Divyanshu67/squad_v2 huggingface dataset:
Friedrich_Hayek

In 1932, Hayek suggested that private investment in the public markets was a better road to wealth and economic co-ordination in Britain than government spending programs, as argued in a letter he co-signed with Lionel Robbins and others in an exchange of letters with John Maynard Keynes in The Times. The nearly decade long deflationary depression in Britain dating from Churchill's decision in 1925 to return Britain to the gold standard at the old pre-war, pre-inflationary par was the public policy backdrop for Hayek's single public engagement with Keynes over British monetary and fiscal policy, otherwise Hayek and Keynes agreed on many theoretical matters, and their economic disagreements were fundamentally theoretical, having to do almost exclusively with the relation of the economics of extending the length of production to the economics of labour inputs.

Question: What did Hayek claim to be better than investing in government spending programs?
Answer: private investment in the public markets

Question: What other notable figure signed the letter in which Hayek made his statement regarding private investment?
Answer: Lionel Robbins

Question: Who was responsible for England's return to the use of gold as standard currency?
Answer: Churchill

Question: With whom did Hayek disagree with publicly?
Answer: John Maynard Keynes
Friedrich_Hayek

Hayek's influence on the development of economics is widely acknowledged. Hayek is the second-most frequently cited economist (after Kenneth Arrow) in the Nobel lectures of the prize winners in economics, which is particularly striking since his own lecture was critical of the field of orthodox economics and neo-classical modelisation. A number of Nobel Laureates in economics, such as Vernon Smith and Herbert A. Simon, recognise Hayek as the greatest modern economist. Another Nobel winner, Paul Samuelson, believed that Hayek was worthy of his award but nevertheless claimed that "there were good historical reasons for fading memories of Hayek within the mainstream last half of the twentieth century economist fraternity. In 1931, Hayek's Prices and Production had enjoyed an ultra-short Byronic success. In retrospect hindsight tells us that its mumbo-jumbo about the period of production grossly misdiagnosed the macroeconomics of the 1927–1931 (and the 1931–2007) historical scene". Despite this comment, Samuelson spent the last 50 years of his life obsessed with the problems of capital theory identified by Hayek and Böhm-Bawerk, and Samuelson flatly judged Hayek to have been right and his own teacher, Joseph Schumpeter, to have been wrong on the central economic question of the 20th century, the feasibility of socialist economic planning in a production goods dominated economy.

Question: Which economist is cited the most by winners of the Nobel prize in that field?
Answer: Kenneth Arrow

Question: What Nobel prize winner has spent most of his life studying Hayek's capital theory despite being critical of the man?
Answer: Paul Samuelson

Question: On the topic of the practicality of a socialist economy, who does Samuelson believe was wrong?
Answer: Joseph Schumpeter

Question: On the topic of mainstream economics, whose Nobel lecture was particularly critical?
Answer: Hayek's

Question: Which of Hayek's works does Samuelson cite as being incorrect regarding macroeconomics?
Answer: Prices and Production
Friedrich_Hayek

Hayek is widely recognised for having introduced the time dimension to the equilibrium construction and for his key role in helping inspire the fields of growth theory, information economics, and the theory of spontaneous order. The "informal" economics presented in Milton Friedman's massively influential popular work Free to Choose (1980), is explicitly Hayekian in its account of the price system as a system for transmitting and co-ordinating knowledge. This can be explained by the fact that Friedman taught Hayek's famous paper "The Use of Knowledge in Society" (1945) in his graduate seminars.

Question: Whose 1980 book mentions "informal" economics?
Answer: Milton Friedman's

Question: What is the name of the book Friedman released in 1980?
Answer: Free to Choose

Question: How is Friedman's book described in regards to the price system?
Answer: Hayekian

Question: Which of Hayek's works did Friedman once teach?
Answer: The Use of Knowledge in Society
Friedrich_Hayek

Hayek had a long-standing and close friendship with philosopher of science Karl Popper, also from Vienna. In a letter to Hayek in 1944, Popper stated, "I think I have learnt more from you than from any other living thinker, except perhaps Alfred Tarski." (See Hacohen, 2000). Popper dedicated his Conjectures and Refutations to Hayek. For his part, Hayek dedicated a collection of papers, Studies in Philosophy, Politics, and Economics, to Popper and, in 1982, said that "ever since his Logik der Forschung first came out in 1934, I have been a complete adherent to his general theory of methodology". Popper also participated in the inaugural meeting of the Mont Pelerin Society. Their friendship and mutual admiration, however, do not change the fact that there are important differences between their ideas.

Question: Which fellow Vienna native was Hayek friends with?
Answer: Karl Popper

Question: Who is the only exception from whom Hayek claims to have learned more than he did from Popper?
Answer: Alfred Tarski

Question: Hayek dedicated many of his papers to Popper based on a dedication Popper made to him in which of his work?
Answer: Conjectures and Refutations

Question: Which of Popper's works was the first to grasp Hayek's attention?
Answer: Logik der Forschung

Question: Popper was present for which notable Mont Pelerin Society event?
Answer: the inaugural meeting
Friedrich_Hayek

Hayek's greatest intellectual debt was to Carl Menger, who pioneered an approach to social explanation similar to that developed in Britain by Bernard Mandeville and the Scottish moral philosophers in the Scottish Enlightenment. He had a wide-reaching influence on contemporary economics, politics, philosophy, sociology, psychology and anthropology. For example, Hayek's discussion in The Road to Serfdom (1944) about truth, falsehood and the use of language influenced some later opponents of postmodernism.

Question: Which of Hayek's books had an impact on those against postmodernism?
Answer: The Road to Serfdom

Question: To whom did Hayek owe his intellectual success?
Answer: Carl Menger

Question: Carl Menger's work in social explanation was not too different from those in which Scottish period??
Answer: Scottish Enlightenment
Friedrich_Hayek

Hayek received new attention in the 1980s and 1990s with the rise of conservative governments in the United States, United Kingdom, and Canada. After winning the United Kingdom general election, 1979, Margaret Thatcher appointed Keith Joseph, the director of the Hayekian Centre for Policy Studies, as her secretary of state for industry in an effort to redirect parliament's economic strategies. Likewise, David Stockman, Ronald Reagan's most influential financial official in 1981 was an acknowledged follower of Hayek.

Question: In what year was Margaret Thatcher elected Prime Minister?
Answer: 1979

Question: Whom did the Prime Minister of England choose as secretary of state?
Answer: Keith Joseph

Question: During the 80s and 90s, three major English speaking nations experienced a political shift to to what?
Answer: conservative governments

Question: What position did the British Prime Minister's secretary of state previously hold?
Answer: director of the Hayekian Centre for Policy Studies

Question: One of Hayek's supporters served which US president?
Answer: Ronald Reagan's
Friedrich_Hayek

Hayek wrote an essay, "Why I Am Not a Conservative" (included as an appendix to The Constitution of Liberty), in which he disparaged conservatism for its inability to adapt to changing human realities or to offer a positive political program, remarking, "Conservatism is only as good as what it conserves." Although he noted that modern day conservatism shares many opinions on economics with classical liberals, particularly a belief in the free market, he believed it's because conservatism wants to "stand still," whereas liberalism embraces the free market because it "wants to go somewhere." Hayek identified himself as a classical liberal, but noted that in the United States it had become almost impossible to use "liberal" in its original definition, and the term "libertarian" has been used instead. In this text, Hayek also opposed conservatism for "its hostility to internationalism and its proneness to a strident nationalism" and its frequent association with imperialism.

Question: What ideology did Hayek not agree with in an essay appended to The Constitution of Liberty?
Answer: conservatism

Question: What was Hayek's statement regarding conservatism?
Answer: "Conservatism is only as good as what it conserves."

Question: What does conservatism have in common with classical liberalism?
Answer: belief in the free market

Question: What word is used in the United States to identify Hayek's ideology?
Answer: libertarian

Question: Which ideology did Hayek believe conservatism discouraged?
Answer: internationalism
Friedrich_Hayek

However, for his part, Hayek found this term "singularly unattractive" and offered the term "Old Whig" (a phrase borrowed from Edmund Burke) instead. In his later life, he said, "I am becoming a Burkean Whig." However, Whiggery as a political doctrine had little affinity for classical political economy, the tabernacle of the Manchester School and William Gladstone. His essay has served as an inspiration to other liberal-minded economists wishing to distinguish themselves from conservative thinkers, for example James M. Buchanan's essay "Why I, Too, Am Not a Conservative: The Normative Vision of Classical Liberalism".

Question: What did Hayek suggest as an alternative to being called a libertarian?
Answer: Old Whig

Question: In opposition to conservatives, what group has Hayek's work influenced?
Answer: liberal-minded economists

Question: Who wrote an essay as a result of Hayek's "Why I Am Not a Conservative"?
Answer: James M. Buchanan

Question: From whom did Hayek acquire the term he proposed as an alternative to libertarian?
Answer: Edmund Burke

Question: In his later years, what term did Hayek use to describe himself?
Answer: a Burkean Whig
Friedrich_Hayek

In Why F A Hayek is a Conservative, British policy analyst Madsen Pirie claims Hayek mistakes the nature of the conservative outlook. Conservatives, he says, are not averse to change – but like Hayek, they are highly averse to change being imposed on the social order by people in authority who think they know how to run things better. They wish to allow the market to function smoothly and give it the freedom to change and develop. It is an outlook, says Pirie, that Hayek and conservatives both share.

Question: Who makes the claim that Hayek was actually a conservative?
Answer: Madsen Pirie

Question: According to Pirie, conservatives dislike change only when its forced upon them by whom?
Answer: people in authority who think they know how to run things better

Question: Pirie believes Hayek to be a conservative for what reason?
Answer: mistakes the nature of the conservative outlook

Question: What does Pirie claim conservatives want for the free market?
Answer: to function smoothly
Diarrhea

Diarrhea, also spelled diarrhoea, is the condition of having at least three loose or liquid bowel movements each day. It often lasts for a few days and can result in dehydration due to fluid loss. Signs of dehydration often begin with loss of the normal stretchiness of the skin and irritable behaviour. This can progress to decreased urination, loss of skin color, a fast heart rate, and a decrease in responsiveness as it becomes more severe. Loose but non-watery stools in babies who are breastfed, however, may be normal.

Question: What is diarrhea?
Answer: the condition of having at least three loose or liquid bowel movements each day

Question: What is one of the effects of diarrhea?
Answer: can result in dehydration due to fluid loss

Question: What are the warning signs of dehydration?
Answer: loss of the normal stretchiness of the skin and irritable behaviour

Question: What are other signs of dehydration?
Answer: decreased urination, loss of skin color, a fast heart rate, and a decrease in responsiveness

Question: What condition is characterized by loose and watery stools in babies?

Question: What sign begins with a loss of skin color and a fast heart rate?

Question: What are the warning signs of diarrhea?

Question: How long does dehydration last?

Question: What are other signs of diarrhea?
Diarrhea

The most common cause is an infection of the intestines due to either a virus, bacteria, or parasite; a condition known as gastroenteritis. These infections are often acquired from food or water that has been contaminated by stool, or directly from another person who is infected. It may be divided into three types: short duration watery diarrhea, short duration bloody diarrhea, and if it lasts for more than two weeks, persistent diarrhea. The short duration watery diarrhea may be due to an infection by cholera, although this is rare in the developed world. If blood is present it is also known as dysentery. A number of non-infectious causes may also result in diarrhea, including hyperthyroidism, lactose intolerance, inflammatory bowel disease, a number of medications, and irritable bowel syndrome. In most cases, stool cultures are not required to confirm the exact cause.

Question: What is the most common cause of diarrhea?
Answer: an infection of the intestines

Question: What can cause an infection in the intestines?
Answer: a virus, bacteria, or parasite

Question: What are the three types of diarrhea?
Answer: short duration watery diarrhea, short duration bloody diarrhea, and if it lasts for more than two weeks, persistent diarrhea

Question: What is it known as if blood is present?
Answer: dysentery

Question: What is the most common cause of cholera?

Question: What causes and infection by dysentery?

Question: Name some examples of non-infectious causes of hyperthyroidism?

Question: What are three types of inflammatory bowel disease?

Question: What is acquired from food and water contaminated by cholera?
Diarrhea

Prevention of infectious diarrhea is by improved sanitation, clean drinking water, and hand washing with soap. Breastfeeding for at least six months is also recommended as is vaccination against rotavirus. Oral rehydration solution (ORS), which is clean water with modest amounts of salts and sugar, is the treatment of choice. Zinc tablets are also recommended. These treatments have been estimated to have saved 50 million children in the past 25 years. When people have diarrhea it is recommended that they continue to eat healthy food and babies continue to be breastfed. If commercial ORS are not available, homemade solutions may be used. In those with severe dehydration, intravenous fluids may be required. Most cases; however, can be managed well with fluids by mouth. Antibiotics, while rarely used, may be recommended in a few cases such as those who have bloody diarrhea and a high fever, those with severe diarrhea following travelling, and those who grow specific bacteria or parasites in their stool. Loperamide may help decrease the number of bowel movement but is not recommended in those with severe disease.

Question: What are some ways to prevent diarrhea?
Answer: improved sanitation, clean drinking water, and hand washing with soap

Question: What else can a mom do to prevent diarrhea for her baby?
Answer: Breastfeeding for at least six months

Question: What is the treatment of choice for diarrhea?
Answer: Oral rehydration solution (ORS), which is clean water with modest amounts of salts and sugar

Question: What conditions would a doctor prescribe antibiotics?
Answer: cases such as those who have bloody diarrhea and a high fever, those with severe diarrhea following travelling, and those who grow specific bacteria or parasites

Question: Name two examples when amounts of salts and sugar are recommended although rarely used?

Question: What can a woman do to prevent high fever for her baby?

Question: What are people who have rotovirus recommended to do?

Question: What can be used if commercial antibiotics are not available?

Question: How do you prevent infectious rotovirus?
Diarrhea

About 1.7 to 5 billion cases of diarrhea occur per year. It is most common in developing countries, where young children get diarrhea on average three times a year. Total deaths from diarrhea are estimated at 1.26 million in 2013 – down from 2.58 million in 1990. In 2012, it is the second most common cause of deaths in children younger than five (0.76 million or 11%). Frequent episodes of diarrhea are also a common cause of malnutrition and the most common cause in those younger than five years of age. Other long term problems that can result include stunted growth and poor intellectual development.

Question: HOw many cases of diarrhea are there a year?
Answer: 1.7 to 5 billion cases

Question: How often do kids get diarrhea in developing countries?
Answer: average three times a year

Question: Frequent episodes of diarrhea are common in what type of cases?
Answer: malnutrition

Question: What long term issues can arise from frequent diarrhea?
Answer: stunted growth and poor intellectual development

Question: What do frequent episodes of stunted growth cause?

Question: How many cases of malnutrition happen per year?

Question: What long term issues can happen from frequent malnutrition?

Question: How often do kids have malnutrition in developing countries?

Question: What is the estimate of total deaths from stunted growth in 2013?
Diarrhea

Secretory diarrhea means that there is an increase in the active secretion, or there is an inhibition of absorption. There is little to no structural damage. The most common cause of this type of diarrhea is a cholera toxin that stimulates the secretion of anions, especially chloride ions. Therefore, to maintain a charge balance in the lumen, sodium is carried with it, along with water. In this type of diarrhea intestinal fluid secretion is isotonic with plasma even during fasting. It continues even when there is no oral food intake.

Question: What is secretory diarrhea?
Answer: an increase in the active secretion, or there is an inhibition of absorption

Question: What are the causes of secretory diarrhea?
Answer: cause of this type of diarrhea is a cholera toxin that stimulates the secretion of anions, especially chloride ions

Question: Is there any structural damage associated with secretory diarrhea?
Answer: . There is little to no structural damage.

Question: What means there is an increase in structural damage or absorption inhibition?

Question: What causes inhibition of absorption?

Question: Is there any structural damage associated with oral food intake?

Question: What happens to fluid secretion when there is oral food intake?

Question: What stimulates the secretion of chloride plasma?
Diarrhea

Osmotic diarrhea occurs when too much water is drawn into the bowels. If a person drinks solutions with excessive sugar or excessive salt, these can draw water from the body into the bowel and cause osmotic diarrhea. Osmotic diarrhea can also be the result of maldigestion (e.g., pancreatic disease or Coeliac disease), in which the nutrients are left in the lumen to pull in water. Or it can be caused by osmotic laxatives (which work to alleviate constipation by drawing water into the bowels). In healthy individuals, too much magnesium or vitamin C or undigested lactose can produce osmotic diarrhea and distention of the bowel. A person who has lactose intolerance can have difficulty absorbing lactose after an extraordinarily high intake of dairy products. In persons who have fructose malabsorption, excess fructose intake can also cause diarrhea. High-fructose foods that also have a high glucose content are more absorbable and less likely to cause diarrhea. Sugar alcohols such as sorbitol (often found in sugar-free foods) are difficult for the body to absorb and, in large amounts, may lead to osmotic diarrhea. In most of these cases, osmotic diarrhea stops when offending agent (e.g. milk, sorbitol) is stopped.

Question: What occures with osmotic diarrhea?
Answer: s when too much water is drawn into the bowels

Question: What causes osmotic diarrhea?
Answer: If a person drinks solutions with excessive sugar or excessive salt, these can draw water from the body into the bowel

Question: How do osmotic lazatives work?
Answer: alleviate constipation by drawing water into the bowels

Question: What can cause osmotic diarrhea in healthy people?
Answer: too much magnesium or vitamin C or undigested lactose

Question: What causes osmotic intolerance?

Question: What can cause excess fructose in healthy individuals?

Question: How does fructose malabsorption work?

Question: What does a person with Coeliac disease have difficulty absorbing after eating dairy products?

Question: What foods that have a high dairy content are less likely to cause diarrhea?
Diarrhea

Inflammatory diarrhea occurs when there is damage to the mucosal lining or brush border, which leads to a passive loss of protein-rich fluids and a decreased ability to absorb these lost fluids. Features of all three of the other types of diarrhea[clarification needed] can be found in this type of diarrhea. It can be caused by bacterial infections, viral infections, parasitic infections, or autoimmune problems such as inflammatory bowel diseases. It can also be caused by tuberculosis, colon cancer, and enteritis.[citation needed]

Question: When does inflammatory diarrhea occur?
Answer: when there is damage to the mucosal lining or brush border

Question: What happens with inflammatory diarrhea?
Answer: a passive loss of protein-rich fluids and a decreased ability to absorb these lost fluids

Question: What can cause inflammatory diarrhea?
Answer: bacterial infections, viral infections, parasitic infections, or autoimmune problems

Question: What other causes are there for inflammatory diarrhea?
Answer: tuberculosis, colon cancer, and enteritis.

Question: What causes inflammatory tuberculosis?

Question: What does enteritis lead to?

Question: What other causes are there for parasitic infections?

Question: Name other causes of viral infections?

Question: What is damaged when color cancer occurs?
Diarrhea

Diarrheal disease may have a negative impact on both physical fitness and mental development. "Early childhood malnutrition resulting from any cause reduces physical fitness and work productivity in adults," and diarrhea is a primary cause of childhood malnutrition. Further, evidence suggests that diarrheal disease has significant impacts on mental development and health; it has been shown that, even when controlling for helminth infection and early breastfeeding, children who had experienced severe diarrhea had significantly lower scores on a series of tests of intelligence.

Question: Diarrheal disease has what effects on a person?
Answer: a negative impact on both physical fitness and mental development

Question: What can early childhood malnutrition cause?
Answer: reduces physical fitness and work productivity in adults

Question: What is the cause of childhood malnutrition?
Answer: diarrhea

Question: Children who have experienced sever diarrhea are more likely to have what effect?
Answer: significantly lower scores on a series of tests of intelligence

Question: What causes children to have low scores on physical fitness tests?

Question: What reduces mental development and productivity in adults?

Question: What does evidence show that helminth disease impacts?

Question: What disease has a negative impact on intelligence?

Question: What are children who acquire helmenth infection are more likely to have?
Diarrhea

Another possible cause of diarrhea is irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), which usually presents with abdominal discomfort relieved by defecation and unusual stool (diarrhea or constipation) for at least 3 days a week over the previous 3 months. Symptoms of diarrhea-predominant IBS can be managed through a combination of dietary changes, soluble fiber supplements, and/or medications such as loperamide or codeine. About 30% of patients with diarrhea-predominant IBS have bile acid malabsorption diagnosed with an abnormal SeHCAT test.

Question: What is IBS?
Answer: irritable bowel syndrome

Question: What symptoms do you have with IBS?
Answer: abdominal discomfort relieved by defecation and unusual stool (diarrhea or constipation) for at least 3 days a week over the previous 3 months

Question: How can symptoms be managed with IBS?
Answer: a combination of dietary changes, soluble fiber supplements, and/or medications

Question: What is another possible cause of unusual stool?

Question: How can symptoms of bile acid malabsorption be managed?

Question: What is SeHCAT syndrome?

Question: How many patients with SeHCAT have bile acid malabsorption?

Question: What is the diagnosis for patients with unusual stool?
Diarrhea

Poverty is a good indicator of the rate of infectious diarrhea in a population. This association does not stem from poverty itself, but rather from the conditions under which impoverished people live. The absence of certain resources compromises the ability of the poor to defend themselves against infectious diarrhea. "Poverty is associated with poor housing, crowding, dirt floors, lack of access to clean water or to sanitary disposal of fecal waste (sanitation), cohabitation with domestic animals that may carry human pathogens, and a lack of refrigerated storage for food, all of which increase the frequency of diarrhea... Poverty also restricts the ability to provide age-appropriate, nutritionally balanced diets or to modify diets when diarrhea develops so as to mitigate and repair nutrient losses. The impact is exacerbated by the lack of adequate, available, and affordable medical care."

Question: What is a good indicator of the rate of infectious diarrhea?
Answer: Poverty

Question: Why does living in poverty raise your risk of diarrhea?
Answer: from the conditions under which impoverished people live

Question: What causes this to be exacerbated?
Answer: the lack of adequate, available, and affordable medical care.

Question: What indicates the rate of medical care?

Question: Why does poverty raise your risk of nutrient losses?

Question: What prevents poor people from defending against human pathogens?

Question: What are some examples that the lack of affordable medical care is associated with?

Question: What restricts the ability to provide sanitation?
Diarrhea

Proper nutrition is important for health and functioning, including the prevention of infectious diarrhea. It is especially important to young children who do not have a fully developed immune system. Zinc deficiency, a condition often found in children in developing countries can, even in mild cases, have a significant impact on the development and proper functioning of the human immune system. Indeed, this relationship between zinc deficiency reduced immune functioning corresponds with an increased severity of infectious diarrhea. Children who have lowered levels of zinc have a greater number of instances of diarrhea, severe diarrhea, and diarrhea associated with fever. Similarly, vitamin A deficiency can cause an increase in the severity of diarrheal episodes, however there is some discrepancy when it comes to the impact of vitamin A deficiency on the rate of disease. While some argue that a relationship does not exist between the rate of disease and vitamin A status, others suggest an increase in the rate associated with deficiency. Given that estimates suggest 127 million preschool children worldwide are vitamin A deficient, this population has the potential for increased risk of disease contraction.

Question: Why is proper nutrition important?
Answer: for health and functioning, including the prevention of infectious diarrhea

Question: What effects does lower levels of zinc have in children?
Answer: greater number of instances of diarrhea, severe diarrhea, and diarrhea associated with fever

Question: What can having a vitamin A deficiency cause?
Answer: cause an increase in the severity of diarrheal episodes

Question: What is the rate of  vitamin A deficiency in children worldwide?
Answer: 127 million

Question: Why is a fully developed immune system important?

Question: Where is infectious diarrhea found in mild cases?

Question: What do children with lower levels of disease contraction have?

Question: How many preschool children worldwide are zinc deficient?

Question: What do others suggest regarding the increase in nutrition causes?
Diarrhea

According to two researchers, Nesse and Williams, diarrhea may function as an evolved expulsion defense mechanism. As a result, if it is stopped, there might be a delay in recovery. They cite in support of this argument research published in 1973 that found that treating Shigella with the anti-diarrhea drug (Co-phenotrope, Lomotil) caused people to stay feverish twice as long as those not so treated. The researchers indeed themselves observed that: "Lomotil may be contraindicated in shigellosis. Diarrhea may represent a defense mechanism".

Question: What did Nesse and Williams learn?
Answer: diarrhea may function as an evolved expulsion defense mechanism

Question: If diarrhea is stopped, would could happen?
Answer: there might be a delay in recovery.

Question: What happened with people with Shigella were treated with anti-diarrheal medication?
Answer: caused people to stay feverish twice as long as those not so treated.

Question: What is the function of Shigella?

Question: If research is stopped, what could happen?

Question: What happened to people with Lomotil when treated with anti diarrheal medication?

Question: What is contraindicated in support of the argument?

Question: What did the researchers discover about shigellosis?
Diarrhea

Basic sanitation techniques can have a profound effect on the transmission of diarrheal disease. The implementation of hand washing using soap and water, for example, has been experimentally shown to reduce the incidence of disease by approximately 42–48%. Hand washing in developing countries, however, is compromised by poverty as acknowledged by the CDC: "Handwashing is integral to disease prevention in all parts of the world; however, access to soap and water is limited in a number of less developed countries. This lack of access is one of many challenges to proper hygiene in less developed countries." Solutions to this barrier require the implementation of educational programs that encourage sanitary behaviours.

Question: What has had major effects on the transmission of diarrheal diseases?
Answer: Basic sanitation techniques

Question: How much does hand washing reduce the chances of disease?
Answer: approximately 42–48%

Question: Why do developing countries not wash their hands as much as other countries?
Answer: access to soap and water is limited

Question: What is a solution to help this problem?
Answer: implementation of educational programs that encourage sanitary behaviours

Question: What has a profound effect in developed countries?

Question: By what percentage do educational programs reduce the chance of disease?

Question: What is a solution to poverty?

Question: Where is education integral to prevent disease?

Question: What is a challenge to reduce disease in less developed countries?
Diarrhea

Given that water contamination is a major means of transmitting diarrheal disease, efforts to provide clean water supply and improved sanitation have the potential to dramatically cut the rate of disease incidence. In fact, it has been proposed that we might expect an 88% reduction in child mortality resulting from diarrheal disease as a result of improved water sanitation and hygiene. Similarly, a meta-analysis of numerous studies on improving water supply and sanitation shows a 22–27% reduction in disease incidence, and a 21–30% reduction in mortality rate associated with diarrheal disease.

Question: What is a major means of the spread of diarrhea disease?
Answer: water contamination

Question: What has cut the rate of diarrhea disease incidents? 
Answer: clean water supply and improved sanitation

Question: What would be the reduction in deisease incedence if there was better water and sanitation?
Answer: 22–27% reduction in disease incidence

Question: What is major way disease instance is spread?

Question: By what percentage will diarrheal disease be reduced as a result of improved water and hygene?

Question: What has cut the rate of mortality?

Question: What is the reduction in mortality rate associated with disease instance?

Question: What is a cause of child mortality?
Diarrhea

Immunization against the pathogens that cause diarrheal disease is a viable prevention strategy, however it does require targeting certain pathogens for vaccination. In the case of Rotavirus, which was responsible for around 6% of diarrheal episodes and 20% of diarrheal disease deaths in the children of developing countries, use of a Rotavirus vaccine in trials in 1985 yielded a slight (2-3%) decrease in total diarrheal disease incidence, while reducing overall mortality by 6-10%. Similarly, a Cholera vaccine showed a strong reduction in morbidity and mortality, though the overall impact of vaccination was minimal as Cholera is not one of the major causative pathogens of diarrheal disease. Since this time, more effective vaccines have been developed that have the potential to save many thousands of lives in developing nations, while reducing the overall cost of treatment, and the costs to society.

Question: What is the downfall of using immunization against the pathogens that cause disease?
Answer: it does require targeting certain pathogens for vaccination

Question: What is responsible for 6% of dearrheal disease?
Answer: Rotavirus

Question: What percent is the rotavirus responsible for in diarrheal disease deaths?
Answer: 20%

Question: What was the effect of the Rotavirus vaccine?
Answer: (2-3%) decrease in total diarrheal disease incidence

Question: What year was the Rotovirus vaccine used?
Answer: 1985

Question: What is responsible for 6% of Cholera disease?

Question: What requires targeting disease for vaccination?

Question: What were the results of Cholera vaccine trials in 1985?

Question: What year was the Cholera vaccine used?

Question: What may be the result of developing effective ways to target new pathogens?
Diarrhea

Dietary deficiencies in developing countries can be combated by promoting better eating practices. Supplementation with vitamin A and/or zinc. Zinc supplementation proved successful showing a significant decrease in the incidence of diarrheal disease compared to a control group. The majority of the literature suggests that vitamin A supplementation is advantageous in reducing disease incidence. Development of a supplementation strategy should take into consideration the fact that vitamin A supplementation was less effective in reducing diarrhea incidence when compared to vitamin A and zinc supplementation, and that the latter strategy was estimated to be significantly more cost effective.

Question: What can be done to combate dietary deficiences?
Answer: promoting better eating practices

Question: What has been used and shown successful in a decrease in incidence of diarrheal disease?
Answer: Zinc

Question: WHat strategy was found out to be more cost effective?
Answer: zinc supplementation

Question: How can zinc deficiencies be combated?

Question: What strategy showed a decrease in the incidence of dietary deficiencies?

Question: What dietary deficiency was found to be less effective in reducing diarrhea incidence?

Question: What actions help combat diarrhea?

Question: What control group was found to be more cost effective?
Diarrhea

In many cases of diarrhea, replacing lost fluid and salts is the only treatment needed. This is usually by mouth – oral rehydration therapy – or, in severe cases, intravenously. Diet restrictions such as the BRAT diet are no longer recommended. Research does not support the limiting of milk to children as doing so has no effect on duration of diarrhea. To the contrary, WHO recommends that children with diarrhea continue to eat as sufficient nutrients are usually still absorbed to support continued growth and weight gain, and that continuing to eat also speeds up recovery of normal intestinal functioning. CDC recommends that children and adults with cholera also continue to eat.

Question: What is the basic treatment many cases of diarrhea need?
Answer: replacing lost fluid and salts is the only treatment needed

Question: How is this treatment given?
Answer: This is usually by mouth – oral rehydration therapy – or, in severe cases, intravenously

Question: What type of diet is no longer recommended?
Answer: BRAT diet

Question: What does WHO recommend to do?
Answer: children with diarrhea continue to eat as sufficient nutrients are usually still absorbed to support continued growth and weight gain

Question: What treatment do people in oral rehydration therapy need?

Question: What type of diet does the BRAT recommend?

Question: What type of oral rehydration therapy is not recommended?

Question: What has no effect on the duration of cholera?

Question: What does continuing to replace lost fluid and salts intravenously speed up?
Diarrhea

Oral rehydration solution (ORS) (a slightly sweetened and salty water) can be used to prevent dehydration. Standard home solutions such as salted rice water, salted yogurt drinks, vegetable and chicken soups with salt can be given. Home solutions such as water in which cereal has been cooked, unsalted soup, green coconut water, weak tea (unsweetened), and unsweetened fresh fruit juices can have from half a teaspoon to full teaspoon of salt (from one-and-a-half to three grams) added per liter. Clean plain water can also be one of several fluids given. There are commercial solutions such as Pedialyte, and relief agencies such as UNICEF widely distribute packets of salts and sugar. A WHO publication for physicians recommends a homemade ORS consisting of one liter water with one teaspoon salt (3 grams) and two tablespoons sugar (18 grams) added (approximately the "taste of tears"). Rehydration Project recommends adding the same amount of sugar but only one-half a teaspoon of salt, stating that this more dilute approach is less risky with very little loss of effectiveness. Both agree that drinks with too much sugar or salt can make dehydration worse.

Question: What can be used to prevent dehydration?
Answer: Oral rehydration solution (ORS)

Question: What are some good standard home solutions?
Answer: salted rice water, salted yogurt drinks, vegetable and chicken soups with salt

Question: What is a commercial solution that can also be used?
Answer: Pedialyte

Question: What is the WHO's recipe for ORS?
Answer: one liter water with one teaspoon salt (3 grams) and two tablespoons sugar (18 grams) added

Question: What can make reyhdration worse?

Question: What can WHO be used for in children?

Question: Can you name some plain water solutions?

Question: Who widely distributes Pedialyte?

Question: How much chicken soup does the Rehydration Project recommend adding?
Diarrhea

Drinks especially high in simple sugars, such as soft drinks and fruit juices, are not recommended in children under 5 years of age as they may increase dehydration. A too rich solution in the gut draws water from the rest of the body, just as if the person were to drink sea water. Plain water may be used if more specific and effective ORT preparations are unavailable or are not palatable. Additionally, a mix of both plain water and drinks perhaps too rich in sugar and salt can alternatively be given to the same person, with the goal of providing a medium amount of sodium overall. A nasogastric tube can be used in young children to administer fluids if warranted.

Question: What are not recommended for younger kids because it can casue more dehydration?
Answer: Drinks especially high in simple sugars, such as soft drinks and fruit juices

Question: Why are sodas and high sugar fruit juices not recommended?
Answer: A too rich solution in the gut draws water from the rest of the body, just as if the person were to drink sea water

Question: What can be used to give fluids when they can not drink?
Answer: A nasogastric tube

Question: What can be used to give fluids if drinks are too rich in sugar?

Question: Who is plain water not recommended for?

Question: Why are plain water and ORT preparations not recommended?

Question: What can be given with the goal of providing specific ORT preparations?

Question: What does plain water do in the gut?
Diarrhea

WHO recommends a child with diarrhea continue to be fed. Continued feeding speeds the recovery of normal intestinal function. In contrast, children whose food is restricted have diarrhea of longer duration and recover intestinal function more slowly. A child should also continue to be breastfed. The WHO states "Food should never be withheld and the child's usual foods should not be diluted. Breastfeeding should always be continued." And in the specific example of cholera, CDC also makes the same recommendation. In young children who are not breast-fed and live in the developed world, a lactose-free diet may be useful to speed recovery.

Question: What does WHO recommend?
Answer: a child with diarrhea continue to be fed

Question: What does continuing to eat do for your illness?
Answer: Continued feeding speeds the recovery of normal intestinal function

Question: What happens when a childs food is restricted?
Answer: children whose food is restricted have diarrhea of longer duration and recover intestinal function more slowly

Question: What happens if a child's breastfeeding is restricted?

Question: What does the CDC state about a child's diet when they have diarrhea?

Question: What speeds up recovery of food withholding?

Question: What organization recommended that a lactose-free diet should always be continued?

Question: Who made the same recommendation regarding intestinal function?
Diarrhea

While antibiotics are beneficial in certain types of acute diarrhea, they are usually not used except in specific situations. There are concerns that antibiotics may increase the risk of hemolytic uremic syndrome in people infected with Escherichia coli O157:H7. In resource-poor countries, treatment with antibiotics may be beneficial. However, some bacteria are developing antibiotic resistance, particularly Shigella. Antibiotics can also cause diarrhea, and antibiotic-associated diarrhea is the most common adverse effect of treatment with general antibiotics.

Question: Are antibiotics used in diarrhea instances?
Answer: they are usually not used except in specific situations

Question: What are the concerns with anitbiotics?
Answer: may increase the risk of hemolytic uremic syndrome in people infected with Escherichia coli O157:H7

Question: What are bacteria doing that makes them not work as well?
Answer: some bacteria are developing antibiotic resistance

Question: What are antibiotics doing that makes treatment not work well?

Question: What are concerns with Escherichia coli O157:H7?

Question: Where is treatment for antibiotic resistance beneficial?

Question: Are antibiotics used in certain types of antibiotic resistance?

Question: What resource-poor country is developing antibiotic resistance?
Madrasa

Madrasa (Arabic: مدرسة‎, madrasah, pl. مدارس, madāris, Turkish: Medrese) is the Arabic word for any type of educational institution, whether secular or religious (of any religion). The word is variously transliterated madrasah, madarasaa, medresa, madrassa, madraza, medrese, etc. In the West, the word usually refers to a specific type of religious school or college for the study of the Islamic religion, though this may not be the only subject studied. Not all students in madaris are Muslims; there is also a modern curriculum.

Question: What are the origins of the word madrasa?
Answer: Arabic

Question: What type of educational institution does the term madrasa refer?
Answer: any type

Question: In Western culture, the term madrasa widely refers to the practices of what religion?
Answer: Islamic

Question: How many students enrolled in madaris are Muslim?
Answer: Not all

Question: What does Madrasa mean in French?

Question:  What type of educational institution does the term madrasa not cover?

Question: In Eastern culture, what religion does the term Madrasa refer to?

Question: What school does Madrasa not refer to?

Question: What is studied in Islamic religions?
Madrasa

The word madrasah derives from the triconsonantal Semitic root د-ر-س D-R-S 'to learn, study', through the wazn (form/stem) مفعل(ة)‎; mafʻal(ah), meaning "a place where something is done". Therefore, madrasah literally means "a place where learning and studying take place". The word is also present as a loanword with the same innocuous meaning in many Arabic-influenced languages, such as: Urdu, Bengali, Hindi, Persian, Turkish, Azeri, Kurdish, Indonesian, Malay and Bosnian / Croatian. In the Arabic language, the word مدرسة madrasah simply means the same as school does in the English language, whether that is private, public or parochial school, as well as for any primary or secondary school whether Muslim, non-Muslim, or secular. Unlike the use of the word school in British English, the word madrasah more closely resembles the term school in American English, in that it can refer to a university-level or post-graduate school as well as to a primary or secondary school. For example, in the Ottoman Empire during the Early Modern Period, madaris had lower schools and specialised schools where the students became known as danişmends. The usual Arabic word for a university, however, is جامعة (jāmiʻah). The Hebrew cognate midrasha also connotes the meaning of a place of learning; the related term midrash literally refers to study or learning, but has acquired mystical and religious connotations.

Question: What are the root origins of the word madrasah?
Answer: triconsonantal Semitic

Question: What is the literal translation of madrasah?
Answer: a place where learning and studying take place

Question: In Arabic, what does madarasah mean?
Answer: same as school does in the English language

Question: During the Ottoman Empire, what types of schools were typical?
Answer: lower schools and specialised

Question: What were the students in madaris called?
Answer: danişmends

Question: What are not the root origins of the word madrasah?

Question:  What is the not literal translation of madrasah?

Question: In French, what does madarasah mean?

Question:  During the Ottoman Empire, what types of schools were uncommon?

Question: What were the teachers in madaris called?