Divyanshu67/squad_v2 huggingface dataset:
Ashkenazi_Jews

With the onset of the Crusades in 1095, and the expulsions from England (1290), France (1394), and parts of Germany (15th century), Jewish migration pushed eastward into Poland (10th century), Lithuania (10th century), and Russia (12th century). Over this period of several hundred years, some have suggested, Jewish economic activity was focused on trade, business management, and financial services, due to several presumed factors: Christian European prohibitions restricting certain activities by Jews, preventing certain financial activities (such as "usurious" loans) between Christians, high rates of literacy, near universal male education, and ability of merchants to rely upon and trust family members living in different regions and countries.

Question: What year marked the onset of the Crusades?
Answer: 1095

Question: What year were the expulsions from England?
Answer: 1290

Question: What year were the expulsions from France?
Answer: 1394

Question: After expulsions from England and France, Jewish migration headed in which direction?
Answer: Jewish migration pushed eastward

Question: As Jews were expelled from England, France, and parts of Germany they head into which three countries?
Answer: Poland (10th century), Lithuania (10th century), and Russia (12th century)
Ashkenazi_Jews

In the Midrash compilation, Genesis Rabbah, Rabbi Berechiah mentions Ashkenaz, Riphath, and Togarmah as German tribes or as German lands. It may correspond to a Greek word that may have existed in the Greek dialect of the Palestinian Jews, or the text is corrupted from "Germanica." This view of Berechiah is based on the Talmud (Yoma 10a; Jerusalem Talmud Megillah 71b), where Gomer, the father of Ashkenaz, is translated by Germamia, which evidently stands for Germany, and which was suggested by the similarity of the sound.

Question: What is the name of the Midrash compilation?
Answer: Genesis Rabbah

Question: What is the name of the Rabbi mentioned in relation to the Genesis Rabbah?
Answer: Rabbi Berechiah

Question: What are the three German tribes or German lands talked about by Rabbi Berechiah?
Answer: Ashkenaz, Riphath, and Togarmah

Question: Rabbi Berechiah's view is based on what?
Answer: the Talmud
Ashkenazi_Jews

In the generations after emigration from the west, Jewish communities in places like Poland, Russia, and Belarus enjoyed a comparatively stable socio-political environment. A thriving publishing industry and the printing of hundreds of biblical commentaries precipitated the development of the Hasidic movement as well as major Jewish academic centers. After two centuries of comparative tolerance in the new nations, massive westward emigration occurred in the 19th and 20th centuries in response to pogroms in the east and the economic opportunities offered in other parts of the world. Ashkenazi Jews have made up the majority of the American Jewish community since 1750.

Question: After emigration from the west, did Jewish communities in places like Poland have a stable or unstable sociopolitical environment?
Answer: a comparatively stable socio-political environment

Question: What precipitated the development of the Hasidic movement?
Answer: A thriving publishing industry and the printing of hundreds of biblical commentaries

Question: Massive western emigration occurred around what time?
Answer: in the 19th and 20th centuries

Question: Ashkenazi Jews have made up the majority of the American Jewish community since when?
Answer: 1750
Ashkenazi_Jews

Religious Ashkenazi Jews living in Israel are obliged to follow the authority of the chief Ashkenazi rabbi in halakhic matters. In this respect, a religiously Ashkenazi Jew is an Israeli who is more likely to support certain religious interests in Israel, including certain political parties. These political parties result from the fact that a portion of the Israeli electorate votes for Jewish religious parties; although the electoral map changes from one election to another, there are generally several small parties associated with the interests of religious Ashkenazi Jews. The role of religious parties, including small religious parties that play important roles as coalition members, results in turn from Israel's composition as a complex society in which competing social, economic, and religious interests stand for election to the Knesset, a unicameral legislature with 120 seats.

Question: Religious Ashkenazi Jews living in Israel follow the authority of whom in certain matters?
Answer: the chief Ashkenazi rabbi

Question: What is the Knesset?
Answer: a unicameral legislature with 120 seats

Question: Religious Ashkenazi Jews look to the authority of the chief Ashkenazi rabbi in which matters?
Answer: halakhic matters
Ashkenazi_Jews

New developments in Judaism often transcend differences in religious practice between Ashkenazi and Sephardic Jews. In North American cities, social trends such as the chavurah movement, and the emergence of "post-denominational Judaism" often bring together younger Jews of diverse ethnic backgrounds. In recent years, there has been increased interest in Kabbalah, which many Ashkenazi Jews study outside of the Yeshiva framework. Another trend is the new popularity of ecstatic worship in the Jewish Renewal movement and the Carlebach style minyan, both of which are nominally of Ashkenazi origin.

Question: What two things were mentioned as contributing to bringing younger Jews together in North American cities?
Answer: social trends such as the chavurah movement, and the emergence of "post-denominational Judaism"

Question: What do many Ashkenazi Jews study outside of the Yeshiva framework?
Answer: Kabbalah

Question: Which new trend has been associated with the Jewish Renewal movement?
Answer: ecstatic worship
Ashkenazi_Jews

Several famous people have Ashkenazi as a surname, such as Vladimir Ashkenazy. However, most people with this surname hail from within Sephardic communities, particularly from the Syrian Jewish community. The Sephardic carriers of the surname would have some Ashkenazi ancestors since the surname was adopted by families who were initially of Ashkenazic origins who moved to Sephardi countries and joined those communities. Ashkenazi would be formally adopted as the family surname having started off as a nickname imposed by their adopted communities. Some have shortened the name to Ash.

Question: Most people with the surname Ashkenazi, hail from which particular community?
Answer: Syrian Jewish community

Question: Some people with the surname shorten it to what?
Answer: Ash

Question: What famous person is mentioned as having the surname Ashkenazi?
Answer: Vladimir Ashkenazy
Ashkenazi_Jews

A study of haplotypes of the Y-chromosome, published in 2000, addressed the paternal origins of Ashkenazi Jews. Hammer et al. found that the Y-chromosome of Ashkenazi and Sephardic Jews contained mutations that are also common among Middle Eastern peoples, but uncommon in the general European population. This suggested that the male ancestors of the Ashkenazi Jews could be traced mostly to the Middle East. The proportion of male genetic admixture in Ashkenazi Jews amounts to less than 0.5% per generation over an estimated 80 generations, with "relatively minor contribution of European Y chromosomes to the Ashkenazim," and a total admixture estimate "very similar to Motulsky's average estimate of 12.5%." This supported the finding that "Diaspora Jews from Europe, Northwest Africa, and the Near East resemble each other more closely than they resemble their non-Jewish neighbors." "Past research found that 50–80 percent of DNA from the Ashkenazi Y chromosome, which is used to trace the male lineage, originated in the Near East," Richards said.

Question: It was found that the Y-chromosome of Ashkenazi and Sephardic Jews contained mutations that are also common with what other people?
Answer: Middle Eastern peoples

Question: It was found that the Y-chromosome of Ashkenazi and Sephardic Jews contained mutations that are uncommon with what other people?
Answer: uncommon in the general European population

Question: The findings related to the Y-chromosomes suggest that males ancestors of Ashkenazi Jews could be traced mostly to where?
Answer: the Middle East
Ashkenazi_Jews

A 2010 study on Jewish ancestry by Atzmon-Ostrer et al. stated "Two major groups were identified by principal component, phylogenetic, and identity by descent (IBD) analysis: Middle Eastern Jews and European/Syrian Jews. The IBD segment sharing and the proximity of European Jews to each other and to southern European populations suggested similar origins for European Jewry and refuted large-scale genetic contributions of Central and Eastern European and Slavic populations to the formation of Ashkenazi Jewry", as both groups – the Middle Eastern Jews and European/Syrian Jews – shared common ancestors in the Middle East about 2500 years ago. The study examines genetic markers spread across the entire genome and shows that the Jewish groups (Ashkenazi and non Ashkenazi) share large swaths of DNA, indicating close relationships and that each of the Jewish groups in the study (Iranian, Iraqi, Syrian, Italian, Turkish, Greek and Ashkenazi) has its own genetic signature but is more closely related to the other Jewish groups than to their fellow non-Jewish countrymen. Atzmon's team found that the SNP markers in genetic segments of 3 million DNA letters or longer were 10 times more likely to be identical among Jews than non-Jews. Results of the analysis also tally with biblical accounts of the fate of the Jews. The study also found that with respect to non-Jewish European groups, the population most closely related to Ashkenazi Jews are modern-day Italians. The study speculated that the genetic-similarity between Ashkenazi Jews and Italians may be due to inter-marriage and conversions in the time of the Roman Empire. It was also found that any two Ashkenazi Jewish participants in the study shared about as much DNA as fourth or fifth cousins.

Question: In a 2010 study, which two groups were identified by principal component, phylogenetic, and identity by descent analysis?
Answer: Middle Eastern Jews and European/Syrian Jews

Question: The 2010 study found that what modern population is most closely related to Ashkenazi Jews?
Answer: modern-day Italians

Question: Ashkenazi Jews and Italians may be genetically similar due to what two factors?
Answer: inter-marriage and conversions in the time of the Roman Empire
Ashkenazi_Jews

A 2013 trans-genome study carried out by 30 geneticists, from 13 universities and academies, from 9 countries, assembling the largest data set available to date, for assessment of Ashkenazi Jewish genetic origins found no evidence of Khazar origin among Ashkenazi Jews. "Thus, analysis of Ashkenazi Jews together with a large sample from the region of the Khazar Khaganate corroborates the earlier results that Ashkenazi Jews derive their ancestry primarily from populations of the Middle East and Europe, that they possess considerable shared ancestry with other Jewish populations, and that there is no indication of a significant genetic contribution either from within or from north of the Caucasus region", the authors concluded.

Question: How many geneticists carried out the 2013 trans-genome study?
Answer: 30 geneticists

Question: How many universities and academies participated in the 2013 trans-genome study?
Answer: 13 universities and academies

Question: What did the 2013 trans-genome study find in regards to Ashkenazi Jews and Khazar origins?
Answer: found no evidence of Khazar origin among Ashkenazi Jews
Ashkenazi_Jews

The origins of the Ashkenazim are obscure, and many theories have arisen speculating about their ultimate provenance. The most well supported theory is the one that details a Jewish migration through what is now Italy and other parts of southern Europe. The historical record attests to Jewish communities in southern Europe since pre-Christian times. Many Jews were denied full Roman citizenship until 212 CE, when Emperor Caracalla granted all free peoples this privilege. Jews were required to pay a poll tax until the reign of Emperor Julian in 363. In the late Roman Empire, Jews were free to form networks of cultural and religious ties and enter into various local occupations. But, after Christianity became the official religion of Rome and Constantinople in 380, Jews were increasingly marginalized.

Question: The most well supported theory on the origins of the Ashkenazim is one that details a Jewish migration through which modern day country?
Answer: through what is now Italy

Question: The historical record attests to Jewish communities in southern Europe since what time?
Answer: pre-Christian times

Question: Many Jews were denied full Roman citizenship until what year?
Answer: 212 CE

Question: Who gave Jews the right to full Roman citizenship?
Answer: Emperor Caracalla
Ashkenazi_Jews

Historical records show evidence of Jewish communities north of the Alps and Pyrenees as early as the 8th and 9th century. By the 11th century Jewish settlers, moving from southern European and Middle Eastern centers, appear to have begun to settle in the north, especially along the Rhine, often in response to new economic opportunities and at the invitation of local Christian rulers. Thus Baldwin V, Count of Flanders, invited Jacob ben Yekutiel and his fellow Jews to settle in his lands; and soon after the Norman Conquest of England, William the Conqueror likewise extended a welcome to continental Jews to take up residence there. Bishop Rüdiger Huzmann called on the Jews of Mainz to relocate to Speyer. In all of these decisions, the idea that Jews had the know-how and capacity to jump-start the economy, improve revenues, and enlarge trade seems to have played a prominent role. Typically Jews relocated close to the markets and churches in town centres, where, though they came under the authority of both royal and ecclesiastical powers, they were accorded administrative autonomy.

Question: Jewish communities were seen north of the Alps and Pyrenees as early as which centuries?
Answer: 8th and 9th century

Question: Jewish settlers appear along the Rhine by what century?
Answer: 11th century

Question: What two factors contributed the increase in Jewish settlers along the Rhine and other similar areas?
Answer: often in response to new economic opportunities and at the invitation of local Christian rulers
Ashkenazi_Jews

France's blended Jewish community is typical of the cultural recombination that is going on among Jews throughout the world. Although France expelled its original Jewish population in the Middle Ages, by the time of the French Revolution, there were two distinct Jewish populations. One consisted of Sephardic Jews, originally refugees from the Inquisition and concentrated in the southwest, while the other community was Ashkenazi, concentrated in formerly German Alsace, and speaking mainly Yiddish. The two communities were so separate and different that the National Assembly emancipated them separately in 1790 and 1791.

Question: When did France expel its original Jewish population?
Answer: the Middle Ages

Question: By the time of the French Revolution there were how many distinct Jewish populations?
Answer: two distinct Jewish populations
Pharmaceutical_industry

By the 1890s the profound effect of adrenal extracts on many different tissue types had been discovered, setting off a search both for the mechanism of chemical signalling and efforts to exploit these observations for the development of new drugs. The blood pressure raising and vasoconstrictive effects of adrenal extracts were of particular interest to surgeons as hemostatic agents and as treatment for shock, and a number of companies developed products based on adrenal extracts containing varying purities of the active substance. In 1897 John Abel of Johns Hopkins University identified the active principle as epinephrine, which he isolated in an impure state as the sulfate salt. Industrial chemist Jokichi Takamine later developed a method for obtaining epinephrine in a pure state, and licensed the technology to Parke Davis. Parke Davis marketed epinephrine under the trade name Adrenalin. Injected epinephrine proved to be especially efficacious for the acute treatment of asthma attacks, and an inhaled version was sold in the United States until 2011 (Primatene Mist). By 1929 epinephrine had been formulated into an inhaler for use in the treatment of nasal congestion.

Question: Who identified the active substance?
Answer: John Abel

Question: Who marketed epinephrine?
Answer: Parke Davis

Question: As an inhaler, what was epinephrine used to treat?
Answer: nasal congestion

Question: Who developed the method to obtain epinephrine in a pure state?
Answer: Jokichi Takamine

Question: What could epinephrine treat?
Answer: nasal congestion

Question: When did epinephrine stop being available in the United States?
Answer: 2011

Question: What trade name was epinephrine marketed under?
Answer: Adrenalin

Question: Who developed the method to get epinephrine in it's pure form?
Answer: Jokichi Takamine

Question: In what year was epinephrine discovered?
Answer: 1897

Question: What was the trade name of epinephrine?
Answer: Adrenalin

Question: Who first discovered epinephrine?
Answer: John Abel

Question: What is epinephrine used to treat?
Answer: asthma attacks

Question: In what year was Primatene Mist no longer sold in the United States?
Answer: 2011

Question: Who identified the inactive substance?

Question: Who marketed Primatene?

Question: What trade name was Primatene marketed under?

Question: As an inhaler, what was Primatene used to treat?

Question: Who developed the method to obtain Primatene in a pure state?
Pharmaceutical_industry

While highly effective, the requirement for injection limited the use of norepinephrine[clarification needed] and orally active derivatives were sought. A structurally similar compound, ephedrine, was identified by Japanese chemists in the Ma Huang plant and marketed by Eli Lilly as an oral treatment for asthma. Following the work of Henry Dale and George Barger at Burroughs-Wellcome, academic chemist Gordon Alles synthesized amphetamine and tested it in asthma patients in 1929. The drug proved to have only modest anti-asthma effects, but produced sensations of exhilaration and palpitations. Amphetamine was developed by Smith, Kline and French as a nasal decongestant under the trade name Benzedrine Inhaler. Amphetamine was eventually developed for the treatment of narcolepsy, post-encepheletic parkinsonism, and mood elevation in depression and other psychiatric indications. It received approval as a New and Nonofficial Remedy from the American Medical Association for these uses in 1937 and remained in common use for depression until the development of tricyclic antidepressants in the 1960s.

Question: Who developed Amphetamine?
Answer: Smith, Kline and French

Question: What are common side effects of Amphetamine?
Answer: sensations of exhilaration and palpitations

Question: When were tricyclic antidepressants developed?
Answer: 1960s

Question: What were some uses for Amphetamine?
Answer: narcolepsy, post-encepheletic parkinsonism, and mood elevation in depression and other psychiatric indications

Question: Who synthesized Amphetamine for asthma?
Answer: Gordon Alles

Question: Ephedrine was used as an oral medicine for what illness?
Answer: asthma

Question: In what year was amphetamine first tested on asthma patients?
Answer: 1929

Question: What was the trade name of amphetamine as a nasal decongestant?
Answer: Benzedrine Inhaler

Question: In what year did the American Medical Association approve amphetamine for medical use?
Answer: 1937

Question: In what decade were tricyclic antidepressants created?
Answer: 1960s

Question: Who developed tricyclics?

Question: What are common side effects of tricyclics?

Question: When was the American Medical Association developed?

Question: What were some uses for the American Medical Association?

Question: Who synthesized the American Medical Association for asthma?
Pharmaceutical_industry

A series of experiments performed from the late 1800s to the early 1900s revealed that diabetes is caused by the absence of a substance normally produced by the pancreas. In 1869, Oskar Minkowski and Joseph von Mering found that diabetes could be induced in dogs by surgical removal of the pancreas. In 1921, Canadian professor Frederick Banting and his student Charles Best repeated this study, and found that injections of pancreatic extract reversed the symptoms produced by pancreas removal. Soon, the extract was demonstrated to work in people, but development of insulin therapy as a routine medical procedure was delayed by difficulties in producing the material in sufficient quantity and with reproducible purity. The researchers sought assistance from industrial collaborators at Eli Lilly and Co. based on the company's experience with large scale purification of biological materials. Chemist George Walden of Eli Lilly and Company found that careful adjustment of the pH of the extract allowed a relatively pure grade of insulin to be produced. Under pressure from Toronto University and a potential patent challenge by academic scientists who had independently developed a similar purification method, an agreement was reached for non-exclusive production of insulin by multiple companies. Prior to the discovery and widespread availability of insulin therapy the life expectancy of diabetics was only a few months.

Question: What is diabetes caused from?
Answer: absence of a substance normally produced by the pancreas

Question: Before insulin, what was the life expectancy of diabetics?
Answer: only a few months

Question: How can diabetes be induced in dogs?
Answer: surgical removal of the pancreas

Question: Who discovered that pancreatic extract reversed symptoms of pancreas removal?
Answer: Frederick Banting and his student Charles Best

Question: Why was insulin therapy delayed?
Answer: difficulties in producing the material in sufficient quantity and with reproducible purity

Question: Diabetes is caused by the removal of what organ?
Answer: pancreas

Question: Left untreated, how long were diabetic patients were expected to live?
Answer: a few months

Question: What could be adjusted in a sample of pancreatic extract to produce purer insulin?
Answer: pH

Question: To purify insulin, Banting and Best sought the assistance of what company?
Answer: Eli Lilly and Co.

Question: Minkowski and von Mering did surgical tests on what animal?
Answer: dogs

Question: What is purification caused from?

Question: Before insulin, what was the life expectancy of purification?

Question: How can purification be induced in dogs?

Question: Who discovered that pancreatic extract reversed symptoms of purification removal?

Question: Why was purification therapy delayed?
Pharmaceutical_industry

In 1903 Hermann Emil Fischer and Joseph von Mering disclosed their discovery that diethylbarbituric acid, formed from the reaction of diethylmalonic acid, phosphorus oxychloride and urea, induces sleep in dogs. The discovery was patented and licensed to Bayer pharmaceuticals, which marketed the compound under the trade name Veronal as a sleep aid beginning in 1904. Systematic investigations of the effect of structural changes on potency and duration of action led to the discovery of phenobarbital at Bayer in 1911 and the discovery of its potent anti-epileptic activity in 1912. Phenobarbital was among the most widely used drugs for the treatment of epilepsy through the 1970s, and as of 2014, remains on the World Health Organizations list of essential medications. The 1950s and 1960s saw increased awareness of the addictive properties and abuse potential of barbiturates and amphetamines and led to increasing restrictions on their use and growing government oversight of prescribers. Today, amphetamine is largely restricted to use in the treatment of attention deficit disorder and phenobarbital in the treatment of epilepsy.

Question: What is phenobarbital used for?
Answer: epilepsy

Question: What sleep aid was marketed in 1904?
Answer: Veronal

Question: What is amphetamine used for today?
Answer: attention deficit disorder

Question: Why was barbiturates and amphetamines restricted?
Answer: addictive properties and abuse potential

Question: Who discovered a reaction that induced sleep in dogs?
Answer: Hermann Emil Fischer and Joseph von Mering

Question: What compound was discovered to induce sleep?
Answer: diethylbarbituric acid

Question: What was the first trade name of diethylbarbituric acid?
Answer: Veronal

Question: What is phenobarbital mainly used to treat today?
Answer: epilepsy

Question: In what year was phenobarbital discovered?
Answer: 1911

Question: What was Veronal used for when Bayer put it on the market?
Answer: sleep aid

Question: What is increased awareness used for?

Question: What acid was marketed in 1904?

Question: What is acid used for today?

Question: Why were acids restricted?

Question: Who discovered an acid reaction?
Pharmaceutical_industry

In 1911 arsphenamine, the first synthetic anti-infective drug, was developed by Paul Ehrlich and chemist Alfred Bertheim of the Institute of Experimental Therapy in Berlin. The drug was given the commercial name Salvarsan. Ehrlich, noting both the general toxicity of arsenic and the selective absorption of certain dyes by bacteria, hypothesized that an arsenic-containing dye with similar selective absorption properties could be used to treat bacterial infections. Arsphenamine was prepared as part of a campaign to synthesize a series of such compounds, and found to exhibit partially selective toxicity. Arsphenamine proved to be the first effective treatment for syphilis, a disease which prior to that time was incurable and led inexorably to severe skin ulceration, neurological damage, and death.[citation needed]

Question: Who developed Arsphenamine?
Answer: Paul Ehrlich and chemist Alfred Bertheim

Question: What was the first effective treatment for Syphilis?
Answer: Arsphenamine

Question: What complications are associated with Syphilis?
Answer: severe skin ulceration, neurological damage, and death

Question: What is Amphetamine's market name?
Answer: Institute of Experimental Therapy

Question: Where is the Institute of Experimental Therapy located?
Answer: Berlin

Question: What was the name of the first synthetic bacterial drug?
Answer: arsphenamine

Question: Bacterial infections could be treated with medicines containing what kind of dye?
Answer: arsenic

Question: Arsphenamine became the first treatment for what previously incurable disease?
Answer: syphilis

Question: In what year was arsphenamine discovered?
Answer: 1911

Question: What was the commercial name of arsphenamine?
Answer: Salvarsan

Question: Who developed commercial ulceration?

Question: What was the first effective treatment for Bertheim?

Question: What complications are associated with Bertheim?

Question: What is Bertheim's market name?

Question: Where is the Institute of Bertheim located?
Pharmaceutical_industry

The modern pharmaceutical industry traces its roots to two sources. The first of these were local apothecaries that expanded from their traditional role distributing botanical drugs such as morphine and quinine to wholesale manufacture in the mid 1800s. Rational drug discovery from plants started particularly with the isolation of morphine, analgesic and sleep-inducing agent from opium, by the German apothecary assistant Friedrich Sertürner, who named the compound after the Greek god of dreams, Morpheus. Multinational corporations including Merck, Hoffman-La Roche, Burroughs-Wellcome (now part of Glaxo Smith Kline), Abbott Laboratories, Eli Lilly and Upjohn (now part of Pfizer) began as local apothecary shops in the mid-1800s. By the late 1880s, German dye manufacturers had perfected the purification of individual organic compounds from coal tar and other mineral sources and had also established rudimentary methods in organic chemical synthesis. The development of synthetic chemical methods allowed scientists to systematically vary the structure of chemical substances, and growth in the emerging science of pharmacology expanded their ability to evaluate the biological effects of these structural changes.

Question: When was Morphine and Quinine first available?
Answer: mid 1800s

Question: Who was the compound named after?
Answer: Morpheus

Question: Where were was Morphine extracted from?
Answer: opium

Question: Who is responsible for purification of compounds found in mineral sources?
Answer: German dye manufacturers

Question: Who came up with the name Morphine?
Answer: Friedrich Sertürner

Question: Morphine was named after what Greek god?
Answer: Morpheus

Question: Burroughs-Wellcome is now part of what medical company?
Answer: Glaxo Smith Kline

Question: Who discovered morphine?
Answer: Friedrich Sertürner

Question: What is the name of the plant that produces morphine?
Answer: opium

Question: When was Glaxo first available?

Question: Who was Glaxo named after?

Question: Where was Glaxo extracted from?

Question: Who is responsible for purification of Glaxo found in mineral sources?

Question: Who came up with the name Glaxo?
Pharmaceutical_industry

Ehrlich’s approach of systematically varying the chemical structure of synthetic compounds and measuring the effects of these changes on biological activity was pursued broadly by industrial scientists, including Bayer scientists Josef Klarer, Fritz Mietzsch, and Gerhard Domagk. This work, also based in the testing of compounds available from the German dye industry, led to the development of Prontosil, the first representative of the sulfonamide class of antibiotics. Compared to arsphenamine, the sulfonamides had a broader spectrum of activity and were far less toxic, rendering them useful for infections caused by pathogens such as streptococci. In 1939, Domagk received the Nobel Prize in Medicine for this discovery. Nonetheless, the dramatic decrease in deaths from infectious diseases that occurred prior to World War II was primarily the result of improved public health measures such as clean water and less crowded housing, and the impact of anti-infective drugs and vaccines was significant mainly after World War II.

Question: Who received the Nobel Prize in Medicine in 1939?
Answer: Gerhard Domagk

Question: Who is responsible for creating Prontosil?
Answer: Josef Klarer, Fritz Mietzsch, and Gerhard Domagk

Question: What causes Streptococci?
Answer: pathogens

Question: Many deaths occurred before World War II due to what?
Answer: infectious diseases

Question: Prontosil is in what drug class?
Answer: antibiotics

Question: What was the name of the first sulfonamine antibiotic?
Answer: Prontosil

Question: What award did Domagk receive in 1939?
Answer: Nobel Prize in Medicine

Question: Anti-infective drugs became more prominent after what war?
Answer: World War II

Question: Were sulfonamides more or less toxic than arsphenamine?
Answer: less

Question: Streptococci and other pathogens could be treated by what type of antibiotics?
Answer: sulfonamides

Question: Who received the Nobel Prize in Medicine in 1938?

Question: Who is responsible for creating German dye?

Question: What causes Gerhard?

Question: Many deaths occurred after World War II due to what?

Question: Gerhard is in what drug class?
Pharmaceutical_industry

Early progress toward the development of vaccines occurred throughout this period, primarily in the form of academic and government-funded basic research directed toward the identification of the pathogens responsible for common communicable diseases. In 1885 Louis Pasteur and Pierre Paul Émile Roux created the first rabies vaccine. The first diphtheria vaccines were produced in 1914 from a mixture of diphtheria toxin and antitoxin (produced from the serum of an inoculated animal), but the safety of the inoculation was marginal and it was not widely used. The United States recorded 206,000 cases of diphtheria in 1921 resulting in 15,520 deaths. In 1923 parallel efforts by Gaston Ramon at the Pasteur Institute and Alexander Glenny at the Wellcome Research Laboratories (later part of GlaxoSmithKline) led to the discovery that a safer vaccine could be produced by treating diphtheria toxin with formaldehyde. In 1944, Maurice Hilleman of Squibb Pharmaceuticals developed the first vaccine against Japanese encephelitis. Hilleman would later move to Merck where he would play a key role in the development of vaccines against measles, mumps, chickenpox, rubella, hepatitis A, hepatitis B, and meningitis.

Question: Who created the first rabies vaccine?
Answer: Louis Pasteur and Pierre Paul Émile Roux

Question: How many cases of Diphtheria were there in 1921?
Answer: 206,000

Question: In 1923, what was discovered to be safer to treat Diphtheria Toxin?
Answer: formaldehyde

Question: Who created a vaccine to treat Japanese Encephalitis?
Answer: Maurice Hilleman

Question: How many deaths occurred due to Diphtheria?
Answer: 15,520

Question: The rabies vaccine was created in what year?
Answer: 1885

Question: In what year was the diphtheria vaccine made?
Answer: 1914

Question: What compound made the diphtheria vaccine safer to use?
Answer: formaldehyde

Question: Who developed the first encephalitis vaccine? 
Answer: Maurice Hilleman

Question: What company did Hilleman later work for?
Answer: Merck

Question: Who created the first encephelitis vaccine?

Question: How many cases of encephelitis where there in 1921?

Question: In 1923, what was discovered to be safer to treat encephelitis?

Question: Who created a vaccine to treat United States Encephalitis?

Question: How many deaths occurred due to encephelitis?
Pharmaceutical_industry

In 1937 over 100 people died after ingesting "Elixir Sulfanilamide" manufactured by S.E. Massengill Company of Tennessee. The product was formulated in diethylene glycol, a highly toxic solvent that is now widely used as antifreeze. Under the laws extant at that time, prosecution of the manufacturer was possible only under the technicality that the product had been called an "elixir", which literally implied a solution in ethanol. In response to this episode, the U.S. Congress passed the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act of 1938, which for the first time required pre-market demonstration of safety before a drug could be sold, and explicitly prohibited false therapeutic claims.

Question: What drug killed 100 people in 1937?
Answer: Elixir Sulfanilamide

Question: Who manufactured "Elixir Sulfanilamide"?
Answer: S.E. Massengill Company

Question: What year did Congress pass the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act?
Answer: 1938

Question: What is Diethylene Glycol commonly used for now?
Answer: antifreeze

Question: What was one of the things the Federal Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act do?
Answer: explicitly prohibited false therapeutic claims

Question: What drug killed over 100 people in 1937?
Answer: Elixir Sulfanilamide

Question: What company manufactured Elixir Sulfanilamide? 
Answer: S.E. Massengill Company of Tennessee

Question: Diethylene glycol is mainly used today as what liquid?
Answer: antifreeze

Question: What law did Congress pass following the Elixir Sulfanilamide incident?
Answer: Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act of 1938

Question: The name "elixir" implied a solution in what liquid?
Answer: ethanol

Question: What drug killed 1900 people in 1937?

Question: Who manufactured "Cosmetic Elixir"?

Question: What year did Elixir pass the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act?

Question: What is Elixir Glycol commonly used for now?

Question: What was one of the things the Federal Food, Drug and Elixir Act did?
Pharmaceutical_industry

The aftermath of World War II saw an explosion in the discovery of new classes of antibacterial drugs including the cephalosporins (developed by Eli Lilly based on the seminal work of Giuseppe Brotzu and Edward Abraham), streptomycin (discovered during a Merck-funded research program in Selman Waksman's laboratory), the tetracyclines (discovered at Lederle Laboratories, now a part of Pfizer), erythromycin (discovered at Eli Lilly and Co.) and their extension to an increasingly wide range of bacterial pathogens. Streptomycin, discovered during a Merck-funded research program in Selman Waksman's laboratory at Rutgers in 1943, became the first effective treatment for tuberculosis. At the time of its discovery, sanitoriums for the isolation of tuberculosis-infected people were an ubiquitous feature of cities in developed countries, with 50% dying within 5 years of admission.

Question: When was the first effective treatment for Tuberculosis discovered?
Answer: 1943

Question: What drug effectively treated Tuberculosis?
Answer: Streptomycin

Question: Who was Eli Lilly's work based off of?
Answer: Giuseppe Brotzu and Edward Abraham

Question: Where was Tetracyclines discovered?
Answer: Lederle Laboratories

Question: 50% of tuberculosis-infected people died within 5 years where?
Answer: cities in developed countries

Question: What was the first treatment for tuberculosis?
Answer: Streptomycin

Question: What percentage of patients infected with tuberculosis died within 5 years?
Answer: 50%

Question: In what year was streptomycin discovered?
Answer: 1943

Question: Many more antibiotics were made following the end of what war?
Answer: World War II

Question: What company funded the research that led to the discovery of streptomycin?
Answer: Merck

Question: When was the first effective treatment for Streptomycin discovered?

Question: What drug effectively treated drugs?

Question: Who was Eli Smith's work based off of?

Question: 50% of tuberculosis-infected people died within 3 years where?

Question: What was the first treatment of drugs?
Pharmaceutical_industry

During the years 1940-1955, the rate of decline in the U.S. death rate accelerated from 2% per year to 8% per year, then returned to the historical rate of 2% per year. The dramatic decline in the immediate post-war years has been attributed to the rapid development of new treatments and vaccines for infectious disease that occurred during these years. Vaccine development continued to accelerate, with the most notable achievement of the period being Jonas Salk's 1954 development of the polio vaccine under the funding of the non-profit National Foundation for Infantile Paralysis. The vaccine process was never patented, but was instead given to pharmaceutical companies to manufacture as a low-cost generic. In 1960 Maurice Hilleman of Merck Sharp & Dohme identified the SV40 virus, which was later shown to cause tumors in many mammalian species. It was later determined that SV40 was present as a contaminant in polio vaccine lots that had been administered to 90% of the children in the United States. The contamination appears to have originated both in the original cell stock and in monkey tissue used for production. In 2004 the United States Cancer Institute announced that it had concluded that SV40 is not associated with cancer in people.

Question: When was the Polio vaccine created?
Answer: 1954

Question: Who identified the SV40 virus?
Answer: Maurice Hilleman

Question: What was a complication of the SV40 virus?
Answer: cause tumors

Question: Who funded the Polio vaccine?
Answer: National Foundation for Infantile Paralysis

Question: Who announced that SV40 was not associated with cancer?
Answer: United States Cancer Institute

Question: In what year was the polio vaccine created?
Answer: 1954

Question: Who created the polio vaccine?
Answer: Jonas Salk

Question: What virus caused tumors in most mammals?
Answer: SV40

Question: Who identified the SV40 virus?
Answer: Maurice Hilleman

Question: SV40 was present in what vaccine?
Answer: polio

Question: When was the Paralysis vaccine created?

Question: Who identified the SV50 virus?

Question: What was a complication of the SV50 virus?

Question: Who funded the Paralysis vaccine?

Question: Who announced that SV50 was not associated with cancer?
Pharmaceutical_industry

On 2 July 2012, GlaxoSmithKline pleaded guilty to criminal charges and agreed to a $3 billion settlement of the largest health-care fraud case in the U.S. and the largest payment by a drug company. The settlement is related to the company's illegal promotion of prescription drugs, its failure to report safety data, bribing doctors, and promoting medicines for uses for which they were not licensed. The drugs involved were Paxil, Wellbutrin, Advair, Lamictal, and Zofran for off-label, non-covered uses. Those and the drugs Imitrex, Lotronex, Flovent, and Valtrex were involved in the kickback scheme.

Question: How much was the settlement GlaxoSmithKline agree to?
Answer: $3 billion

Question: What was one of the causes of the health-care fraud case?
Answer: illegal promotion of prescription drugs

Question: When did GlaxoSmithKline plead guilty?
Answer: 2 July 2012

Question: What drugs were related to a kickback scheme?
Answer: Imitrex, Lotronex, Flovent, and Valtrex

Question: What drugs were used for off-label uses?
Answer: Paxil, Wellbutrin, Advair, Lamictal, and Zofran

Question: In what year did GlaxoSmithKline pay a $3 billion dollar settlement?
Answer: 2012

Question: How much was the largest healthcare fraud case in the US settled for?
Answer: $3 billion

Question: What company was sued for promoting medicines for unlicensed uses and bribing doctors?
Answer: GlaxoSmithKline

Question: How much was the settlement Wellbutrin agreed to?

Question: What was one of the causes of the Wellbutrin case?

Question: When did Wellbutrin plead guilty?

Question: What drugs were related to Advair's scheme?

Question: What drugs were used for label uses?
Pharmaceutical_industry

In the US, starting in 2013, under the Physician Financial Transparency Reports (part of the Sunshine Act), the Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services has to collect information from applicable manufacturers and group purchasing organizations in order to report information about their financial relationships with physicians and hospitals. Data are made public in the Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services website. The expectation is that relationship between doctors and Pharmaceutical industry will become fully transparent.

Question: What is the speculation of the relationship between doctors and the drug industry?
Answer: become fully transparent.

Question: What is the Physician Financial Transparency Report part of?
Answer: Sunshine Act

Question: Where can you obtain information about the Sunshine Act?
Answer: Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services website

Question: What information is collected by Centers for Medicine & Medicaid Services?
Answer: financial relationships with physicians and hospitals.

Question: When did Centers for Medicine & Medicaid Services have to start collecting information?
Answer: starting in 2013

Question: The Physician Financial Transparency Reports was part of what other act?
Answer: Sunshine Act

Question: In what year were Medicaid and Medicare required to disclose information about their relationships with doctors and hospitals?
Answer: 2013

Question: Where can financial relationships between Medicaid, Medicare and pharmaceutical companies be found?
Answer: Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services website

Question: What is expected when the relationships are made public?
Answer: relationship between doctors and Pharmaceutical industry will become fully transparent

Question: What is the speculation of the relationship between organizations and the drug industry?

Question: What are doctors part of?

Question: Where can you obtain information about organizations?

Question: What information is collected by doctors?

Question: When did doctors have to start collecting information?
Pharmaceutical_industry

A Federal Trade Commission report issued in 1958 attempted to quantify the effect of antibiotic development on American public health. The report found that over the period 1946-1955, there was a 42% drop in the incidence of diseases for which antibiotics were effective and only a 20% drop in those for which antibiotics were not effective. The report concluded that "it appears that the use of antibiotics, early diagnosis, and other factors have limited the epidemic spread and thus the number of these diseases which have occurred". The study further examined mortality rates for eight common diseases for which antibiotics offered effective therapy (syphilis, tuberculosis, dysentery, scarlet fever, whooping cough, meningococcal infections, and pneumonia), and found a 56% decline over the same period. Notable among these was a 75% decline in deaths due to tuberculosis.

Question: What disease had the biggest decline of deaths?
Answer: tuberculosis

Question: What period was the report issued in 1958 cover?
Answer: 1946-1955

Question: Who issued the report in 1958?
Answer: Federal Trade Commission

Question: What were eight diseases examined for?
Answer: mortality rates

Question: What was responsible for the decline in spreading diseases?
Answer: use of antibiotics, early diagnosis, and other factors

Question: How much did the mortality rate of common bacterial infections decline between 1946-1955?
Answer: 56%

Question: How much did the mortality rate of tuberculosis drop between 1946-1955?
Answer: 75%

Question: Who issued a report describing the effects of antibiotic developments?
Answer: Federal Trade Commission

Question: In what year was the FTC's report issued?
Answer: 1958

Question: What disease had the biggest decline of diagnosis?

Question: What period did the report issued in 1964 cover?

Question: Who issued the report in 1964?

Question: What were nine diseases examined for?

Question: What was responsible for the decline in spreading commissions?
Pharmaceutical_industry

In March 2001, 40 multi-national pharmaceutical companies brought litigation against South Africa for its Medicines Act, which allowed the generic production of antiretroviral drugs (ARVs) for treating HIV, despite the fact that these drugs were on-patent. HIV was and is an epidemic in South Africa, and ARVs at the time cost between 10,000 and 15,000 USD per patient per year. This was unaffordable for most South African citizens, and so the South African government committed to providing ARVs at prices closer to what people could afford. To do so, they would need to ignore the patents on drugs and produce generics within the country (using a compulsory license), or import them from abroad. After international protest in favour of public health rights (including the collection of 250,000 signatures by MSF), the governments of several developed countries (including The Netherlands, Germany, France, and later the US) backed the South African government, and the case was dropped in April of that year.

Question: How much did treatment for each patient in Africa cost?
Answer: 10,000 and 15,000 USD per patient per year

Question: Who brought litigation to South Africa?
Answer: 40 multi-national pharmaceutical companies

Question: How many signatures were collected by MSF?
Answer: 250,000 signatures

Question: When was litigation brought to South Africa?
Answer: March 2001

Question: Who backed the South African government which caused the case to be dropped?
Answer: The Netherlands, Germany, France, and later the US

Question: How many companies sued South Africa for its Medicines Act?
Answer: 40

Question: South Africa's Medicines Act allowed for the generic production of what kind of drugs?
Answer: antiretroviral

Question: How much did ARV drugs cost patients yearly?
Answer: between 10,000 and 15,000 USD

Question: How many signatures were collected supporting public health rights?
Answer: 250,000

Question: How much did treatment for each patient in ARV cost?

Question: Who brought litigation to the ARV?

Question: How many signatures were collected by ARV?

Question: When was litigation brought to ARV?

Question: Who backed the ARV government which caused the case to be dropped?