Divyanshu67/squad_v2 huggingface dataset:
Police

In the American Old West, policing was often of very poor quality.[citation needed] The Army often provided some policing alongside poorly resourced sheriffs and temporarily organized posses.[citation needed] Public organizations were supplemented by private contractors, notably the Pinkerton National Detective Agency, which was hired by individuals, businessmen, local governments and the federal government. At its height, the Pinkerton Agency's numbers exceeded those of the United States Army.[citation needed]

Question: What were the Old West's local police options?
Answer: poorly resourced sheriffs and temporarily organized posses

Question: Which military branch helped the Old West's inadequate local police?
Answer: The Army

Question: Which private contractor acted as police for businesses?
Answer: Pinkerton National Detective Agency

Question: Which military branch did the Pinkertons exceed at their height?
Answer: Army

Question: What were the New West's local police options?

Question: What were the Old West's national police options?

Question: Which military branch fought the Old West's inadequate local police?

Question: Which public contractor acted as police for businesses?

Question: Which military branch did the Pinkertons never exceed at their height?
Police

Michel Foucault claims that the contemporary concept of police as a paid and funded functionary of the state was developed by German and French legal scholars and practitioners in Public administration and Statistics in the 17th and early 18th centuries, most notably with Nicolas Delamare's Traité de la Police ("Treatise on the Police"), first published in 1705. The German Polizeiwissenschaft (Science of Police) first theorized by Philipp von Hörnigk a 17th-century Austrian Political economist and civil servant and much more famously by Johann Heinrich Gottlob Justi who produced an important theoretical work known as Cameral science on the formulation of police. Foucault cites Magdalene Humpert author of Bibliographie der Kameralwissenschaften (1937) in which the author makes note of a substantial bibliography was produced of over 4000 pieces of the practice of Polizeiwissenschaft however, this maybe a mistranslation of Foucault's own work the actual source of Magdalene Humpert states over 14,000 items were produced from the 16th century dates ranging from 1520-1850.

Question: Which countries' scholars developed the contemporary police concept?
Answer: German and French

Question: Who wrote the 'Treatise on the Police'?
Answer: Nicolas Delamare

Question: What was the 'Treatise on the Police' called in French?
Answer: Traité de la Police

Question: When was the 'Treatise on the Police' published?
Answer: 1705

Question: What was von Hornigk's career?
Answer: Political economist and civil servant

Question: Which countries' scholars rejected the contemporary police concept?

Question: Who co-wrote the 'Treatise on the Police'?

Question: What wasn't the 'Treatise on the Police' called in French?

Question: When was the 'Treatise on the Police' abolished?

Question: What wasn't von Hornigk's career?
Police

As conceptualized by the Polizeiwissenschaft,according to Foucault the police had an administrative,economic and social duty ("procuring abundance"). It was in charge of demographic concerns and needed to be incorporated within the western political philosophy system of raison d'état and therefore giving the superficial appearance of empowering the population (and unwittingly supervising the population), which, according to mercantilist theory, was to be the main strength of the state. Thus, its functions largely overreached simple law enforcement activities and included public health concerns, urban planning (which was important because of the miasma theory of disease; thus, cemeteries were moved out of town, etc.), and surveillance of prices.

Question: Who wrote about Polizeiwissenschaft?
Answer: Foucault

Question: How did Foucault describe the social duty of police?
Answer: procuring abundance

Question: Which economic theory did Foucault say supported the police?
Answer: mercantilist theory

Question: Why did the functions of police grow beyond law enforcement to urban planning?
Answer: because of the miasma theory of disease; thus, cemeteries were moved out of town, etc.

Question: Who never wrote about Polizeiwissenschaft?

Question: How did Foucault describe the social duty of army?

Question: Which economic theory did Foucault say rejected the police?

Question: Which biology theory did Foucault say supported the police?

Question: Why didn't the functions of police grow beyond law enforcement to urban planning?
Police

Edwin Chadwick's 1829 article, "Preventive police" in the London Review, argued that prevention ought to be the primary concern of a police body, which was not the case in practice. The reason, argued Chadwick, was that "A preventive police would act more immediately by placing difficulties in obtaining the objects of temptation." In contrast to a deterrent of punishment, a preventive police force would deter criminality by making crime cost-ineffective - "crime doesn't pay". In the second draft of his 1829 Police Act, the "object" of the new Metropolitan Police, was changed by Robert Peel to the "principal object," which was the "prevention of crime." Later historians would attribute the perception of England's "appearance of orderliness and love of public order" to the preventive principle entrenched in Peel's police system.

Question: Who wrote 'Preventive Police'?
Answer: Edwin Chadwick

Question: When was 'Preventive Police' published?
Answer: 1829

Question: Where was 'Preventive Police' published?
Answer: London Review

Question: What did Chadwick say police should be focused on?
Answer: prevention

Question: What was the alternative to prevention?
Answer: a deterrent of punishment

Question: Who co-wrote 'Preventive Police'?

Question: When was 'Preventive Police' not published?

Question: Where was 'Preventive Police' unpublished?

Question: What did Chadwick say police shouldn't be focused on?

Question: What was the same as prevention?
Police

Despite popular conceptions promoted by movies and television, many US police departments prefer not to maintain officers in non-patrol bureaus and divisions beyond a certain period of time, such as in the detective bureau, and instead maintain policies that limit service in such divisions to a specified period of time, after which officers must transfer out or return to patrol duties.[citation needed] This is done in part based upon the perception that the most important and essential police work is accomplished on patrol in which officers become acquainted with their beats, prevent crime by their presence, respond to crimes in progress, manage crises, and practice their skills.[citation needed]

Question: What do some police departments make detectives go back to periodically?
Answer: patrol duties

Question: Where do some think the most important police work happens?
Answer: on patrol

Question: How do patrol officers affect crime?
Answer: prevent crime by their presence

Question: What do some police departments make detectives never go back to?

Question: What do all police departments make detectives go back to periodically?

Question: Where do all think the most important police work happens?

Question: Where do some think the most minor police work happens?

Question: How do patrol officers ignore crime?
Police

The terms international policing, transnational policing, and/or global policing began to be used from the early 1990s onwards to describe forms of policing that transcended the boundaries of the sovereign nation-state (Nadelmann, 1993), (Sheptycki, 1995). These terms refer in variable ways to practices and forms for policing that, in some sense, transcend national borders. This includes a variety of practices, but international police cooperation, criminal intelligence exchange between police agencies working in different nation-states, and police development-aid to weak, failed or failing states are the three types that have received the most scholarly attention.

Question: When did Nadelmann write about global policing?
Answer: 1993

Question: When did Sheptycki write about global policing?
Answer: 1995

Question: What terms have been used to describe policing beyond one country?
Answer: international policing, transnational policing, and/or global policing

Question: When didb't Nadelmann write about global policing?

Question: When did Nadelmann write about local policing?

Question: When didn't Sheptycki write about global policing?

Question: When did Sheptycki write about local policing?

Question: What terms haven't been used to describe policing beyond one country?
Police

Historical studies reveal that policing agents have undertaken a variety of cross-border police missions for many years (Deflem, 2002). For example, in the 19th century a number of European policing agencies undertook cross-border surveillance because of concerns about anarchist agitators and other political radicals. A notable example of this was the occasional surveillance by Prussian police of Karl Marx during the years he remained resident in London. The interests of public police agencies in cross-border co-operation in the control of political radicalism and ordinary law crime were primarily initiated in Europe, which eventually led to the establishment of Interpol before the Second World War. There are also many interesting examples of cross-border policing under private auspices and by municipal police forces that date back to the 19th century (Nadelmann, 1993). It has been established that modern policing has transgressed national boundaries from time to time almost from its inception. It is also generally agreed that in the post–Cold War era this type of practice became more significant and frequent (Sheptycki, 2000).

Question: When did Deflem write about cross-border policing?
Answer: 2002

Question: What groups did European police work against across borders in the 19th century?
Answer: anarchist agitators and other political radicals

Question: Which police force monitored Karl Marx?
Answer: Prussian

Question: What international police agency was created before WW2?
Answer: Interpol

Question: In what era did cross-border policing increase?
Answer: post–Cold War

Question: When did Deflem write about in-border policing?

Question: What groups did European police work against across borders in the 18th century?

Question: Which police force ignored Karl Marx?

Question: What national police agency was created before WW2?

Question: In what era did cross-border policing decrease?
Police

Not a lot of empirical work on the practices of inter/transnational information and intelligence sharing has been undertaken. A notable exception is James Sheptycki's study of police cooperation in the English Channel region (2002), which provides a systematic content analysis of information exchange files and a description of how these transnational information and intelligence exchanges are transformed into police case-work. The study showed that transnational police information sharing was routinized in the cross-Channel region from 1968 on the basis of agreements directly between the police agencies and without any formal agreement between the countries concerned. By 1992, with the signing of the Schengen Treaty, which formalized aspects of police information exchange across the territory of the European Union, there were worries that much, if not all, of this intelligence sharing was opaque, raising questions about the efficacy of the accountability mechanisms governing police information sharing in Europe (Joubert and Bevers, 1996).

Question: Where did Sheptycki study police cooperation?
Answer: the English Channel region

Question: When did Sheptycki write about police cooperation?
Answer: 2002

Question: When did the Channel region establish routine cross-border policing?
Answer: 1968

Question: When was the Schengen Treaty signed?
Answer: 1992

Question: What did the Schengen Treaty do for policing?
Answer: formalized aspects of police information exchange across the territory of the European Union

Question: Where did Sheptycki study police interigation?

Question: Where didn't Sheptycki study police cooperation?

Question: When didn't Sheptycki write about police cooperation?

Question: When did the Channel region reject routine cross-border policing?

Question: When was the Schengen Treaty rejected?
Police

Studies of this kind outside of Europe are even rarer, so it is difficult to make generalizations, but one small-scale study that compared transnational police information and intelligence sharing practices at specific cross-border locations in North America and Europe confirmed that low visibility of police information and intelligence sharing was a common feature (Alain, 2001). Intelligence-led policing is now common practice in most advanced countries (Ratcliffe, 2007) and it is likely that police intelligence sharing and information exchange has a common morphology around the world (Ratcliffe, 2007). James Sheptycki has analyzed the effects of the new information technologies on the organization of policing-intelligence and suggests that a number of 'organizational pathologies' have arisen that make the functioning of security-intelligence processes in transnational policing deeply problematic. He argues that transnational police information circuits help to "compose the panic scenes of the security-control society". The paradoxical effect is that, the harder policing agencies work to produce security, the greater are feelings of insecurity.

Question: Where has cross-border policing been most under-studied?
Answer: outside of Europe

Question: Who compared transnational police information and intelligence sharing practices?
Answer: Alain

Question: What kind of policing has become common practice?
Answer: Intelligence-led

Question: What problems did Sheptycki say 'organizational pathologies' have caused for police?
Answer: make the functioning of security-intelligence processes in transnational policing deeply problematic

Question: What paradox did Sheptycki point out?
Answer: the harder policing agencies work to produce security, the greater are feelings of insecurity

Question: Where has cross-border policing been least under-studied?

Question: Where has cross-border policing been most over-studied?

Question: What kind of policing has become rare practice?

Question: What problems did Sheptycki say 'organizational pathologies' haven't caused for police?

Question: What paradox did Sheptycki ignore?
Police

Police development-aid to weak, failed or failing states is another form of transnational policing that has garnered attention. This form of transnational policing plays an increasingly important role in United Nations peacekeeping and this looks set to grow in the years ahead, especially as the international community seeks to develop the rule of law and reform security institutions in States recovering from conflict (Goldsmith and Sheptycki, 2007) With transnational police development-aid the imbalances of power between donors and recipients are stark and there are questions about the applicability and transportability of policing models between jurisdictions (Hills, 2009).

Question: Where has transnational policing become more important?
Answer: in United Nations peacekeeping

Question: What kind of countries get assistance with policing?
Answer: weak, failed or failing states

Question: Who wrote about police development-aid in 2007?
Answer: Goldsmith and Sheptycki

Question: What concern did Hills raise about police models?
Answer: there are questions about the applicability and transportability of policing models between jurisdictions

Question: What concern did Hills raise about power imbalances?
Answer: With transnational police development-aid the imbalances of power between donors and recipients are stark

Question: Where has transnational policing become less important?

Question: What kind of countries get no assistance with policing?

Question: Who wrote about police development-aid in 2006?

Question: What concern did Hills ignore about police models?

Question: What concern did Hills ignore about power imbalances?
Police

Perhaps the greatest question regarding the future development of transnational policing is: in whose interest is it? At a more practical level, the question translates into one about how to make transnational policing institutions democratically accountable (Sheptycki, 2004). For example, according to the Global Accountability Report for 2007 (Lloyd, et al. 2007) Interpol had the lowest scores in its category (IGOs), coming in tenth with a score of 22% on overall accountability capabilities (p. 19). As this report points out, and the existing academic literature on transnational policing seems to confirm, this is a secretive area and one not open to civil society involvement.

Question: Who wrote the Global Accountability Report for 2007?
Answer: Lloyd, et al.

Question: What is the least-accountable IGO?
Answer: Interpol

Question: How accountable is Interpol?
Answer: 22%

Question: Why is transnational policing so unaccountable?
Answer: this is a secretive area and one not open to civil society involvement

Question: Who wrote the Local Accountability Report for 2007?

Question: What is the most-accountable IGO?

Question: How unaccountable is Interpol?

Question: Why is transnational policing so accountable?

Question: Why isn't transnational policing so unaccountable?
Police

They can also be armed with non-lethal (more accurately known as "less than lethal" or "less-lethal") weaponry, particularly for riot control. Non-lethal weapons include batons, tear gas, riot control agents, rubber bullets, riot shields, water cannons and electroshock weapons. Police officers often carry handcuffs to restrain suspects. The use of firearms or deadly force is typically a last resort only to be used when necessary to save human life, although some jurisdictions (such as Brazil) allow its use against fleeing felons and escaped convicts. A "shoot-to-kill" policy was recently introduced in South Africa, which allows police to use deadly force against any person who poses a significant threat to them or civilians. With the country having one of the highest rates of violent crime, president Jacob Zuma states that South Africa needs to handle crime differently from other countries.

Question: What should non-lethal weapons properly be called?
Answer: "less than lethal" or "less-lethal"

Question: What are common less-lethal weapons?
Answer: batons, tear gas, riot control agents, rubber bullets, riot shields, water cannons and electroshock weapons

Question: What is supposed to be the last resort for police?
Answer: The use of firearms or deadly force

Question: What is South Africa's "shoot-to-kill" policy?
Answer: allows police to use deadly force against any person who poses a significant threat to them or civilians

Question: Where can police shoot fleeing convicts?
Answer: Brazil

Question: What should lethal weapons properly be called?

Question: What are uncommon less-lethal weapons?

Question: What is supposed to be the first resort for police?

Question: What is North Africa's "shoot-to-kill" policy?

Question: Where can't police shoot fleeing convicts?
Police

Modern police forces make extensive use of radio communications equipment, carried both on the person and installed in vehicles, to co-ordinate their work, share information, and get help quickly. In recent years, vehicle-installed computers have enhanced the ability of police communications, enabling easier dispatching of calls, criminal background checks on persons of interest to be completed in a matter of seconds, and updating officers' daily activity log and other, required reports on a real-time basis. Other common pieces of police equipment include flashlights/torches, whistles, police notebooks and "ticket books" or citations.

Question: How do modern police often communicate?
Answer: radio

Question: Where do police have radios?
Answer: carried both on the person and installed in vehicles

Question: Why do police use radios?
Answer: to co-ordinate their work, share information, and get help quickly

Question: What have computers in police cars enabled for investigation?
Answer: criminal background checks on persons of interest to be completed in a matter of seconds

Question: What have computers in police cars enabled for reporting?
Answer: updating officers' daily activity log and other, required reports on a real-time basis

Question: How do modern police never communicate?

Question: Where don't police have radios?

Question: Why don't police use radios?

Question: What have computers in police cars enabled for investigation?

Question: What have computers in police cars disbled for reporting?
Police

Unmarked vehicles are used primarily for sting operations or apprehending criminals without alerting them to their presence. Some police forces use unmarked or minimally marked cars for traffic law enforcement, since drivers slow down at the sight of marked police vehicles and unmarked vehicles make it easier for officers to catch speeders and traffic violators. This practice is controversial, with for example, New York State banning this practice in 1996 on the grounds that it endangered motorists who might be pulled over by people impersonating police officers.

Question: When do police often use unmarked cars?
Answer: primarily for sting operations or apprehending criminals without alerting them to their presence

Question: What use of unmarked cars is controversial?
Answer: for traffic law enforcement

Question: When did New York State ban unmarked cars for traffic cops?
Answer: 1996

Question: Why did New York State ban unmarked cars for traffic cops?
Answer: it endangered motorists who might be pulled over by people impersonating police officers

Question: When do police often use marked cars?

Question: What use of unmarked cars isn't controversial?

Question: When did New York State ban marked cars for traffic cops?

Question: Why did New York State allow unmarked cars for traffic cops?

Question: Why did New York State ban marked cars for traffic cops?
Police

Motorcycles are also commonly used, particularly in locations that a car may not be able to reach, to control potential public order situations involving meetings of motorcyclists and often in escort duties where motorcycle police officers can quickly clear a path for escorted vehicles. Bicycle patrols are used in some areas because they allow for more open interaction with the public. In addition, their quieter operation can facilitate approaching suspects unawares and can help in pursuing them attempting to escape on foot.

Question: Why do some cops use bicycles to patrol?
Answer: they allow for more open interaction with the public

Question: How do bicycles help catch some suspects?
Answer: their quieter operation can facilitate approaching suspects unawares and can help in pursuing them attempting to escape on foot

Question: What do police use to control motorcyclist events?
Answer: Motorcycles

Question: Why do all cops use bicycles to patrol?

Question: Why do some cops use motorcycles to patrol?

Question: How do bicycles help catch some police officers?

Question: How don't bicycles help catch some suspects?

Question: What don't police use to control motorcyclist events?
Police

In the United States, August Vollmer introduced other reforms, including education requirements for police officers. O.W. Wilson, a student of Vollmer, helped reduce corruption and introduce professionalism in Wichita, Kansas, and later in the Chicago Police Department. Strategies employed by O.W. Wilson included rotating officers from community to community to reduce their vulnerability to corruption, establishing of a non-partisan police board to help govern the police force, a strict merit system for promotions within the department, and an aggressive recruiting drive with higher police salaries to attract professionally qualified officers. During the professionalism era of policing, law enforcement agencies concentrated on dealing with felonies and other serious crime, rather than broader focus on crime prevention.

Question: Who introduced education requirements for US police?
Answer: August Vollmer

Question: Who was O.W. Wilson a student of?
Answer: August Vollmer

Question: Where did Wilson reduce police corruption?
Answer: Wichita, Kansas, and later in the Chicago Police Department

Question: Why did Wilson rotate officers between communities?
Answer: to reduce their vulnerability to corruption

Question: How did Wilson recruit more qualified police?
Answer: an aggressive recruiting drive with higher police salaries

Question: Who never introduced education requirements for US police?

Question: Who was W.O. Wilson a student of?

Question: Where did Wilson increase police corruption?

Question: Why did Wilson rotate officers between communities?

Question: How did Wilson recruit more unqualified police?
Police

In Miranda the court created safeguards against self-incriminating statements made after an arrest. The court held that "The prosecution may not use statements, whether exculpatory or inculpatory, stemming from questioning initiated by law enforcement officers after a person has been taken into custody or otherwise deprived of his freedom of action in any significant way, unless it demonstrates the use of procedural safeguards effective to secure the Fifth Amendment's privilege against self-incrimination"

Question: What does Miranda provide?
Answer: safeguards against self-incriminating statements made after an arrest

Question: What does the 5th Amendment protect against?
Answer: self-incrimination

Question: Which amendment prevents self-incrimination?
Answer: Fifth

Question: What does Miranda not provide?

Question: What doesn't Miranda provide?

Question: What does the 5th Amendment not protect against?

Question: What doesn't the 5th Amendment protect against?

Question: Which amendment doesn't prevent self-incrimination?
Police

In Terry v. Ohio (1968) the court divided seizure into two parts, the investigatory stop and arrest. The court further held that during an investigatory stop a police officer's search " [is] confined to what [is] minimally necessary to determine whether [a suspect] is armed, and the intrusion, which [is] made for the sole purpose of protecting himself and others nearby, [is] confined to ascertaining the presence of weapons" (U.S. Supreme Court). Before Terry, every police encounter constituted an arrest, giving the police officer the full range of search authority. Search authority during a Terry stop (investigatory stop) is limited to weapons only.

Question: When was the Terry v. Ohio case?
Answer: 1968

Question: Which two parts did Terry v. Ohio divide seizure into?
Answer: investigatory stop and arrest

Question: What is an investigatory stop's search limited to?
Answer: what [is] minimally necessary to determine whether [a suspect] is armed

Question: When was the Sherry v. Ohio case?

Question: When was the Terry v. New York case?

Question: Which two parts didn't Terry v. Ohio divide seizure into?

Question: What is an investigatory start's search limited to?

Question: What is an investigatory stop's search unlimited to?
Police

All police officers in the United Kingdom, whatever their actual rank, are 'constables' in terms of their legal position. This means that a newly appointed constable has the same arrest powers as a Chief Constable or Commissioner. However, certain higher ranks have additional powers to authorize certain aspects of police operations, such as a power to authorize a search of a suspect's house (section 18 PACE in England and Wales) by an officer of the rank of Inspector, or the power to authorize a suspect's detention beyond 24 hours by a Superintendent.

Question: What is the legal status of UK police officers?
Answer: constables

Question: What can only Inspector-ranked UK officers do?
Answer: authorize a search of a suspect's house

Question: What can only Superintendent-ranked UK officers do?
Answer: authorize a suspect's detention beyond 24 hours

Question: What powers of a new UK police officer are the same as a Commissioner's?
Answer: arrest

Question: What is the illegal status of UK police officers?

Question: What is the legal status of UN police officers?

Question: What can all UK officers do?

Question: What can't only Superintendent-ranked UK officers do?

Question: What powers of an old UK police officer are the same as a Commissioner's?
Police

In contrast, the police are entitled to protect private rights in some jurisdictions. To ensure that the police would not interfere in the regular competencies of the courts of law, some police acts require that the police may only interfere in such cases where protection from courts cannot be obtained in time, and where, without interference of the police, the realization of the private right would be impeded. This would, for example, allow police to establish a restaurant guest's identity and forward it to the innkeeper in a case where the guest cannot pay the bill at nighttime because his wallet had just been stolen from the restaurant table.

Question: Why do some police acts limit when police can interfere without court orders?
Answer: To ensure that the police would not interfere in the regular competencies of the courts of law

Question: What could be impeded without police interference?
Answer: the realization of the private right

Question: How could police help the owner when a restaurant guest doesn't pay because their wallet got stolen?
Answer: establish a restaurant guest's identity and forward it to the innkeeper

Question: Why do all police acts limit when police can interfere without court orders?

Question: Why do some police acts limit when police can aid without court orders?

Question: What could be unimpeded without police interference?

Question: What couldn't be impeded without police interference?

Question: How couldn't police help the owner when a restaurant guest doesn't pay because their wallet got stolen?
Genocide

Genocide has become an official term used in international relations. The word genocide was not in use before 1944. Before this, in 1941, Winston Churchill described the mass killing of Russian prisoners of war and civilians as "a crime without a name". In that year, a Polish-Jewish lawyer named Raphael Lemkin, described the policies of systematic murder founded by the Nazis as genocide. The word genocide is the combination of the Greek prefix geno- (meaning tribe or race) and caedere (the Latin word for to kill). The word is defined as a specific set of violent crimes that are committed against a certain group with the attempt to remove the entire group from existence or to destroy them.

Question: The word "genocide" was unknown until what year?
Answer: 1944

Question: In 1941, how did Winston Churchill refer to the mass killings of Russian prisoners of war?
Answer: as "a crime without a name"

Question: What was the name of the Polish-Jewish lawyer who first described Nazi atrocities as "genocide?" 
Answer: Raphael Lemkin

Question: What is the etymological basis of the word "genocide?"
Answer: Greek prefix geno- (meaning tribe or race) and caedere (the Latin word for to kill)

Question: As it pertains to violent crimes against targeted groups, what is the ultimate motivation within the actions of genocide?
Answer: to remove the entire group from existence or to destroy them

Question: When was the word "genocide" last used?

Question: Who never used the term "genocide"?

Question: Who referred to acts of genocide in 1945?

Question: What year was the word "genocide" known until?

Question: What is defined as a specific set of violent crimes that are committed against a certain group with the attempt to remove the entire group from existence or to increase them?

Question: When was the phrase "prisoners of war" first used?

Question: What is the definition of "prisoners of war"?

Question: Who coined the phrase "prisoners of war"?

Question: The phrase "prisoners of war" was unknown until what year?

Question: In 1941, how did Raphael Lemkin refer to the mass killings of Russian prisoners of war?
Genocide

The word genocide was later included as a descriptive term to the process of indictment, but not yet as a formal legal term According to Lemming, genocide was defined as "a coordinated strategy to destroy a group of people, a process that could be accomplished through total annihilation as well as strategies that eliminate key elements of the group's basic existence, including language, culture, and economic infrastructure.” He created a concept of mobilizing much of the international relations and community, to working together and preventing the occurrence of such events happening within history and the international society. Australian anthropologist Peg LeVine coined the term "ritualcide" to describe the destruction of a group's cultural identity without necessarily destroying its members.

Question: Prior to being a formal legal term, how was the word "genocide" used in an indictment scenario?
Answer: as a descriptive term

Question: Who ultimately defined genocide as a series of strategies leading up to the annihilation of an entire group?
Answer: Lemming

Question: Lemming's concept of genocide triggered legal action in which realm?
Answer: international relations and community

Question: What was the nationality of anthropologist Peg LeVine?
Answer: Australian

Question: What relative term did LeVine coin to refer to cultural destruction, without the death of its members?
Answer: "ritualcide"

Question: Who ultimately defined genocide as a strategy leading up to the war of an entire group?

Question: What term was coined to describe the increase of culture?

Question: What kind of scienctist was ignored by Peg LeVine?

Question: What elements of group existence, other than people themselves, can never be targets of genocide?

Question: How was the word "genocide" forbidden to be used in an indictment scenario?

Question: Who ultimately defined genocide as a series of strategies leading up to the annihilation of indictment?

Question: Lemming's concept of genocide triggered cultural identity in what realm?

Question: Prior to being a formal legal term, how was the word "society" used in an indictment scenario?

Question: What was the nationality of anthropologist Lemming?

Question: What term was coined to describe the destruction of basic existence?
Genocide

The study of genocide has mainly been focused towards the legal aspect of the term. By formally recognizing the act of genocide as a crime, involves the undergoing prosecution that begins with not only seeing genocide as outrageous past any moral standpoint but also may be a legal liability within international relations. When genocide is looked at in a general aspect it is viewed as the deliberate killing of a certain group. Yet is commonly seen to escape the process of trial and prosecution due to the fact that genocide is more often than not committed by the officials in power of a state or area. In 1648 before the term genocide had been coined, the Peace of Westphalia was established to protect ethnic, national, racial and in some instances religious groups. During the 19th century humanitarian intervention was needed due to the fact of conflict and justification of some of the actions executed by the military.

Question: What has been the primary focus in the study of genocide?
Answer: legal aspect of the term

Question: In prosecuting genocide, what must the act be formally acknowledged as?
Answer: a crime

Question: In a general aspect, what is genocide viewed as?
Answer: the deliberate killing of a certain group

Question: In trials of genocidal crimes, what responsibly party is difficult to prosecute? 
Answer: officials in power of a state or area

Question: Long before genocide was established as a legal term, what treaty was in place to protect various groups from persecution and mass killings?
Answer: the Peace of Westphalia

Question: What has been the lesser focus in the study of genocide?

Question: Why is genocide often punished?

Question: What year was the Peace of Westphalia signed for the second time?

Question: What is genocide not viewed as?

Question: Who was the Peace of Westphalia designed to eliminate?

Question: In trials of legal crimes, what responsibly party is difficult to prosecute?

Question: Long before genocide was established as a legal term, what treaty was in place to protect the military?

Question: In prosecuting the military, what must the act be formally acknowledged as?

Question: What has been the primary focus in the study of the military?

Question: In a general aspect, what is the military viewed as?
Genocide

After the Holocaust, which had been perpetrated by the Nazi Germany and its allies prior to and during World War II, Lemkin successfully campaigned for the universal acceptance of international laws defining and forbidding genocides. In 1946, the first session of the United Nations General Assembly adopted a resolution that "affirmed" that genocide was a crime under international law, but did not provide a legal definition of the crime. In 1948, the UN General Assembly adopted the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (CPPCG) which defined the crime of genocide for the first time.

Question: In which war-era country was the Holocaust immortalized? 
Answer: Nazi Germany

Question: Following World War II, whose bid was successful in establishing the worldwide acceptance and the nascent legal definition of genocide?
Answer: Lemkin

Question: Which group convened officially for the first time in 1946?
Answer: United Nations General Assembly

Question: While recognizing genocide, what did the UN General Assembly fail to do in its resolution?
Answer: provide a legal definition of the crime

Question: In 1948, what general assembly resolution established genocide as a prosecutable act? 
Answer: the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide

Question: Whose bid was not successful in establishing the worldwide acceptance and the nascent legal definition of genocide?

Question: What did the UN General Assembly do in its resolution?

Question: What general assembly resolution never established genocide as a prosecutable act?

Question: Which war-era country was the Holocaust mortalized?

Question: Which group convened officially for the first time in 1948?

Question: Following World War II, whose bid was successful in the crime of genocide?

Question: While recognizing genocide, what did Nazi Germany fail to do in its resolution?

Question: In 1948, what general assembly resolution established universal acceptance as a prosecutable act?

Question: In which war-era country was the CPPCG immortalized?

Question: Which group eonvene officially for the first time in 1948?
Genocide

In 2007 the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR), noted in its judgement on Jorgic v. Germany case that in 1992 the majority of legal scholars took the narrow view that "intent to destroy" in the CPPCG meant the intended physical-biological destruction of the protected group and that this was still the majority opinion. But the ECHR also noted that a minority took a broader view and did not consider biological-physical destruction was necessary as the intent to destroy a national, racial, religious or ethnic group was enough to qualify as genocide.

Question: In 2007 what former case did the European Court of Human Rights draw on to further refine qualifiers of genocide?
Answer: Jorgic v. Germany

Question: Which group was accused by the ECHR of having an overly constricted idea of the meaning of destruction in defining genocide?
Answer: majority of legal scholars

Question: What form of destruction was considered too limited by a smaller group of experts?
Answer: biological-physical

Question: What groups did the ECHR feel should be included as potential victims of genocide?
Answer: national, racial, religious or ethnic

Question: What former case did the European Court of Human Rights draw on in 2002 to further refine qualifiers of genocide?

Question: Which group was not accused by the ECHR of having an overly constricted idea of the meaning of destruction in defining genocide?

Question: What form of destruction was considered  unlimited by a smaller group of experts?

Question: What groups did the ECHR feel should not be included as potential victims of genocide?

Question: in 2007 what former case did the Euopean Court of Human Rights draw onto further refine qualifiers of CPPCG?

Question: Which group was accused by the ECHR of having an overly constricted idea of the meaning of destruction in defining CPPCG?

Question: What form of destruction was considered too limited by the Germany?

Question: What groups did the ECHR feel should be included as potential victims of CPPCG?

Question: When did the majority of legal scholars take a narrow view on genocide?
Genocide

In the same judgement the ECHR reviewed the judgements of several international and municipal courts judgements. It noted that International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia and the International Court of Justice had agreed with the narrow interpretation, that biological-physical destruction was necessary for an act to qualify as genocide. The ECHR also noted that at the time of its judgement, apart from courts in Germany which had taken a broad view, that there had been few cases of genocide under other Convention States municipal laws and that "There are no reported cases in which the courts of these States have defined the type of group destruction the perpetrator must have intended in order to be found guilty of genocide".

Question: In its preparations, what was the source of other considerations by the ECHR?
Answer: the judgements of several international and municipal courts

Question: Two bodies of the United Nations agreed with what restricted provision in defining genocide?
Answer: that biological-physical destruction was necessary

Question: Which country's courts were noted by the ECHR for taking a wider stance on provisions of genocide laws?
Answer: Germany

Question: The ECHR found most states to have largely undefined definitions of group destruction, despite what factor?
Answer: Convention States municipal laws

Question: A definition of what, by the States, was necessary to preserve and expand genocidal law?
Answer: the type of group destruction

Question: In its preparations, what was the source of other considerations by the International Court of Justice?

Question: On what restricted provision in defining municipal laws did two bodies of the United Nations agree?

Question: Which country's courts were noted by the ECHR for taking a wider stance on provisions of municipal laws?

Question: The ECHR found most states to have largely undefined definitions of courts, despite what factor?

Question: A definition of what, by the States, was necessary to preserve and expand municipal law?
Genocide

The phrase "in whole or in part" has been subject to much discussion by scholars of international humanitarian law. The International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia found in Prosecutor v. Radislav Krstic – Trial Chamber I – Judgment – IT-98-33 (2001) ICTY8 (2 August 2001) that Genocide had been committed. In Prosecutor v. Radislav Krstic – Appeals Chamber – Judgment – IT-98-33 (2004) ICTY 7 (19 April 2004) paragraphs 8, 9, 10, and 11 addressed the issue of in part and found that "the part must be a substantial part of that group. The aim of the Genocide Convention is to prevent the intentional destruction of entire human groups, and the part targeted must be significant enough to have an impact on the group as a whole." The Appeals Chamber goes into details of other cases and the opinions of respected commentators on the Genocide Convention to explain how they came to this conclusion.

Question: Which phrase is especially contentious within international humanitarian law?
Answer: "in whole or in part"

Question: What 2001 case was declared genocide by the International Criminal Tribune for the Former Yugoslavia (ICTY)?
Answer: Prosecutor v. Radislav Krstic

Question: In the judgement, it is stated that the aim of the Genocide Convention, at its most simplest, is preventing the destruction of which victims?
Answer: entire human groups

Question: In addressing the issue of "in part," the Appeals Chamber found that the part must be a substantial part of what?
Answer: that group

Question: Who contributed to guiding the Appeals chamber in its conclusion?
Answer: opinions of respected commentators

Question: Which phrase is especially contentious within human groups?

Question: What 2001 case was declared genocide by humanitarian law?

Question: In the judgement, it is stated that the aim of the Genocide Convention, at its most simplest, is preventing the opinions of which victims?

Question: What did the ITCY find that the part must be a substantial part of while addressing the issue of "in part"?

Question: Who contributed to guiding the ICTY in its conclusion?
Genocide

The judges continue in paragraph 12, "The determination of when the targeted part is substantial enough to meet this requirement may involve a number of considerations. The numeric size of the targeted part of the group is the necessary and important starting point, though not in all cases the ending point of the inquiry. The number of individuals targeted should be evaluated not only in absolute terms, but also in relation to the overall size of the entire group. In addition to the numeric size of the targeted portion, its prominence within the group can be a useful consideration. If a specific part of the group is emblematic of the overall group, or is essential to its survival, that may support a finding that the part qualifies as substantial within the meaning of Article 4 [of the Tribunal's Statute]."

Question: Several considerations were involved in meeting the requirement to determine what?  
Answer: when the targeted part is substantial enough

Question: What is the key aspect of the targeted part of the group at the starting point of the inquiry? 
Answer: The numeric size

Question: The number of people targeted in a genocide should not be solely evaluated by what?
Answer: absolute terms

Question: In addition to the numeric size of a targeted group, what other consideration was useful to the ICTY?
Answer: prominence within the group

Question: What is determined after several individuals are involved in meeting the requirement?

Question: What is the key aspect of the targeted part of the group at the absolute term?

Question: What should the number of people targeted in Article 4 not be solely evaluated by?

Question: What other consideration was useful to the Article 4 in addition to the numeric size of a targeted group?

Question: What is the necessary emblematic?