Divyanshu67/squad_v2 huggingface dataset:
Political_philosophy

Medieval political philosophy in Europe was heavily influenced by Christian thinking. It had much in common with the Mutazalite Islamic thinking in that the Roman Catholics though subordinating philosophy to theology did not subject reason to revelation but in the case of contradictions, subordinated reason to faith as the Asharite of Islam. The Scholastics by combining the philosophy of Aristotle with the Christianity of St. Augustine emphasized the potential harmony inherent in reason and revelation. Perhaps the most influential political philosopher of medieval Europe was St. Thomas Aquinas who helped reintroduce Aristotle's works, which had only been transmitted to Catholic Europe through Muslim Spain, along with the commentaries of Averroes. Aquinas's use of them set the agenda, for scholastic political philosophy dominated European thought for centuries even unto the Renaissance.

Question: What was heavily influenced by Christian thinking?
Answer: Medieval political philosophy in Europe

Question: Medieval political philosophy had much in common with what type of thinking?
Answer: Mutazalite Islamic thinking

Question: Who was the most influential political philosopher of medieval Europe? 
Answer: St. Thomas Aquinas

Question: What influenced medieval politics?

Question: What did Roman Catholics subordinate theology too?

Question: How did Christian thinking differ from Mutazalite Islamic thinking?

Question: Who emphasize the harmony absent in reason and revelation?

Question: What medieval philosopher help to write some of Aristotle's works?

Question: What was Mutazalite Islamic thinking influenced by in Europe?

Question: Who was the most influential Asharite in medieval Europe?

Question: What did Averroes help reintroduce in Europe?

Question: What was the effect of Averroes uses of Aristotle's works in Europe?

Question: Who was the most influential political philosopher who made the commentaries of Averroes?
Political_philosophy

One of the most influential works during this burgeoning period was Niccolò Machiavelli's The Prince, written between 1511–12 and published in 1532, after Machiavelli's death. That work, as well as The Discourses, a rigorous analysis of the classical period, did much to influence modern political thought in the West. A minority (including Jean-Jacques Rousseau) interpreted The Prince as a satire meant to be given to the Medici after their recapture of Florence and their subsequent expulsion of Machiavelli from Florence. Though the work was written for the di Medici family in order to perhaps influence them to free him from exile, Machiavelli supported the Republic of Florence rather than the oligarchy of the di Medici family. At any rate, Machiavelli presents a pragmatic and somewhat consequentialist view of politics, whereby good and evil are mere means used to bring about an end—i.e., the secure and powerful state. Thomas Hobbes, well known for his theory of the social contract, goes on to expand this view at the start of the 17th century during the English Renaissance. Although neither Machiavelli nor Hobbes believed in the divine right of kings, they both believed in the inherent selfishness of the individual. It was necessarily this belief that led them to adopt a strong central power as the only means of preventing the disintegration of the social order.

Question: What was one of the most influential works during the period? 
Answer: Niccolò Machiavelli's The Prince

Question: When was Niccolo Machiavelli's The Prince published? 
Answer: 1532

Question: Who wrote The  Prince?
Answer: Niccolò Machiavelli

Question: Who was well known for his theory of the social contract?
Answer: Thomas Hobbes

Question: What influential work was written in 1532?

Question: What was published just before Machiavelli died?

Question: The Prince and what other work influenced medieval political thought?

Question: What was written to free the Mattice family from exile?

Question: Who is known for their theory of social contract in the 1700s?

Question: What did Thomas Hobbes write  between 1511-1512?

Question: After what year did Jean-Jacques Rousseau die?

Question: What did di Medici do for the West?

Question: Who expelled Hobbes from Florence?

Question: What group did Thomas Hobbes support more than the other?
Political_philosophy

These theorists were driven by two basic questions: one, by what right or need do people form states; and two, what the best form for a state could be. These fundamental questions involved a conceptual distinction between the concepts of "state" and "government." It was decided that "state" would refer to a set of enduring institutions through which power would be distributed and its use justified. The term "government" would refer to a specific group of people who occupied the institutions of the state, and create the laws and ordinances by which the people, themselves included, would be bound. This conceptual distinction continues to operate in political science, although some political scientists, philosophers, historians and cultural anthropologists have argued that most political action in any given society occurs outside of its state, and that there are societies that are not organized into states that nevertheless must be considered in political terms. As long as the concept of natural order was not introduced, the social sciences could not evolve independently of theistic thinking. Since the cultural revolution of the 17th century in England, which spread to France and the rest of Europe, society has been considered subject to natural laws akin to the physical world.

Question: What would refer to a set of enduring institutions through which power would be distributed and its use justified? 
Answer: state

Question: What refers to a specific group of people who occupied the institutions of the state?
Answer: government

Question: Society has been considered subject to natural laws akin to what?
Answer: the physical world

Question: What two questions joined the concepts of state and government?

Question: What term referred to a set of temporary institutions through which power could be distributed in its use justified?

Question: What term referred to individuals who created laws and ordinances by which other people would be bound?

Question: What conceptual distinction continues to operate in science?

Question: What has been believed society is subject to since the 1700s?

Question: What is one question government was driven by?

Question: What has happened since power was distributed and justified in Europe?

Question: What theistic thinking led to a division between state and government?

Question: What society not organized into states continues to operate today?

Question: What does the rest of Europe argue about political action?
Political_philosophy

Political and economic relations were drastically influenced by these theories as the concept of the guild was subordinated to the theory of free trade, and Roman Catholic dominance of theology was increasingly challenged by Protestant churches subordinate to each nation-state, which also (in a fashion the Roman Catholic Church often decried angrily) preached in the vulgar or native language of each region. However, the enlightenment was an outright attack on religion, particularly Christianity. The most outspoken critic of the church in France was François Marie Arouet de Voltaire, a representative figure of the enlightenment. After Voltaire, religion would never be the same again in France.

Question: The concept of the guild was subordinated to the theory of what?
Answer: free trade

Question: What increasingly challenged the Roman Catholic dominance of theology?
Answer: Protestant churches

Question: The enlightenment was an outright attack on what?
Answer: religion

Question: Who was the most outspoken critic of the church in France?
Answer: François Marie Arouet de Voltaire

Question: The concept of Guild was superior to what theory?

Question: The Roman Catholic Church was subordinate to what?

Question: The allotment was an evolution of what?

Question: Who is the most outspoken supporter of the church in France?

Question: After who philosophy was never the same again in France?

Question: What concept was the enlightenment subordinated  to?

Question: Who challenged Voltaire's dominance of theology?

Question: What were political and economic relations an attack on?

Question: Who was an outspoken critic of the theory of free trade?

Question: After the concept of the guild, what happened to religion in France?
Political_philosophy

In the Ottoman Empire, these ideological reforms did not take place and these views did not integrate into common thought until much later. As well, there was no spread of this doctrine within the New World and the advanced civilizations of the Aztec, Maya, Inca, Mohican, Delaware, Huron and especially the Iroquois. The Iroquois philosophy in particular gave much to Christian thought of the time and in many cases actually inspired some of the institutions adopted in the United States: for example, Benjamin Franklin was a great admirer of some of the methods of the Iroquois Confederacy, and much of early American literature emphasized the political philosophy of the natives.

Question: In what area did these ideological reforms not take place until much later?
Answer: Ottoman Empire

Question: Whose philosophy gave much to Christian thought of the time?
Answer: The Iroquois philosophy

Question: Who was a great admirer of some of the methods of the Iroquois Confederacy?
Answer: Benjamin Franklin

Question: What area did ideological reforms take place much earlier?

Question: Where in the New World was this doctrine spread?

Question: Who modeled some of the methods of the Huron?

Question: Whose literature emphasize the religious philosophy of the natives?

Question: What did Aztec civilizations inspire in the US?

Question: What did early Mohican literature focus on?

Question: Who admired the methods of the Incan Confederacy?

Question: What happened when methods of the Iroquois Confederacy were introduced to the Ottoman Empire?

Question: What viewpoint influenced doctrine within the New World at the time?
Political_philosophy

John Locke in particular exemplified this new age of political theory with his work Two Treatises of Government. In it Locke proposes a state of nature theory that directly complements his conception of how political development occurs and how it can be founded through contractual obligation. Locke stood to refute Sir Robert Filmer's paternally founded political theory in favor of a natural system based on nature in a particular given system. The theory of the divine right of kings became a passing fancy, exposed to the type of ridicule with which John Locke treated it. Unlike Machiavelli and Hobbes but like Aquinas, Locke would accept Aristotle's dictum that man seeks to be happy in a state of social harmony as a social animal. Unlike Aquinas's preponderant view on the salvation of the soul from original sin, Locke believes man's mind comes into this world as tabula rasa. For Locke, knowledge is neither innate, revealed nor based on authority but subject to uncertainty tempered by reason, tolerance and moderation. According to Locke, an absolute ruler as proposed by Hobbes is unnecessary, for natural law is based on reason and seeking peace and survival for man.

Question: Who was responsible for the work Two Treatises of Government?
Answer: John Locke

Question: Locke refuted whose political theory?
Answer: Sir Robert Filmer

Question: According to Locke, an absolute ruler is proposed by Hobbes is what?
Answer: unnecessary

Question: Who critique the work Two Treaties of Government?

Question: What did Sir Robert Filmer could be found through contractual obligation?

Question: Which of John Locke's theories was a passing fancy?

Question: What theory of Machiavelli and Hobbes did lock except?

Question: What did Aquinas believe came into this world is a tabula rasa?

Question: What work did Sir Rober FIlmer write?

Question: What theory was ridiculed by Aquinas?

Question: What did Locke accept that Machiavelli and Hobbes also believed?

Question: What did Sir Robert Filmer believe about man's mind at birth?

Question: What did Hobbes believe about gaining knowledge?
Political_philosophy

The Marxist critique of capitalism — developed with Friedrich Engels — was, alongside liberalism and fascism, one of the defining ideological movements of the Twentieth Century. The industrial revolution produced a parallel revolution in political thought. Urbanization and capitalism greatly reshaped society. During this same period, the socialist movement began to form. In the mid-19th century, Marxism was developed, and socialism in general gained increasing popular support, mostly from the urban working class. Without breaking entirely from the past, Marx established principles that would be used by future revolutionaries of the 20th century namely Vladimir Lenin, Mao Zedong, Ho Chi Minh, and Fidel Castro. Though Hegel's philosophy of history is similar to Immanuel Kant's, and Karl Marx's theory of revolution towards the common good is partly based on Kant's view of history—Marx declared that he was turning Hegel's dialectic, which was "standing on its head", "the right side up again". Unlike Marx who believed in historical materialism, Hegel believed in the Phenomenology of Spirit. By the late 19th century, socialism and trade unions were established members of the political landscape. In addition, the various branches of anarchism, with thinkers such as Mikhail Bakunin, Pierre-Joseph Proudhon or Peter Kropotkin, and syndicalism also gained some prominence. In the Anglo-American world, anti-imperialism and pluralism began gaining currency at the turn of the 20th century.

Question: Who developed the Marxist critique of capitalism?
Answer: Friedrich Engels

Question: What was one of the defining ideological movements of the Twentieth Century?
Answer: The Marxist critique of capitalism

Question: What produced a parallel revolution in political thought?
Answer: The industrial revolution

Question: Who developed liberalism and fascism?

Question: What revolution was parallel but urbanization and capitalism?

Question: What movement formed in the mid-1900s?

Question: Whose theory of revolution is similar to Immanuel Kant's philosophy of history?

Question: Who were established members of the political landscape by the late 1900s?

Question: What political system was supported by capitalism?

Question: What revolutionaries used Mikhail Bakunin's theories in the 20th century?

Question: By the turn of the 20th century what two groups were established politically?

Question: In the late 19th century what two ideas were becoming prominent in the Anglo-American world?

Question: What was a defining movement of the Twentieth Century against capitalism, created by Vladamir Lenin?
Political_philosophy

World War I was a watershed event in human history, changing views of governments and politics. The Russian Revolution of 1917 (and similar, albeit less successful, revolutions in many other European countries) brought communism - and in particular the political theory of Leninism, but also on a smaller level Luxemburgism (gradually) - on the world stage. At the same time, social democratic parties won elections and formed governments for the first time, often as a result of the introduction of universal suffrage. However, a group of central European economists led by Austrian School economists Ludwig von Mises and Friedrich Hayek identified the collectivist underpinnings to the various new socialist and fascist doctrines of government power as being different brands of political totalitarianism.

Question: What was a watershed event in human history?
Answer: World War I

Question: When was The Russian Revolution?
Answer: 1917

Question: What brought communism?
Answer: The Russian Revolution of 1917

Question: What did Ludwig Von Mises and Friedrich Hayek run?
Answer: a group of central European economists

Question: What changed because of Leninism?

Question: When did universal suffrage I begin?

Question: What did social democratic parties do after communism was introduced?

Question: What did European countries lead that identified the inspirations behind new government doctrines?

Question: What was identified as being different types of Luxemburgism?
Political_philosophy

From the end of World War II until 1971, when John Rawls published A Theory of Justice, political philosophy declined in the Anglo-American academic world, as analytic philosophers expressed skepticism about the possibility that normative judgments had cognitive content, and political science turned toward statistical methods and behavioralism. In continental Europe, on the other hand, the postwar decades saw a huge blossoming of political philosophy, with Marxism dominating the field. This was the time of Jean-Paul Sartre and Louis Althusser, and the victories of Mao Zedong in China and Fidel Castro in Cuba, as well as the events of May 1968 led to increased interest in revolutionary ideology, especially by the New Left. A number of continental European émigrés to Britain and the United States—including Karl Popper, Friedrich Hayek, Leo Strauss, Isaiah Berlin, Eric Voegelin and Judith Shklar—encouraged continued study in political philosophy in the Anglo-American world, but in the 1950s and 1960s they and their students remained at odds with the analytic establishment.

Question: Who published A Theory of Justice? 
Answer: John Rawls

Question: What did John Rawls publish?
Answer: A Theory of Justice

Question: What continent saw a huge blossoming of political philosophy?
Answer: Europe

Question: The events of May 1968 led to an increased interest in what?
Answer: revolutionary ideology

Question: From the end of WWII until 1971 what declined in China?

Question: What was continental Europe skeptical about?

Question: What did Marxism turn towards from the end of WWII until 1971?

Question: In the 1950's and 1960's what group was interested in revolutionary ideology?

Question: What immigrants to the US and Britain encouraged studies in Marxism?
Political_philosophy

Communism remained an important focus especially during the 1950s and 1960s. Colonialism and racism were important issues that arose. In general, there was a marked trend towards a pragmatic approach to political issues, rather than a philosophical one. Much academic debate regarded one or both of two pragmatic topics: how (or whether) to apply utilitarianism to problems of political policy, or how (or whether) to apply economic models (such as rational choice theory) to political issues. The rise of feminism, LGBT social movements and the end of colonial rule and of the political exclusion of such minorities as African Americans and sexual minorities in the developed world has led to feminist, postcolonial, and multicultural thought becoming significant. This led to a challenge to the social contract by philosophers Charles W. Mills in his book The Racial Contract and Carole Patemen in her book The Sexual Contract that the social contract excluded persons of colour and women respectively.

Question: What remained an important focus during the 1950s and 1960s?
Answer: Communism

Question: There was a marked trend towards what type of approach to political issues?
Answer: pragmatic approach

Question: Who wrote The Racial Contract?
Answer: Charles W. Mills

Question: Who wrote The Sexual Contract?
Answer: Carole Patemen

Question: What was a political exclusion in the 1950's and 1960's?

Question: What was the trend towards dealing with racism?

Question: What did utilitarianism lead to in the developed world?

Question: What did the Communism mention about who was excluded in society?

Question: What was one approach to the debate about colonialism?
Political_philosophy

In Anglo-American academic political philosophy, the publication of John Rawls's A Theory of Justice in 1971 is considered a milestone. Rawls used a thought experiment, the original position, in which representative parties choose principles of justice for the basic structure of society from behind a veil of ignorance. Rawls also offered a criticism of utilitarian approaches to questions of political justice. Robert Nozick's 1974 book Anarchy, State, and Utopia, which won a National Book Award, responded to Rawls from a libertarian perspective and gained academic respectability for libertarian viewpoints.

Question: What did John Rawsl publish?
Answer: A Theory of Justice

Question: Who Published A Theory of Justice?
Answer: John Rawls

Question: When was A Theory of Justice published?
Answer: 1971

Question: Who wrote Anarchy, State, and Utopia?
Answer: Robert Nozick

Question: What did Robert Nozick write in 1971?

Question: What did John Rawls write in 1974?

Question: What award did John Rawls's book win?

Question: What is Robert Nozick's book considered in American philosophy?

Question: What viewpoint did John Rawls have when responding to Rober Nozick?
Political_philosophy

Contemporaneously with the rise of analytic ethics in Anglo-American thought, in Europe several new lines of philosophy directed at critique of existing societies arose between the 1950s and 1980s. Most of these took elements of Marxist economic analysis, but combined them with a more cultural or ideological emphasis. Out of the Frankfurt School, thinkers like Herbert Marcuse, Theodor W. Adorno, Max Horkheimer, and Jürgen Habermas combined Marxian and Freudian perspectives. Along somewhat different lines, a number of other continental thinkers—still largely influenced by Marxism—put new emphases on structuralism and on a "return to Hegel". Within the (post-) structuralist line (though mostly not taking that label) are thinkers such as Gilles Deleuze, Michel Foucault, Claude Lefort, and Jean Baudrillard. The Situationists were more influenced by Hegel; Guy Debord, in particular, moved a Marxist analysis of commodity fetishism to the realm of consumption, and looked at the relation between consumerism and dominant ideology formation.

Question: Herbert Marcuse was from what school?
Answer: Frankfurt School,

Question: Thinkers out of the Frankfurt School combined Marxian and what other perspective?
Answer: Freudian

Question: Who in particular moved a Marxist analysis of commodity fetishism to the realm of consumption? 
Answer: Guy Debord

Question: What thinkers came out of the Foucault School?

Question: What points-of-view did Anglo-Americans combine?

Question: What were thinkers influenced by when they emphasized consumerism?

Question: Who took Marxist commodity fetishism to the realm of cultural emphasis?

Question: What happened in Europe that led to criticism of Hegel between 1950 and 1980?
Political_philosophy

Another debate developed around the (distinct) criticisms of liberal political theory made by Michael Walzer, Michael Sandel and Charles Taylor. The liberal-communitarian debate is often considered valuable for generating a new set of philosophical problems, rather than a profound and illuminating clash of perspective.These and other communitarians (such as Alasdair MacIntyre and Daniel A. Bell) argue that, contra liberalism, communities are prior to individuals and therefore should be the center of political focus. Communitarians tend to support greater local control as well as economic and social policies which encourage the growth of social capital.

Question: What is often considered valuable for generating a new set of philosophical problems? 
Answer: The liberal-communitarian debate

Question: What type of control do communitarians tend to support?
Answer: greater local control

Question: What type of economic and social policies do Communitarians tend to support?
Answer: policies which encourage the growth of social capital

Question: What is valuable for creating greater local control?

Question: What does political theory tend to support in communities?

Question: What type of policies do individuals support?

Question: What did a clash of perspective develop around?

Question: Who argues that individuals should have political focus?
Political_philosophy

A pair of overlapping political perspectives arising toward the end of the 20th century are republicanism (or neo- or civic-republicanism) and the capability approach. The resurgent republican movement aims to provide an alternate definition of liberty from Isaiah Berlin's positive and negative forms of liberty, namely "liberty as non-domination." Unlike liberals who understand liberty as "non-interference," "non-domination" entails individuals not being subject to the arbitrary will of anyother person. To a liberal, a slave who is not interfered with may be free, yet to a republican the mere status as a slave, regardless of how that slave is treated, is objectionable. Prominent republicans include historian Quentin Skinner, jurist Cass Sunstein, and political philosopher Philip Pettit. The capability approach, pioneered by economists Mahbub ul Haq and Amartya Sen and further developed by legal scholar Martha Nussbaum, understands freedom under allied lines: the real-world ability to act. Both the capability approach and republicanism treat choice as something which must be resourced. In other words, it is not enough to be legally able to do something, but to have the real option of doing it.

Question: When did republicanism and the capability approach arise?
Answer: the end of the 20th century

Question: What aims to provide an alternate definition of liberty from Isaiah Berlin's positive and negative forms of liberty?
Answer: The resurgent republican movement

Question: Mahbub ul Haq and Amartya Sen pioneered what approach?
Answer: The capability approach

Question: When did the perspectives jurist and non-interference appear?

Question: To a liberal, what is the state of a political perspective that is not interfered with?

Question: What is the approach of republicanism as developed by Mahbub ul Haq and Amartya Sen?

Question: How do both political perspectives treat arbitrary will?

Question: What does the economist movement look to define in a different way?
Alloy

An alloy is a mixture of metals or a mixture of a metal and another element. Alloys are defined by metallic bonding character. An alloy may be a solid solution of metal elements (a single phase) or a mixture of metallic phases (two or more solutions). Intermetallic compounds are alloys with a defined stoichiometry and crystal structure. Zintl phases are also sometimes considered alloys depending on bond types (see also: Van Arkel-Ketelaar triangle for information on classifying bonding in binary compounds).

Question: What is an alloy?
Answer: a mixture of metals or a mixture of a metal and another element

Question: What are alloys defined by?
Answer: metallic bonding character

Question: When are Zintl considered alloys?
Answer: depending on bond types

Question: What is solid solution metal elements classified as?
Answer: a single phase

Question: What is always a mixture of metal and other elements?

Question: What is defined by its atomic bonding character?

Question: What type of solution has a single phase in two or more solutions?

Question: What type of phases are always considered to be alloys?
Alloy

An alloy is a mixture of either pure or fairly pure chemical elements, which forms an impure substance (admixture) that retains the characteristics of a metal. An alloy is distinct from an impure metal, such as wrought iron, in that, with an alloy, the added impurities are usually desirable and will typically have some useful benefit. Alloys are made by mixing two or more elements; at least one of which being a metal. This is usually called the primary metal or the base metal, and the name of this metal may also be the name of the alloy. The other constituents may or may not be metals but, when mixed with the molten base, they will be soluble, dissolving into the mixture.

Question: What kind of substance is an alloy?
Answer: impure

Question: What happens when an alloy is mixed with a molten base?
Answer: they will be soluble, dissolving into the mixture

Question: What is an alloy composed of?
Answer: two or more elements

Question: What other metal is impure like alloy?
Answer: wrought iron

Question: What is a mixture of impure substances?

Question: What is a pure substance that retains the characteristics of a metal?

Question: What desirable characteristic doesn't alloy and an impure metal have?

Question: Mixing any to what produces an alloy

Question: What other metal is pure like an alloy?
Alloy

When the alloy cools and solidifies (crystallizes), its mechanical properties will often be quite different from those of its individual constituents. A metal that is normally very soft and malleable, such as aluminium, can be altered by alloying it with another soft metal, like copper. Although both metals are very soft and ductile, the resulting aluminium alloy will be much harder and stronger. Adding a small amount of non-metallic carbon to iron produces an alloy called steel. Due to its very-high strength and toughness (which is much higher than pure iron), and its ability to be greatly altered by heat treatment, steel is one of the most common alloys in modern use. By adding chromium to steel, its resistance to corrosion can be enhanced, creating stainless steel, while adding silicon will alter its electrical characteristics, producing silicon steel.

Question: How is steel produced?
Answer: Adding a small amount of non-metallic carbon to iron

Question: What kind of metal is soft like copper?
Answer: aluminium

Question: What can be added to steel to enhance is corrosion resistance?
Answer: chromium

Question: What is superior to pure iron?
Answer: steel

Question: What is another word for when alloys solidify?
Answer: crystallizes

Question: What is produced by adding metallic carb and iron?

Question: What type of metal is hardly copper?

Question: What makes steel more corrosive?

Question: The characteristics of what stay the same as it cools?

Question: What is aluminum alloy the most common of?
Alloy

Although the elements usually must be soluble in the liquid state, they may not always be soluble in the solid state. If the metals remain soluble when solid, the alloy forms a solid solution, becoming a homogeneous structure consisting of identical crystals, called a phase. If the mixture cools and the constituents become insoluble, they may separate to form two or more different types of crystals, creating a heterogeneous microstructure of different phases. However, in other alloys, the insoluble elements may not separate until after crystallization occurs. These alloys are called intermetallic alloys because, if cooled very quickly, they first crystallize as a homogeneous phase, but they are supersaturated with the secondary constituents. As time passes, the atoms of these supersaturated alloys separate within the crystals, forming intermetallic phases that serve to reinforce the crystals internally.

Question: What causes an alloy to form a solid solution?
Answer: If the metals remain soluble when solid

Question: What is the purpose of intermetallic phases?
Answer: to reinforce the crystals internally

Question: What are alloys called when the insoluble elements don't separate until after crystallization occurs?
Answer: intermetallic alloys

Question: What is always soluble as a solid and illiquid?

Question: What are not soluble when solid?

Question: What happens to an alloy if the medical support insoluble when solid?

Question: What are alloys called when the soluble elements separate after crystallization occurs?

Question: What do the crystals intermetallic alloys support?
Alloy

Some alloys occur naturally, such as electrum, which is an alloy that is native to Earth, consisting of silver and gold. Meteorites are sometimes made of naturally occurring alloys of iron and nickel, but are not native to the Earth. One of the first alloys made by humans was bronze, which is made by mixing the metals tin and copper. Bronze was an extremely useful alloy to the ancients, because it is much stronger and harder than either of its components. Steel was another common alloy. However, in ancient times, it could only be created as an accidental byproduct from the heating of iron ore in fires (smelting) during the manufacture of iron. Other ancient alloys include pewter, brass and pig iron. In the modern age, steel can be created in many forms. Carbon steel can be made by varying only the carbon content, producing soft alloys like mild steel or hard alloys like spring steel. Alloy steels can be made by adding other elements, such as molybdenum, vanadium or nickel, resulting in alloys such as high-speed steel or tool steel. Small amounts of manganese are usually alloyed with most modern-steels because of its ability to remove unwanted impurities, like phosphorus, sulfur and oxygen, which can have detrimental effects on the alloy. However, most alloys were not created until the 1900s, such as various aluminium, titanium, nickel, and magnesium alloys. Some modern superalloys, such as incoloy, inconel, and hastelloy, may consist of a multitude of different components.

Question: What is electrum made of?
Answer: silver and gold

Question: What alloy is formed naturally? 
Answer: electrum

Question: Which was on of the first alloys made by humans?
Answer: bronze

Question: What metal is made by combining tin and copper?
Answer: bronze

Question: Around what time where alloys starting to get made by humans?
Answer: 1900s

Question: What is a man-made alloy of silver and gold?

Question: Meteorites contain what alloy native to earth?

Question: Iron and what metal formed the first alloy made by humans?

Question: What did humans start making in the 1900s?

Question: What adds desired impurities to modern steel?
Alloy

The term alloy is used to describe a mixture of atoms in which the primary constituent is a metal. The primary metal is called the base, the matrix, or the solvent. The secondary constituents are often called solutes. If there is a mixture of only two types of atoms, not counting impurities, such as a copper-nickel alloy, then it is called a binary alloy. If there are three types of atoms forming the mixture, such as iron, nickel and chromium, then it is called a ternary alloy. An alloy with four constituents is a quaternary alloy, while a five-part alloy is termed a quinary alloy. Because the percentage of each constituent can be varied, with any mixture the entire range of possible variations is called a system. In this respect, all of the various forms of an alloy containing only two constituents, like iron and carbon, is called a binary system, while all of the alloy combinations possible with a ternary alloy, such as alloys of iron, carbon and chromium, is called a ternary system.

Question: The matrix and the solvent are other names for what?
Answer: The primary metal

Question: What is another name for solutes?
Answer: The secondary constituents

Question: What is the name of an alloy that has  four constituents?
Answer: quaternary alloy

Question: A five-part alloy is known as?
Answer: ternary alloy

Question: What term describes a mixture of atoms that include at least some metal?

Question: What is another name for the primary metal or solute in an alloy?

Question: An alloy with five what is called a quaternary alloy?

Question: What type of alloy contains ten constituents?
Alloy

Although an alloy is technically an impure metal, when referring to alloys, the term "impurities" usually denotes those elements which are not desired. These impurities are often found in the base metals or the solutes, but they may also be introduced during the alloying process. For instance, sulfur is a common impurity in steel. Sulfur combines readily with iron to form iron sulfide, which is very brittle, creating weak spots in the steel. Lithium, sodium and calcium are common impurities in aluminium alloys, which can have adverse effects on the structural integrity of castings. Conversely, otherwise pure-metals that simply contain unwanted impurities are often called "impure metals" and are not usually referred to as alloys. Oxygen, present in the air, readily combines with most metals to form metal oxides; especially at higher temperatures encountered during alloying. Great care is often taken during the alloying process to remove excess impurities, using fluxes, chemical additives, or other methods of extractive metallurgy.

Question: What is a characteristic of iron sulfide?
Answer: very brittle

Question: What makes pure metals impure metals?
Answer: unwanted impurities

Question: What are the three common impurities in aluminum alloys?
Answer: Lithium, sodium and calcium

Question: Using fluxes and chemical additives during the alloying process does what?
Answer: remove excess impurities

Question: What is the term for desired elements in an alloy?

Question: What is a rare impurity in steel?

Question: Lithium, sodium and what other elements are common in steel?

Question: Chemical what are used during alloying to add impurities?

Question: What element from the air does not easily combined with most metals?
Alloy

The term "alloy" is sometimes used in everyday speech as a synonym for a particular alloy. For example, automobile wheels made of an aluminium alloy are commonly referred to as simply "alloy wheels", although in point of fact steels and most other metals in practical use are also alloys. Steel is such a common alloy that many items made from it, like wheels, barrels, or girders, are simply referred to by the name of the item, assuming it is made of steel. When made from other materials, they are typically specified as such, (i.e.: "bronze wheel," "plastic barrel," or "wood girder").

Question: What is the name of a common alloy?
Answer: Steel

Question: What is something on a car that sometimes is made of alloy?
Answer: automobile wheels

Question: Steel and other very practical metals are also named what?
Answer: alloys

Question: Aluminum alloy is sometimes used as a synonym for what?

Question: Why are some items made of iron only referred to by name?
Alloy

Alloying a metal is done by combining it with one or more other metals or non-metals that often enhance its properties. For example, steel is stronger than iron, its primary element. The electrical and thermal conductivity of alloys is usually lower than that of the pure metals. The physical properties, such as density, reactivity, Young's modulus of an alloy may not differ greatly from those of its elements, but engineering properties such as tensile strength and shear strength may be substantially different from those of the constituent materials. This is sometimes a result of the sizes of the atoms in the alloy, because larger atoms exert a compressive force on neighboring atoms, and smaller atoms exert a tensile force on their neighbors, helping the alloy resist deformation. Sometimes alloys may exhibit marked differences in behavior even when small amounts of one element are present. For example, impurities in semiconducting ferromagnetic alloys lead to different properties, as first predicted by White, Hogan, Suhl, Tian Abrie and Nakamura. Some alloys are made by melting and mixing two or more metals. Bronze, an alloy of copper and tin, was the first alloy discovered, during the prehistoric period now known as the bronze age; it was harder than pure copper and originally used to make tools and weapons, but was later superseded by metals and alloys with better properties. In later times bronze has been used for ornaments, bells, statues, and bearings. Brass is an alloy made from copper and zinc.

Question: What can be done to a metal to enhance its properties?
Answer: combining it with one or more other metals or non-metals

Question: Pure metals have a higher electrical and thermal conductivity than what?
Answer: alloys

Question: When copper and tin is mixed, what is made?
Answer: Bronze

Question: When was the bronze age?
Answer: prehistoric period

Question: Copper and zinc combine to make what?
Answer: Brass

Question: What is done by combining one or more metals and removing nonmetals?

Question: What has a higher electrical and thermal conductivity then pure metals?

Question: What is made by mixing copper and iron?

Question: What is combined with tin to make brass?

Question: Who do smaller atoms exert a compressive force on?
Alloy

Alloys are often made to alter the mechanical properties of the base metal, to induce hardness, toughness, ductility, or other desired properties. Most metals and alloys can be work hardened by creating defects in their crystal structure. These defects are created during plastic deformation, such as hammering or bending, and are permanent unless the metal is recrystallized. However, some alloys can also have their properties altered by heat treatment. Nearly all metals can be softened by annealing, which recrystallizes the alloy and repairs the defects, but not as many can be hardened by controlled heating and cooling. Many alloys of aluminium, copper, magnesium, titanium, and nickel can be strengthened to some degree by some method of heat treatment, but few respond to this to the same degree that steel does.

Question: What kind of treatment can be made to alter it's properties?
Answer: heat treatment

Question: Softening metals can be achieved by?
Answer: annealing

Question: Aluminium, copper, magnesium, titanium, and nickel can be strengthened by?
Answer: heat treatment

Question: Annealling softens metals by achieving what?
Answer: recrystallizes the alloy and repairs the defects

Question: what is made to stabalize the properties of base metals?

Question: |Creating defects in what softens a metal?

Question: What does recrystalization make permanent?

Question: What does annealing harden?

Question: What does annealing cause defects in?
Alloy

At a certain temperature, (usually between 1,500 °F (820 °C) and 1,600 °F (870 °C), depending on carbon content), the base metal of steel undergoes a change in the arrangement of the atoms in its crystal matrix, called allotropy. This allows the small carbon atoms to enter the interstices of the iron crystal, diffusing into the iron matrix. When this happens, the carbon atoms are said to be in solution, or mixed with the iron, forming a single, homogeneous, crystalline phase called austenite. If the steel is cooled slowly, the iron will gradually change into its low temperature allotrope. When this happens the carbon atoms will no longer be soluble with the iron, and will be forced to precipitate out of solution, nucleating into the spaces between the crystals. The steel then becomes heterogeneous, being formed of two phases; the carbon (carbide) phase cementite, and ferrite. This type of heat treatment produces steel that is rather soft and bendable. However, if the steel is cooled quickly the carbon atoms will not have time to precipitate. When rapidly cooled, a diffusionless (martensite) transformation occurs, in which the carbon atoms become trapped in solution. This causes the iron crystals to deform intrinsically when the crystal structure tries to change to its low temperature state, making it very hard and brittle.

Question: What is the name of steel when it is being formed of two phases?
Answer: heterogeneous

Question: What are the two phases when steel becomes heterogenous?
Answer: carbon (carbide) phase cementite, and ferrite

Question: What are the characteristics of steel if it is cooled to quickly?
Answer: very hard and brittle

Question: Soft and bendable steel is caused by what?
Answer: If the steel is cooled slowly

Question: Allotrophy happens between what temperatures?
Answer: 1,500 °F (820 °C) and 1,600 °F (870 °C)

Question: What changes when steel reaches 870°F?

Question: What is it called iron crystals enter carbon atoms?

Question: What becomes brittle if it's cool too slowly?

Question: Steel that is cool too quickly is soft and what?

Question: Where's the carbon atom trapped when steel is called slowly?
Alloy

Conversely, most heat-treatable alloys are precipitation hardening alloys, which produce the opposite effects that steel does. When heated to form a solution and then cooled quickly, these alloys become much softer than normal, during the diffusionless transformation, and then harden as they age. The solutes in these alloys will precipitate over time, forming intermetallic phases, which are difficult to discern from the base metal. Unlike steel, in which the solid solution separates to form different crystal phases, precipitation hardening alloys separate to form different phases within the same crystal. These intermetallic alloys appear homogeneous in crystal structure, but tend to behave heterogeneous, becoming hard and somewhat brittle.

Question: Precipitation hardening alloys produce the opposite effects of?
Answer: steel

Question: Precipitation hardening alloys are sometimes also?
Answer: heat-treatable alloys

Question: What makes alloys more softer than normal?
Answer: When heated to form a solution and then cooled quickly

Question: What do precipitation hardening alloys behave similarly to?

Question: What alloys become softer when cooled slowly?

Question: What alloys soften with age?

Question: What type of alloys become soft and brittle?

Question: What are easy to discern from the base metal?
Alloy

When a molten metal is mixed with another substance, there are two mechanisms that can cause an alloy to form, called atom exchange and the interstitial mechanism. The relative size of each element in the mix plays a primary role in determining which mechanism will occur. When the atoms are relatively similar in size, the atom exchange method usually happens, where some of the atoms composing the metallic crystals are substituted with atoms of the other constituent. This is called a substitutional alloy. Examples of substitutional alloys include bronze and brass, in which some of the copper atoms are substituted with either tin or zinc atoms. With the interstitial mechanism, one atom is usually much smaller than the other, so cannot successfully replace an atom in the crystals of the base metal. The smaller atoms become trapped in the spaces between the atoms in the crystal matrix, called the interstices. This is referred to as an interstitial alloy. Steel is an example of an interstitial alloy, because the very small carbon atoms fit into interstices of the iron matrix. Stainless steel is an example of a combination of interstitial and substitutional alloys, because the carbon atoms fit into the interstices, but some of the iron atoms are replaced with nickel and chromium atoms.

Question: Bronze and brass are examples of what?
Answer: substitutional alloys

Question: Tin or zinc atoms in place of copper atoms create?
Answer: substitutional alloys

Question: What is the name of one interstitial alloy?
Answer: Steel

Question: Stainless steel is an example of what two alloys?
Answer: interstitial and substitutional

Question: What is formed when molten metal is separated from other substances?

Question: What is it called when the atoms of the other constituent are substituted with metallic crystals?

Question: What is formed by substituting tin or zinc atoms with copper?

Question: What two alloys is still a combination of?