Divyanshu67/squad_v2 huggingface dataset:
Mandolin

Monroe's style involved playing lead melodies in the style of a fiddler, and also a percussive chording sound referred to as "the chop" for the sound made by the quickly struck and muted strings. He also perfected a sparse, percussive blues style, especially up the neck in keys that had not been used much in country music, notably B and E. He emphasized a powerful, syncopated right hand at the expense of left-hand virtuosity. Monroe's most influential follower of the second generation is Frank Wakefield and nowadays Mike Compton of the Nashville Bluegrass Band and David Long, who often tour as a duet. Tiny Moore of the Texas Playboys developed an electric five-string mandolin and helped popularize the instrument in Western Swing music.

Question: What chording sound was Monroe popular for?
Answer: the chop

Question: What keys was Monroe popular for? 
Answer: B and E

Question: Who was Monroe's most influential follower?
Answer: Frank Wakefield

Question: Who developed a electric five-string mandolin?
Answer: Moore of the Texas Playboys

Question: What type of music did the electric five-string mandolin help popularize?
Answer: Western Swing music

Question: What chording feeling was Monroe popular for?

Question:  What keys was Monroe unpopular for?

Question:  Who was Monroe's least influential follower?

Question:  Who developed a electric six-string mandolin?

Question:  What type of music did the electric six-string mandolin help popularize?
Mandolin

Other major bluegrass mandolinists who emerged in the early 1950s and are still active include Jesse McReynolds (of Jim and Jesse) who invented a syncopated banjo-roll-like style called crosspicking—and Bobby Osborne of the Osborne Brothers, who is a master of clarity and sparkling single-note runs. Highly respected and influential modern bluegrass players include Herschel Sizemore, Doyle Lawson, and the multi-genre Sam Bush, who is equally at home with old-time fiddle tunes, rock, reggae, and jazz. Ronnie McCoury of the Del McCoury Band has won numerous awards for his Monroe-influenced playing. The late John Duffey of the original Country Gentlemen and later the Seldom Scene did much to popularize the bluegrass mandolin among folk and urban audiences, especially on the east coast and in the Washington, D.C. area.

Question: Who was the major bluegrass mandolinist that became popular in 1950's?
Answer: Jesse McReynolds

Question: What grop was Jesse McReynolds a part of?
Answer: Jim and Jesse

Question: What technique did Jesse McReynolds create?
Answer: crosspicking

Question: What is crosspicking?
Answer: syncopated banjo-roll-like style

Question: Who won several award for his Monroe influenced music? 
Answer: Ronnie McCoury

Question: Who was the minor bluegrass mandolinist that became popular in 1950's?

Question:  What job was Jesse McReynolds a part of?

Question:  What technique did Jesse McReynolds destroy?

Question:  What isn't crosspicking?

Question:  Who won no awards for his Monroe influenced music?
Mandolin

Jethro Burns, best known as half of the comedy duo Homer and Jethro, was also the first important jazz mandolinist. Tiny Moore popularized the mandolin in Western swing music. He initially played an 8-string Gibson but switched after 1952 to a 5-string solidbody electric instrument built by Paul Bigsby. Modern players David Grisman, Sam Bush, and Mike Marshall, among others, have worked since the early 1970s to demonstrate the mandolin's versatility for all styles of music. Chris Thile of California is a well-known player, and has accomplished many feats of traditional bluegrass, classical, contemporary pop and rock; the band Nickel Creek featured his playing in its blend of traditional and pop styles, and he now plays in his band Punch Brothers. Most commonly associated with bluegrass, mandolin has been used a lot in country music over the years. Some well-known players include Marty Stuart, Vince Gill, and Ricky Skaggs.

Question: What is Jethro Burns commonly known for?
Answer: half of the comedy duo Homer and Jethro

Question: What type of music did Jethro Burns play? 
Answer: jazz mandolinist

Question: Who popularized the mandolin in Western Swing Music?
Answer: Tiny Moore

Question: Who was well known for important works of traditional blugrass?
Answer: Chris Thile of California is

Question: Who are othe rwell know players? 
Answer: Marty Stuart, Vince Gill, and Ricky Skaggs

Question: What is Jethro Burns uncommonly known for?

Question:  What type of music did Jethro Burns not play?

Question:  Who popularized the mandolin in Eastern Swing Music?

Question:  Who wasn't well known for important works of traditional bluegrass?

Question:  Who are other unknow players?
Mandolin

Mandolin has also been used in blues music, most notably by Ry Cooder, who performed outstanding covers on his very first recordings, Yank Rachell, Johnny "Man" Young, Carl Martin, and Gerry Hundt. Howard Armstrong, who is famous for blues violin, got his start with his father's mandolin and played in string bands similar to the other Tennessee string bands he came into contact with, with band makeup including "mandolins and fiddles and guitars and banjos. And once in a while they would ease a little ukulele in there and a bass fiddle." Other blues players from the era's string bands include Willie Black (Whistler And His Jug Band), Dink Brister, Jim Hill, Charles Johnson, Coley Jones (Dallas String Band), Bobby Leecan (Need More Band), Alfred Martin, Charlie McCoy (1909-1950), Al Miller, Matthew Prater, and Herb Quinn.

Question: Who got his start with his father's mandolin? 
Answer: Howard Armstrong,

Question: Who is the most popular blue music mandolinist?
Answer: Ry Cooder

Question: What other instrument did the Tennessee string bands use? 
Answer: ukulele in there and a bass fiddle

Question: Who played in the Whistler and His Jug Band? 
Answer: Willie Black

Question:  Who is the most popular red music mandolinist?

Question:  What other instrument did the Kentucky string bands use?

Question:  Who played in the Singer and His Jug Band?
Mandolin

The mandolin has been used occasionally in rock music, first appearing in the psychedelic era of the late 1960s. Levon Helm of The Band occasionally moved from his drum kit to play mandolin, most notably on Rag Mama Rag, Rockin' Chair, and Evangeline. Ian Anderson of Jethro Tull played mandolin on Fat Man, from their second album, Stand Up, and also occasionally on later releases. Rod Stewart's 1971 No. 1 hit Maggie May features a significant mandolin riff. David Grisman played mandolin on two Grateful Dead songs on the American Beauty album, Friend of the Devil and Ripple, which became instant favorites among amateur pickers at jam sessions and campground gatherings. John Paul Jones and Jimmy Page both played mandolin on Led Zeppelin songs. The popular alt rock group Imagine Dragons feature the mandolin on a few of their songs, most prominently being It's Time. Dash Crofts of the soft rock duo Seals and Crofts extensively used mandolin in their repertoire during the 1970s. Styx released the song Boat on the River in 1980, which featured Tommy Shaw on vocals and mandolin. The song didn't chart in the United States but was popular in much of Europe and the Philippines.

Question: When did the mandolin first appear in rock music?
Answer: psychedelic era of the late 1960s

Question: Who played the drums and the mandolin in the group called The Band?
Answer: Levon Helm

Question: What Rod Stewart song in 1971 featured the mandolin?
Answer: Maggie May

Question: What artist from the Greatful Dead played the mandolin?
Answer: David Grisman

Question: Tommy Shaw sang and played the mandolin in which Styx song?
Answer: Boat on the River

Question: When did the mandolin last appear in rock music?

Question: Who played the drums and the guitar in the group called The Band?

Question:  What Rod Stewart song in 1971 featured the mandolin?

Question:  What artist from the Grateful Dead didn't play the mandolin?
Mandolin

Some rock musicians today use mandolins, often single-stringed electric models rather than double-stringed acoustic mandolins. One example is Tim Brennan of the Irish-American punk rock band Dropkick Murphys. In addition to electric guitar, bass, and drums, the band uses several instruments associated with traditional Celtic music, including mandolin, tin whistle, and Great Highland bagpipes. The band explains that these instruments accentuate the growling sound they favor. The 1991 R.E.M. hit "Losing My Religion" was driven by a few simple mandolin licks played by guitarist Peter Buck, who also played the mandolin in nearly a dozen other songs. The single peaked at No. 4 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart (#1 on the rock and alternative charts), Luther Dickinson of North Mississippi Allstars and The Black Crowes has made frequent use of the mandolin, most notably on the Black Crowes song "Locust Street." Armenian American rock group System of A Down makes extensive use of the mandolin on their 2005 double album Mezmerize/Hypnotize. Pop punk band Green Day has used a mandolin in several occasions, especially on their 2000 album, Warning. Boyd Tinsley, violin player of the Dave Matthews Band has been using an electric mandolin since 2005. Frontman Colin Meloy and guitarist Chris Funk of The Decemberists regularly employ the mandolin in the band's music. Nancy Wilson, rhythm guitarist of Heart, uses a mandolin in Heart's song "Dream of the Archer" from the album Little Queen, as well as in Heart's cover of Led Zeppelin's song "The Battle of Evermore." "Show Me Heaven" by Maria McKee, the theme song to the film Days of Thunder, prominently features a mandolin.

Question: What type of mandolin do rock musicians today use? 
Answer: single-stringed electric

Question: Which Irish-American punk band uses Mandolins?
Answer: Dropkick Murphys

Question: What REM song uses simple mandolin licks?
Answer: Losing My Religion

Question: What American rock band has extensive use of mandolins? 
Answer: System of A Down

Question: What film's theme song uses a mandolin?
Answer: Days of Thunder

Question: What type of mandolin do rock musicians never today use?

Question: Which Italian-American punk band uses Mandolins?

Question:  What REM song uses complex mandolin licks?
Mandolin

As in Brazil, the mandolin has played an important role in the Music of Venezuela. It has enjoyed a privileged position as the main melodic instrument in several different regions of the country. Specifically, the eastern states of Sucre, Nueva Esparta, Anzoategui and Monagas have made the mandolin the main instrument in their versions of Joropo as well as Puntos, Jotas, Polos, Fulias, Merengues and Malagueñas. Also, in the west of the country the sound of the mandolin is intrinsically associated with the regional genres of the Venezuelan Andes: Bambucos, Pasillos, Pasodobles, and Waltzes. In the western city of Maracaibo the Mandolin has been played in Decimas, Danzas and Contradanzas Zulianas; in the capital, Caracas, the Merengue Rucaneao, Pasodobles and Waltzes have also been played with mandolin for almost a century. Today, Venezuelan mandolists include an important group of virtuoso players and ensembles such as Alberto Valderrama, Jesus Rengel, Ricardo Sandoval, Saul Vera, and Cristobal Soto.

Question: What place in Brazil do mandolins play an important role?  
Answer: Venezuela

Question: What is the sound of mandolin associated with in the west country? 
Answer: regional genres of the Venezuelan Andes

Question: Who are the famous Venezuelen mandolinist? 
Answer: Alberto Valderrama, Jesus Rengel, Ricardo Sandoval, Saul Vera, and Cristobal Soto.

Question:  What place in Brazil do mandolins play an unimportant role?

Question: What is the sound of mandolin not associated with in the west country?

Question:  Who are the not famous Venezuelen mandolinist?
Mandolin

To fill this gap in the literature, mandolin orchestras have traditionally played many arrangements of music written for regular orchestras or other ensembles. Some players have sought out contemporary composers to solicit new works. Traditional mandolin orchestras remain especially popular in Japan and Germany, but also exist throughout the United States, Europe and the rest of the world. They perform works composed for mandolin family instruments, or re-orchestrations of traditional pieces. The structure of a contemporary traditional mandolin orchestra consists of: first and second mandolins, mandolas (either octave mandolas, tuned an octave below the mandolin, or tenor mandolas, tuned like the viola), mandocellos (tuned like the cello), and bass instruments (conventional string bass or, rarely, mandobasses). Smaller ensembles, such as quartets composed of two mandolins, mandola, and mandocello, may also be found.

Question: What type of music has mandolins played? 
Answer: mandolin orchestras have traditionally played many arrangements of music written for regular orchestras or other ensembles

Question: Where do traditional mandolin orchestras remain popular? 
Answer: Japan and Germany

Question: What do the structure of a contempory traditional orchestra consist of?
Answer: first and second mandolins,

Question: What are smalled ensambles composed of? 
Answer: two mandolins, mandola, and mandocello,

Question: What are the mandocellos usually tuned like? 
Answer: cello

Question: What type of music has mandolins never played?

Question:  Where do traditional mandolin orchestras remain unpopular?

Question: What do the structure of a contemporary untraditional orchestra consist of?

Question: What are large ensambles composed of?
Insect

Insects play important roles in biological research. For example, because of its small size, short generation time and high fecundity, the common fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster is a model organism for studies in the genetics of higher eukaryotes. D. melanogaster has been an essential part of studies into principles like genetic linkage, interactions between genes, chromosomal genetics, development, behavior and evolution. Because genetic systems are well conserved among eukaryotes, understanding basic cellular processes like DNA replication or transcription in fruit flies can help to understand those processes in other eukaryotes, including humans. The genome of D. melanogaster was sequenced in 2000, reflecting the organism's important role in biological research. It was found that 70% of the fly genome is similar to the human genome, supporting the evolution theory.

Question: Insects play prominent roles in what?
Answer: biological research

Question: What is a common insect used for research purposes?
Answer: fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster

Question: Drosophila has helped develop principles in what kind of linkage?
Answer: genetic

Question: Genetic systems are conserved among what?
Answer: eukaryotes

Question: What percent of the fly genome is similar to the human genome
Answer: 70%
Insect

Scarab beetles held religious and cultural symbolism in Old Egypt, Greece and some shamanistic Old World cultures. The ancient Chinese regarded cicadas as symbols of rebirth or immortality. In Mesopotamian literature, the epic poem of Gilgamesh has allusions to Odonata which signify the impossibility of immortality. Amongst the Aborigines of Australia of the Arrernte language groups, honey ants and witchety grubs served as personal clan totems. In the case of the 'San' bush-men of the Kalahari, it is the praying mantis which holds much cultural significance including creation and zen-like patience in waiting.:9

Question: What ancient world insect is considered symbolic?
Answer: Scarab beetles

Question: Cicadas symbolize immortality in what culture?
Answer: Chinese

Question: What kind of ants are symbolic among the Australian Aborigines?
Answer: honey ants

Question: The praying mantis symbolizes patience and what else?
Answer: creation

Question: Witchety grubs serve as personal clan totems in what country?
Answer: Australia
Race_(human_categorization)

Even though there is a broad scientific agreement that essentialist and typological conceptualizations of race are untenable, scientists around the world continue to conceptualize race in widely differing ways, some of which have essentialist implications. While some researchers sometimes use the concept of race to make distinctions among fuzzy sets of traits, others in the scientific community suggest that the idea of race often is used in a naive or simplistic way,[page needed] and argue that, among humans, race has no taxonomic significance by pointing out that all living humans belong to the same species, Homo sapiens, and subspecies, Homo sapiens sapiens.

Question: What do all living humans belong to?
Answer: the same species

Question: What species are all humans?
Answer: Homo sapiens

Question: Race has no taxonomic significance among whom?
Answer: humans

Question: What set of traits do some scientists use race to make distinctions among?
Answer: fuzzy

Question: How do scientists around the world continue to conceptualize race?
Answer: in widely differing ways
Race_(human_categorization)

There is a wide consensus that the racial categories that are common in everyday usage are socially constructed, and that racial groups cannot be biologically defined. Nonetheless, some scholars argue that racial categories obviously correlate with biological traits (e.g. phenotype) to some degree, and that certain genetic markers have varying frequencies among human populations, some of which correspond more or less to traditional racial groupings. For this reason, there is no current consensus about whether racial categories can be considered to have significance for understanding human genetic variation.

Question: What type of group can't be biologically defined?
Answer: racial

Question: What type of categorization in every day usage is there wide agreement it is only a social construct?
Answer: racial

Question: What do some people contend racial categories are obviously correlated with?
Answer: biological traits

Question: Some genetic markers have varying frequencies among what populations?
Answer: human

Question: What is the majority opinion on whether racial categories can be considered to have impact on human genetic variation? 
Answer: no current consensus
Race_(human_categorization)

When people define and talk about a particular conception of race, they create a social reality through which social categorization is achieved. In this sense, races are said to be social constructs. These constructs develop within various legal, economic, and sociopolitical contexts, and may be the effect, rather than the cause, of major social situations. While race is understood to be a social construct by many, most scholars agree that race has real material effects in the lives of people through institutionalized practices of preference and discrimination.

Question: How do people create a social reality in which social categorization is achieved?
Answer: define and talk about a particular conception of race

Question: What can be said to be a social construct?
Answer: races

Question: What contexts do racial social constructs develop within?
Answer: legal, economic, and sociopolitical

Question: Constructs may be the result rather than the inciter of what?
Answer: major social situations

Question: What effect does race have in the lives of people?
Answer: real material
Race_(human_categorization)

Socioeconomic factors, in combination with early but enduring views of race, have led to considerable suffering within disadvantaged racial groups. Racial discrimination often coincides with racist mindsets, whereby the individuals and ideologies of one group come to perceive the members of an outgroup as both racially defined and morally inferior. As a result, racial groups possessing relatively little power often find themselves excluded or oppressed, while hegemonic individuals and institutions are charged with holding racist attitudes. Racism has led to many instances of tragedy, including slavery and genocide.

Question: Socioeconomic factors and enduring views on race has led to what for certain racial groups?
Answer: considerable suffering

Question: What is discrimination often paired with?
Answer: racist mindsets

Question: What do members of one group typically perceive the moral standing of outgroups as?
Answer: inferior

Question: What do groups with less power often find themselves?
Answer: excluded or oppressed

Question: What has led to many tragic instances of events like slavery and genocide?
Answer: Racism
Race_(human_categorization)

In some countries, law enforcement uses race to profile suspects. This use of racial categories is frequently criticized for perpetuating an outmoded understanding of human biological variation, and promoting stereotypes. Because in some societies racial groupings correspond closely with patterns of social stratification, for social scientists studying social inequality, race can be a significant variable. As sociological factors, racial categories may in part reflect subjective attributions, self-identities, and social institutions.

Question: What does law enforcement in some countries use to profile suspects?
Answer: race

Question: Why is using racial categorization for profiling often criticized? 
Answer: perpetuating an outmoded understanding of human biological variation

Question: What promotes stereotypes?
Answer: use of racial categories

Question: Who can race serve as a significant factor when studying social inequality?
Answer: social scientists

Question: What may in part reflect subjective attributes, self-identities and social institutions? 
Answer: sociological factors
Race_(human_categorization)

Groups of humans have always identified themselves as distinct from neighboring groups, but such differences have not always been understood to be natural, immutable and global. These features are the distinguishing features of how the concept of race is used today. In this way the idea of race as we understand it today came about during the historical process of exploration and conquest which brought Europeans into contact with groups from different continents, and of the ideology of classification and typology found in the natural sciences.

Question: What have human groups always considered themselves as compared to other nearby groups?
Answer: distinct

Question: What have differences among groups not typically been perceived as being?
Answer: natural, immutable and global

Question: During which process did our current idea of race come about?
Answer: exploration and conquest

Question: Where did Europeans come into contact with other groups?
Answer: different continents

Question: What ideaology is found in the natural sciences?
Answer: classification and typology
Race_(human_categorization)

The European concept of "race", along with many of the ideas now associated with the term, arose at the time of the scientific revolution, which introduced and privileged the study of natural kinds, and the age of European imperialism and colonization which established political relations between Europeans and peoples with distinct cultural and political traditions. As Europeans encountered people from different parts of the world, they speculated about the physical, social, and cultural differences among various human groups. The rise of the Atlantic slave trade, which gradually displaced an earlier trade in slaves from throughout the world, created a further incentive to categorize human groups in order to justify the subordination of African slaves. Drawing on Classical sources and upon their own internal interactions — for example, the hostility between the English and Irish powerfully influenced early European thinking about the differences between people — Europeans began to sort themselves and others into groups based on physical appearance, and to attribute to individuals belonging to these groups behaviors and capacities which were claimed to be deeply ingrained. A set of folk beliefs took hold that linked inherited physical differences between groups to inherited intellectual, behavioral, and moral qualities. Similar ideas can be found in other cultures, for example in China, where a concept often translated as "race" was associated with supposed common descent from the Yellow Emperor, and used to stress the unity of ethnic groups in China. Brutal conflicts between ethnic groups have existed throughout history and across the world.

Question: When did many of the ideas associated with the term "race" arise?
Answer: time of the scientific revolution

Question: What created relations between Europeans and people with different cultures?
Answer: colonization

Question: Who speculated about the observable difference among different groups of humans?
Answer: Europeans

Question: Justifying the subordination of what group was one of the incentives to categorize human groups?
Answer: African slaves

Question: What groups has there always been brutal conflict between?
Answer: ethnic
Race_(human_categorization)

The first post-Classical published classification of humans into distinct races seems to be François Bernier's Nouvelle division de la terre par les différents espèces ou races qui l'habitent ("New division of Earth by the different species or races which inhabit it"), published in 1684. In the 18th century the differences among human groups became a focus of scientific investigation. But the scientific classification of phenotypic variation was frequently coupled with racist ideas about innate predispositions of different groups, always attributing the most desirable features to the White, European race and arranging the other races along a continuum of progressively undesirable attributes. The 1735 classification of Carl Linnaeus, inventor of zoological taxonomy, divided the human race Homo sapiens into continental varieties of europaeus, asiaticus, americanus, and afer, each associated with a different humour: sanguine, melancholic, choleric, and phlegmatic, respectively. Homo sapiens europaeus was described as active, acute, and adventurous, whereas Homo sapiens afer was said to be crafty, lazy, and careless.

Question: Who was the author of the first published book classifying humans into distinct races?
Answer: François Bernier

Question: In what century did differences among human groups become a focus of science?
Answer: 18th century

Question: What race was typically ascribed the most desirable features?
Answer: White

Question: How was Homo sapiens europaeus described as?
Answer: active, acute, and adventurous

Question: What attributes were bestowed on homo spaiens afer?
Answer: crafty, lazy, and careless
Race_(human_categorization)

The 1775 treatise "The Natural Varieties of Mankind", by Johann Friedrich Blumenbach proposed five major divisions: the Caucasoid race, Mongoloid race, Ethiopian race (later termed Negroid, and not to be confused with the narrower Ethiopid race), American Indian race, and Malayan race, but he did not propose any hierarchy among the races. Blumenbach also noted the graded transition in appearances from one group to adjacent groups and suggested that "one variety of mankind does so sensibly pass into the other, that you cannot mark out the limits between them".

Question: What year was Blumenbach's treatise published?
Answer: 1775

Question: How many divisions did Blumenbach's treatise specify?
Answer: five

Question: What race was later renamed to Negroid?
Answer: Ethiopian

Question: What type of transition was noted from one group to the next?
Answer: graded

Question: What can one not mark between the variety of mankind?
Answer: limits
Race_(human_categorization)

From the 17th through 19th centuries, the merging of folk beliefs about group differences with scientific explanations of those differences produced what one scholar has called an "ideology of race". According to this ideology, races are primordial, natural, enduring and distinct. It was further argued that some groups may be the result of mixture between formerly distinct populations, but that careful study could distinguish the ancestral races that had combined to produce admixed groups. Subsequent influential classifications by Georges Buffon, Petrus Camper and Christoph Meiners all classified "Negros" as inferior to Europeans. In the United States the racial theories of Thomas Jefferson were influential. He saw Africans as inferior to Whites especially in regards to their intellect, and imbued with unnatural sexual appetites, but described Native Americans as equals to whites.

Question: What did the merging of superstitious beliefs and scientific ones regarding group differences produce?
Answer: an "ideology of race"

Question: What were races considered to be, according to the ideology of race?
Answer: primordial, natural, enduring and distinct

Question: How might some groups have resulted, according to the ideology?
Answer: mixture between formerly distinct populations

Question: What group was identified as being inferior to Europeans?
Answer: Negros

Question: Who particularly noted the unnatural sexual appetites of Africans?
Answer: Thomas Jefferson
Race_(human_categorization)

In the last two decades of the 18th century, the theory of polygenism, the belief that different races had evolved separately in each continent and shared no common ancestor, was advocated in England by historian Edward Long and anatomist Charles White, in Germany by ethnographers Christoph Meiners and Georg Forster, and in France by Julien-Joseph Virey. In the US, Samuel George Morton, Josiah Nott and Louis Agassiz promoted this theory in the mid-nineteenth century. Polygenism was popular and most widespread in the 19th century, culminating in the founding of the Anthropological Society of London (1863) during the period of the American Civil War, in opposition to the Ethnological Society, which had abolitionist sympathies.

Question: What theory is the belief that differences races had evolved independently on each continent?
Answer: polygenism

Question: What country did Edward Long and Charles White advocated the belief of polygenism in?
Answer: England

Question: What was the profession of Christoph Meiners and Georg Forster?
Answer: ethnographers

Question: In what century was polygenism most widespread?
Answer: 19th century

Question: The Ethnological Society was sympathetic towards what cause?
Answer: abolitionist
Race_(human_categorization)

Today, all humans are classified as belonging to the species Homo sapiens and sub-species Homo sapiens sapiens. However, this is not the first species of homininae: the first species of genus Homo, Homo habilis, are theorized to have evolved in East Africa at least 2 million years ago, and members of this species populated different parts of Africa in a relatively short time. Homo erectus is theorized to have evolved more than 1.8 million years ago, and by 1.5 million years ago had spread throughout Europe and Asia. Virtually all physical anthropologists agree that Archaic Homo sapiens (A group including the possible species H. heidelbergensis, H. rhodesiensis and H. neanderthalensis) evolved out of African Homo erectus ((sensu lato) or Homo ergaster).

Question: What species do all living humans today belong to?
Answer: Homo sapiens

Question: When is it theorized that Homo habilis evolved in East Africa?
Answer: 2 million years ago

Question: How many millions of years ago had Homo erectus spread throughout Europa and Asia?
Answer: 1.5

Question: Members of what species populated parts of Africa in a relatively short time?
Answer: Homo habilis

Question: What group might have Archaic Homo sapiens evolve out of?
Answer: African Homo erectus
Race_(human_categorization)

In the early 20th century, many anthropologists accepted and taught the belief that biologically distinct races were isomorphic with distinct linguistic, cultural, and social groups, while popularly applying that belief to the field of eugenics, in conjunction with a practice that is now called scientific racism. After the Nazi eugenics program, racial essentialism lost widespread popularity. Race anthropologists were pressured to acknowledge findings coming from studies of culture and population genetics, and to revise their conclusions about the sources of phenotypic variation. A significant number of modern anthropologists and biologists in the West came to view race as an invalid genetic or biological designation.

Question: Who taught and accepted the belief that biologically distinct races were isomorphic?
Answer: many anthropologists

Question: What practice was combined with the field of eugenics regarding the distinctness of social groups?
Answer: scientific racism

Question: What effect did the Nazi eugenics program have on racial essentialism? 
Answer: lost widespread popularity

Question: What conclusions were race anthropologists pressured to revise?
Answer: sources of phenotypic variation

Question: What did a lot of modern anthropologists in the West come to view racial designation as?
Answer: invalid
Race_(human_categorization)

Population geneticists have debated whether the concept of population can provide a basis for a new conception of race. In order to do this, a working definition of population must be found. Surprisingly, there is no generally accepted concept of population that biologists use. Although the concept of population is central to ecology, evolutionary biology and conservation biology, most definitions of population rely on qualitative descriptions such as "a group of organisms of the same species occupying a particular space at a particular time" Waples and Gaggiotti identify two broad types of definitions for populations; those that fall into an ecological paradigm, and those that fall into an evolutionary paradigm. Examples of such definitions are:

Question: What type of geneticists have debates about what can provide a basis for a new conception of race?
Answer: Population

Question: What class of researchers surprisingly have no generally accepted concept of population?
Answer: biologists

Question: What do most definitions of population rely on?
Answer: qualitative descriptions

Question: What do Waples and Gaggiotti identify two broad types of?
Answer: definitions for populations

Question: What are both ecological and evolutionary definition modifiers of?
Answer: paradigm
Race_(human_categorization)

Traditionally, subspecies are seen as geographically isolated and genetically differentiated populations. That is, "the designation 'subspecies' is used to indicate an objective degree of microevolutionary divergence" One objection to this idea is that it does not specify what degree of differentiation is required. Therefore, any population that is somewhat biologically different could be considered a subspecies, even to the level of a local population. As a result, Templeton has argued that it is necessary to impose a threshold on the level of difference that is required for a population to be designated a subspecies.

Question: What are traditionally geographically isolated?
Answer: subspecies

Question: What is "subspecies" used to indicate an objective degree of?
Answer: microevolutionary divergence

Question: What is an objection to the idea of subspecies because it doesn't specify this?
Answer: degree of differentiation

Question: What would a population have to somewhat be to be considered a subspecies?
Answer: biologically different

Question: What did Templeton argue is necessary to impose a threshold on for a population to be a subspecies?
Answer: level of difference
Race_(human_categorization)

This effectively means that populations of organisms must have reached a certain measurable level of difference to be recognised as subspecies. Dean Amadon proposed in 1949 that subspecies would be defined according to the seventy-five percent rule which means that 75% of a population must lie outside 99% of the range of other populations for a given defining morphological character or a set of characters. The seventy-five percent rule still has defenders but other scholars argue that it should be replaced with ninety or ninety-five percent rule.

Question: What must organisms have a measurable level of to be seen as a subspecies?
Answer: difference

Question: Who proposed subspecies be defined by the seventy-five percent rule?
Answer: Dean Amadon

Question: What year did Dean Amadon make his proposal?
Answer: 1949

Question: The 75% rule states how much of a population must lie outside the range of other populations for a defining set of characters?
Answer: 99%

Question: Many scholars argue what should be replaced with a ninety or ninety-five percent rule?
Answer: The seventy-five percent rule
Race_(human_categorization)

In 1978, Sewall Wright suggested that human populations that have long inhabited separated parts of the world should, in general, be considered different subspecies by the usual criterion that most individuals of such populations can be allocated correctly by inspection. Wright argued that it does not require a trained anthropologist to classify an array of Englishmen, West Africans, and Chinese with 100% accuracy by features, skin color, and type of hair despite so much variability within each of these groups that every individual can easily be distinguished from every other. However, it is customary to use the term race rather than subspecies for the major subdivisions of the human species as well as for minor ones.

Question: When did Sewall Wright make his suggestion about human populations?
Answer: 1978

Question: How should populations long inhabiting separate parts of the world be considered?
Answer: different subspecies

Question: What is required to allocate individuals in subspecies populations correctly?
Answer: inspection

Question: What did Wright feel it wouldn't take an anthropologist to easily distinguish between of in groups?
Answer: individual

Question: What term is it customary to use instead of subspecies?
Answer: race
Race_(human_categorization)

Cladistics is another method of classification. A clade is a taxonomic group of organisms consisting of a single common ancestor and all the descendants of that ancestor. Every creature produced by sexual reproduction has two immediate lineages, one maternal and one paternal. Whereas Carl Linnaeus established a taxonomy of living organisms based on anatomical similarities and differences, cladistics seeks to establish a taxonomy—the phylogenetic tree—based on genetic similarities and differences and tracing the process of acquisition of multiple characteristics by single organisms. Some researchers have tried to clarify the idea of race by equating it to the biological idea of the clade. Often mitochondrial DNA or Y chromosome sequences are used to study ancient human migration paths. These single-locus sources of DNA do not recombine and are inherited from a single parent. Individuals from the various continental groups tend to be more similar to one another than to people from other continents, and tracing either mitochondrial DNA or non-recombinant Y-chromosome DNA explains how people in one place may be largely derived from people in some remote location.

Question: What is cladistics a method of?
Answer: classification

Question: What is a clade a taxonomic group of?
Answer: organisms

Question: How many common ancestors does a clade have?
Answer: single

Question: What is another term for a phylogenetic tree?
Answer: taxonomy

Question: Which chromosome sequences are used to study ancient human migration paths?
Answer: Y
Race_(human_categorization)

Often taxonomists prefer to use phylogenetic analysis to determine whether a population can be considered a subspecies. Phylogenetic analysis relies on the concept of derived characteristics that are not shared between groups, usually applying to populations that are allopatric (geographically separated) and therefore discretely bounded. This would make a subspecies, evolutionarily speaking, a clade – a group with a common evolutionary ancestor population. The smooth gradation of human genetic variation in general tends to rule out any idea that human population groups can be considered monophyletic (cleanly divided), as there appears to always have been considerable gene flow between human populations. Rachel Caspari (2003) have argued that clades are by definition monophyletic groups (a taxon that includes all descendants of a given ancestor) and since no groups currently regarded as races are monophyletic, none of those groups can be clades.

Question: What analysis method are taxonomists fond of using in considering a population?
Answer: phylogenetic

Question: How are allopatric populations separated? 
Answer: geographically

Question: What is a group with a common evolutionary ancestor population called?
Answer: a clade

Question: What is a tongue twister of a word that merely means "cleanly divided"?
Answer: monophyletic

Question: Who argued in 2003 that all clades are by definition monophyletic groups?
Answer: Rachel Caspari
Race_(human_categorization)

For the anthropologists Lieberman and Jackson (1995), however, there are more profound methodological and conceptual problems with using cladistics to support concepts of race. They claim that "the molecular and biochemical proponents of this model explicitly use racial categories in their initial grouping of samples". For example, the large and highly diverse macroethnic groups of East Indians, North Africans, and Europeans are presumptively grouped as Caucasians prior to the analysis of their DNA variation. This is claimed to limit and skew interpretations, obscure other lineage relationships, deemphasize the impact of more immediate clinal environmental factors on genomic diversity, and can cloud our understanding of the true patterns of affinity. They argue that however significant the empirical research, these studies use the term race in conceptually imprecise and careless ways. They suggest that the authors of these studies find support for racial distinctions only because they began by assuming the validity of race. "For empirical reasons we prefer to place emphasis on clinal variation, which recognizes the existence of adaptive human hereditary variation and simultaneously stresses that such variation is not found in packages that can be labeled races."

Question: What did Lieberman and Jackon find profound problems using cladistics to support concepts of?
Answer: race

Question: What would the diverse group of East Indians, North Africans and Europeans be grouped as prior to DNA analysis?
Answer: Caucasians

Question: Cladistics can limit and skew what?
Answer: interpretations

Question: Lieberman and Jackson suggest authors of some studies use the term race in what ways?
Answer: conceptually imprecise and careless

Question: What is variation found in that can be labeled as races?
Answer: packages
Race_(human_categorization)

One crucial innovation in reconceptualizing genotypic and phenotypic variation was the anthropologist C. Loring Brace's observation that such variations, insofar as it is affected by natural selection, slow migration, or genetic drift, are distributed along geographic gradations or clines. In part this is due to isolation by distance. This point called attention to a problem common to phenotype-based descriptions of races (for example, those based on hair texture and skin color): they ignore a host of other similarities and differences (for example, blood type) that do not correlate highly with the markers for race. Thus, anthropologist Frank Livingstone's conclusion, that since clines cross racial boundaries, "there are no races, only clines".

Question: What did C. Loring Brace observe about about variations?
Answer: distributed along geographic gradations or clines

Question: Why are variations distributed along clines?
Answer: isolation by distance

Question: What is a problem common to phenotype-based descriptions of races?
Answer: they ignore a host of other similarities and differences

Question: What is Frank Livingstone's profession?
Answer: anthropologist

Question: What is the conclusion from the evidence that clines cross racial boundaries?
Answer: there are no races, only clines
Race_(human_categorization)

In a response to Livingstone, Theodore Dobzhansky argued that when talking about race one must be attentive to how the term is being used: "I agree with Dr. Livingstone that if races have to be 'discrete units,' then there are no races, and if 'race' is used as an 'explanation' of the human variability, rather than vice versa, then the explanation is invalid." He further argued that one could use the term race if one distinguished between "race differences" and "the race concept." The former refers to any distinction in gene frequencies between populations; the latter is "a matter of judgment." He further observed that even when there is clinal variation, "Race differences are objectively ascertainable biological phenomena… but it does not follow that racially distinct populations must be given racial (or subspecific) labels." In short, Livingstone and Dobzhansky agree that there are genetic differences among human beings; they also agree that the use of the race concept to classify people, and how the race concept is used, is a matter of social convention. They differ on whether the race concept remains a meaningful and useful social convention.

Question: What must one be attentive to when talking about race?
Answer: how the term is being used

Question: On what point did Dobzhansky agree with Dr. Livingstone?
Answer: if races have to be 'discrete units,' then there are no races

Question: What is merely "a matter of judgement"?
Answer: "the race concept."

Question: While race difference possible to easily see, they need not be given what?
Answer: labels

Question: Livingston and Dobzhansky disagree on whether the race concept is what?
Answer: a meaningful and useful social convention
Race_(human_categorization)

In 1964, the biologists Paul Ehrlich and Holm pointed out cases where two or more clines are distributed discordantly—for example, melanin is distributed in a decreasing pattern from the equator north and south; frequencies for the haplotype for beta-S hemoglobin, on the other hand, radiate out of specific geographical points in Africa. As the anthropologists Leonard Lieberman and Fatimah Linda Jackson observed, "Discordant patterns of heterogeneity falsify any description of a population as if it were genotypically or even phenotypically homogeneous".

Question: What did two biologists point out in 1964?
Answer: cases where two or more clines are distributed discordantly

Question: What gene distribution decreases as you move away from the equator in either direction?
Answer: melanin

Question: What do the frequencies for the haplotype for beta-5 hemogoblin do from specific points in Africa?
Answer: radiate

Question: To what profession do both Leonard Lieberman and Fatimah Linda Jackson belong?
Answer: anthropologists

Question: What patterns of heterogeneity falsify any descriptions of population?
Answer: Discordant
Race_(human_categorization)

Patterns such as those seen in human physical and genetic variation as described above, have led to the consequence that the number and geographic location of any described races is highly dependent on the importance attributed to, and quantity of, the traits considered. Scientists discovered a skin-lighting mutation that partially accounts for the appearance of Light skin in humans (people who migrated out of Africa northward into what is now Europe) which they estimate occurred 20,000 to 50,000 years ago. The East Asians owe their relatively light skin to different mutations. On the other hand, the greater the number of traits (or alleles) considered, the more subdivisions of humanity are detected, since traits and gene frequencies do not always correspond to the same geographical location. Or as Ossorio & Duster (2005) put it:

Question: What is the consequence of the number and geographic location ascribed to a race highly dependent on?
Answer: the importance attributed to, and quantity of, the traits considered.

Question: What mutation did scientists discover?
Answer: skin-lighting

Question: What partially accounts for the appearance of light skin in humans?
Answer: mutation

Question: What do East Asians have to thank for their relatively light skin?
Answer: different mutations

Question: Traits and gene frequencies do not always correspond to what type of location?
Answer: geographical