Divyanshu67/squad_v2 huggingface dataset:
Uranium

Uranium is a chemical element with symbol U and atomic number 92. It is a silvery-white metal in the actinide series of the periodic table. A uranium atom has 92 protons and 92 electrons, of which 6 are valence electrons. Uranium is weakly radioactive because all its isotopes are unstable (with half-lives of the six naturally known isotopes, uranium-233 to uranium-238, varying between 69 years and 4.5 billion years). The most common isotopes of uranium are uranium-238 (which has 146 neutrons and accounts for almost 99.3% of the uranium found in nature) and uranium-235 (which has 143 neutrons, accounting for 0.7% of the element found naturally). Uranium has the second highest atomic weight of the primordially occurring elements, lighter only than plutonium. Its density is about 70% higher than that of lead, but slightly lower than that of gold or tungsten. It occurs naturally in low concentrations of a few parts per million in soil, rock and water, and is commercially extracted from uranium-bearing minerals such as uraninite.

Question: What is uranium's symbol on the Periodic Table of Elements?
Answer: U

Question: What is the atomic number of uranium?
Answer: 92

Question: What color is uranium?
Answer: silvery-white

Question: Of what series in the Periodic Table of Elements is uranium a part?
Answer: actinide

Question: How many valence electrons are contained in an atom of uranium?
Answer: 6

Question: What isn't uranium's symbol on the Periodic Table of Elements?

Question: What isn't the atomic number of uranium?

Question: What shape is uranium?

Question: Of what series in the Periodic Table of Elements is uranium not a part?

Question: How many valence electrons aren't contained in an atom of uranium?
Uranium

Uranium metal reacts with almost all non-metal elements (with an exception of the noble gases) and their compounds, with reactivity increasing with temperature. Hydrochloric and nitric acids dissolve uranium, but non-oxidizing acids other than hydrochloric acid attack the element very slowly. When finely divided, it can react with cold water; in air, uranium metal becomes coated with a dark layer of uranium oxide. Uranium in ores is extracted chemically and converted into uranium dioxide or other chemical forms usable in industry.

Question: What non-metal elements does uranium notably not react to?
Answer: noble gases

Question: Along with nitric acids, what acids dissolve uranium?
Answer: Hydrochloric

Question: What coats uranium metal in air?
Answer: uranium oxide

Question: What is a notable form uranium ore is converted into after extraction?
Answer: uranium dioxide

Question: What reacts with finely divided uranium?
Answer: cold water

Question: What non-metal elements does uranium notably react to?

Question: Along with nitric acids, what acids dissolve in uranium?

Question: What coats uranium metal in liquid?

Question: What is a notable form uranium ore is converted into before extraction?

Question: What reacts with finely multiplied uranium?
Uranium

During the later stages of World War II, the entire Cold War, and to a lesser extent afterwards, uranium-235 has been used as the fissile explosive material to produce nuclear weapons. Initially, two major types of fission bombs were built: a relatively simple device that uses uranium-235 and a more complicated mechanism that uses plutonium-239 derived from uranium-238. Later, a much more complicated and far more powerful type of fission/fusion bomb (thermonuclear weapon) was built, that uses a plutonium-based device to cause a mixture of tritium and deuterium to undergo nuclear fusion. Such bombs are jacketed in a non-fissile (unenriched) uranium case, and they derive more than half their power from the fission of this material by fast neutrons from the nuclear fusion process.

Question: During what war was uranium-235 first used to create nuclear weapons?
Answer: World War II

Question: From what isotope of uranium is plutonium-239 derived?
Answer: 238

Question: What is mixed with tritium and experiences nuclear fusion in a fission/fusion bomb?
Answer: deuterium

Question: What is another name for a fission/fusion bomb?
Answer: thermonuclear weapon

Question: What does non-fissile mean?
Answer: unenriched

Question: During what war was uranium-235 last used to create nuclear weapons?

Question: From what isotope of uranium is plutonium-249 derived?

Question: What isn't mixed with tritium and experiences nuclear fusion in a fission/fusion bomb?

Question: What is another name for a fission/fusion boat?

Question: What does fissile mean?
Uranium

Uranium was also used in photographic chemicals (especially uranium nitrate as a toner), in lamp filaments for stage lighting bulbs, to improve the appearance of dentures, and in the leather and wood industries for stains and dyes. Uranium salts are mordants of silk or wool. Uranyl acetate and uranyl formate are used as electron-dense "stains" in transmission electron microscopy, to increase the contrast of biological specimens in ultrathin sections and in negative staining of viruses, isolated cell organelles and macromolecules.

Question: What product of uranium was used as toner?
Answer: nitrate

Question: Along with uranyl formate, what product of uranium is used in transmission electron microscopy?
Answer: Uranyl acetate

Question: What light bulbs use lamp filaments containing uranium?
Answer: stage

Question: Along with leather, what industry uses uranium in dyes and stains?
Answer: wood

Question: In addition to wool, what is uranium salt a mordant of?
Answer: silk

Question: What product of uranium wasn't used as toner?

Question: Along with uranyl formate, what product of uranium is used in transmission proton microscopy?

Question: What light bulbs don't use lamp filaments containing uranium?

Question: Along with leather, what industry uses no uranium in dyes and stains?

Question: In addition to wool, what isn't uranium salt a mordant of?
Uranium

In 1972, the French physicist Francis Perrin discovered fifteen ancient and no longer active natural nuclear fission reactors in three separate ore deposits at the Oklo mine in Gabon, West Africa, collectively known as the Oklo Fossil Reactors. The ore deposit is 1.7 billion years old; then, uranium-235 constituted about 3% of the total uranium on Earth. This is high enough to permit a sustained nuclear fission chain reaction to occur, provided other supporting conditions exist. The capacity of the surrounding sediment to contain the nuclear waste products has been cited by the U.S. federal government as supporting evidence for the feasibility to store spent nuclear fuel at the Yucca Mountain nuclear waste repository.

Question: Of what nationality was Perrin?
Answer: French

Question: In what county was the Oklo mine located?
Answer: Gabon

Question: How old are the ore deposits in the Oklo mine?
Answer: 1.7 billion years

Question: When the Oklo mine ore deposits came into being, what percentage of uranium on Earth consisted of uranium-235?
Answer: 3%

Question: Where in the United States is there a nuclear waste repository?
Answer: Yucca Mountain

Question: Of what nationality wasn't Perrin?

Question: In what country was the Oklo mine not located

Question: How old are the ore deposits in the Oslo mine?

Question: When the Oklo mine ore deposits came into being, what percentage of uranium on Earth consisted of uranium-253?

Question: Where in the United States is there no nuclear waste repository?
Uranium

Uranium's average concentration in the Earth's crust is (depending on the reference) 2 to 4 parts per million, or about 40 times as abundant as silver. The Earth's crust from the surface to 25 km (15 mi) down is calculated to contain 1017 kg (2×1017 lb) of uranium while the oceans may contain 1013 kg (2×1013 lb). The concentration of uranium in soil ranges from 0.7 to 11 parts per million (up to 15 parts per million in farmland soil due to use of phosphate fertilizers), and its concentration in sea water is 3 parts per billion.

Question: How many times more abundant than silver is uranium in the Earth's crust?
Answer: 40

Question: How many kilograms of uranium may be contained in the oceans?
Answer: 1013

Question: Why is the concentrate of uranium in farmland so high?
Answer: phosphate fertilizers

Question: What is the concentration of uranium in sea water?
Answer: 3 parts per billion

Question: How many times less abundant than silver is uranium in the Earth's crust?

Question: How many pounds of uranium may be contained in the oceans?

Question: Why is the concentrate of uranium in farmland so low?

Question: What is the concentration of uranium in fresh water?

Question: What is the concentration of plutonium in sea water?
Uranium

Uranium-238 is the most stable isotope of uranium, with a half-life of about 4.468×109 years, roughly the age of the Earth. Uranium-235 has a half-life of about 7.13×108 years, and uranium-234 has a half-life of about 2.48×105 years. For natural uranium, about 49% of its alpha rays are emitted by each of 238U atom, and also 49% by 234U (since the latter is formed from the former) and about 2.0% of them by the 235U. When the Earth was young, probably about one-fifth of its uranium was uranium-235, but the percentage of 234U was probably much lower than this.

Question: What isotope of uranium has the most stability?
Answer: Uranium-238

Question: About how old is the Earth?
Answer: 4.468×109 years

Question: What is the half-life of uranium-234?
Answer: 2.48×105 years

Question: What fraction of the Earth's uranium was uranium-235 during the Earth's youth?
Answer: one-fifth

Question: What percentage of the alpha rays of natural uranium are emitted by 234U?
Answer: 49%

Question: What isotope of uranium has the least stability?

Question: About how gold is the Earth?

Question: What is the full-life of uranium-234?

Question: What fraction of the Earth's uranium was uranium-237 during the Earth's youth?

Question: What percentage of the gamma rays of natural uranium are emitted by 234U?
Uranium

Most ingested uranium is excreted during digestion. Only 0.5% is absorbed when insoluble forms of uranium, such as its oxide, are ingested, whereas absorption of the more soluble uranyl ion can be up to 5%. However, soluble uranium compounds tend to quickly pass through the body, whereas insoluble uranium compounds, especially when inhaled by way of dust into the lungs, pose a more serious exposure hazard. After entering the bloodstream, the absorbed uranium tends to bioaccumulate and stay for many years in bone tissue because of uranium's affinity for phosphates. Uranium is not absorbed through the skin, and alpha particles released by uranium cannot penetrate the skin.

Question: What happens to a majority of ingested uranium?
Answer: excreted

Question: Up to what percentage of uranyl ion can be absorbed when ingested?
Answer: 5%

Question: About what percentage of uranium oxide is absorbed when ingested?
Answer: 0.5%

Question: What does uranium have an affinity for?
Answer: phosphates

Question: Where does uranium accumulate in the body?
Answer: bone tissue

Question: What happens to a minority of ingested uranium?

Question: Up to what percentage of uranyl ion can be absorbed when digested?

Question: About what percentage of uranium dioxide is absorbed when ingested?

Question: What does uranium not have an affinity for?

Question: Where doesn't uranium accumulate in the body?
Order_of_the_British_Empire

Appointments to the Order of the British Empire were at first made on the nomination of the self-governing Dominions of the Empire, the Viceroy of India, and the colonial governors, as well as on nominations from within the United Kingdom. As the Empire evolved into the Commonwealth, nominations continued to come from the Commonwealth realms, in which the monarch remained head of state. These overseas nominations have been discontinued in realms that have established their own Orders—such as the Order of Australia, the Order of Canada, and the New Zealand Order of Merit—but members of the Order are still appointed in the British Overseas Territories.

Question: How were the appointments to the Order of the British Empire made?
Answer: nomination of the self-governing Dominions of the Empire, the Viceroy of India, and the colonial governors

Question: What evolved as the Commonwealth nominations continued?
Answer: Empire

Question: What remained the head of state of the British Empire?
Answer: the monarch

Question: Why did the oversea nominations discontinue?
Answer: established their own Orders

Question: What countries established new orders?
Answer: Order of Australia, the Order of Canada, and the New Zealand Order of Merit
Order_of_the_British_Empire

Any individual made a member of the Order for gallantry could wear an emblem of two crossed silver oak leaves on the same riband, ribbon or bow as the badge. It could not be awarded posthumously and was effectively replaced in 1974 with the Queen's Gallantry Medal. If recipients of the Order of the British Empire for Gallantry received promotion within the Order, whether for gallantry or otherwise, they continued to wear also the insignia of the lower grade with the oak leaves. However, they only used the post-nominal letters of the higher grade.

Question: Who could wear a emblem of two crossed silver oak leaves?
Answer: Any individual made a member of the Order for gallantry

Question: What was the emblem?
Answer: two crossed silver oak leaves on the same riband, ribbon or bow as the badge

Question: What year was it replaced?
Answer: 1974

Question: What kind of medal was replaced in 1974?
Answer: Queen's Gallantry Medal

Question: They continued to wear what the insignia of what?
Answer: lower grade with the oak leaves
Order_of_the_British_Empire

Honorary knighthoods are appointed to citizens of nations where Queen Elizabeth II is not Head of State, and may permit use of post-nominal letters but not the title of Sir or Dame. Occasionally honorary appointees are, incorrectly, referred to as Sir or Dame - Bill Gates or Bob Geldof, for example. Honorary appointees who later become a citizen of a Commonwealth realm can convert their appointment from honorary to substantive, then enjoy all privileges of membership of the order including use of the title of Sir and Dame for the senior two ranks of the Order. An example is Irish broadcaster Terry Wogan, who was appointed an honorary Knight Commander of the Order in 2005 and on successful application for dual British and Irish citizenship was made a substantive member and subsequently styled as "Sir Terry Wogan KBE".

Question: Who are appointed to citizens of nations?
Answer: Honorary knighthoods

Question: Where was Queen Elizabeth ll not Head of State?
Answer: citizens of nations

Question: What is honorary appointees are incorrectly referred to?
Answer: Sir or Dame

Question: Who are examples of Sir of Dame?
Answer: Bill Gates or Bob Geldof

Question: What is an example of irish broadcaster?
Answer: Terry Wogan
Order_of_the_British_Empire

The Order has six officials: the Prelate; the Dean; the Secretary; the Registrar; the King of Arms; and the Usher. The Bishop of London, a senior bishop in the Church of England, serves as the Order's Prelate. The Dean of St Paul's is ex officio the Dean of the Order. The Order's King of Arms is not a member of the College of Arms, as are many other heraldic officers. The Usher of the Order is known as the Gentleman Usher of the Purple Rod; he does not – unlike his Order of the Garter equivalent, the Gentleman Usher of the Black Rod – perform any duties related to the House of Lords.

Question: Who are the six officials of The Order?
Answer: Prelate; the Dean; the Secretary; the Registrar; the King of Arms; and the Usher

Question: Who serves as the Order's Prelate?
Answer: The Bishop of London, a senior bishop in the Church of England

Question: Who was The Dean of St. Paul?
Answer: ex officio the Dean of the Order

Question: Who is not a member of the College of Arms?
Answer: The Order's King of Arms

Question: What is the Usher of the Order?
Answer: Gentleman Usher of the Purple Rod
Order_of_the_British_Empire

Appointments to the Order of the British Empire were discontinued in those Commonwealth realms that established a national system of honours and awards such as the Order of Australia, the Order of Canada, and the New Zealand Order of Merit. In many of these systems, the different levels of award and honour reflect the Imperial system they replaced. Canada, Australia, and New Zealand all have (in increasing level of precedence) Members of, Officers of, and Companions to (rather than Commanders of) their respective orders, with both Australia and New Zealand having Knights and Dames as their highest classes.

Question: Who was discontinued in the Commonwealth realms?
Answer: Appointments to the Order of the British Empire

Question: Who established a national system of honours and awards?
Answer: Order of Australia, the Order of Canada, and the New Zealand Order of Merit

Question: How were the different levels of award and honour reflected the imperial system?
Answer: Canada, Australia, and New Zealand

Question: What were the highest class?
Answer: Knights and Dames
Order_of_the_British_Empire

The members of The Beatles were made MBEs in 1965. John Lennon justified the comparative merits of his investiture by comparing military membership in the Order: "Lots of people who complained about us receiving the MBE [status] received theirs for heroism in the war – for killing people… We received ours for entertaining other people. I'd say we deserve ours more." Lennon later returned his MBE insignia on 25 November 1969 as part of his ongoing peace protests. Other criticism centres on the claim that many recipients of the Order are being rewarded with honours for simply doing their jobs; critics claim that the civil service and judiciary receive far more orders and honours than leaders of other professions.

Question: Who were MBE'S?
Answer: The members of The Beatles

Question: In what year was the Beatles made MBE's?
Answer: 1965

Question: Who compared military membership in the Order?
Answer: John Lennon

Question: Who said "lots of people who complained about us receiving the MBE received thris for heroism in the war.
Answer: John Lennon

Question: When did John Lennon return his MBE insignia?
Answer: 25 November 1969
Order_of_the_British_Empire

The Most Excellent Order of the British Empire is the "order of chivalry of British constitutional monarchy", rewarding contributions to the arts and sciences, work with charitable and welfare organisations and public service outside the Civil Service. It was established on 4 June 1917 by King George V, and comprises five classes, in civil and military divisions, the most senior two of which make the recipient either a knight if male, or dame if female. There is also the related British Empire Medal, whose recipients are affiliated with, but not members of, the order.

Question: Who was the most excellent Order of the British Empire?
Answer: order of chivalry of British constitutional monarchy

Question: Who rewarded contributions to the arts and sciences?
Answer: "order of chivalry of British constitutional monarchy

Question: When was the order of chivalry of British constitutional monarchy established?
Answer: 4 June 1917

Question: Who established the chivalry of british constiutional monarchy?
Answer: King George V

Question: Who is the recipient?
Answer: knight if male, or dame if female
Order_of_the_British_Empire

At the foundation of the Order, the "Medal of the Order of the British Empire" was instituted, to serve as a lower award granting recipients affiliation but not membership. In 1922, this was renamed the "British Empire Medal". It stopped being awarded by the United Kingdom as part of the 1993 reforms to the honours system, but was again awarded beginning in 2012, starting with 293 BEMs awarded for the Queen's Diamond Jubilee. In addition, the BEM is awarded by the Cook Islands and by some other Commonwealth nations. In 2004, a report entitled "A Matter of Honour: Reforming Our Honours System" by a Commons committee recommended to phase out the Order of the British Empire, as its title was "now considered to be unacceptable, being thought to embody values that are no longer shared by many of the country’s population".

Question: What was instituted to serve as a lower award granting recipients affiliation?
Answer: Medal of the Order of the British Empire

Question: In what year was the Medal of the Order of the British Empire established?
Answer: 1922

Question: What was the medal renamed as?
Answer: British Empire Medal

Question: When was it stopped being rewarded?
Answer: 1993

Question: How many BEM's were awarded for the Queen's Diamond Jubilee?
Answer: 293
Order_of_the_British_Empire

From 1940, the Sovereign could appoint a person as a Commander, Officer or Member of the Order of the British Empire for gallantry for acts of bravery (not in the face of the enemy) below the level required for the George Medal. The grade was determined by the same criteria as usual, and not by the level of gallantry (and with more junior people instead receiving the British Empire Medal). Oddly, this meant that it was awarded for lesser acts of gallantry than the George Medal, but, as an Order, was worn before it and listed before it in post-nominal initials. From 14 January 1958, these awards were designated the Order of the British Empire for Gallantry.

Question: From what year could the Sovereign appoint a person as Commander, Officer or Member of the Order of the British Empire?
Answer: 1940

Question: Of what acts did the Members of the Order of the British Empire appoint?
Answer: below the level required for the George Medal

Question: What grade was determined?
Answer: same criteria as usual, and not by the level of gallantry

Question: When was the awards designated the Order of the British Empire for Gallantry?
Answer: 14 January 1958
Order_of_the_British_Empire

Knights Grand Cross and Knights Commander prefix Sir, and Dames Grand Cross and Dames Commander prefix Dame, to their forenames.[b] Wives of Knights may prefix Lady to their surnames, but no equivalent privilege exists for husbands of Knights or spouses of Dames. Such forms are not used by peers and princes, except when the names of the former are written out in their fullest forms. Clergy of the Church of England or the Church of Scotland do not use the title Sir or Dame as they do not receive the accolade (i.e., they are not dubbed "knight" with a sword), although they do append the post-nominal letters.

Question: Who would prefix Sir, and Dames Grand Cross?
Answer: Knights Grand Cross and Knights Commander

Question: Who would prefix Dame, to their forenames?
Answer: Dames Grand Cross

Question: Who would prefix Lady to their surnames?
Answer: Wives of Knights

Question: Such forms are not used by whom?
Answer: peers and princes

Question: Who wouldn't use the title Sir of Dame?
Answer: Clergy of the Church of England or the Church of Scotland
Order_of_the_British_Empire

India, while remaining an active member of the Commonwealth, chose as a republic to institute its own set of honours awarded by the President of India who holds a republican position some consider similar to that of the monarch in Britain. These are commonly referred to as the Padma Awards and consist of Padma Vibhushan, Padma Bhushan and Padma Shri in descending order. These do not carry any decoration or insignia that can be worn on the person and may not be used as titles along with individuals' names.

Question: Who has set honours awarded by the President of India?
Answer: India

Question: Who holds a republican position some consider to monarch of Britain?
Answer: President of India

Question: What is referred to as the Padma Awards?
Answer: President of India who holds a republican position some consider similar to that of the monarch in Britain

Question: What does the Padma Awards consist of?
Answer: Padma Vibhushan, Padma Bhushan and Padma Shri

Question: What does not carry any decoration or insignia that can be worn on the person?
Answer: Padma Vibhushan, Padma Bhushan and Padma Shri
Order_of_the_British_Empire

The Order is limited to 300 Knights and Dames Grand Cross, 845 Knights and Dames Commander, and 8,960 Commanders. There are no limits applied to the total number of members of the fourth and fifth classes, but no more than 858 Officers and 1,464 Members may be appointed per year. Foreign recipients, as honorary members, do not contribute to the numbers restricted to the Order as full members do. Although the Order of the British Empire has by far the highest number of members of the British Orders of Chivalry, with over 100,000 living members worldwide, there are fewer appointments to knighthoods than in other orders.

Question: How many Knights are in The Order?
Answer: 300 Knights and Dames Grand Cross

Question: How many Knights and Dames Commander?
Answer: 845

Question: How many commanders are in The Order?
Answer: 8,960

Question: How many officers and members maybe be appointed per year?
Answer: 858 Officers and 1,464 Members

Question: Who has the highest numbers of the British Orders of Chivalry?
Answer: Order of the British Empire
Order_of_the_British_Empire

Members of all classes of the Order are assigned positions in the order of precedence. Wives of male members of all classes also feature on the order of precedence, as do sons, daughters and daughters-in-law of Knights Grand Cross and Knights Commander; relatives of Ladies of the Order, however, are not assigned any special precedence. As a general rule, individuals can derive precedence from their fathers or husbands, but not from their mothers or wives (see order of precedence in England and Wales for the exact positions).

Question: What are the Members of classes of the Order assigned to?
Answer: positions in the order of precedence

Question: Who of the male members feature on the order?
Answer: Wives of male members of all classes also feature on the order of precedence, as do sons, daughters and daughters-in-law

Question: Who are not assigned any special precedence?
Answer: relatives of Ladies of the Order

Question: Who can individuals derive precedence from?
Answer: fathers or husbands

Question: Who can individuals can not derive precedence from?
Answer: mothers or wives
Circadian_rhythm

Circadian rhythms allow organisms to anticipate and prepare for precise and regular environmental changes. They thus enable organisms to best capitalize on environmental resources (e.g. light and food) compared to those that cannot predict such availability. It has therefore been suggested that circadian rhythms put organisms at a selective advantage in evolutionary terms. However, rhythmicity appears to be as important in regulating and coordinating internal metabolic processes, as in coordinating with the environment. This is suggested by the maintenance (heritability) of circadian rhythms in fruit flies after several hundred generations in constant laboratory conditions, as well as in creatures in constant darkness in the wild, and by the experimental elimination of behavioral, but not physiological, circadian rhythms in quail.

Question: For what do Circadian rhythms let an organism prepare?
Answer: environmental changes

Question: What can an organism that uses circadian rhythms use to its advantage that others can not?
Answer: resources

Question: By better using resources, how does that improve an organism's chances of surviving?
Answer: selective advantage

Question: By improving what processes does the use of circadian rhythms serve to benefit the individual?
Answer: internal metabolic

Question: What insect has been studied concerning the inheritability of rhythms?
Answer: fruit flies

Question: What allows organisms to anticipate and prepare for unexpected environmental changes?

Question: What kind Of resources can organisms without circadian rhythms capitalize on?

Question: What do circadian rhythms put at a selective disadvantage in evolutionary terms?

Question: What is rhythmicity more important for regulating then it is for coordinating with the environment?
Circadian_rhythm

Norwegian researchers at the University of Tromsø have shown that some Arctic animals (ptarmigan, reindeer) show circadian rhythms only in the parts of the year that have daily sunrises and sunsets. In one study of reindeer, animals at 70 degrees North showed circadian rhythms in the autumn, winter and spring, but not in the summer. Reindeer on Svalbard at 78 degrees North showed such rhythms only in autumn and spring. The researchers suspect that other Arctic animals as well may not show circadian rhythms in the constant light of summer and the constant dark of winter.

Question: What type of animals have been shown to have circadian rhythms only at certain times?
Answer: Arctic animals

Question: What daily feature do animals that show limited circadian rhythms need?
Answer: sunrises and sunsets

Question: In a study, when did reindeer at 70 degrees north only show circadian rhythms?
Answer: autumn, winter and spring

Question: At what degree north did reindeer show rhythms only in autumn and summer?
Answer: 78 degrees

Question: What aninmals  do researchers think might also show a variance in circadian rhythms in different seasons?
Answer: other Arctic animals

Question: When do subarctic animals have circadian rythms?

Question: When do reindeer below 70 degrees show circadian rythems?

Question: What reinder at 78 degrees do not show circadian rythems?

Question: What animals show circadian rythems during the costant light of summer?
Circadian_rhythm

The central oscillator generates a self-sustaining rhythm and is driven by two interacting feedback loops that are active at different times of day. The morning loop consists of CCA1 (Circadian and Clock-Associated 1) and LHY (Late Elongated Hypocotyl), which encode closely related MYB transcription factors that regulate circadian rhythms in Arabidopsis, as well as PRR 7 and 9 (Pseudo-Response Regulators.) The evening loop consists of GI (Gigantea) and ELF4, both involved in regulation of flowering time genes. When CCA1 and LHY are overexpressed (under constant light or dark conditions), plants become arrhythmic, and mRNA signals reduce, contributing to a negative feedback loop. Gene expression of CCA1 and LHY oscillates and peaks in the early morning, whereas TOC1 gene expression oscillates and peaks in the early evening. While it was previously hypothesised that these three genes model a negative feedback loop in which over-expressed CCA1 and LHY repress TOC1 and over-expressed TOC1 is a positive regulator of CCA1 and LHY, it was shown in 2012 by Andrew Millar and others that TOC1 in fact serves as a repressor not only of CCA1, LHY, and PRR7 and 9 in the morning loop but also of GI and ELF4 in the evening loop. This finding and further computational modeling of TOC1 gene functions and interactions suggest a reframing of the plant circadian clock as a triple negative-component repressilator model rather than the positive/negative-element feedback loop characterizing the clock in mammals.

Question: What produces a self-sustaining rhythm?
Answer: central oscillator

Question: When do the CCA1  and LHY function?
Answer: morning

Question: Which loop that consists of GI and ELF4 functions?
Answer: evening

Question: What was the previous belief of feedback in the gene loop?
Answer: negative feedback loop

Question: What researcher showed that the gene  feedback loop serves as a repressor?
Answer: Andrew Millar

Question: What is driven by  single feedback loop?

Question: When do CCA1 ELF4 function?

Question: When do GI and LHY function?

Question: What does increased mRNA signals contribute to?

Question: What did Andrew Millar show in 2000?
Circadian_rhythm

A defect in the human homologue of the Drosophila "period" gene was identified as a cause of the sleep disorder FASPS (Familial advanced sleep phase syndrome), underscoring the conserved nature of the molecular circadian clock through evolution. Many more genetic components of the biological clock are now known. Their interactions result in an interlocked feedback loop of gene products resulting in periodic fluctuations that the cells of the body interpret as a specific time of the day.[citation needed]

Question: What is the Drosophila gene the cause of?
Answer: sleep disorder FASPS

Question: What is the Drosophila gene also known as?
Answer: period

Question: What is Familial advanced sleep phase syndrome?
Answer: FASPS

Question: What kind of clock have genetic functions?
Answer: biological clock

Question: What does the body interpret from the gene feedback loop?
Answer: time of the day

Question: What Jean is responsible for the circadian rhythm?

Question: What kind of clock does not have genetic functions?

Question: How do cells of the body interpret fluctuations in light?

Question: What does a defect in the period genome cause?
Circadian_rhythm

Due to the work nature of airline pilots, who often cross several timezones and regions of sunlight and darkness in one day, and spend many hours awake both day and night, they are often unable to maintain sleep patterns that correspond to the natural human circadian rhythm; this situation can easily lead to fatigue. The NTSB cites this as contributing to many accidents[unreliable medical source?]  and has conducted several research studies in order to find methods of combating fatigue in pilots.

Question: Whose work habits and environment prevents them from maintaining a regular sleep pattern?
Answer: airline pilots

Question: What can the lack of regular sleep patterns cause?
Answer: fatigue

Question: What organizations cites this disruption of sleep patterns as a cause of accidents?
Answer: NTSB

Question: What has the NTSB conducted to find the cause of pilot fatigue?
Answer: research studies

Question: Of what does the NTSB want to find a means of doing?
Answer: combating fatigue

Question: Who follows a very natural human circadian rhythem?

Question: what does a natural circadian rhythem lead to?

Question: Who conducted studies on sewardes fatigue?
Circadian_rhythm

The earliest recorded account of a circadian process dates from the 4th century B.C.E., when Androsthenes, a ship captain serving under Alexander the Great, described diurnal leaf movements of the tamarind tree. The observation of a circadian or diurnal process in humans is mentioned in Chinese medical texts dated to around the 13th century, including the Noon and Midnight Manual and the Mnemonic Rhyme to Aid in the Selection of Acu-points According to the Diurnal Cycle, the Day of the Month and the Season of the Year.

Question: What is the earliest recorded instance of circadian rhythm?
Answer: 4th century B.C.E

Question: What ship captain described daily leaf movements?
Answer: Androsthenes

Question: What tree leaves did Androsthenes describe?
Answer: tamarind

Question: What type of Chinese texts mention circadian process in humans?
Answer: medical

Question: When did the Chinese use diurnal rhythms to remember Acu-points?
Answer: 13th century

Question: What was first recorded in 400 BC?

Question: What did Alexander the great described?

Question: What philosophers first described the diurnal process in humans?

Question: What was first described in medical texts during the 1300s?

Question: What did Androsthenes use the noon and midnight manual for?
Circadian_rhythm

Plant circadian rhythms tell the plant what season it is and when to flower for the best chance of attracting pollinators. Behaviors showing rhythms include leaf movement, growth, germination, stomatal/gas exchange, enzyme activity, photosynthetic activity, and fragrance emission, among others. Circadian rhythms occur as a plant entrains to synchronize with the light cycle of its surrounding environment. These rhythms are endogenously generated and self-sustaining and are relatively constant over a range of ambient temperatures. Important features include two interacting transcription-translation feedback loops: proteins containing PAS domains, which facilitate protein-protein interactions; and several photoreceptors that fine-tune the clock to different light conditions. Anticipation of changes in the environment allows appropriate changes in a plant's physiological state, conferring an adaptive advantage. A better understanding of plant circadian rhythms has applications in agriculture, such as helping farmers stagger crop harvests to extend crop availability and securing against massive losses due to weather.

Question: What is the plant expression of circadian rhythm?
Answer: when to flower

Question: What do plants need to attract to their flowering?
Answer: pollinators

Question:  With what feature of environment do plants need to be in sync?
Answer: light cycle

Question: What does adaptive advantage allow for plants?
Answer: Anticipation of changes

Question: Where can an understanding of circadian rhythms of plants be an advantage?
Answer: agriculture

Question: What plant behavior is not controlled by circadian rythems??

Question: What are constant but not self sustaining?

Question: What needs to be in sync with ambient temperatures?
Circadian_rhythm

The simplest known circadian clock is that of the prokaryotic cyanobacteria. Recent research has demonstrated that the circadian clock of Synechococcus elongatus can be reconstituted in vitro with just the three proteins (KaiA, KaiB, KaiC) of their central oscillator. This clock has been shown to sustain a 22-hour rhythm over several days upon the addition of ATP. Previous explanations of the prokaryotic circadian timekeeper were dependent upon a DNA transcription/translation feedback mechanism.[citation needed]

Question: What has the simplest known circadian clock?
Answer: prokaryotic cyanobacteria

Question: With how many proteins can the circadian clock of Synechococcus elongatus are needed to reproduce its effect?
Answer: three proteins

Question: What type of feedback mechanism was previously thought to be needed to sustain the clock?
Answer: DNA

Question: How long a rhythm were researchers able to sustain in the in vitro experiment?
Answer: 22-hour

Question: What were the only proteins necessary to the circadian timekeeper experiment?
Answer: KaiA, KaiB, KaiC

Question: What organism has the most complex circadian clock?

Question: Where can the circadian clock of theprokaryotic cyanobacteria be reconstituted?

Question: What was the minimum amount of time the clock could be sustained in vitro?

Question: What three proteins needed to be removed to sustain the in vitro clock?
Circadian_rhythm

The rhythm is linked to the light–dark cycle. Animals, including humans, kept in total darkness for extended periods eventually function with a free-running rhythm. Their sleep cycle is pushed back or forward each "day", depending on whether their "day", their endogenous period, is shorter or longer than 24 hours. The environmental cues that reset the rhythms each day are called zeitgebers (from the German, "time-givers"). Totally blind subterranean mammals (e.g., blind mole rat Spalax sp.) are able to maintain their endogenous clocks in the apparent absence of external stimuli. Although they lack image-forming eyes, their photoreceptors (which detect light) are still functional; they do surface periodically as well.[page needed]

Question: To what is the circadian rhythm tied?
Answer: light–dark cycle

Question: What conditions will produce a free-running rhythm in humans?
Answer: total darkness

Question: What are the environmental factors that can change the rhythm?
Answer: zeitgebers

Question: What do blind mole rats have in place of vision?
Answer: photoreceptors

Question: What cycle is seperate from the circadian rythem?

Question: What does total light cause in humans?

Question: What is the term for the environmental cues that dertermine daily rythems?

Question: What kind of mammals need external stimuli to maintain their endogenous clock?
Circadian_rhythm

Melatonin is absent from the system or undetectably low during daytime. Its onset in dim light, dim-light melatonin onset (DLMO), at roughly 21:00 (9 p.m.) can be measured in the blood or the saliva. Its major metabolite can also be measured in morning urine. Both DLMO and the midpoint (in time) of the presence of the hormone in the blood or saliva have been used as circadian markers. However, newer research indicates that the melatonin offset may be the more reliable marker. Benloucif et al. found that melatonin phase markers were more stable and more highly correlated with the timing of sleep than the core temperature minimum. They found that both sleep offset and melatonin offset are more strongly correlated with phase markers than the onset of sleep. In addition, the declining phase of the melatonin levels is more reliable and stable than the termination of melatonin synthesis.

Question: What chemical is absent or low during daylight?
Answer: Melatonin

Question: When is the melatonin onset?
Answer: 9 p.m

Question: At its onset, what can be measured in blood or saliva?
Answer: Melatonin

Question: The presence of what is a circadian marker?
Answer: hormone

Question: What are the more reliable markers in determining sleep timing?
Answer: melatonin phase

Question: When is Meletonin found in the system?

Question: What starts to decrease at 9 p.m.

Question: What is more stable than the melatonin offset?

Question: What is melatonin phase not a reliable marker for?
Circadian_rhythm

For temperature studies, subjects must remain awake but calm and semi-reclined in near darkness while their rectal temperatures are taken continuously. Though variation is great among normal chronotypes, the average human adult's temperature reaches its minimum at about 05:00 (5 a.m.), about two hours before habitual wake time. Baehr et al. found that, in young adults, the daily body temperature minimum occurred at about 04:00 (4 a.m.) for morning types but at about 06:00 (6 a.m.) for evening types. This minimum occurred at approximately the middle of the eight hour sleep period for morning types, but closer to waking in evening types.

Question: What physical factor must be continuously monitored during temperature studies> 
Answer: temperatures

Question: At what time does the average adult human reach his lowest temperature?
Answer: 05:00

Question: How long before wake time is the lowest temperature reached?
Answer: two hours

Question: When does the temperature of morning type young adults reach its lowest?
Answer: 04:00

Question: What is the time of lowest temperature for evening type young adults?
Answer: 06:00

Question: What physical factor must be periodicly monitored in temperature studies?

Question: What do evening types reach at 4:00 a.m?

Question: What occurs close to waking for morning types?

Question: Who reaches their minimum temperature in the middle of their waking hours?
Circadian_rhythm

In 1896, Patrick and Gilbert observed that during a prolonged period of sleep deprivation, sleepiness increases and decreases with a period of approximately 24 hours. In 1918, J.S. Szymanski showed that animals are capable of maintaining 24-hour activity patterns in the absence of external cues such as light and changes in temperature. In the early 20th century, circadian rhythms were noticed in the rhythmic feeding times of bees. Extensive experiments were done by Auguste Forel, Ingeborg Beling, and Oskar Wahl to see whether this rhythm was due to an endogenous clock.[citation needed] Ron Konopka and Seymour Benzer isolated the first clock mutant in Drosophila in the early 1970s and mapped the "period" gene, the first discovered genetic determinant of behavioral rhythmicity. Joseph Takahashi discovered the first mammalian circadian clock mutation (clockΔ19) using mice in 1994. However, recent studies show that deletion of clock does not lead to a behavioral phenotype (the animals still have normal circadian rhythms), which questions its importance in rhythm generation.

Question: Who noticed that sleepiness increases and decreases in a 24 hour period?
Answer: Patrick and Gilbert

Question: Who showed the animals could maintain activity in the absence of light and temperature changes?
Answer: J.S. Szymanski

Question: What animals rhythmic feeding times were studied in the early 20th century ?
Answer: bees

Question: What gene did Konopka and Benzer map in the early 1970 s?
Answer: "period"

Question: What mutation did Takahashi discover in 1994?
Answer: circadian clock

Question: Who observed that sleepiness remained steady over twenty-four hour period?

Question: What did Patrick and Gilbert show in 1918?

Question: What was noticed in the rhythmic feeding time of birds in the early twentieth century?

Question: What did Ingeborg Beling and Oskar Wahl isolate in the early 1970s?
Circadian_rhythm

It is now known that the molecular circadian clock can function within a single cell; i.e., it is cell-autonomous. This was shown by Gene Block in isolated mollusk BRNs.[clarification needed] At the same time, different cells may communicate with each other resulting in a synchronised output of electrical signaling. These may interface with endocrine glands of the brain to result in periodic release of hormones. The receptors for these hormones may be located far across the body and synchronise the peripheral clocks of various organs. Thus, the information of the time of the day as relayed by the eyes travels to the clock in the brain, and, through that, clocks in the rest of the body may be synchronised. This is how the timing of, for example, sleep/wake, body temperature, thirst, and appetite are coordinately controlled by the biological clock.[citation needed]

Question: Inside of what can the molecular circadian clock operate?
Answer: single cell

Question: By functioning within a single, what is the system?
Answer: cell-autonomous

Question: What section of the brain periodically releases hormones?
Answer: endocrine glands

Question: How are sleep and wake cycles as well as body functions coordinated?
Answer: biological clock

Question: What do body hormone receptors do with the body's organs?
Answer: synchronise

Question: What requires multiple cells to function?

Question: What results in a synchronized output electrical signals?

Question: what section of the brain rarely releases hormones?

Question: Where in the body are receptors for electrical signals located?

Question: What is timed independently of the biological clock?
Circadian_rhythm

Light is the signal by which plants synchronize their internal clocks to their environment and is sensed by a wide variety of photoreceptors. Red and blue light are absorbed through several phytochromes and cryptochromes. One phytochrome, phyA, is the main phytochrome in seedlings grown in the dark but rapidly degrades in light to produce Cry1. Phytochromes B–E are more stable with phyB, the main phytochrome in seedlings grown in the light. The cryptochrome (cry) gene is also a light-sensitive component of the circadian clock and is thought to be involved both as a photoreceptor and as part of the clock's endogenous pacemaker mechanism. Cryptochromes 1–2 (involved in blue–UVA) help to maintain the period length in the clock through a whole range of light conditions.

Question: What signals plants to synchronize their internal clocks?
Answer: Light

Question: What do plants use to sense light?
Answer: photoreceptors

Question: What receptors absorb red and blue light in plants?
Answer: phytochromes and cryptochromes

Question: Which phytochrome found in seedlings deteriorates with light and growth?
Answer: phyA

Question: What is the main phytochrome found in seedling grown in light?
Answer: phyB

Question: What absorbes white light for plants?

Question: What does Cry 1 degrade to?

Question: What is Cry 1 is the main phytochtome for?

Question: What photochromes are less stable than phyA?