Divyanshu67/squad_v2 huggingface dataset:
Heian_period

The game Total War: Shogun 2 has the Rise of the Samurai expansion pack as downloadable campaign. It allows the player to make their own version of the Gempei War which happened during the Heian period. The player is able to choose one of the most powerful families of Japan at the time, the Taira, Minamoto or Fujiwara; each family fielding two branches for a total of six playable clans. The expansion pack features a different set of land units, ships and buildings and is also playable in the multiplayer modes.

Question: Which Total War game has an expansion set during the Heian period?
Answer: Shogun 2

Question: What families are playable characters in Total War: Shogun 2?
Answer: Taira, Minamoto or Fujiwara

Question: The Rise of the Samurai expansion for Total War: Shogun 2 depicts which war during the Heian period?
Answer: Gempei War

Question: What popular game from the Heian period had an expanson pack?

Question: Wich part of the game has no multiplayer mode?

Question: What three families are added with the expanson pack?
On_the_Origin_of_Species

On the Origin of Species, published on 24 November 1859, is a work of scientific literature by Charles Darwin which is considered to be the foundation of evolutionary biology. Darwin's book introduced the scientific theory that populations evolve over the course of generations through a process of natural selection. It presented a body of evidence that the diversity of life arose by common descent through a branching pattern of evolution. Darwin included evidence that he had gathered on the Beagle expedition in the 1830s and his subsequent findings from research, correspondence, and experimentation.

Question: When was the Origin of Species published?
Answer: 24 November 1859

Question: Who wrote The Origin of Species?
Answer: Charles Darwin

Question: What branch of biology was The Origin of Species founded on?
Answer: evolutionary biology

Question: What was the expedition called that Charles Darwin discovered some of his evidence?
Answer: Beagle expedition

Question: How do populations evolve according to Charles Darwin's theory?
Answer: through a process of natural selection
On_the_Origin_of_Species

Various evolutionary ideas had already been proposed to explain new findings in biology. There was growing support for such ideas among dissident anatomists and the general public, but during the first half of the 19th century the English scientific establishment was closely tied to the Church of England, while science was part of natural theology. Ideas about the transmutation of species were controversial as they conflicted with the beliefs that species were unchanging parts of a designed hierarchy and that humans were unique, unrelated to other animals. The political and theological implications were intensely debated, but transmutation was not accepted by the scientific mainstream.

Question: Which group of scientists began to support evolutionary ideas?
Answer: dissident anatomists

Question: Which powerful religious institution was a big part of scientific study in the 19th century?
Answer: the Church of England

Question: What was the general opinion about transmutation of species in the 19th century?
Answer: Ideas about the transmutation of species were controversial

Question: How did the majority of science see humanity in relation to animals in the 19th century?
Answer: that humans were unique, unrelated to other animals.

Question: Which theology did everyone agree science was a part of in the 19th century?
Answer: natural theology
On_the_Origin_of_Species

The book was written for non-specialist readers and attracted widespread interest upon its publication. As Darwin was an eminent scientist, his findings were taken seriously and the evidence he presented generated scientific, philosophical, and religious discussion. The debate over the book contributed to the campaign by T. H. Huxley and his fellow members of the X Club to secularise science by promoting scientific naturalism. Within two decades there was widespread scientific agreement that evolution, with a branching pattern of common descent, had occurred, but scientists were slow to give natural selection the significance that Darwin thought appropriate. During "the eclipse of Darwinism" from the 1880s to the 1930s, various other mechanisms of evolution were given more credit. With the development of the modern evolutionary synthesis in the 1930s and 1940s, Darwin's concept of evolutionary adaptation through natural selection became central to modern evolutionary theory, and it has now become the unifying concept of the life sciences.

Question: What section of the population was Darwin's book written for?
Answer: non-specialist readers

Question: Who attempted to secularize science during the debate over Darwin's book?
Answer: T. H. Huxley

Question: What was T.H. Huxley promoting?
Answer: scientific naturalism

Question: What was the growing change in opinion about evolution called?
Answer: "the eclipse of Darwinism"

Question: When did Darwin's concept of evolution become widely believed and central to the modern theory of evolution?
Answer: in the 1930s and 1940s
On_the_Origin_of_Species

In later editions of the book, Darwin traced evolutionary ideas as far back as Aristotle; the text he cites is a summary by Aristotle of the ideas of the earlier Greek philosopher Empedocles. Early Christian Church Fathers and Medieval European scholars interpreted the Genesis creation narrative allegorically rather than as a literal historical account; organisms were described by their mythological and heraldic significance as well as by their physical form. Nature was widely believed to be unstable and capricious, with monstrous births from union between species, and spontaneous generation of life.

Question: To what ancient philosopher did Darwin trace some of his evolutionary ideas?
Answer: Aristotle

Question: Whose ideas were summarized by Aristotle in the work Darwin studied?
Answer: Greek philosopher Empedocles

Question: How did medieval scholars view the Genesis creation story?
Answer: allegorically

Question: What kind of births did the Christian Church fathers believe occurred in nature?
Answer: monstrous births from union between species, and spontaneous generation of life.
On_the_Origin_of_Species

The Protestant Reformation inspired a literal interpretation of the Bible, with concepts of creation that conflicted with the findings of an emerging science seeking explanations congruent with the mechanical philosophy of René Descartes and the empiricism of the Baconian method. After the turmoil of the English Civil War, the Royal Society wanted to show that science did not threaten religious and political stability. John Ray developed an influential natural theology of rational order; in his taxonomy, species were static and fixed, their adaptation and complexity designed by God, and varieties showed minor differences caused by local conditions. In God's benevolent design, carnivores caused mercifully swift death, but the suffering caused by parasitism was a puzzling problem. The biological classification introduced by Carl Linnaeus in 1735 also viewed species as fixed according to the divine plan. In 1766, Georges Buffon suggested that some similar species, such as horses and asses, or lions, tigers, and leopards, might be varieties descended from a common ancestor. The Ussher chronology of the 1650s had calculated creation at 4004 BC, but by the 1780s geologists assumed a much older world. Wernerians thought strata were deposits from shrinking seas, but James Hutton proposed a self-maintaining infinite cycle, anticipating uniformitarianism.

Question: Which group wanted to assuage fears that science was a threat to religious stability?
Answer: the Royal Society

Question: Whose theory claimed that species were unchanging and designed by God?
Answer: John Ray

Question: Who created a biological classification in 1735?
Answer: Carl Linnaeus

Question: When did the Ussher chronology state that creation began?
Answer: 4004 BC

Question: Who proposed that life is a self-maintaining, infinite cycle?
Answer: James Hutton
On_the_Origin_of_Species

Charles Darwin's grandfather Erasmus Darwin outlined a hypothesis of transmutation of species in the 1790s, and Jean-Baptiste Lamarck published a more developed theory in 1809. Both envisaged that spontaneous generation produced simple forms of life that progressively developed greater complexity, adapting to the environment by inheriting changes in adults caused by use or disuse. This process was later called Lamarckism. Lamarck thought there was an inherent progressive tendency driving organisms continuously towards greater complexity, in parallel but separate lineages with no extinction. Geoffroy contended that embryonic development recapitulated transformations of organisms in past eras when the environment acted on embryos, and that animal structures were determined by a constant plan as demonstrated by homologies. Georges Cuvier strongly disputed such ideas, holding that unrelated, fixed species showed similarities that reflected a design for functional needs. His palæontological work in the 1790s had established the reality of extinction, which he explained by local catastrophes, followed by repopulation of the affected areas by other species.

Question: What was the name of Charles Darwin's grandfather?
Answer: Erasmus Darwin

Question: What theory did Erasmus Darwin outline in the 1790s?
Answer: hypothesis of transmutation of species

Question: What was the name of the scientist who developed and published a more complex version of Erasmus Darwin's theory in 1809?
Answer: Jean-Baptiste Lamarck

Question: What is the process of adapting to the environment and inheriting changes through use or disuse called?
Answer: Lamarckism

Question: Whose paleontology work in the 1790s established the reality of extinction?
Answer: Georges Cuvier
On_the_Origin_of_Species

In Britain, William Paley's Natural Theology saw adaptation as evidence of beneficial "design" by the Creator acting through natural laws. All naturalists in the two English universities (Oxford and Cambridge) were Church of England clergymen, and science became a search for these laws. Geologists adapted catastrophism to show repeated worldwide annihilation and creation of new fixed species adapted to a changed environment, initially identifying the most recent catastrophe as the biblical flood. Some anatomists such as Robert Grant were influenced by Lamarck and Geoffroy, but most naturalists regarded their ideas of transmutation as a threat to divinely appointed social order.

Question: Whose work considered adaptation to be evidence of God's design?
Answer: William Paley's

Question: What was the name of William Paley's book claiming divine beneficial design? 
Answer: Natural Theology

Question: What religion were all naturalists working at the two English universities?
Answer: Church of England

Question: How did most naturalists view the concept of transmutation of species?
Answer: a threat to divinely appointed social order.

Question: How did geologists explain the creation of new species in keeping with their belief in divine creation?
Answer: adapted catastrophism to show repeated worldwide annihilation and creation of new fixed species adapted to a changed environment
On_the_Origin_of_Species

Darwin went to Edinburgh University in 1825 to study medicine. In his second year he neglected his medical studies for natural history and spent four months assisting Robert Grant's research into marine invertebrates. Grant revealed his enthusiasm for the transmutation of species, but Darwin rejected it. Starting in 1827, at Cambridge University, Darwin learnt science as natural theology from botanist John Stevens Henslow, and read Paley, John Herschel and Alexander von Humboldt. Filled with zeal for science, he studied catastrophist geology with Adam Sedgwick.

Question: When did Darwin begin attending university?
Answer: 1825

Question: What university did Darwin attend?
Answer: Edinburgh University

Question: What was Darwin originally studying at university?
Answer: medicine

Question: Who did Darwin assist in researching marine invertebrates?
Answer: Robert Grant

Question: With whom did Darwin study about catastrophic geology?
Answer: Adam Sedgwick
On_the_Origin_of_Species

In December 1831, he joined the Beagle expedition as a gentleman naturalist and geologist. He read Charles Lyell's Principles of Geology and from the first stop ashore, at St. Jago, found Lyell's uniformitarianism a key to the geological history of landscapes. Darwin discovered fossils resembling huge armadillos, and noted the geographical distribution of modern species in hope of finding their "centre of creation". The three Fuegian missionaries the expedition returned to Tierra del Fuego were friendly and civilised, yet to Darwin their relatives on the island seemed "miserable, degraded savages", and he no longer saw an unbridgeable gap between humans and animals. As the Beagle neared England in 1836, he noted that species might not be fixed.

Question: What expedition did Darwin join in 1831?
Answer: Beagle expedition

Question: Who wrote The Principles of Geology?
Answer: Charles Lyell

Question: Where was the first stop of the Beagle Expedition?
Answer: St. Jago

Question: What did some of the fossils Darwin found on St. Jago resemble?
Answer: huge armadillos

Question: What caused Darwin to change his mind about the unbridgeable gap between animals and humans?
Answer: their relatives on the island seemed "miserable, degraded savages"
On_the_Origin_of_Species

Richard Owen showed that fossils of extinct species Darwin found in South America were allied to living species on the same continent. In March 1837, ornithologist John Gould announced that Darwin's rhea was a separate species from the previously described rhea (though their territories overlapped), that mockingbirds collected on the Galápagos Islands represented three separate species each unique to a particular island, and that several distinct birds from those islands were all classified as finches. Darwin began speculating, in a series of notebooks, on the possibility that "one species does change into another" to explain these findings, and around July sketched a genealogical branching of a single evolutionary tree, discarding Lamarck's independent lineages progressing to higher forms. Unconventionally, Darwin asked questions of fancy pigeon and animal breeders as well as established scientists. At the zoo he had his first sight of an ape, and was profoundly impressed by how human the orangutan seemed.

Question: Who showed that extinct South American fossils were related to living species?
Answer: Richard Owen

Question: What did John Gould announce in 1837?
Answer: Darwin's rhea was a separate species from the previously described rhea

Question: How many species of mockingbirds were found to be present on the Galapagos Islands?
Answer: three separate species

Question: What type of scientist was John Gould?
Answer: ornithologist

Question: Which animal did Darwin see at a zoo that made him further consider evolution?
Answer: an ape
On_the_Origin_of_Species

In late September 1838, he started reading Thomas Malthus's An Essay on the Principle of Population with its statistical argument that human populations, if unrestrained, breed beyond their means and struggle to survive. Darwin related this to the struggle for existence among wildlife and botanist de Candolle's "warring of the species" in plants; he immediately envisioned "a force like a hundred thousand wedges" pushing well-adapted variations into "gaps in the economy of nature", so that the survivors would pass on their form and abilities, and unfavourable variations would be destroyed. By December 1838, he had noted a similarity between the act of breeders selecting traits and a Malthusian Nature selecting among variants thrown up by "chance" so that "every part of newly acquired structure is fully practical and perfected".

Question: Which book did Darwin begin reading in 1838?
Answer: An Essay on the Principle of Population

Question: What did Thomas Malthus' book theorize would happen to human populations if they were unrestrained?
Answer: breed beyond their means and struggle to survive

Question: Which species did Darwin compare with the human struggle to survive?
Answer: plants

Question: What concept was de Candolle considering as he studied plants?
Answer: "warring of the species"
On_the_Origin_of_Species

Darwin continued to research and extensively revise his theory while focusing on his main work of publishing the scientific results of the Beagle voyage. He tentatively wrote of his ideas to Lyell in January 1842; then in June he roughed out a 35-page "Pencil Sketch" of his theory. Darwin began correspondence about his theorising with the botanist Joseph Dalton Hooker in January 1844, and by July had rounded out his "sketch" into a 230-page "Essay", to be expanded with his research results and published if he died prematurely.

Question: What was the name of Darwin's 35-page writing of his theory?
Answer: "Pencil Sketch"

Question: Which botanist did Darwin begin a correspondence with about his theories?
Answer: Joseph Dalton Hooker

Question: How many pages had Darwin's sketch grown to in 1844?
Answer: 230-page

Question: What information was Darwin's essay based on?
Answer: scientific results of the Beagle voyage

Question: Who did Darwin write his ideas to in 1842?
Answer: Lyell
On_the_Origin_of_Species

In November 1844, the anonymously published popular science book Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation, written by Scottish journalist Robert Chambers, widened public interest in the concept of transmutation of species. Vestiges used evidence from the fossil record and embryology to support the claim that living things had progressed from the simple to the more complex over time. But it proposed a linear progression rather than the branching common descent theory behind Darwin's work in progress, and it ignored adaptation. Darwin read it soon after publication, and scorned its amateurish geology and zoology, but he carefully reviewed his own arguments after leading scientists, including Adam Sedgwick, attacked its morality and scientific errors. Vestiges had significant influence on public opinion, and the intense debate helped to pave the way for the acceptance of the more scientifically sophisticated Origin by moving evolutionary speculation into the mainstream. While few naturalists were willing to consider transmutation, Herbert Spencer became an active proponent of Lamarckism and progressive development in the 1850s.

Question: What was the name of the anonymously published science book?
Answer: Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation

Question: What kind of progression did Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation propose?
Answer: a linear progression

Question: Who wrote Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation?
Answer: Robert Chambers

Question: What was the evidence in Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation used to support?
Answer: that living things had progressed from the simple to the more complex over time.

Question: Which scientist was in favor of Lamarckism in the 1850s?
Answer: Herbert Spencer
On_the_Origin_of_Species

Darwin's barnacle studies convinced him that variation arose constantly and not just in response to changed circumstances. In 1854, he completed the last part of his Beagle-related writing and began working full-time on evolution. His thinking changed from the view that species formed in isolated populations only, as on islands, to an emphasis on speciation without isolation; that is, he saw increasing specialisation within large stable populations as continuously exploiting new ecological niches. He conducted empirical research focusing on difficulties with his theory. He studied the developmental and anatomical differences between different breeds of many domestic animals, became actively involved in fancy pigeon breeding, and experimented (with the help of his son Francis) on ways that plant seeds and animals might disperse across oceans to colonise distant islands. By 1856, his theory was much more sophisticated, with a mass of supporting evidence.

Question: What creatures did Darwin study that made him believe variation arose constantly?
Answer: barnacle

Question: In what year did Darwin begin to work on his evolution theory full-time?
Answer: 1854

Question: Which bird species did Darwin become extremely interested in studying?
Answer: fancy pigeon

Question: By which year had Darwin's theory become more complex and supported by a lot of evidence?
Answer: 1856

Question: What species did Darwin study for dispersal across oceans>
Answer: plant seeds and animals
On_the_Origin_of_Species

An 1855 paper on the "introduction" of species, written by Alfred Russel Wallace, claimed that patterns in the geographical distribution of living and fossil species could be explained if every new species always came into existence near an already existing, closely related species. Charles Lyell recognised the implications of Wallace's paper and its possible connection to Darwin's work, although Darwin did not, and in a letter written on 1–2 May 1856 Lyell urged Darwin to publish his theory to establish priority. Darwin was torn between the desire to set out a full and convincing account and the pressure to quickly produce a short paper. He met Lyell, and in correspondence with Joseph Dalton Hooker affirmed that he did not want to expose his ideas to review by an editor as would have been required to publish in an academic journal. He began a "sketch" account on 14 May 1856, and by July had decided to produce a full technical treatise on species. His theory including the principle of divergence was complete by 5 September 1857 when he sent Asa Gray a brief but detailed abstract of his ideas.

Question: When was the "Introduction of Species" paper written?
Answer: 1855

Question: Who wrote the "Introduction of Species" paper?
Answer: Alfred Russel Wallace

Question: How did Wallace claim that patterns in the distribution of species could be explained?
Answer: if every new species always came into existence near an already existing, closely related species

Question: Which scientist recognized the possible validity and implications of Wallace's paper?
Answer: Charles Lyell

Question: When did Lyell ask Darwin to publish his theory to give it priority?
Answer: 1–2 May 1856
On_the_Origin_of_Species

Darwin was hard at work on his "big book" on Natural Selection, when on 18 June 1858 he received a parcel from Wallace, who stayed on the Maluku Islands (Ternate and Gilolo). It enclosed twenty pages describing an evolutionary mechanism, a response to Darwin's recent encouragement, with a request to send it on to Lyell if Darwin thought it worthwhile. The mechanism was similar to Darwin's own theory. Darwin wrote to Lyell that "your words have come true with a vengeance, ... forestalled" and he would "of course, at once write and offer to send [it] to any journal" that Wallace chose, adding that "all my originality, whatever it may amount to, will be smashed". Lyell and Hooker agreed that a joint publication putting together Wallace's pages with extracts from Darwin's 1844 Essay and his 1857 letter to Gray should be presented at the Linnean Society, and on 1 July 1858, the papers entitled On the Tendency of Species to form Varieties; and on the Perpetuation of Varieties and Species by Natural Means of Selection, by Wallace and Darwin respectively, were read out but drew little reaction. While Darwin considered Wallace's idea to be identical to his concept of natural selection, historians have pointed out differences. Darwin described natural selection as being analogous to the artificial selection practised by animal breeders, and emphasised competition between individuals; Wallace drew no comparison to selective breeding, and focused on ecological pressures that kept different varieties adapted to local conditions. Some historians have suggested that Wallace was actually discussing group selection rather than selection acting on individual variation.

Question: Which book was Darwin working on when he received a package from Wallace?
Answer: "big book" on Natural Selection,

Question: What was in the packages Darwin received from Wallace?
Answer: twenty pages describing an evolutionary mechanism

Question: Who wrote the paper, On the Tendency of Species to form Varieties?
Answer: Darwin

Question: What do some historians think made Wallace's concept of natural selection different from Darwin's?
Answer: Some historians have suggested that Wallace was actually discussing group selection rather than selection acting on individual variation.
On_the_Origin_of_Species

After the meeting, Darwin decided to write "an abstract of my whole work". He started work on 20 July 1858, while on holiday at Sandown, and wrote parts of it from memory. Lyell discussed arrangements with publisher John Murray III, of the publishing house John Murray, who responded immediately to Darwin's letter of 31 March 1859 with an agreement to publish the book without even seeing the manuscript, and an offer to Darwin of 2⁄3 of the profits. (eventually Murray paid £180 to Darwin for the 1st edition and by Darwin's death in 1882 the book was in its 6th edition, earning Darwin nearly £3000.)

Question: What did Darwin decide to write in July, 1858?
Answer: "an abstract of my whole work".

Question: Which publisher did Lyell convince to arrange publication of Darwin's work?
Answer: John Murray III

Question: What did the publisher offer Darwin in payment for the book?
Answer: 2⁄3 of the profits

Question: What edition was the book in by the time of Darwin's death?
Answer: 6th edition

Question: How much had the book earned Darwin by the time he died?
Answer: nearly £3000
On_the_Origin_of_Species

Darwin had initially decided to call his book An abstract of an Essay on the Origin of Species and Varieties Through natural selection, but with Murray's persuasion it was eventually changed to the snappier title: On the Origin of Species, with the title page adding by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life. Here the term "races" is used as an alternative for "varieties" and does not carry the modern connotation of human races—the first use in the book refers to "the several races, for instance, of the cabbage" and proceeds to a discussion of "the hereditary varieties or races of our domestic animals and plants".

Question: What title did Darwin's book ultimately have?
Answer: On the Origin of Species

Question: What had Darwin wanted to name his book?
Answer: An abstract of an Essay on the Origin of Species and Varieties Through natural selection

Question: Who convinced Darwin that his book needed a shorter, more compelling title?
Answer: Murray

Question: What does the word "races" mean as referenced in Darwin's book?
Answer: an alternative for "varieties" and does not carry the modern connotation of human races

Question: What is the extended name of The Origin of Species that is written on the title page?
Answer: by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life
On_the_Origin_of_Species

Darwin had his basic theory of natural selection "by which to work" by December 1838, yet almost twenty years later, when Wallace's letter arrived on 18 June 1858, Darwin was still not ready to publish his theory. It was long thought that Darwin avoided or delayed making his ideas public for personal reasons. Reasons suggested have included fear of religious persecution or social disgrace if his views were revealed, and concern about upsetting his clergymen naturalist friends or his pious wife Emma. Charles Darwin's illness caused repeated delays. His paper on Glen Roy had proved embarrassingly wrong, and he may have wanted to be sure he was correct. David Quammen has suggested all these factors may have contributed, and notes Darwin's large output of books and busy family life during that time.

Question: By which year did Darwin have the basic premise of his natural selection theory?
Answer: 1838

Question: Why might Darwin have postponed publishing his theory of evolution for over 20 years?
Answer: fear of religious persecution or social disgrace

Question: Which paper did Darwin write that was incorrect?
Answer: Glen Roy

Question: Who might Darwin have feared upsetting by publishing his work?
Answer: his clergymen naturalist friends or his pious wife Emma.
On_the_Origin_of_Species

A more recent study by science historian John van Wyhe has determined that the idea that Darwin delayed publication only dates back to the 1940s, and Darwin's contemporaries thought the time he took was reasonable. Darwin always finished one book before starting another. While he was researching, he told many people about his interest in transmutation without causing outrage. He firmly intended to publish, but it was not until September 1854 that he could work on it full-time. His estimate that writing his "big book" would take five years was optimistic.

Question: What did Darwin's contemporaries think of the long delays on his publishing?
Answer: Darwin's contemporaries thought the time he took was reasonable

Question: What was Darwin's process on writing his books?
Answer: Darwin always finished one book before starting another

Question: What was Darwin's original estimate for the amount of time his book would take to write?
Answer: five years

Question: Which scientist's study theorized that the idea of Darwin's work being delayed dates to the 1940s?
Answer: John van Wyhe
On_the_Origin_of_Species

On the Origin of Species was first published on Thursday 24 November 1859, priced at fifteen shillings with a first printing of 1250 copies. The book had been offered to booksellers at Murray's autumn sale on Tuesday 22 November, and all available copies had been taken up immediately. In total, 1,250 copies were printed but after deducting presentation and review copies, and five for Stationers' Hall copyright, around 1,170 copies were available for sale. Significantly, 500 were taken by Mudie's Library, ensuring that the book promptly reached a large number of subscribers to the library. The second edition of 3,000 copies was quickly brought out on 7 January 1860, and incorporated numerous corrections as well as a response to religious objections by the addition of a new epigraph on page ii, a quotation from Charles Kingsley, and the phrase "by the Creator" added to the closing sentence. During Darwin's lifetime the book went through six editions, with cumulative changes and revisions to deal with counter-arguments raised. The third edition came out in 1861, with a number of sentences rewritten or added and an introductory appendix, An Historical Sketch of the Recent Progress of Opinion on the Origin of Species, while the fourth in 1866 had further revisions. The fifth edition, published on 10 February 1869, incorporated more changes and for the first time included the phrase "survival of the fittest", which had been coined by the philosopher Herbert Spencer in his Principles of Biology (1864).

Question: What was the cost for the first published copies of On the Origin of Species?
Answer: fifteen shillings

Question: How many copies of On the Origin of Species were created in the first printing?
Answer: 1250 copies

Question: Where was the book, On the Origin of Species first offered for sale?
Answer: Murray's autumn sale

Question: How many editions did On the Origin of Species go through during Darwin's lifetime?
Answer: six editions

Question: Which institution bought 500 copies of the book, ensuring that a large number of people would have access to it?
Answer: Mudie's Library
On_the_Origin_of_Species

In January 1871, George Jackson Mivart's On the Genesis of Species listed detailed arguments against natural selection, and claimed it included false metaphysics. Darwin made extensive revisions to the sixth edition of the Origin (this was the first edition in which he used the word "evolution" which had commonly been associated with embryological development, though all editions concluded with the word "evolved"), and added a new chapter VII, Miscellaneous objections, to address Mivart's arguments.

Question: What did On the Genesis of Species argue against natural selection?
Answer: claimed it included false metaphysics

Question: Who wrote On the Genesis of Species?
Answer: George Jackson Mivart

Question: When did Charles Darwin first use the word "evolution" in On the Origin of Species?
Answer: the sixth edition

Question: What did Charles Darwin do to address Mivart's arguments?
Answer: added a new chapter VII,

Question: What was chapter VII entitled?
Answer: Miscellaneous objections
On_the_Origin_of_Species

In the United States, botanist Asa Gray an American colleague of Darwin negotiated with a Boston publisher for publication of an authorised American version, but learnt that two New York publishing firms were already planning to exploit the absence of international copyright to print Origin. Darwin was delighted by the popularity of the book, and asked Gray to keep any profits. Gray managed to negotiate a 5% royalty with Appleton's of New York, who got their edition out in mid January 1860, and the other two withdrew. In a May letter, Darwin mentioned a print run of 2,500 copies, but it is not clear if this referred to the first printing only as there were four that year.

Question: Why couldn't Asa Gray use a Boston publisher for an American version of On the Origin of Species?
Answer: two New York publishing firms were already planning to exploit the absence of international copyright to print Origin

Question: How much of a royalty was Gray able to negotiate with a New York publisher for On the Origin of Species?
Answer: a 5% royalty

Question: When was the first American edition of On the Origin of Species published?
Answer: mid January 1860

Question: What did Darwin decide to do with the profits of the American version of On the Origin of Species?
Answer: asked Gray to keep any profits

Question: What was the print run that Darwin mentioned for On the Origin of Species?
Answer: 2,500 copies
On_the_Origin_of_Species

The book was widely translated in Darwin's lifetime, but problems arose with translating concepts and metaphors, and some translations were biased by the translator's own agenda. Darwin distributed presentation copies in France and Germany, hoping that suitable applicants would come forward, as translators were expected to make their own arrangements with a local publisher. He welcomed the distinguished elderly naturalist and geologist Heinrich Georg Bronn, but the German translation published in 1860 imposed Bronn's own ideas, adding controversial themes that Darwin had deliberately omitted. Bronn translated "favoured races" as "perfected races", and added essays on issues including the origin of life, as well as a final chapter on religious implications partly inspired by Bronn's adherence to Naturphilosophie. In 1862, Bronn produced a second edition based on the third English edition and Darwin's suggested additions, but then died of a heart attack. Darwin corresponded closely with Julius Victor Carus, who published an improved translation in 1867. Darwin's attempts to find a translator in France fell through, and the translation by Clémence Royer published in 1862 added an introduction praising Darwin's ideas as an alternative to religious revelation and promoting ideas anticipating social Darwinism and eugenics, as well as numerous explanatory notes giving her own answers to doubts that Darwin expressed. Darwin corresponded with Royer about a second edition published in 1866 and a third in 1870, but he had difficulty getting her to remove her notes and was troubled by these editions. He remained unsatisfied until a translation by Edmond Barbier was published in 1876. A Dutch translation by Tiberius Cornelis Winkler was published in 1860. By 1864, additional translations had appeared in Italian and Russian. In Darwin's lifetime, Origin was published in Swedish in 1871, Danish in 1872, Polish in 1873, Hungarian in 1873–1874, Spanish in 1877 and Serbian in 1878. By 1977, it had appeared in an additional 18 languages.

Question: Who was the German translator that Darwin welcomed for On the Origin of Species?
Answer: Heinrich Georg Bronn,

Question: What did Bronn do in his translation that went completely against what Darwin wanted in On the Origin of Species?
Answer: the German translation published in 1860 imposed Bronn's own ideas, adding controversial themes that Darwin had deliberately omitted.

Question: What did Bronn change "Favoured Races" to in his translated edition of On the Origin of Species?
Answer: "perfected races"

Question: Who published an improved translation of On the Origin of Species in 1867?
Answer: Julius Victor Carus

Question: Why was Darwin unhappy with the first French translation of On the Origins of Species?
Answer: numerous explanatory notes giving her own answers to doubts that Darwin expressed
On_the_Origin_of_Species

Page ii contains quotations by William Whewell and Francis Bacon on the theology of natural laws, harmonising science and religion in accordance with Isaac Newton's belief in a rational God who established a law-abiding cosmos. In the second edition, Darwin added an epigraph from Joseph Butler affirming that God could work through scientific laws as much as through miracles, in a nod to the religious concerns of his oldest friends. The Introduction establishes Darwin's credentials as a naturalist and author, then refers to John Herschel's letter suggesting that the origin of species "would be found to be a natural in contradistinction to a miraculous process":

Question: What was Isaac Newton's belief about God  on the theory of natural law?
Answer: a rational God who established a law-abiding cosmos

Question: Whose epigraph did Darwin add to On the Origin of Species harmonizing God with science and miracles together?
Answer: Joseph Butler

Question: Whose letter does the introduction to On the Origin of Species refer?
Answer: John Herschel

Question: In which edition of On the Origin of Species was the epigraph from Joseph Butler added?
Answer: the second edition
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Chapter I covers animal husbandry and plant breeding, going back to ancient Egypt. Darwin discusses contemporary opinions on the origins of different breeds under cultivation to argue that many have been produced from common ancestors by selective breeding. As an illustration of artificial selection, he describes fancy pigeon breeding, noting that "[t]he diversity of the breeds is something astonishing", yet all were descended from one species of rock pigeon. Darwin saw two distinct kinds of variation: (1) rare abrupt changes he called "sports" or "monstrosities" (example: ancon sheep with short legs), and (2) ubiquitous small differences (example: slightly shorter or longer bill of pigeons). Both types of hereditary changes can be used by breeders. However, for Darwin the small changes were most important in evolution.

Question: How far back does Chapter One of On the Origin of Species go in its coverage of animal and plant species?
Answer: ancient Egypt

Question: What does Darwin use to illustrate the effects of artificial selection?
Answer: fancy pigeon breeding

Question: From what does Darwin assert all pigeons are descended?
Answer: one species of rock pigeon

Question: Which evolutionary changes were the most important to Darwin?
Answer: the small changes
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In Chapter II, Darwin specifies that the distinction between species and varieties is arbitrary, with experts disagreeing and changing their decisions when new forms were found. He concludes that "a well-marked variety may be justly called an incipient species" and that "species are only strongly marked and permanent varieties". He argues for the ubiquity of variation in nature. Historians have noted that naturalists had long been aware that the individuals of a species differed from one another, but had generally considered such variations to be limited and unimportant deviations from the archetype of each species, that archetype being a fixed ideal in the mind of God. Darwin and Wallace made variation among individuals of the same species central to understanding the natural world.

Question: What does Darwin believe about the differences between species and varieties?
Answer: is arbitrary

Question: What does Darwin theorize about different species with regard to variety?
Answer: "species are only strongly marked and permanent varieties"

Question: What did Darwin and Wallace make central to understanding the natural world?
Answer: variation among individuals of the same species

Question: What did Darwin say that a "well marked variety" could be called?
Answer: incipient species"

Question: What did historians say that naturalists generally thought about the differences in variations in a species?
Answer: generally considered such variations to be limited and unimportant deviations from the archetype of each species
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He notes that both A. P. de Candolle and Charles Lyell had stated that all organisms are exposed to severe competition. Darwin emphasizes that he used the phrase "struggle for existence" in "a large and metaphorical sense, including dependence of one being on another"; he gives examples ranging from plants struggling against drought to plants competing for birds to eat their fruit and disseminate their seeds. He describes the struggle resulting from population growth: "It is the doctrine of Malthus applied with manifold force to the whole animal and vegetable kingdoms." He discusses checks to such increase including complex ecological interdependencies, and notes that competition is most severe between closely related forms "which fill nearly the same place in the economy of nature".

Question: What is the struggle that Darwin describes about population likened to?
Answer: doctrine of Malthus

Question: Within what frame of reference does Darwin use the phrase "Struggle for Existence?"
Answer: "a large and metaphorical sense

Question: What was Charles Lyell's perception of what organisms are exposed to in their struggle for survival?
Answer: all organisms are exposed to severe competition

Question: When is competition strongest in the natural world?
Answer: competition is most severe between closely related forms

Question: Why is competition so fierce between related species?
Answer: fill nearly the same place in the economy of nature".
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Chapter IV details natural selection under the "infinitely complex and close-fitting ... mutual relations of all organic beings to each other and to their physical conditions of life". Darwin takes as an example a country where a change in conditions led to extinction of some species, immigration of others and, where suitable variations occurred, descendants of some species became adapted to new conditions. He remarks that the artificial selection practised by animal breeders frequently produced sharp divergence in character between breeds, and suggests that natural selection might do the same, saying:

Question: What did Darwin say that artificial selection by animal breeders often causes?
Answer: sharp divergence in character between breeds,

Question: What did Darwin say could happen somewhere if there is a change in conditions?
Answer: extinction of some species

Question: What can happen if species immigrate to a new location?
Answer: descendants of some species became adapted to new conditions
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In Darwin's time there was no agreed-upon model of heredity; in Chapter I Darwin admitted, "The laws governing inheritance are quite unknown." He accepted a version of the inheritance of acquired characteristics (which after Darwin's death came to be called Lamarckism), and Chapter V discusses what he called the effects of use and disuse; he wrote that he thought "there can be little doubt that use in our domestic animals strengthens and enlarges certain parts, and disuse diminishes them; and that such modifications are inherited", and that this also applied in nature. Darwin stated that some changes that were commonly attributed to use and disuse, such as the loss of functional wings in some island dwelling insects, might be produced by natural selection. In later editions of Origin, Darwin expanded the role attributed to the inheritance of acquired characteristics. Darwin also admitted ignorance of the source of inheritable variations, but speculated they might be produced by environmental factors. However, one thing was clear: whatever the exact nature and causes of new variations, Darwin knew from observation and experiment that breeders were able to select such variations and produce huge differences in many generations of selection. The observation that selection works in domestic animals is not destroyed by lack of understanding of the underlying hereditary mechanism.

Question: What is the theory that is based on acquired characteristics within a species?
Answer: Lamarckism

Question: What did Darwin learn about about the characteristics of domestic animals?
Answer: use in our domestic animals strengthens and enlarges certain parts, and disuse diminishes them

Question: What did Darwin speculate might be how inheritable variations might come about in a species?
Answer: environmental factors

Question: What did Darwin admit about acquired characteristics in chapter one of On the Origin of Species?
Answer: "The laws governing inheritance are quite unknown."

Question: What did Darwin learn about variations by observing breeders?
Answer: breeders were able to select such variations and produce huge differences in many generations of selection
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More detail was given in Darwin's 1868 book on The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication, which tried to explain heredity through his hypothesis of pangenesis. Although Darwin had privately questioned blending inheritance, he struggled with the theoretical difficulty that novel individual variations would tend to blend into a population. However, inherited variation could be seen, and Darwin's concept of selection working on a population with a range of small variations was workable. It was not until the modern evolutionary synthesis in the 1930s and 1940s that a model of heredity became completely integrated with a model of variation. This modern evolutionary synthesis had been dubbed Neo Darwinian Evolution because it encompasses Charles Darwin's theories of evolution with Gregor Mendel's theories of genetic inheritance.

Question: When was The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication by Charles Darwin published?
Answer: 1868

Question: What was the hypothesis that attempted to explain heredity?
Answer: hypothesis of pangenesis.

Question: While Darwin wasn't sure about blending inherited traits, what was his opinion about utilizing inherited variation?
Answer: Darwin's concept of selection working on a population with a range of small variations was workable

Question: When did a model of heredity begin to be integrated with that of variation?
Answer: in the 1930s and 1940s

Question: What was the modern evolutionary synthesis named?
Answer: Neo Darwinian Evolution