Divyanshu67/squad_v2 huggingface dataset:
Affirmative_action_in_the_United_States

Ideas for affirmative action came as early as the Reconstruction Era (1865-1877) in which a former slave population lacked the skills and resources for sustainable living. In 1865, General William Tecumseh Sherman proposed to divide the land and goods from Georgia and grant it to families of color which became the "Forty acres and a mule" policy. The proposal was never widely adopted due to strong political opposition. Nearly a century later (1950s-1960s), policies to assist classes of individuals reemerged during the Civil Rights Movement. The civil rights guarantees came through the interpretation of the Equal Protection Clause of the 14th Amendment. The decisions came to be known as affirmative action in which mandatory, as well as voluntary programs, affirmed the civil rights of people of color. Furthermore, these affirmative action programs protected people of color from the present effects stemming from past discrimination. In 1961, President John F. Kennedy became the first to utilize the term "affirmative action" in Executive Order 10925 to ensure that government contractors "take affirmative action to ensure that applicants are employed, and employees are treated during employment, without regard to their race, creed, color, or national origin." This executive order realized the government's intent to create equal opportunities for all qualified people. This executive order was eventually amended and superseded by Lyndon B. Johnson's Executive Order 11246 which prevented discrimination based on race, color, religion, and national origin by organizations which received federal contracts and subcontracts. In 1967, the order was amended to include sex as well. The Reagan administration was opposed to the affirmative action requirements of Executive Order 11246, but these contemplated changes[which?] faced bi-partisan opposition in Congress.

Question: When did the Reconstruction Era end?
Answer: 1877

Question: Who proposed that land be divided and split up among families of color?
Answer: General William Tecumseh Sherman

Question: What was the policy of dividing land among families of color referred to as?
Answer: Forty acres and a mule

Question: Which part of the constitution was the basis for policies that were developed during the Civil Rights Movement?
Answer: Equal Protection Clause of the 14th Amendment

Question: Who was the first person to utilize the term "affirmative action"?
Answer: President John F. Kennedy

Question: When did the Deconstruction Era end?

Question: When did the Deconstruction Era start?

Question: Who proposed that land be divided and split up among white families?

Question:  Who was the last person to utilize the term "affirmative action"?
Affirmative_action_in_the_United_States

The first appearance of the term 'affirmative action' was in the National Labor Relations Act, better known as the Wagner Act, of 1935.:15 Proposed and championed by U.S. Senator Robert F. Wagner of New York, the Wagner Act was in line with President Roosevelt's goal of providing economic security to workers and other low-income groups. During this time period it was not uncommon for employers to blacklist or fire employees associated with unions. The Wagner Act allowed workers to unionize without fear of being discriminated against, and empowered a National Labor Relations Board to review potential cases of worker discrimination. In the event of discrimination, employees were to be restored to an appropriate status in the company through 'affirmative action'. While the Wagner Act protected workers and unions it did not protect minorities, who, exempting the Congress of Industrial Organizations, were often barred from union ranks.:11 This original coining of the term therefore has little to do with affirmative action policy as it is seen today, but helped set the stage for all policy meant to compensate or address an individual's unjust treatment.[citation needed]

Question: In which document did the term "affirmative action" first appear?
Answer: National Labor Relations Act

Question: Who was the author of the National Labor Relations Act?
Answer: Senator Robert F. Wagner

Question: Who did employers routinely blacklist of fire?
Answer: employees associated with unions

Question: Who was able to review complaints about possible worker discrimination?
Answer: National Labor Relations Board

Question: Which group of people did the Wagner Act fail to protect?
Answer: minorities

Question:  In which document did the term "non-affirmative action" first appear?

Question:  Who was the author of the National Non-Labor Relations Act?

Question:  Who did employers routinely hire?

Question: Who wasn't able to review complaints about possible worker discrimination?

Question: Which group of people did the Wagner Act protect?
Affirmative_action_in_the_United_States

FDR's New Deal programs often contained equal opportunity clauses stating "no discrimination shall be made on account of race, color or creed",:11 but the true forerunner to affirmative action was the Interior Secretary of the time, Harold L. Ickes. Ickes prohibited discrimination in hiring for Public Works Administration funded projects and oversaw not only the institution of a quota system, where contractors were required to employ a fixed percentage of Black workers, by Robert C. Weaver and Clark Foreman,:12 but also the equal pay of women proposed by Harry Hopkins.:14FDR's largest contribution to affirmative action, however, lay in his Executive Order 8802 which prohibited discrimination in the defense industry or government.:22 The executive order promoted the idea that if taxpayer funds were accepted through a government contract, then all taxpayers should have an equal opportunity to work through the contractor.:23–4 To enforce this idea, Roosevelt created the Fair Employment Practices Committee (FEPC) with the power to investigate hiring practices by government contractors.:22

Question: Who was the true backer of the cause of affirmative action?
Answer: Harold L. Ickes

Question: What position of power did Harold L. Ickes hold?
Answer: Interior Secretary

Question: The first introduction of a quota system mandated that contractors had to do what?
Answer: employ a fixed percentage of Black workers

Question: Which piece of legislation prevented any discrimination in the defense industry and government?
Answer: Executive Order 8802

Question: What does the FEPC stand for?
Answer: Fair Employment Practices Committee

Question: Who was the true backer of the cause of non-affirmative action?

Question:  What position of power did Clark L. Ickes hold?

Question: The first introduction of a quota system mandated that contractors can't do what?

Question:  Which piece of legislation didn't prevent any discrimination in the defense industry and government?

Question:  What does the FPPC stand for?
Affirmative_action_in_the_United_States

Following the Sergeant Isaac Woodard incident, President Harry S. Truman, himself a combat veteran of World War I, issued Executive Order 9808 establishing the President's Committee on Civil Rights to examine the violence and recommend appropriate federal legislation. Hearing of the incident, Truman turned to NAACP leader Walter Francis White and declared, "My God! I had no idea it was as terrible as that. We've got to do something." In 1947 the committee published its findings, To Secure These Rights. The book was widely read, influential, and considered utopian for the times: "In our land men are equal, but they are free to be different. From these very differences among our people has come the great human and national strength of America." The report discussed and demonstrated racial discrimination in basic freedoms, education, public facilities, personal safety, and employment opportunities. The committee was disturbed by the state of race relations, and included the evacuation of Americans of Japanese descent during the war "made without a trial or any sort of hearing…Fundamental to our whole system of law is the belief that guilt is personal and not a matter of heredity or association." The recommendations were radical, calling for federal policies and laws to end racial discrimination and bring about equality: "We can tolerate no restrictions upon the individual which depend upon irrelevant factors such as his race, his color, his religion, or the social position to which he is born." To Secure These Rights set the liberal legislative agenda for the next generation that eventually would be signed into law by Lyndon B. Johnson.:35–36

Question: What group was established in response to Executive Order 9808?
Answer: President's Committee on Civil Rights

Question: What was the Executive Order 9808 issued in response to?
Answer: Sergeant Isaac Woodard incident

Question: In which year were the "To Secure These Rights" findings published?
Answer: 1947

Question: What was the committee especially disturbed by as indicated in their report?
Answer: the state of race relations

Question: Who in the generation following the "To Secure These Rights" findings sign legislation for affirmative action into law?
Answer: Lyndon B. Johnson

Question:  What group was established in response to Executive Order 9108?

Question:  What was the Executive Order 988 issued in response to?

Question: In which year were the "Don't Secure These Rights" findings published?

Question: What was the committee not at all disturbed by as indicated in their report?
Affirmative_action_in_the_United_States

To Secure These Rights also called for desegregation of the Armed Forces. "Prejudice in any area is an ugly, undemocratic phenomenon, but in the armed services, where all men run the risk of death, it is especially repugnant." The rationale was fairness: "When an individual enters the service of the country, he necessarily surrenders some of the rights and privileges which are inherent in American citizenship." In return, the government "undertakes to protect his integrity as an individual." Yet that was not possible in the segregated Army, since "any discrimination which…prevents members of the minority groups from rendering full military service in defense of their country is for them a humiliating badge of inferiority." The report called for an end to "all discrimination and segregation based on race, color, creed, or national origins in…all branches of the Armed Services.":38–39

Question: The "To Secure These Rights" findings wanted desegregation of which institution?
Answer: Armed Forces

Question: Which risk associated with serving was specifically highlighted by the findings?
Answer: death

Question: What did the findings say occurred to an individual when he enters the armed services?
Answer: surrenders some of the rights and privileges

Question: Discrimination that prevented minorities from serving their country to the best of their abilities was seen as what?
Answer: a humiliating badge of inferiority

Question: The "To Secure These Rights" findings did not want desegregation of which institution?

Question: Which risk associated with serving wasn't specifically highlighted by the findings?

Question: What did the findings say occurred to an individual when he leaves the armed services?

Question: Discrimination that prevented minorities from serving their country to the best of their abilities wasn't seen as what?
Affirmative_action_in_the_United_States

In June, Truman became the first president to address the NAACP. His speech was a significant departure from traditional race relations in the United States. In front of 10,000 people at the Lincoln Memorial, the president left no doubt where he stood on civil rights. According to his speech, America had "reached a turning point in the long history of our country's efforts to guarantee freedom and equality to all our citizens…Each man must be guaranteed equality of opportunity." He proposed what black citizens had been calling for - an enhanced role of federal authority through the states. "We must make the Federal government a friendly, vigilant defender of the rights and equalities of all Americans. And again I mean all Americans.":40

Question: Who was the first President to address the NAACP?
Answer: Truman

Question: How many people were present at the speech that Truman made?
Answer: 10,000

Question: Where did Truman's historic speech take place?
Answer: Lincoln Memorial

Question: During the speech, Truman made the statement that each man should be guaranteed what?
Answer: equality of opportunity

Question: Who's authority did Truman want to increase throughout the states?
Answer: federal

Question:  Who was the first President to address the NICP?

Question:  How many people left the speech that Truman made?

Question: Where did Truman's historic speech end?

Question: During the speech, Truman made the statement that each man shouldn't be guaranteed what?

Question: Who's authority did Truman want to decrease throughout the states?
Affirmative_action_in_the_United_States

On July 26, Truman mandated the end of hiring and employment discrimination in the federal government, reaffirming FDR's order of 1941.:40 He issued two executive orders on July 26, 1948: Executive Order 9980 and Executive Order 9981. Executive Order 9980, named Regulations Governing for Employment Practices within the Federal Establishment, instituted fair employment practices in the civilian agencies of the federal government. The order created the position of Fair Employment Officer. The order "established in the Civil Service Commission a Fair Employment Board of not less than seven persons." Executive Order 9981, named Establishing the President's Committee on Equality of Treatment and Opportunity in the Armed Services, called for the integration of the Armed Forces and the creation of the National Military Establishment to carry out the executive order.

Question: What day did Truman mandate the end of discrimination in the federal government?
Answer: July 26

Question: How many executive orders were issued to help prevent discrimination?
Answer: two

Question: What was the name given to Executive Order 9980?
Answer: Regulations Governing for Employment Practices within the Federal Establishment

Question: Which position was formulated as a result of Executive Order 9980?
Answer: Fair Employment Officer

Question: What name was given to Executive Order 9981?
Answer: Establishing the President's Committee on Equality of Treatment and Opportunity in the Armed Services

Question: What day did Truman mandate the beginning of discrimination in the federal government?

Question: How many executive orders were issued to help provide discrimination?

Question:  What was the name given to Executive Order 9180?

Question: Which position was formulated as a result of Executive Order 9?

Question:  What name was given to Executive Order 9181?
Affirmative_action_in_the_United_States

When Eisenhower was elected President in 1952, he believed hiring practices and anti-discrimination laws should be decided by the states, although the administration gradually continued to desegregate the Armed Forces and the federal government.:50 The President also established the Government Contract Committee in 1953, which "conducted surveys of the racial composition of federal employees and tax-supported contractors".:50–51 The committee, chaired by Vice President Richard Nixon, had minimal outcomes in that they imposed the contractors with the primary responsibility of desegregation within their own companies and corporations.:51

Question: Which year was Eisenhower elected President?
Answer: 1952

Question: Who did Eisenhower believe should be allowed to decide the nature of discrimination laws?
Answer: the states

Question: What was established in 1953?
Answer: Government Contract Committee

Question: What was the main purpose of the Government Contract Committee?
Answer: conducted surveys of the racial composition of federal employees and tax-supported contractors

Question: Who was the chairman of the newly established committee?
Answer: Vice President Richard Nixon

Question:  Which year was Eisenhower elected vice-President?

Question: Who did Eisenhower believe should be disallowed to decide the nature of discrimination laws?

Question:  What was established in 1913?

Question: What was the last purpose of the Government Contract Committee?

Question:  Who was the chairman of the old committee?
Affirmative_action_in_the_United_States

In the 1960 presidential election, Democratic candidate and future President John F. Kennedy "criticized President Eisenhower for not ending discrimination in federally supported housing" and "advocated a permanent Fair Employment Practices Commission".:59 Shortly after taking office, Kennedy issued Executive Order 10925 in March 1961, requiring government contractors to "consider and recommend additional affirmative steps which should be taken by executive departments and agencies to realize more fully the national policy of nondiscrimination…. The contractor will take affirmative action to ensure that applicants are employed, and that employees are treated during employment, without regard to their race, creed, color, or national origin".:60 The order also established the President's Committee on Equal Employment Opportunity (PCEEO), chaired by Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson. Federal contractors who failed to comply or violated the executive order were punished by contract cancellation and the possible debarment from future government contracts. The administration was "not demanding any special preference or treatment or quotas for minorities" but was rather "advocating racially neutral hiring to end job discrimination".:61 Turning to issues of women's rights, Kennedy initiated a Commission on the Status of Women in December 1961. The commission was charged with "examining employment policies and practices of the government and of contractors" with regard to sex.:66

Question: Who criticized President Eisenhower during the 1960 presidential election?
Answer: John F. Kennedy

Question: What was John F. Kennedy's criticism of the President based on?
Answer: not ending discrimination in federally supported housing

Question: Which order was issued soon after Kennedy took office?
Answer: Executive Order 10925

Question: What does PCEEO stand for?
Answer: President's Committee on Equal Employment Opportunity

Question: What was the immediate penalty for a federal contractor for not obeying the executive order?
Answer: contract cancellation

Question: Who criticized President Eisenhower during the 1930 presidential election?

Question:  What was John F. Kennedy's support of the President based on?

Question: Which order was issued soon after Kennedy lost office?

Question:  What does PELCO stand for?

Question: What was the immediate penalty for a federal contractor for obeying the executive order?
Affirmative_action_in_the_United_States

In June 1963, President Kennedy continued his policy of affirmative action by issuing another mandate, Executive Order 11114. The order supplemented to his previous 1961 executive order declaring it was the "policy of the United States to encourage by affirmative action the elimination of discrimination in employment".:72 Through this order, all federal funds, such as "grants, loans, unions and employers who accepted taxpayer funds, and other forms of financial assistance to state and local governments," were forced to comply to the government's policies on affirmative action in employment practices.:72

Question: When did President Kennedy issue Executive Order 11114?
Answer: June 1963

Question: What was the main aim of Executive Order 11114?
Answer: elimination of discrimination in employment

Question: What was anyone who received federal funding of any sort required to do under the Executive Order?
Answer: comply to the government's policies on affirmative action

Question: When did President Kennedy issue Executive Order 13?

Question: What was the main aim of Executive Order 14?

Question: What was anyone who received federal funding of any sort required to do without the Executive Order?
Affirmative_action_in_the_United_States

The first time "affirmative action" is used by the federal government concerning race is in President John F. Kennedy's Executive Order 10925, which was chaired by Vice President Johnson. At Johnson's inaugural ball in Texas, he met with a young black lawyer, Hobart Taylor Jr., and gave him the task to co-author the executive order. He wanted a phrase that "gave a sense of positivity to performance under the order." He was torn between the words "positive action" and "affirmative action," and selected the later due to its alliterative quality. The term "active recruitment" started to be used as well. This order, albeit heavily worked up as a significant piece of legislation, in reality carried little actual power. The scope was limited to a couple hundred defense contractors, leaving nearly $7.5 billion in federal grants and loans unsupervised.:60

Question: Which Executive Order first contained the phrase "affirmative action"?
Answer: Executive Order 10925

Question: Who chaired the committee created by Executive Order 10925?
Answer: Vice President Johnson

Question: Who co - authored the executive order?
Answer: Hobart Taylor Jr.

Question: What was the alternative phrase to "affirmative action" that was being considered?
Answer: positive action

Question: What was the main reason that "affirmative action" was chosen over "positive action"?
Answer: alliterative quality

Question: Which Executive Order didn't contain the phrase "affirmative action"?

Question:  Who chaired the committee destroyed by Executive Order 10925?

Question:  Who co - authored the non-executive order?

Question: What was the alternative phrase to "non-affirmative action" that was being considered?

Question: What was the main reason that "non-affirmative action" was chosen over "positive action"?
Affirmative_action_in_the_United_States

NAACP had many problem's with JFK's "token" proposal. They wanted jobs. One day after the order took effect, NAACP labor secretary Herbert Hill filed complaints against the hiring and promoting practices of Lockheed Aircraft Corporation. Lockheed was doing business with the Defense Department on the first billion-dollar contract. Due to taxpayer-funding being 90% of Lockheed's business, along with disproportionate hiring practices, black workers charged Lockheed with "overt discrimination." Lockheed signed an agreement with Vice President Johnson that pledged an "aggressive seeking out for more qualified minority candidates for technical and skill positions.:63–64 This agreement was the administration's model for a "plan of progress." Johnson and his assistants soon pressured other defense contractors, including Boeing and General Electric, to sign similar voluntary agreements indicating plans for progress. However, these plans were just that, voluntary. Many corporations in the South, still afflicted with Jim Crow laws, largely ignored the federal recommendations.:63–64

Question: Who had issues with JFK's proposal?
Answer: NAACP

Question: Who filed complaints quickly after the Executive Order was implemented?
Answer: NAACP labor secretary Herbert Hill

Question: Which company was targeted by the NAACP for not having fair practices?
Answer: Lockheed Aircraft Corporation

Question: Who did Lockheed sign an agreement with to seek out more minority workers?
Answer: Vice President Johnson

Question: Which laws did the corporations in the South associate with in order to ignore the federal recommendations?
Answer: Jim Crow

Question: Who had issues with JFK's rejection?

Question: Who filed complaints quickly before the Executive Order was implemented?

Question: Which company was targeted by the NAACP for having fair practices?

Question: Who did Lockheed sign an agreement with to seek out more minority workers?

Question:  Which laws did the corporations in the North associate with in order to ignore the federal recommendations?
Affirmative_action_in_the_United_States

This eventually led to LBJ's Civil Rights Act, which came shortly after President Kennedy's assassination. This document was more holistic than any President Kennedy had offered, and therefore more controversial. It aimed not only to integrate public facilities, but also private businesses that sold to the public, such as motels, restaurants, theaters, and gas stations. Public schools, hospitals, libraries, parks, among other things, were included in the bill as well. It also worked with JFK's executive order 11114 by prohibiting discrimination in the awarding of federal contracts and holding the authority of the government to deny contracts to businesses who discriminate. Maybe most significant of all, Title VII of the Civil Rights Act aimed to end discrimination in all firms with 25 or more employees. Another provision established the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission as the agency charged with ending discrimination in the nation's workplace.:74

Question: Which piece of legislation quickly followed President Kennedy's assassination?
Answer: Civil Rights Act

Question: Outside of the private business regulations, what was the other aim of the Civil Rights Act?
Answer: integrate public facilities

Question: Which other Executive Order did the Civil Right's Act work closely with?
Answer: 11114

Question: What was the purpose of Title VII of the Civil Rights Act?
Answer: to end discrimination in all firms with 25 or more employees

Question: What was the goal of the Equal Employment Opportunity C omission?
Answer: ending discrimination in the nation's workplace

Question: Which piece of legislation quickly followed Vice-President Kennedy's assassination?

Question: Outside of the private business regulations, what was the other aim of the Non-Civil Rights Act?

Question: Which other Executive Order did the Civil Right's Act not work closely with?

Question:  What was the purpose of Title VII of the Non-Civil Rights Act?
Affirmative_action_in_the_United_States

Title VII was perhaps the most controversial of the entire bill. Many conservatives accused it of advocating a de facto quota system, and claimed unconstitutionality as it attempts to regulate the workplace. Minnesota Senator Hubert Humphrey corrected this notion: "there is nothing in [Title VII] that will give power to the Commission to require hiring, firing, and promotion to meet a racial 'quota.' [. . .] Title VII is designed to encourage the hiring on basis of ability and qualifications, not race or religion." Title VII prohibits discrimination. Humphrey was the silent hero of the bill's passing through Congress. He pledged that the bill required no quotas, just nondiscrimination. Doing so, he convinced many pro-business Republicans, including Senate Minority Leader Everett Dirksen (IL) to support Title VII.:78–80

Question: Which section of the legislation was considered the most controversial?
Answer: Title VII

Question: What did critics claim that Title VII advocate?
Answer: a de facto quota system

Question: Which Senator fought back against the criticism of Title VII?
Answer: Hubert Humphrey

Question: Who was one of the key members that Humphrey managed to convince to support the bill?
Answer: Everett Dirksen

Question: What position of importance other than Senator did Everett Dirksen hold?
Answer: Senate Minority Leader

Question: Which section of the legislation was considered the least controversial?

Question:  What did supporters claim that Title VII advocate?

Question:  Which Mayor fought back against the criticism of Title VII?

Question:  Who was one of the key members that Humphrey managed to convince to reject the bill?

Question: What position of importance other than Mayor did Everett Dirksen hold?
Affirmative_action_in_the_United_States

The strides that the Johnson presidency made in ensuring equal opportunity in the workforce were further picked up by his successor Nixon. In 1969 the Nixon administration initiated the "Philadelphia Order". It was regarded as the most forceful plan thus far to guarantee fair hiring practices in construction jobs. Philadelphia was selected as the test case because, as Assistant Secretary of Labor Arthur Fletcher explained, "The craft unions and the construction industry are among the most egregious offenders against equal opportunity laws . . . openly hostile toward letting blacks into their closed circle." The order included definite "goals and timetables." As President Nixon asserted, "We would not impose quotas, but would require federal contractors to show 'affirmative action' to meet the goals of increasing minority employment."

Question: Who followed in Johnson's footsteps in terms of ensuring equal opportunity?
Answer: his successor Nixon

Question: Which piece of legislation was begun in 1969?
Answer: Philadelphia Order

Question: Which industry of jobs did the legislation target?
Answer: construction

Question: Aside from the construction industry, which other group was one of the main offenders against equal opportunity laws?
Answer: craft unions

Question: Who held the position of Assistant Secretary of Labor?
Answer: Arthur Fletcher

Question: Who followed in Johnson's footsteps in terms of ensuring unequal opportunity?

Question:  Which piece of legislation was ended in 1969?

Question:  Which industry of jobs did the legislation not target?

Question: Aside from the construction industry, which other group was one of the main offenders against unequal opportunity laws?

Question: Who held the position of Secretary of Labor?
Affirmative_action_in_the_United_States

After the Nixon administration, advancements in affirmative action became less prevalent. "During the brief Ford administration, affirmative action took a back seat, while enforcement stumbled along.":145 Equal rights was still an important subject to many Americans, yet the world was changing and new issues were being raised. People began to look at affirmative action as a glorified issue of the past and now there were other areas that needed focus. "Of all the triumphs that have marked this as America's Century –...none is more inspiring, if incomplete, than our pursuit of racial justice."

Question: In terms of advancement, what happened to the progression of affirmative action after the Nixon administration?
Answer: became less prevalent

Question: What was one of the primary reasons that the issue of affirmative action lost its momentum?
Answer: there were other areas that needed focus

Question: Which administration allowed affirmative action to take a backseat to other issues?
Answer: Ford

Question: In terms of advancement, what happened to the progression of non-affirmative action after the Nixon administration?

Question: What was one of the primary reasons that the issue of non-affirmative action lost its momentum?

Question: Which administration allowed affirmative action to take a frontseat to other issues?
Affirmative_action_in_the_United_States

In the beginning, racial classifications that identified race were inherently suspect and subject to strict scrutiny. These classifications would only be upheld if necessary to promote a compelling governmental interest. Later the U.S. Supreme Court decided that racial classifications that benefited underrepresented minorities were to only be upheld if necessary and promoted a compelling governmental purpose. (See Richmond v. J.A. Croson Co.) There is no clear guidance about when government action is not "compelling", and such rulings are rare.

Question: What kind of classification was subject to strict scrutiny?
Answer: racial

Question: What was the only situation in which a racial classification could be considered acceptable?
Answer: necessary to promote a compelling governmental interest

Question: Who later confirmed that racial classifications were only to be upheld if they were necessary?
Answer: U.S. Supreme Court

Question: What is an example case that can help display where upholding a racial classification is beneficial?
Answer: Richmond v. J.A. Croson Co.

Question: What kind of classification was not subject to strict scrutiny?

Question: What was the only situation in which a racial classification could be considered unacceptable?

Question: Who later confirmed that racial classifications were only to be upheld if they were unnecessary?

Question: What is an example case that can help display where upholding a racial classification is not beneficial?
Affirmative_action_in_the_United_States

Ricci v. DeStefano was heard by the United States Supreme Court in 2009. The case concerns White and Hispanic firefighters in New Haven, Connecticut, who upon passing their test for promotions to management were denied the promotions, allegedly because of a discriminatory or at least questionable test. The test gave 17 whites and two Hispanics the possibility of immediate promotion. Although 23% of those taking the test were African American, none scored high enough to qualify. Because of the possibility the tests were biased in violation of Title VII of the Civil Rights Act, no candidates were promoted pending outcome of the controversy. In a split 5-4 vote, the Supreme Court ruled that New Haven had engaged in impermissible racial discrimination against the White and Hispanic majority.

Question: Which case concerning White and Hispanic firefighters was heard by the Supreme Court in 2009?
Answer: Ricci v. DeStefano

Question: Where was the issue of White and Hispanic firefighters heard in the case based out of?
Answer: New Haven, Connecticut

Question: How many whites were given the possibility of immediate promotion as a result of taking the controversial test?
Answer: 17

Question: What percentage of those people taking the test were African American?
Answer: 23

Question: What was the final vote count for the Supreme Court over the issue?
Answer: 5-4

Question: Which case concerning White and Hispanic firefighters was heard by the Supreme Court in 2019?

Question: Where was the issue of White and Black firefighters heard in the case based out of?

Question: How many whites were given the possibility of immediate firing as a result of taking the controversial test?

Question: What percentage of those people taking the test were Asian American?
Affirmative_action_in_the_United_States

President Kennedy stated in Executive Order 10925 that "discrimination because of race, creed, color, or national origin is contrary to the Constitutional principles and policies of the United States"; that "it is the plain and positive obligation of the United States Government to promote and ensure equal opportunity for all qualified persons, without regard to race, creed, color, or national origin, employed or seeking employment with the Federal Government and on government contracts"; that "it is the policy of the executive branch of the Government to encourage by positive measures equal opportunity for all qualified persons within the Government"; and that "it is in the general interest and welfare of the United States to promote its economy, security, and national defense through the most efficient and effective utilization of all available manpower".

Question: Which President declared that discrimination is contrary to the Constitutional principles of the United States?
Answer: Kennedy

Question: Which piece of legislation did President Kennedy use to claim that discrimination was a violation of the Constitution?
Answer: Executive Order 10925

Question: What were the affected industries in terms of regulation as a result of Executive Order 10925?
Answer: Federal Government and on government contracts

Question: Which President declared that discrimination is contrary to the Constitutional principles of the UK?

Question: Which piece of legislation did President Kennedy use to claim that discrimination was not a violation of the Constitution?

Question:  What were the affected industries in terms of deregulation as a result of Executive Order 10925?
Affirmative_action_in_the_United_States

Proponents of affirmative action argue that by nature the system is not only race based, but also class and gender based. To eliminate two of its key components would undermine the purpose of the entire system. The African American Policy Forum believes that the class based argument is based on the idea that non-poor minorities do not experience racial and gender based discrimination. The AAPF believes that "Race-conscious affirmative action remains necessary to address race-based obstacles that block the path to success of countless people of color of all classes". The groups goes on to say that affirmative action is responsible for creating the African American middle class, so it does not make sense to say that the system only benefits the middle and upper classes.

Question: Other than being race and gender based, what did believers in affirmative action also feel that the system discriminated against?
Answer: class

Question: Which organization believed in the class based argument?
Answer: African American Policy Forum

Question: What group of people did the AAPF claim affirmative action created?
Answer: African American middle class

Question: What does the AAPF believe the foundation for the class based argument is?
Answer: non-poor minorities do not experience racial and gender based discrimination

Question: What does the AAPF believe the goal of affirmative action should be?
Answer: to address race-based obstacles that block the path to success

Question: Other than being race and gender based, what did believers in affirmative action also feel that the system did not discriminate against

Question: Which organization believed in the non-class based argument?

Question:  What group of people did the AAPF claim affirmative action did not create?

Question: What does the AAPF believe the foundation for the class based agreement is?

Question:  What does the AAPF believe the goal of non-affirmative action should be?
Affirmative_action_in_the_United_States

Following the end of World War II the educational gap between White and Black Americans was widened by Dwight D. Eisenhower's GI Bill. This piece of legislation paved the way for white GIs to attend college. Despite their veteran status returning black servicemen were not afforded loans at the same rate as whites. Furthermore, at the time of its introduction, segregation was still the law of the land barring blacks from the best institutions. Overall, "Nearly 8 million servicemen and servicewomen were educated under the provisions of the GI Bill after World War II. But for blacks, higher educational opportunities were so few that the promise of the GI Bill went largely unfulfilled."

Question: What major event preceded the growth of the divide in education between White and Black Americans?
Answer: end of World War II

Question: What was considered to be a major cause of the increase in educational gap?
Answer: Dwight D. Eisenhower's GI Bill

Question: What did returning black veterans not receive?
Answer: loans at the same rate as whites

Question: How many servicemen and women were educated as a result of the GI Bill?
Answer: Nearly 8 million

Question: What opportunities were few for black veterans?
Answer: higher educational

Question: What major event preceded the growth of the divide in education between White and Asian Americans?

Question: What was not considered to be a major cause of the increase in educational gap?

Question:  What did returning white veterans not receive?

Question:  How many servicemen and women weren't educated as a result of the GI Bill?

Question:  What opportunities were few for hispanic veterans?
Affirmative_action_in_the_United_States

According to a study by Dr. Paul Brest, Hispanics or "Latinos" include immigrants who are descendants of immigrants from the countries comprising Central and South America. In 1991, Mexican Americans, Puerto Ricans, and Cuban Americans made up 80% of the Latino population in the United States. Latinos are disadvantaged compared to White Americans and are more likely to live in poverty. They are the least well educated major ethnic group and suffered a 3% drop in high school completion rate while African Americans experienced a 12% increase between 1975-1990. In 1990, they constituted 9% of the population, but only received 3.1% of the bachelors's degrees awarded. At times when it is favorable to lawmakers, Latinos were considered "white" by the Jim Crow laws during the Reconstruction. In other cases, according to Paul Brest, Latinos have been classified as an inferior race and a threat to white purity. Latinos have encountered considerable discrimination in areas such as employment, housing, and education. Brest finds that stereotypes continue to be largely negative and many perceive Latinos as "lazy, unproductive, and on the dole." Furthermore, native-born Latino-Americans and recent immigrants are seen as identical since outsiders tend not to differentiate between Latino groups.

Question: Who conducted a study about the origins of "Latinos"?
Answer: Dr. Paul Brest

Question: How much of the Latino population did Mexican Americans, Puerto Ricans and Cuban Americans make up in 1991?
Answer: 80%

Question: In relation to other major ethnic groups, what is the education level of Latinos?
Answer: least well educated

Question: What was the percentage increase of the high school completion rate for African Americans between 1975 and 1990?
Answer: 12%

Question: How many of the total bachelor degrees awarded in 1990 went to Latinos?
Answer: 3.1%

Question: Who conducted a study about the origins of "Blacks"?

Question: How much of the Latino population did Mexican Americans, Puerto Ricans and Cuban Americans make up in 1911?

Question: In relation to other major ethnic groups, what is the education level of Blacks?

Question: How many of the total bachelor degrees awarded in 1992 went to Latinos?
Affirmative_action_in_the_United_States

The category of Native American applies to the diverse group of people who lived in North America before European settlement. During the U.S. government's westward expansion, Native Americans were displaced from their land which had been their home for centuries. Instead, they were forced onto reservations which were far smaller and less productive. According to Brest, land belonging to Native Americans was reduced from 138 million acres in 1887 to 52 million acres in 1934. In 1990, the poverty rate for Native Americans was more than triple that of the whites and only 9.4% of Native Americans have completed a bachelor's degree as opposed to 25.2% of whites and 12.2% of African Americans.

Question: Which groups can be categorized as Native Americans?
Answer: people who lived in North America before European settlement

Question: When did the Native Americans lose their land?
Answer: During the U.S. government's westward expansion

Question: Where were Native Americans forced to live after they lost their land?
Answer: reservations

Question: How much land did the Native Americans own in 1934?
Answer: 52 million acres

Question: In relation to whites, what was the poverty rate for Native Americans in 1990?
Answer: more than triple

Question: Which groups can be categorized as Non-Native Americans?

Question:  When did the Native Americans win their land?

Question: Where were Native Americans forced to live after they won their land?

Question:  How much land did the Native Americans own in 1914?
Affirmative_action_in_the_United_States

Early Asian immigrants experienced prejudice and discrimination in the forms of not having the ability to become naturalized citizens. They also struggled with many of the same school segregation laws that African Americans faced. Particularly, during World War II, Japanese Americans were interned in camps and lost their property, homes, and businesses. Discrimination against Asians began with the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 and then continued with the Scott Act of 1888 and the Geary Act of 1892. At the beginning of the 20th century, the United States passed the Immigration Act of 1924 to prevent Asian immigration out of fear that Asians were stealing white jobs and lowering the standard for wages. In addition, whites and non-Asians do not differentiate among the different Asian groups and perpetuate the "model minority" stereotype. According to a 2010 article by Professor Qin Zhang of Fairfield University, Asians are characterized as one dimensional in having great work ethic and valuing education, but lacking in communication skills and personality. A negative outcome of this stereotype is that Asians have been portrayed as having poor leadership and interpersonal skills. This has contributing to the "glass ceiling" phenomenon in which although there are many qualified Asian Americans, they occupy a disproportionately small number of executive positions in businesses. Furthermore, the model minority stereotype has led to resentment of Asian success and several universities and colleges have limited or have been accused of limiting Asian matriculation.

Question: What form of discrimination did early Asian immigrants experience?
Answer: not having the ability to become naturalized citizens

Question: What law type did Asian immigrants struggle with?
Answer: school segregation

Question: Which piece of legislature marked the start of discrimination against Asians?
Answer: Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882

Question: Which bill was passed in an attempt to limit or prevent Asian immigration?
Answer: Immigration Act of 1924

Question: According to studies, what are Asians perceived to be lacking?
Answer: communication skills and personality

Question: m of discrimination did early African immigrants experience?

Question:  What law type did African immigrants struggle with?

Question:  Which bill was passed in an attempt to provide for Asian immigration?
Affirmative_action_in_the_United_States

Proponents of affirmative action recognize that the policy is inherently unequal; however, minding the inescapable fact that historic inequalities exist in America, they believe the policy is much more fair than one in which these circumstances are not taken into account. Furthermore, those in favor of affirmative action see it as an effort towards inclusion rather than a discriminatory practice. "Job discrimination is grounded in prejudice and exclusion, whereas affirmative action is an effort to overcome prejudicial treatment through inclusion. The most effective way to cure society of exclusionary practices is to make special efforts at inclusion, which is exactly what affirmative action does."

Question: What is one of the issues with affirmative action?
Answer: inherently unequal

Question: How do people who are in favor of affirmative action view it?
Answer: an effort towards inclusion rather than a discriminatory practice

Question: What does affirmative action supposedly aim to do?
Answer: overcome prejudicial treatment through inclusion

Question: What do proponents of affirmative action believe is the best way to combat exclusionary practices?
Answer: make special efforts at inclusion

Question: What is one of the issues with non-affirmative action?

Question:  How do people who aren't in favor of affirmative action view it?

Question:  What does affirmative action supposedly not aim to do?

Question: What do proponents of affirmative action believe is the worst way to combat exclusionary practices?