used for medicine. Outside of these commonalities, great differences separated north and south, primarily in subject matter. Italian universities focused on law and medicine, while the northern universities focused on the arts and theology. There were distinct differences in the quality of instruction in these areas which were congruent with their focus, so scholars would travel north or south based on their interests and means. There was also a difference in the types of degrees awarded at these universities. English, French and German universities usually awarded bachelor's degrees, with the exception of degrees in theology, for which the doctorate was more common. Italian universities awarded primarily doctorates. The distinction can be attributed to the intent of the degree holder after graduation – in the north the focus tended to be on acquiring teaching positions, while in the south students often went on to professional positions. The structure of northern universities tended to be modeled after the system of faculty governance developed at the University of Paris. Southern universities tended to be patterned after the student-controlled model begun at the University of Bologna. Among the southern universities, a further distinction has been noted between those of northern Italy, which followed the pattern of Bologna as a "self-regulating, independent corporation of scholars" and those of southern Italy and Iberia, which were "founded by royal and imperial charter to serve the needs of government."

Question: Which language was used in lectures in early European universities?
Answer: Latin

Question: For what subjects did professors use the work of Hippocrates?
Answer: medicine

Question: What type of subjects did the universities of northern Europe focus on?
Answer: arts and theology

Question: What type of degree was given out at a English university?
Answer: bachelor's degrees

Question: What developed differently in eastern and western Europe?

Question: What language was used for university texts and lectures but not disputations and examinations?

Question: Who lectured onAvicenna for metaphysics?

Question: Why did southern universities mostly award bachelor's degrees?

Question: Who did universities in southern Italy model their self regulating pattern after?

Question: Which language was used in lectures in art universities?

Question: For what subjects did professors use the work of Bolonga?

Question: What types of subjects did the universities of Bolonga focus on?

Question: What type of degree was given out at the University of Bolonga?

Question: What type of degree would one likely get in iberia?
University

Their endowment by a prince or monarch and their role in training government officials made these Mediterranean universities similar to Islamic madrasas, although madrasas were generally smaller and individual teachers, rather than the madrasa itself, granted the license or degree. Scholars like Arnold H. Green and Hossein Nasr have argued that starting in the 10th century, some medieval Islamic madrasahs became universities. George Makdisi and others, however, argue that the European university has no parallel in the medieval Islamic world. Other scholars regard the university as uniquely European in origin and characteristics.

Question: What type of university was an Islamic madrasa akin to?
Answer: Mediterranean universities

Question: What type of individual funded a Mediterranean university?
Answer: prince or monarch

Question: In which century did Islamic madrasas start to transform into universities?
Answer: 10th

Question: From where did a degree come in a madrasa?
Answer: individual teachers

Question: What did many towns establish in the Islamic world?

Question: What did madrasa grant to students?

Question: Who said madrasahs developed from universities?

Question: What Islamic schools developed from universities in the 10th century?

Question: What happened to madrasa in the 10000's?

Question: What type of university was an a European university akin to?

Question: What type of individual funded a European university?

Question: In which century did Islamic madrasas start to transform into Hossein?

Question: From where did a degree come in a university?

Question: What did some monarchs become in the 10th centurty?
University

Many scholars (including Makdisi) have argued that early medieval universities were influenced by the religious madrasahs in Al-Andalus, the Emirate of Sicily, and the Middle East (during the Crusades). Other scholars see this argument as overstated. Lowe and Yasuhara have recently drawn on the well-documented influences of scholarship from the Islamic world on the universities of Western Europe to call for a reconsideration of the development of higher education, turning away from a concern with local institutional structures to a broader consideration within a global context.

Question: Madrasas in which specific location are said to have guided the formation of medieval universities?
Answer: Al-Andalus

Question: Al-Andalus was an Emirate of which entity?
Answer: Sicily

Question: Some scholars think that universities come from what, rather than solely local influences?
Answer: a global context

Question: During what notable Middle East conflict is it believed by some that Universities received influence from madrasas?
Answer: the Crusades

Question: Who argues that many religious madrashas were influenced by medieval universities?

Question: What does Lowe argue was influenced by religious madrasa?

Question: Who does Yasuhare say was influenced by Western Universities?

Question: During what conflict did western universities influence madrasa?

Question: Madrasas in which specific location are said to have guided the formation of the islamic world?

Question: Lowe was an Emirate of which entity?

Question: During what notable Middle East conflict is it believed by some that Universities received influence from Yasuhara?

Question: Who have drawn on the influences of scholarship from the European world?

Question: Who argued that early madrasahs were influenced by early midieval universities?
University

During the Early Modern period (approximately late 15th century to 1800), the universities of Europe would see a tremendous amount of growth, productivity and innovative research. At the end of the Middle Ages, about 400 years after the first university was founded, there were twenty-nine universities spread throughout Europe. In the 15th century, twenty-eight new ones were created, with another eighteen added between 1500 and 1625. This pace continued until by the end of the 18th century there were approximately 143 universities in Europe and Eastern Europe, with the highest concentrations in the German Empire (34), Italian countries (26), France (25), and Spain (23) – this was close to a 500% increase over the number of universities toward the end of the Middle Ages. This number does not include the numerous universities that disappeared, or institutions that merged with other universities during this time. It should be noted that the identification of a university was not necessarily obvious during the Early Modern period, as the term is applied to a burgeoning number of institutions. In fact, the term "university" was not always used to designate a higher education institution. In Mediterranean countries, the term studium generale was still often used, while "Academy" was common in Northern European countries.

Question: What was the time span of the Early Modern period?
Answer: late 15th century to 1800

Question: At the completion of the Middle Ages how long had universities existed?
Answer: about 400 years

Question: How many universities were within Europe at the closure of the middle ages?
Answer: twenty-nine

Question: How many universities were within Europe by the completion of the 18th century?
Answer: 143

Question: The German Empire had how many universities?
Answer: 34

Question: what period occured from egan in 1500 and ended in the 18th century?

Question: What began to happen to universities in the 1500's?

Question: How long did it take for the world to establish 29 schools of higher education?

Question: How many new universities were created in the 1500's?

Question: How many universities exicted across Europe by the end of the 1800's?

Question: What was the time span of the German Empire?

Question: At the completion of the Middle Ages how long had countries existed?

Question: How many universities were within Germany at the closure of the middle-ages?

Question: How many universities were within Northern Europe by the completion of the 18th century?

Question: The Mediterranean Empire had how many universities?
University

The propagation of universities was not necessarily a steady progression, as the 17th century was rife with events that adversely affected university expansion. Many wars, and especially the Thirty Years' War, disrupted the university landscape throughout Europe at different times. War, plague, famine, regicide, and changes in religious power and structure often adversely affected the societies that provided support for universities. Internal strife within the universities themselves, such as student brawling and absentee professors, acted to destabilize these institutions as well. Universities were also reluctant to give up older curricula, and the continued reliance on the works of Aristotle defied contemporary advancements in science and the arts. This era was also affected by the rise of the nation-state. As universities increasingly came under state control, or formed under the auspices of the state, the faculty governance model (begun by the University of Paris) became more and more prominent. Although the older student-controlled universities still existed, they slowly started to move toward this structural organization. Control of universities still tended to be independent, although university leadership was increasingly appointed by the state.

Question: What war most curtailed the spread of universities in the 17th century?
Answer: the Thirty Years' War

Question: Which university is said to have started faculty governance?
Answer: University of Paris

Question: Which entity started to appoint the administration of universities in the 17th century?
Answer: the state

Question: The control of universities by the state can be attributed to the advancement in the development of what?
Answer: the nation-state.

Question: How would one describe the control of universities before nation-states in the 17th century?
Answer: student-controlled

Question: What spread across Europe at a steady pace?

Question: What slowed the spread of universities in the 1700's?

Question: What encouraged the establishment of new niversities in the 17th century?

Question: Who favored amtempory advancements over the works of Aristotle?

Question: What war most curtailed the spread of universities in the 18th century?

Question: Which university is said to have started the arts?

Question: Which entity started to appoint the administration of universities in the 18th century?

Question: The control of science by the state can be attributed to the advancement in the development of what?

Question: How would one describe the control of universities before nation-states in the 18th century?
University

Although the structural model provided by the University of Paris, where student members are controlled by faculty "masters," provided a standard for universities, the application of this model took at least three different forms. There were universities that had a system of faculties whose teaching addressed a very specific curriculum; this model tended to train specialists. There was a collegiate or tutorial model based on the system at University of Oxford where teaching and organization was decentralized and knowledge was more of a generalist nature. There were also universities that combined these models, using the collegiate model but having a centralized organization.

Question: What were the faculty who supervised students in the University of Paris called?
Answer: masters

Question: The structure of the University of Paris served as what for other universities?
Answer: a standard

Question: How many styles did the University of Paris model end up taking when applied to other universities?
Answer: at least three

Question: Which university had teaching which was more general, and not centralized?
Answer: University of Oxford

Question: What type of student did schools that focus on very specific topics aim to create?
Answer: specialists

Question: What student run university provided the standard for other universities?

Question: How many different forms did the student run model take?

Question: What centralized model was used by Oxford?

Question: What type of organiization was always used with the collegiate model?

Question: What were the faculty who supervised students in Oxford called?

Question: How many styles did the University of Oxford model end up taking when applied to other universities?

Question: Which university had teaching which was more centralized and not general?

Question: What type of student did schools that focus on very controlled topics aim to create?

Question: What did the University of Paris address?
University

Although the initial focus of the humanist scholars in the university was the discovery, exposition and insertion of ancient texts and languages into the university, and the ideas of those texts into society generally, their influence was ultimately quite progressive. The emergence of classical texts brought new ideas and led to a more creative university climate (as the notable list of scholars above attests to). A focus on knowledge coming from self, from the human, has a direct implication for new forms of scholarship and instruction, and was the foundation for what is commonly known as the humanities. This disposition toward knowledge manifested in not simply the translation and propagation of ancient texts, but also their adaptation and expansion. For instance, Vesalius was imperative for advocating the use of Galen, but he also invigorated this text with experimentation, disagreements and further research. The propagation of these texts, especially within the universities, was greatly aided by the emergence of the printing press and the beginning of the use of the vernacular, which allowed for the printing of relatively large texts at reasonable prices.

Question: Discovery and exposition were examples of the focus of what type of university scholar?
Answer: humanist

Question: A concentration on the study of the self resulted in what field of study?
Answer: the humanities

Question: What work did Vesalius push the study of?
Answer: Galen

Question: What spread the use of texts by Galen within universities?
Answer: the printing press

Question: Research was an example of the focus of what type of university scholar?

Question: A concentration on the study of classical texts resulted in what field of study?

Question: What work did students push the study of?

Question: What spread the use of texts by Vesalius within universities?

Question: What manifested in the adaptation and expansion of discovery?
University

There are several major exceptions on tuition fees. In many European countries, it is possible to study without tuition fees. Public universities in Nordic countries were entirely without tuition fees until around 2005. Denmark, Sweden and Finland then moved to put in place tuition fees for foreign students. Citizens of EU and EEA member states and citizens from Switzerland remain exempted from tuition fees, and the amounts of public grants granted to promising foreign students were increased to offset some of the impact.

Question: In multiple countries in Europe students can attend a university with what kind if financial burden?
Answer: without tuition fees

Question: Until what year were public universities in nordic nation free of tuition?
Answer: around 2005

Question: What kind of students pay fees in public universities in Denmark?
Answer: foreign students

Question: In terms of Universities in Denmark what is the fee status for citizens of EFA states?
Answer: exempted from tuition fees

Question: What happened to public grants in nordic universities that continued to allow foreign students?
Answer: increased

Question: Until what year were public universities in the UK free of tuition?

Question: What kind of students pay fees in public universities in the UK?

Question: What happened to public grants in nordic universities that continued to allow domestic students?

Question: What three countries moved to put in place tuition fees for domestic students?

Question: What were decreased to offset some of the impact?
University

Colloquially, the term university may be used to describe a phase in one's life: "When I was at university..." (in the United States and Ireland, college is often used instead: "When I was in college..."). In Australia, Canada, New Zealand, the United Kingdom, Nigeria, the Netherlands, Spain and the German-speaking countries university is often contracted to uni. In Ghana, New Zealand and in South Africa it is sometimes called "varsity" (although this has become uncommon in New Zealand in recent years). "Varsity" was also common usage in the UK in the 19th century.[citation needed] "Varsity" is still in common usage in Scotland.

Question: In Ireland what word is mainly used instead of university?
Answer: college

Question: Spain refers to a university in what other way?
Answer: uni

Question: The nation of Ghana shortens university to what?
Answer: varsity

Question: Scotland is said to frequently refer to university as what?
Answer: Varsity

Question: In what century was it believed that the UK used the word varsity to refer to a university?
Answer: 19th

Question: In Scotland what word is mainly used instead of university?

Question: Mexico refers to a university in what other way?

Question: The nation of Congo shortens university to what?

Question: In what century was it believed that France used the word varsity to refer to a university?

Question: What has become uncommon in Australia?
University

In Canada, "college" generally refers to a two-year, non-degree-granting institution, while "university" connotes a four-year, degree-granting institution. Universities may be sub-classified (as in the Macleans rankings) into large research universities with many PhD granting programs and medical schools (for example, McGill University); "comprehensive" universities that have some PhDs but aren't geared toward research (such as Waterloo); and smaller, primarily undergraduate universities (such as St. Francis Xavier).

Question: A college teaches students for how many years in Canada?
Answer: two

Question: What type of institution is a college in Canada?
Answer: non-degree-granting

Question: How many years does a degree-granting university in Canada spend teaching students?
Answer: four

Question: What is McGill University in Canada an example of?
Answer: medical schools

Question: What type of university is St Francis Xavier in Canada?
Answer: undergraduate

Question: A college teaches students for how many years in Macleans?

Question: What type of institution is a college in Macleans?

Question: How many years does a degree-granting university in Macleans spend teaching students?

Question: What is an example of a university geared toward research?

Question: What is an example of a primarily graduate university?
University

Although each institution is organized differently, nearly all universities have a board of trustees; a president, chancellor, or rector; at least one vice president, vice-chancellor, or vice-rector; and deans of various divisions. Universities are generally divided into a number of academic departments, schools or faculties. Public university systems are ruled over by government-run higher education boards. They review financial requests and budget proposals and then allocate funds for each university in the system. They also approve new programs of instruction and cancel or make changes in existing programs. In addition, they plan for the further coordinated growth and development of the various institutions of higher education in the state or country. However, many public universities in the world have a considerable degree of financial, research and pedagogical autonomy. Private universities are privately funded and generally have broader independence from state policies. However, they may have less independence from business corporations depending on the source of their finances.

Question: How many vice presidents do most universities have?
Answer: at least one

Question: What kind of board does a university commonly have?
Answer: a board of trustees

Question: What are the different departments of a university called?
Answer: schools or faculties

Question: Who controls public universities?
Answer: government-run higher education boards

Question: Besides students, what is the source of funds of private universities?
Answer: business corporations

Question: How many vice presidents do most businesses have?

Question: What kind of board does a business commonly have?

Question: What are the different departments of a business called?

Question: Who controls public businesses?

Question: Besides students, what is the source of funds of public universities?
University

The funding and organization of universities varies widely between different countries around the world. In some countries universities are predominantly funded by the state, while in others funding may come from donors or from fees which students attending the university must pay. In some countries the vast majority of students attend university in their local town, while in other countries universities attract students from all over the world, and may provide university accommodation for their students.

Question: How does the financial backing of universities around the world differ?
Answer: varies widely

Question: In nations that accept students from through the world what might the university offer to a student?
Answer: accommodation

Question: Outside of state funded schools, and funds coming from donors, how might a university collect funds?
Answer: fees which students attending the university

Question: How does the financial backing of students around the world differ?

Question: What do other states do for students?

Question: Where do the vast majority of students have funding from their hometown?

Question: Who are students in some countries predominatly funded by?

Question: Where does the funding and organization of students vary?
University

Universities created by bilateral or multilateral treaties between states are intergovernmental. An example is the Academy of European Law, which offers training in European law to lawyers, judges, barristers, solicitors, in-house counsel and academics. EUCLID (Pôle Universitaire Euclide, Euclid University) is chartered as a university and umbrella organisation dedicated to sustainable development in signatory countries, and the United Nations University engages in efforts to resolve the pressing global problems that are of concern to the United Nations, its peoples and member states. The European University Institute, a post-graduate university specialised in the social sciences, is officially an intergovernmental organisation, set up by the member states of the European Union.

Question: What is a university formed through a bilateral treaty known as?
Answer: intergovernmental

Question: In terms of intergovernmental universities, what is EUCLID?
Answer: Pôle Universitaire Euclide, Euclid University

Question: What is a mission of EUCLID as it relates to signatory nations?
Answer: sustainable development

Question: What type of school is the European University Institute?
Answer: post-graduate

Question: What type of study does the European University Institute focus on?
Answer: social sciences

Question: What is a university formed through a unilateral treaty known as?

Question: What is a mission of EUCLID as it relates to the United Nations?

Question: What type of school is the EUCLID?

Question: What type of study does the EUCUD focus on?

Question: What offers training in Asian law?
University

A national university is generally a university created or run by a national state but at the same time represents a state autonomic institution which functions as a completely independent body inside of the same state. Some national universities are closely associated with national cultural or political aspirations, for instance the National University of Ireland in the early days of Irish independence collected a large amount of information on the Irish language and Irish culture. Reforms in Argentina were the result of the University Revolution of 1918 and its posterior reforms by incorporating values that sought for a more equal and laic higher education system.

Question: What was a focus of the National University of Ireland during the beginning of Irish Independence?
Answer: Irish language and Irish culture

Question: In what nation did the University Revolution occur?
Answer: Argentina

Question: In what year did Argentina's University Revolution occur?
Answer: 1918

Question: What was the result of the University Revolution in Argentina?
Answer: Reforms

Question: What was a focus of Argentina during the beginning of Irish independence?

Question: In what year did Ireland's University Revolution occur?

Question: What was the result of the University Revolution in Ireland?

Question: What is generally a university created or run by private donors?

Question: Who collected a large amount of information on the Argentina language?
University

In 1963, the Robbins Report on universities in the United Kingdom concluded that such institutions should have four main "objectives essential to any properly balanced system: instruction in skills; the promotion of the general powers of the mind so as to produce not mere specialists but rather cultivated men and women; to maintain research in balance with teaching, since teaching should not be separated from the advancement of learning and the search for truth; and to transmit a common culture and common standards of citizenship."

Question: In what year did the Robbins report say that universities should have four objectives to remain balanced?
Answer: 1963

Question: What nation did the 1963 Robbins Report focus on?
Answer: the United Kingdom

Question: What should a university promote, according to the Robbins Report?
Answer: general powers of the mind

Question: Universities should maintain what, according to the Robbins Report?
Answer: research in balance with teaching

Question: The Robbins Report says universities should transmit what?
Answer: a common culture and common standards of citizenship

Question: In what year did the Robbins report say that men and women should have four objectives to remain balanced?

Question: What nation focused on teaching?

Question: What should men and women promote, according to the Robbins Report?

Question: Men and women should maintain what, according to the Robbins Report?

Question: The Robbins report says men and women should transmit what?
University

Until the 19th century, religion played a significant role in university curriculum; however, the role of religion in research universities decreased in the 19th century, and by the end of the 19th century, the German university model had spread around the world. Universities concentrated on science in the 19th and 20th centuries and became increasingly accessible to the masses. In Britain, the move from Industrial Revolution to modernity saw the arrival of new civic universities with an emphasis on science and engineering, a movement initiated in 1960 by Sir Keith Murray (chairman of the University Grants Committee) and Sir Samuel Curran, with the formation of the University of Strathclyde. The British also established universities worldwide, and higher education became available to the masses not only in Europe.

Question: Ending with what century did religion play a smaller part in the curriculum of universities?
Answer: 19th

Question: what model of university structure was being used throughout the world at the finish of the 19th century?
Answer: the German university model

Question: What was the focus of universities in the 20th century?
Answer: science

Question: Who was Sir Keith Murray?
Answer: chairman of the University Grants Committee

Question: What university did Sir Samuel Curran contribute to the creation of?
Answer: the University of Strathclyde

Question: Ending with what century did German play a smaller part in the curriculum of universities?

Question: What model of university structure was being used throughout the world at the finish of the 20th century?

Question: What were the focus of grants in the 19th century?

Question: Who formed a university in Germany?

Question: What became less accessible to the masses?
University

By the end of the early modern period, the structure and orientation of higher education had changed in ways that are eminently recognizable for the modern context. Aristotle was no longer a force providing the epistemological and methodological focus for universities and a more mechanistic orientation was emerging. The hierarchical place of theological knowledge had for the most part been displaced and the humanities had become a fixture, and a new openness was beginning to take hold in the construction and dissemination of knowledge that were to become imperative for the formation of the modern state.

Question: At the end of what period would universities become alike to contemporary universities?
Answer: the end of the early modern period

Question: What type of focus did universities have at the end of the early modern period?
Answer: mechanistic

Question: What replaced theological studies in universities at the completion of the early modern period?
Answer: humanities

Question: The change in universities towards the completion of the early modern period is credited with the formation of what entity?
Answer: the modern state

Question: The study of the humanities at the end of the early modern period replaced the study of the work of what individual?
Answer: Aristotle

Question: At the end of what period would universities become a fixture?

Question: What type of focus did universities have at the end of the modern state?

Question: What replaced theological studies in universities at the completion of the modern state?

Question: The change in universities towards the completion of the modern period is credited with the formation of what entity?

Question: The study of the humanities at the end of the modern state replaced the work of what individual?
University

The epistemological tensions between scientists and universities were also heightened by the economic realities of research during this time, as individual scientists, associations and universities were vying for limited resources. There was also competition from the formation of new colleges funded by private benefactors and designed to provide free education to the public, or established by local governments to provide a knowledge hungry populace with an alternative to traditional universities. Even when universities supported new scientific endeavors, and the university provided foundational training and authority for the research and conclusions, they could not compete with the resources available through private benefactors.

Question: Scientists and universities were competing for what?
Answer: limited resources

Question: What type of education did private benefactors hope to provide to the public?
Answer: free

Question:  Governments created universities to serve as what?
Answer: an alternative to traditional universities

Question: What type of entity created competition with government created universities?
Answer: private benefactors

Question: Scientists and local governments were competing for what?

Question: What type of education did scientists benefactors hope to provide to the public?

Question: Governments created knowledge to serve as what?

Question: Why did local governments establish research?

Question: What could scientists not compete with?
University

Other historians find incongruity in the proposition that the very place where the vast number of the scholars that influenced the scientific revolution received their education should also be the place that inhibits their research and the advancement of science. In fact, more than 80% of the European scientists between 1450–1650 included in the Dictionary of Scientific Biography were university trained, of which approximately 45% held university posts. It was the case that the academic foundations remaining from the Middle Ages were stable, and they did provide for an environment that fostered considerable growth and development. There was considerable reluctance on the part of universities to relinquish the symmetry and comprehensiveness provided by the Aristotelian system, which was effective as a coherent system for understanding and interpreting the world. However, university professors still utilized some autonomy, at least in the sciences, to choose epistemological foundations and methods. For instance, Melanchthon and his disciples at University of Wittenberg were instrumental for integrating Copernican mathematical constructs into astronomical debate and instruction. Another example was the short-lived but fairly rapid adoption of Cartesian epistemology and methodology in European universities, and the debates surrounding that adoption, which led to more mechanistic approaches to scientific problems as well as demonstrated an openness to change. There are many examples which belie the commonly perceived intransigence of universities. Although universities may have been slow to accept new sciences and methodologies as they emerged, when they did accept new ideas it helped to convey legitimacy and respectability, and supported the scientific changes through providing a stable environment for instruction and material resources.

Question: What percentage of scientists from 1450–1650 in the Dictionary of Scientific Biography were taught in a university?
Answer: more than 80%

Question: On the part of universities what was their reaction to giving up the Aristotelian system?
Answer: considerable reluctance

Question: What university was Melancthon from?
Answer: University of Wittenberg

Question: What type of epistemology was adopted for a short period of time in European universities?
Answer: Cartesian

Question: The acceptance of new concepts and sciences by universities brought these ideas what?
Answer: legitimacy and respectability

Question: What percentage of students from 1450-1650 in the Dictionary of Scientific Biography were taught at a university?

Question: What university was Cartesia from?

Question: What type of epistemology was adopted for a short period of time in MIddle Eastern universities?
University

Regardless of the way the tension between universities, individual scientists, and the scientific revolution itself is perceived, there was a discernible impact on the way that university education was constructed. Aristotelian epistemology provided a coherent framework not simply for knowledge and knowledge construction, but also for the training of scholars within the higher education setting. The creation of new scientific constructs during the scientific revolution, and the epistemological challenges that were inherent within this creation, initiated the idea of both the autonomy of science and the hierarchy of the disciplines. Instead of entering higher education to become a "general scholar" immersed in becoming proficient in the entire curriculum, there emerged a type of scholar that put science first and viewed it as a vocation in itself. The divergence between those focused on science and those still entrenched in the idea of a general scholar exacerbated the epistemological tensions that were already beginning to emerge.

Question: What type of epistemology served as the foundation of knowledge constructions and  training scholars in universities?
Answer: Aristotelian

Question: The scientific revolution contributed to what, in terms of science?
Answer: autonomy

Question: There was disagreement between universities and scientists over schools focusing on science, and the idea of what?
Answer: a general scholar

Question: A hierarchy of scientific disciplines came out of what?
Answer: the scientific revolution

Question: Where did students after the scientific revolution put science on the scale of importance?
Answer: first

Question: What type of epistemology served as the foundation of knowledge constructions and training students in universities?

Question: What did the scientific scholar contribute to, in terms of science?

Question: What resulted in a hierarchy of scholars?

Question: Where did scholars after the scientific revolution put science on the scale of importance?

Question: What was there an indiscernible impact on?
University

Examining the influence of humanism on scholars in medicine, mathematics, astronomy and physics may suggest that humanism and universities were a strong impetus for the scientific revolution. Although the connection between humanism and the scientific discovery may very well have begun within the confines of the university, the connection has been commonly perceived as having been severed by the changing nature of science during the scientific revolution. Historians such as Richard S. Westfall have argued that the overt traditionalism of universities inhibited attempts to re-conceptualize nature and knowledge and caused an indelible tension between universities and scientists. This resistance to changes in science may have been a significant factor in driving many scientists away from the university and toward private benefactors, usually in princely courts, and associations with newly forming scientific societies.

Question: The study of humanism among those studying math, astronomy and medicine is said to have caused what?
Answer: the scientific revolution

Question: Resisting what caused many scientists to court private benefactors?
Answer: changes in science

Question: Where might a scientist find a friendly private benefactor?
Answer: princely courts

Question: Which historian argues that traditionalism in a university system hindered attempts to form new views on knowledge and nature?
Answer: Richard S. Westfall

Question: The study of humanism among those studying history is said to have caused what?

Question: Resisting what caused many students to court private benefactors?

Question: Where might a student find a friendly private benefactor?

Question: Which historian argues that traditionalism in a university system hindered attempts to form new views on medicine and mathematics?

Question: What may have been a significant factor in driving students away from the university?
Religion_in_ancient_Rome

The priesthoods of public religion were held by members of the elite classes. There was no principle analogous to separation of church and state in ancient Rome. During the Roman Republic (509–27 BC), the same men who were elected public officials might also serve as augurs and pontiffs. Priests married, raised families, and led politically active lives. Julius Caesar became pontifex maximus before he was elected consul. The augurs read the will of the gods and supervised the marking of boundaries as a reflection of universal order, thus sanctioning Roman expansionism as a matter of divine destiny. The Roman triumph was at its core a religious procession in which the victorious general displayed his piety and his willingness to serve the public good by dedicating a portion of his spoils to the gods, especially Jupiter, who embodied just rule. As a result of the Punic Wars (264–146 BC), when Rome struggled to establish itself as a dominant power, many new temples were built by magistrates in fulfillment of a vow to a deity for assuring their military success.

Question: The members of what class were priests in ancient Rome?
Answer: elite

Question: What kind of political separation did not exist in Rome? 
Answer: church and state

Question: What was the time span of the Roman Republic?
Answer: 509–27 BC

Question: Which God exemplified just rule for the Romans?
Answer: Jupiter

Question: As a result of what war were many new temples built by victorious generals?
Answer: Punic Wars
Religion_in_ancient_Rome

Roman religion was thus practical and contractual, based on the principle of do ut des, "I give that you might give." Religion depended on knowledge and the correct practice of prayer, ritual, and sacrifice, not on faith or dogma, although Latin literature preserves learned speculation on the nature of the divine and its relation to human affairs. Even the most skeptical among Rome's intellectual elite such as Cicero, who was an augur, saw religion as a source of social order. For ordinary Romans, religion was a part of daily life. Each home had a household shrine at which prayers and libations to the family's domestic deities were offered. Neighborhood shrines and sacred places such as springs and groves dotted the city. The Roman calendar was structured around religious observances. Women, slaves, and children all participated in a range of religious activities. Some public rituals could be conducted only by women, and women formed what is perhaps Rome's most famous priesthood, the state-supported Vestals, who tended Rome's sacred hearth for centuries, until disbanded under Christian domination.

Question: What characteristics were not inherent in Roman religious practice?
Answer: faith or dogma

Question: What was brought forth by religion in Rome?
Answer: social order

Question: What religious feature did each Roman home have?
Answer: household shrine

Question: What type of celebrations made up the Roman calendar?
Answer: religious observances

Question: What religious group was in charge of Rome's sacred flame?
Answer: Vestals
Religion_in_ancient_Rome

The Romans are known for the great number of deities they honored, a capacity that earned the mockery of early Christian polemicists. The presence of Greeks on the Italian peninsula from the beginning of the historical period influenced Roman culture, introducing some religious practices that became as fundamental as the cult of Apollo. The Romans looked for common ground between their major gods and those of the Greeks (interpretatio graeca), adapting Greek myths and iconography for Latin literature and Roman art. Etruscan religion was also a major influence, particularly on the practice of augury.

Question: How deities did the Romans have?
Answer: great number

Question: What group was an influence to Roman culture?
Answer: Greeks

Question: What sort  of practices did the Greeks offer to Rome's culture?
Answer: religious

Question: What myths did the Romans adapt to their needs?
Answer: Greek

Question: What religion influenced augury for the Romans?
Answer: Etruscan
Religion_in_ancient_Rome

Imported mystery religions, which offered initiates salvation in the afterlife, were a matter of personal choice for an individual, practiced in addition to carrying on one's family rites and participating in public religion. The mysteries, however, involved exclusive oaths and secrecy, conditions that conservative Romans viewed with suspicion as characteristic of "magic", conspiratorial (coniuratio), or subversive activity. Sporadic and sometimes brutal attempts were made to suppress religionists who seemed to threaten traditional morality and unity, as with the senate's efforts to restrict the Bacchanals in 186 BC.

Question: What was the practice of religion to the Romans?
Answer: personal choice

Question: What was the standard practice in Roman religious life?
Answer: public religion

Question: What part of Roman religious practice involved secrecy?
Answer: mysteries

Question: What group viewed the mysteries as suspicious or subversive?
Answer: conservative Romans

Question: What did the mysteries seem to threaten that made the Romans occasionally attempt to ban them?
Answer: morality and unity
Religion_in_ancient_Rome

As the Romans extended their dominance throughout the Mediterranean world, their policy in general was to absorb the deities and cults of other peoples rather than try to eradicate them, since they believed that preserving tradition promoted social stability. One way that Rome incorporated diverse peoples was by supporting their religious heritage, building temples to local deities that framed their theology within the hierarchy of Roman religion. Inscriptions throughout the Empire record the side-by-side worship of local and Roman deities, including dedications made by Romans to local gods. By the height of the Empire, numerous international deities were cultivated at Rome and had been carried to even the most remote provinces, among them Cybele, Isis, Epona, and gods of solar monism such as Mithras and Sol Invictus, found as far north as Roman Britain. Because Romans had never been obligated to cultivate one god or one cult only, religious tolerance was not an issue in the sense that it is for competing monotheistic systems. The monotheistic rigor of Judaism posed difficulties for Roman policy that led at times to compromise and the granting of special exemptions, but sometimes to intractable conflict. For example, religious disputes helped cause the First Jewish–Roman War and the Bar Kokhba revolt.

Question: What did the Romans tend to do with local religions and deities in conquered areas? 
Answer: absorb

Question: To the Romans what did them think promoted social stability?
Answer: preserving tradition

Question: What facet of a foreign people did Rome add to itself to promote order?
Answer: religious heritage

Question: To what areas of the Roman empire did the Romans take their deities?
Answer: remote provinces

Question: What facet of religion was not an issue for Roman?
Answer: tolerance
Religion_in_ancient_Rome

In the wake of the Republic's collapse, state religion had adapted to support the new regime of the emperors. Augustus, the first Roman emperor, justified the novelty of one-man rule with a vast program of religious revivalism and reform. Public vows formerly made for the security of the republic now were directed at the wellbeing of the emperor. So-called "emperor worship" expanded on a grand scale the traditional Roman veneration of the ancestral dead and of the Genius, the divine tutelary of every individual. Imperial cult became one of the major ways in which Rome advertised its presence in the provinces and cultivated shared cultural identity and loyalty throughout the Empire. Rejection of the state religion was tantamount to treason. This was the context for Rome's conflict with Christianity, which Romans variously regarded as a form of atheism and novel superstitio.

Question: After the Republic collapsed,  what addition was made to the religions of Rome?
Answer: emperors

Question: Who was the first Roman emperor?
Answer: Augustus

Question: For whose well being were public vows made in the empire?
Answer: emperor

Question: What did the Romans use as a means of expanding their rule throughout the empire?
Answer: Imperial cult

Question: As what during the time of the Roman empire  was rejection of the state religion viewed?
Answer: treason