Divyanshu67/squad_v2 huggingface dataset:
Age_of_Enlightenment

The strongest contribution of the French Academies to the public sphere comes from the concours académiques (roughly translated as 'academic contests') they sponsored throughout France. These academic contests were perhaps the most public of any institution during the Enlightenment. The practice of contests dated back to the Middle Ages, and was revived in the mid-17th century. The subject matter had previously been generally religious and/or monarchical, featuring essays, poetry, and painting. By roughly 1725, however, this subject matter had radically expanded and diversified, including "royal propaganda, philosophical battles, and critical ruminations on the social and political institutions of the Old Regime." Topics of public controversy were also discussed such as the theories of Newton and Descartes, the slave trade, women's education, and justice in France.

Question: The practice of contests dates back to what time period?
Answer: Middle Ages

Question: Previous to 1725, what subject matter was focused on by the concours academiques?
Answer: generally religious and/or monarchical

Question: Which topics of public controversy became more widely discussed around 1725?
Answer: theories of Newton and Descartes, the slave trade, women's education, and justice

Question: Were the concours academiques public or private matters?
Answer: public
Age_of_Enlightenment

The first English coffeehouse opened in Oxford in 1650. Brian Cowan said that Oxford coffeehouses developed into "penny universities", offering a locus of learning that was less formal than structured institutions. These penny universities occupied a significant position in Oxford academic life, as they were frequented by those consequently referred to as the "virtuosi", who conducted their research on some of the resulting premises. According to Cowan, "the coffeehouse was a place for like-minded scholars to congregate, to read, as well as learn from and to debate with each other, but was emphatically not a university institution, and the discourse there was of a far different order than any university tutorial."

Question: Where did the first English coffeehouse open in 1650?
Answer: Oxford

Question: According to Brian Cowan, was learning more or less formal in coffehouses as opposed to private institutions?
Answer: less

Question: What term did Brian Cowan give Oxford coffeehouses?
Answer: penny universities
Age_of_Enlightenment

Historians have long debated the extent to which the secret network of Freemasonry was a main factor in the Enlightenment. The leaders of the Enlightenment included Freemasons such as Diderot, Montesquieu, Voltaire, Pope, Horace Walpole, Sir Robert Walpole, Mozart, Goethe, Frederick the Great, Benjamin Franklin, and George Washington. Norman Davies said that Freemasonry was a powerful force on behalf of Liberalism in Europe, from about 1700 to the twentieth century. It expanded rapidly during the Age of Enlightenment, reaching practically every country in Europe. It was especially attractive to powerful aristocrats and politicians as well as intellectuals, artists and political activists.

Question: Diderot, Voltaire, Mozart, Goethe, and Benjamin Franklin were all members of what secret network?
Answer: Freemasonry

Question: To whom was Freemasonry most attractive?
Answer: powerful aristocrats and politicians as well as intellectuals, artists and political activists

Question: Freemasonry expanded rapidly to nearly every country in which continent?
Answer: Europe
Age_of_Enlightenment

The Age of Enlightenment was preceded by and closely associated with the scientific revolution. Earlier philosophers whose work influenced the Enlightenment included Francis Bacon, Descartes, Locke, and Spinoza. The major figures of the Enlightenment included Cesare Beccaria, Voltaire, Denis Diderot, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, David Hume, Adam Smith, and Immanuel Kant. Some European rulers, including Catherine II of Russia, Joseph II of Austria and Frederick I of Prussia, tried to apply Enlightenment thought on religious and political tolerance, which became known as enlightened absolutism. The Americans Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Jefferson came to Europe during the period and contributed actively to the scientific and political debate, and the ideals of the Enlightenment were incorporated into the United States Declaration of Independence and the Constitution of the United States.

Question: Trying to apply Enlightenment thought on religious and political tolerance became known as what?
Answer: enlightened absolutism

Question: Which two Americans travelled to Europe during the Enlightenment and actively contributed to the scienific and political debate?
Answer: Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Jefferson

Question: The ideals of the Enlightenment were incorporated into which two United States documents?
Answer: Declaration of Independence and the Constitution

Question: Did the scientific revolution precede or follow the Age of Enlightenment?
Answer: preceded
Age_of_Enlightenment

Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) tried to reconcile rationalism and religious belief, individual freedom and political authority, as well as map out a view of the public sphere through private and public reason. Kant's work continued to shape German thought, and indeed all of European philosophy, well into the 20th century. Mary Wollstonecraft was one of England's earliest feminist philosophers. She argued for a society based on reason, and that women, as well as men, should be treated as rational beings. She is best known for her work A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1791).

Question: Kant's work continued to shape German thought and European philosophy well into what century?
Answer: 20th

Question: In what year was Immanuel Kant born?
Answer: 1724

Question: For which work is Mary Wollstonecraft best known?
Answer: A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1791)

Question: In what year was A Vindication on the Rights of Woman published?
Answer: 1791

Question: Mary Wollstonecraft argued for a society based on what idea?
Answer: reason
Age_of_Enlightenment

Hume and other Scottish Enlightenment thinkers developed a 'science of man', which was expressed historically in works by authors including James Burnett, Adam Ferguson, John Millar, and William Robertson, all of whom merged a scientific study of how humans behaved in ancient and primitive cultures with a strong awareness of the determining forces of modernity. Modern sociology largely originated from this movement, and Hume's philosophical concepts that directly influenced James Madison (and thus the U.S. Constitution) and as popularised by Dugald Stewart, would be the basis of classical liberalism.

Question: The basis of classical liberalism comes from whose philosophical concepts?
Answer: Hume

Question: Whose philosophical concepts directly influenceed James Madison and thus the U.S. Constitution?
Answer: Hume

Question: Who popularised Hume's philosophical concepts?
Answer: Dugald Stewart
Age_of_Enlightenment

Both Locke and Rousseau developed social contract theories in Two Treatises of Government and Discourse on Inequality, respectively. While quite different works, Locke, Hobbes, and Rousseau agreed that a social contract, in which the government's authority lies in the consent of the governed, is necessary for man to live in civil society. Locke defines the state of nature as a condition in which humans are rational and follow natural law; in which all men are born equal and with the right to life, liberty and property. However, when one citizen breaks the Law of Nature, both the transgressor and the victim enter into a state of war, from which it is virtually impossible to break free. Therefore, Locke said that individuals enter into civil society to protect their natural rights via an "unbiased judge" or common authority, such as courts, to appeal to. Contrastingly, Rousseau's conception relies on the supposition that "civil man" is corrupted, while "natural man" has no want he cannot fulfill himself. Natural man is only taken out of the state of nature when the inequality associated with private property is established. Rousseau said that people join into civil society via the social contract to achieve unity while preserving individual freedom. This is embodied in the sovereignty of the general will, the moral and collective legislative body constituted by citizens.

Question: What did Locke, Hobbes, and Rousseau agree was necessary for a man to live in civil society?
Answer: social contract

Question: Which theorist wrote Two Treatises of Government?
Answer: Locke

Question: Who wrote Discourse on Inequality?
Answer: Rousseau

Question: From which state does Locke believe it is virtually improssible to break free?
Answer: state of war

Question: For what reason did Rousseau feel people joined into civil society?
Answer: to achieve unity while preserving individual freedom
Age_of_Enlightenment

In several nations, rulers welcomed leaders of the Enlightenment at court and asked them to help design laws and programs to reform the system, typically to build stronger national states. These rulers are called "enlightened despots" by historians. They included Frederick the Great of Prussia, Catherine the Great of Russia, Leopold II of Tuscany, and Joseph II of Austria. Joseph was over-enthusiastic, announcing so many reforms that had so little support that revolts broke out and his regime became a comedy of errors and nearly all his programs were reversed. Senior ministers Pombal in Portugal and Struensee in Denmark also governed according to Enlightenment ideals. In Poland, the model constitution of 1791 expressed Enlightenment ideals, but was in effect for only one year as the nation was partitioned among its neighbors. More enduring were the cultural achievements, which created a nationalist spirit in Poland.

Question: Leaders of the Enlightenment that helped design laws and programs to reform the court system are called what by historians?
Answer: enlightened despots

Question: Which enlightened despot was so over-enthusiastic that revolts broke out and nearly all of his programs were reversed?
Answer: Joseph II of Austria

Question: In what country was the model constitution of 1791 in effect for only one year?
Answer: Poland

Question: From what country was Enlightenment leader Catherine the Great?
Answer: Russia
Age_of_Enlightenment

Enlightenment scholars sought to curtail the political power of organized religion and thereby prevent another age of intolerant religious war. Spinoza determined to remove politics from contemporary and historical theology (e.g. disregarding Judaic law). Moses Mendelssohn advised affording no political weight to any organized religion, but instead recommended that each person follow what they found most convincing. A good religion based in instinctive morals and a belief in God should not theoretically need force to maintain order in its believers, and both Mendelssohn and Spinoza judged religion on its moral fruits, not the logic of its theology.

Question: Did Mendelssohn and Spinoza judge religion on its moral fruits or logic of its theology??
Answer: moral fruits

Question: What did Enlightenment scholars seek to curtail and thereby prevent another age of intolerant religious war?
Answer: organized religion

Question: Spinoza was determined to remove what from contemporary and historical theology?
Answer: politics

Question: Did Moses Mendelssohn advise to follow a specific organized religion, or to whatever one found most convincing?
Answer: what they found most convincing
Age_of_Enlightenment

In the Scottish Enlightenment, Scotland's major cities created an intellectual infrastructure of mutually supporting institutions such as universities, reading societies, libraries, periodicals, museums and masonic lodges. The Scottish network was "predominantly liberal Calvinist, Newtonian, and 'design' oriented in character which played a major role in the further development of the transatlantic Enlightenment". In France, Voltaire said "we look to Scotland for all our ideas of civilization." The focus of the Scottish Enlightenment ranged from intellectual and economic matters to the specifically scientific as in the work of William Cullen, physician and chemist; James Anderson, an agronomist; Joseph Black, physicist and chemist; and James Hutton, the first modern geologist.

Question: Who did Voltaire say that France looked to for ideas of civilization?
Answer: Scotland

Question: What was the profession of James Anderson?
Answer: agronomist

Question: Who was the first modern geologist?
Answer: James Hutton

Question: William Cullen and Joseph Black shared what two occupations?
Answer: physicist and chemist
Age_of_Enlightenment

The term "Enlightenment" emerged in English in the later part of the 19th century, with particular reference to French philosophy, as the equivalent of the French term 'Lumières' (used first by Dubos in 1733 and already well established by 1751). From Immanuel Kant's 1784 essay "Beantwortung der Frage: Was ist Aufklärung?" ("Answering the Question: What is Enlightenment?") the German term became 'Aufklärung' (aufklären = to illuminate; sich aufklären = to clear up). However, scholars have never agreed on a definition of the Enlightenment, or on its chronological or geographical extent. Terms like "les Lumières" (French), "illuminismo" (Italian), "ilustración" (Spanish) and "Aufklärung" (German) referred to partly overlapping movements. Not until the late nineteenth century did English scholars agree they were talking about "the Enlightenment."

Question: In what year was the French term Lumieres first used?
Answer: 1733

Question: What term became the German equivalent to the French term Lumieres?
Answer: Aufklärung

Question: In what century did the term Enlightenment emerge in English?
Answer: 19th

Question: What is the Italian equivalent to the French term Lumieres?
Answer: illuminismo

Question: Did the terms, Enlightenment, Lumieres, Aufklarung and illuminismo refer to distinct or overlapping movements?
Answer: overlapping
Age_of_Enlightenment

The context for the rise of the public sphere was the economic and social change commonly associated with the Industrial Revolution: "economic expansion, increasing urbanization, rising population and improving communications in comparison to the stagnation of the previous century"." Rising efficiency in production techniques and communication lowered the prices of consumer goods and increased the amount and variety of goods available to consumers (including the literature essential to the public sphere). Meanwhile, the colonial experience (most European states had colonial empires in the 18th century) began to expose European society to extremely heterogeneous cultures, leading to the breaking down of "barriers between cultural systems, religious divides, gender differences and geographical areas".

Question: Did rising efficiency in production and communication lower or raise the prices of consumer goods?
Answer: lowered

Question: Was the variety of goods available to consumers increased or decreased by the economic and social change of the Industrial Revolution?
Answer: increased

Question: The context for the rise of the public sphere was the econoic and social change associated with what revolution?
Answer: Industrial Revolution
Age_of_Enlightenment

As the economy and the middle class expanded, there was an increasing number of amateur musicians. One manifestation of this involved women, who became more involved with music on a social level. Women were already engaged in professional roles as singers, and increased their presence in the amateur performers' scene, especially with keyboard music. Music publishers begin to print music that amateurs could understand and play. The majority of the works that were published were for keyboard, voice and keyboard, and chamber ensemble. After these initial genres were popularized, from the mid-century on, amateur groups sang choral music, which then became a new trend for publishers to capitalize on. The increasing study of the fine arts, as well as access to amateur-friendly published works, led to more people becoming interested in reading and discussing music. Music magazines, reviews, and critical works which suited amateurs as well as connoisseurs began to surface.

Question: A the economy and middle class expanded, what artistic profession had an increasing number of members?
Answer: musicians

Question: Which economic class expansion led to the emergence of music magazines and reviews?
Answer: middle

Question: Women increased their presence in the amateur performers scene with what instrument, especially?
Answer: keyboard

Question: Which musican mediums were the majority of amateur music works published for?
Answer: keyboard, voice and keyboard, and chamber ensemble
Age_of_Enlightenment

In France, the established men of letters (gens de lettres) had fused with the elites (les grands) of French society by the mid-18th century. This led to the creation of an oppositional literary sphere, Grub Street, the domain of a "multitude of versifiers and would-be authors". These men came to London to become authors, only to discover that the literary market simply could not support large numbers of writers, who, in any case, were very poorly remunerated by the publishing-bookselling guilds.

Question: By what century in France had the men of letters fused with the elites?
Answer: mid-18th century

Question: What was the term for the oppositional literary sphere of a "multitude of versifiers and would-be-authors"?
Answer: Grub Street

Question: Could the London market support the large numbers of writers that were emerging?
Answer: not

Question: Were men travelling to London to become authors paid well or poorly by the publishing-bookselling guilds?
Answer: very poorly
Age_of_Enlightenment

The first scientific and literary journals were established during the Enlightenment. The first journal, the Parisian Journal des Sçavans, appeared in 1665. However, it was not until 1682 that periodicals began to be more widely produced. French and Latin were the dominant languages of publication, but there was also a steady demand for material in German and Dutch. There was generally low demand for English publications on the Continent, which was echoed by England's similar lack of desire for French works. Languages commanding less of an international market – such as Danish, Spanish and Portuguese – found journal success more difficult, and more often than not, a more international language was used instead. French slowly took over Latin's status as the lingua franca of learned circles. This in turn gave precedence to the publishing industry in Holland, where the vast majority of these French language periodicals were produced.

Question: During which movement were the first scientific and literary journals established?
Answer: the Enlightenment

Question: What was the title of the first scientific and literary journal?
Answer: the Parisian Journal des Sçavans

Question: In what year did the first scientific and literary journal appear?
Answer: 1665

Question: Which two languages were the most dominant languages of scientific and literary publications?
Answer: French and Latin

Question: Where were the vast majority of French language periodicals produced?
Answer: Holland
Age_of_Enlightenment

In Germany, practical reference works intended for the uneducated majority became popular in the 18th century. The Marperger Curieuses Natur-, Kunst-, Berg-, Gewerkund Handlungs-Lexicon (1712) explained terms that usefully described the trades and scientific and commercial education. Jablonksi Allgemeines Lexicon (1721) was better known than the Handlungs-Lexicon, and underscored technical subjects rather than scientific theory. For example, over five columns of text were dedicated to wine, while geometry and logic were allocated only twenty-two and seventeen lines, respectively. The first edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica (1771) was modelled along the same lines as the German lexicons.

Question: Which work published in 1712 explained terms that usefully described the trades and scientific and commercial education?
Answer: The Marperger Curieuses Natur-, Kunst-, Berg-, Gewerkund Handlungs-Lexicon

Question: In the Jablonski Allgemeines Lexicon (1721) how many colums of text were dedicated to wine?
Answer: over five

Question: Was the Jablonski Allgemeines Lexicon (1721) more dedicated to technical subjects or scientific theory?
Answer: technical subjects

Question: In what year was the first edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica published?
Answer: 1771

Question: The Encyclopaedia Britannica was modelled along the same lines as a work from which country?
Answer: Germany
Age_of_Enlightenment

More importantly, the contests were open to all, and the enforced anonymity of each submission guaranteed that neither gender nor social rank would determine the judging. Indeed, although the "vast majority" of participants belonged to the wealthier strata of society ("the liberal arts, the clergy, the judiciary, and the medical profession"), there were some cases of the popular classes submitting essays, and even winning. Similarly, a significant number of women participated – and won – the competitions. Of a total of 2300 prize competitions offered in France, women won 49 – perhaps a small number by modern standards, but very significant in an age in which most women did not have any academic training. Indeed, the majority of the winning entries were for poetry competitions, a genre commonly stressed in women's education.

Question: What enforced contest rule guaranteed that neither gender nor social rank would determine the judging?
Answer: anonymity

Question: Were the vast majority of contest participants from the wealthier strata of society or the popular classes?
Answer: wealthier strata of society

Question: How many prize competitions did women win out of the 2300 in France?
Answer: 49

Question: Women's education common stressed which literary genre?
Answer: poetry

Question: What literary genre were the majority of female winning contest entries?
Answer: poetry
Age_of_Enlightenment

The Café Procope was established in Paris in 1686; by the 1720s there were around 400 cafés in the city. The Café Procope in particular became a center of Enlightenment, welcoming such celebrities as Voltaire and Rousseau. The Café Procope was where Diderot and D'Alembert decided to create the Encyclopédie. The cafés were one of the various "nerve centers" for bruits publics, public noise or rumour. These bruits were allegedly a much better source of information than were the actual newspapers available at the time.

Question: Where was the Cafe Procope established in 1686?
Answer: Paris

Question: By the 1720s. how many cafes were in Paris?
Answer: around 400

Question: In which Cafe was the Encyclopedie created?
Answer: The Café Procope

Question: Were bruits or newspapers allegedly a better source of information?
Answer: bruits
Age_of_Enlightenment

During the Age of Enlightenment, Freemasons comprised an international network of like-minded men, often meeting in secret in ritualistic programs at their lodges. they promoted the ideals of the Enlightenment, and helped diffuse these values across Britain and France and other places. Freemasonry as a systematic creed with its own myths, values and set of rituals originated in Scotland around 1600 and spread first to England and then across the Continent in the eighteenth century. They fostered new codes of conduct – including a communal understanding of liberty and equality inherited from guild sociability – "liberty, fraternity, and equality" Scottish soldiers and Jacobite Scots brought to the Continent ideals of fraternity which reflected not the local system of Scottish customs but the institutions and ideals originating in the English Revolution against royal absolutism. Freemasonry was particularly prevalent in France – by 1789, there were perhaps as many as 100,000 French Masons, making Freemasonry the most popular of all Enlightenment associations. The Freemasons displayed a passion for secrecy and created new degrees and ceremonies. Similar societies, partially imitating Freemasonry, emerged in France, Germany, Sweden and Russia. One example was the "Illuminati" founded in Bavaria in 1776, which was copied after the Freemasons but was never part of the movement. The Illuminati was an overtly political group, which most Masonic lodges decidedly were not.

Question: Where did Freemasonry originate?
Answer: Scotland

Question: Where did Freemasonry first spread?
Answer: England

Question: In what country was Freemaonry particularly prevalent?
Answer: France

Question: What was the most popular of all Enlightenment associations?
Answer: Freemasonry

Question: Which group was copied from the Freemasons and founded in Bavaria in 1776?
Answer: Illuminati
Age_of_Enlightenment

Locke is known for his statement that individuals have a right to "Life, Liberty and Property", and his belief that the natural right to property is derived from labor. Tutored by Locke, Anthony Ashley-Cooper, 3rd Earl of Shaftesbury wrote in 1706: "There is a mighty Light which spreads its self over the world especially in those two free Nations of England and Holland; on whom the Affairs of Europe now turn". Locke's theory of natural rights has influenced many political documents, including the United States Declaration of Independence and the French National Constituent Assembly's Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen.

Question: Who is known for his statement that individuals have a right to "Life, Liberty and Property"?
Answer: Locke

Question: Locke believed that the natural right to property is derived from what?
Answer: labor

Question: Locke's theory of natural rights influenced what French document?
Answer: French National Constituent Assembly's Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen
Age_of_Enlightenment

Frederick the Great, the king of Prussia from 1740 to 1786, saw himself as a leader of the Enlightenment and patronized philosophers and scientists at his court in Berlin. Voltaire, who had been imprisoned and maltreated by the French government, was eager to accept Frederick's invitation to live at his palace. Frederick explained, "My principal occupation is to combat ignorance and prejudice ... to enlighten minds, cultivate morality, and to make people as happy as it suits human nature, and as the means at my disposal permit."

Question: Which king of Prussia saw himself as the leader of the Enlightenment?
Answer: Frederick the Great

Question: Which Enlightenment theorist was extended an invitation to live at the palace after being iprisoned by the French government?
Answer: Voltaire

Question: Who was the king of Prussia from 1740 to 1786?
Answer: Frederick the Great,
Age_of_Enlightenment

Several Americans, especially Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Jefferson, played a major role in bringing Enlightenment ideas to the New World and in influencing British and French thinkers. Franklin was influential for his political activism and for his advances in physics. The cultural exchange during the Age of Enlightenment ran in both directions across the Atlantic. Thinkers such as Paine, Locke, and Rousseau all take Native American cultural practices as examples of natural freedom. The Americans closely followed English and Scottish political ideas, as well as some French thinkers such as Montesquieu. As deists, they were influenced by ideas of John Toland (1670–1722) and Matthew Tindal (1656–1733). During the Enlightenment there was a great emphasis upon liberty, democracy, republicanism and religious tolerance. Attempts to reconcile science and religion resulted in a widespread rejection of prophecy, miracle and revealed religion in preference for Deism – especially by Thomas Paine in The Age of Reason and by Thomas Jefferson in his short Jefferson Bible – from which all supernatural aspects were removed.

Question: Which American Enlightenment sympathiser was known for his political activism and advances in physics?
Answer: Benjamin Franklin

Question: Did the cultural exchange during the Age of Enlightenment travel exclusively to America or did information travel in both directions, back across the Atlantic to Europe?
Answer: both directions

Question: As diests, Americans were influenced by the ideas of which two Enlightenment followers?
Answer: John Toland (1670–1722) and Matthew Tindal (1656–1733)

Question: Attempts to reconcile which two fields resulted in a widespread rejection of prophecy?
Answer: science and religion

Question: All supernatural aspects were removed from which Thomas Paine work?
Answer: The Age of Reason
Age_of_Enlightenment

The writers of Grub Street, the Grub Street Hacks, were left feeling bitter about the relative success of the men of letters, and found an outlet for their literature which was typified by the libelle. Written mostly in the form of pamphlets, the libelles "slandered the court, the Church, the aristocracy, the academies, the salons, everything elevated and respectable, including the monarchy itself". Le Gazetier cuirassé by Charles Théveneau de Morande was a prototype of the genre. It was Grub Street literature that was most read by the public during the Enlightenment. More importantly, according to Darnton, the Grub Street hacks inherited the "revolutionary spirit" once displayed by the philosophes, and paved the way for the French Revolution by desacralizing figures of political, moral and religious authority in France.

Question: What term was given to the writers of Grub Street?
Answer: the Grub Street Hacks

Question: Libelles were generally written in what form?
Answer: pamphlets

Question: Which group inherited the "revolutionary spirit" once displayed by the philosophes, according to Darnton?
Answer: the Grub Street hacks

Question: Which works by the Grub Street Hacks "slandered the court, the Church, the aristocracy, the academies, the salons, everything elevated and respectable, including the monarchy itself."?
Answer: the libelles
Age_of_Enlightenment

Coffeehouses were especially important to the spread of knowledge during the Enlightenment because they created a unique environment in which people from many different walks of life gathered and shared ideas. They were frequently criticized by nobles who feared the possibility of an environment in which class and its accompanying titles and privileges were disregarded. Such an environment was especially intimidating to monarchs who derived much of their power from the disparity between classes of people. If classes were to join together under the influence of Enlightenment thinking, they might recognize the all-encompassing oppression and abuses of their monarchs and, because of their size, might be able to carry out successful revolts. Monarchs also resented the idea of their subjects convening as one to discuss political matters, especially those concerning foreign affairs - rulers thought political affairs to be their business only, a result of their supposed divine right to rule.

Question: Which venue created a unique environment in which people from many different walks of life could gather and share ideas?
Answer: Coffeehouses

Question: Coffehouses were criticized by which group of people, fearing the possiblity of an environmentin which class was disregarded?
Answer: nobles

Question: What societal group derived much of their power from the disparity between classes of people?
Answer: Monarchs

Question: Which societal group believed they held a divine right to rule and resented the idea of their subjects convening to discuss political matters?
Answer: Monarchs
Age_of_Enlightenment

A genre that greatly rose in importance was that of scientific literature. Natural history in particular became increasingly popular among the upper classes. Works of natural history include René-Antoine Ferchault de Réaumur's Histoire naturelle des insectes and Jacques Gautier d'Agoty's La Myologie complète, ou description de tous les muscles du corps humain (1746). Outside ancien régime France, natural history was an important part of medicine and industry, encompassing the fields of botany, zoology, meteorology, hydrology and mineralogy. Students in Enlightenment universities and academies were taught these subjects to prepare them for careers as diverse as medicine and theology. As shown by M D Eddy, natural history in this context was a very middle class pursuit and operated as a fertile trading zone for the interdisciplinary exchange of diverse scientific ideas.

Question: Did natural history in particular become increasingly popular amoung the upper or lower classes?
Answer: upper

Question: Which type of history encompassed botany, zoology, meteorolgy, hydrology, and mineralogy?
Answer: natural history

Question: Who wrote the Histoire naturelle des insectes?
Answer: René-Antoine Ferchault de Réaumur
Age_of_Enlightenment

Masonic lodges created a private model for public affairs. They "reconstituted the polity and established a constitutional form of self-government, complete with constitutions and laws, elections and representatives." In other words, the micro-society set up within the lodges constituted a normative model for society as a whole. This was especially true on the Continent: when the first lodges began to appear in the 1730s, their embodiment of British values was often seen as threatening by state authorities. For example, the Parisian lodge that met in the mid 1720s was composed of English Jacobite exiles. Furthermore, freemasons all across Europe explicitly linked themselves to the Enlightenment as a whole. In French lodges, for example, the line "As the means to be enlightened I search for the enlightened" was a part of their initiation rites. British lodges assigned themselves the duty to "initiate the unenlightened". This did not necessarily link lodges to the irreligious, but neither did this exclude them from the occasional heresy. In fact, many lodges praised the Grand Architect, the masonic terminology for the deistic divine being who created a scientifically ordered universe.

Question: In what decade did the first Masonic lodges appear on the Continent?
Answer: 1730s

Question: The Freemason embodiment of what country's values was seen as threatening by Continental authorities?
Answer: British

Question: Which lodge that met in the mid 1720s was composed of English Jacobite exiles?
Answer: the Parisian lodge

Question: Which lodges assigned themselves the duty to "initate the unenlightened"?
Answer: British

Question: What is the masonic term for the deistic divine being who created a scientifically ordered universe?
Answer: Grand Architect
Age_of_Enlightenment

Coffeehouses represent a turning point in history during which people discovered that they could have enjoyable social lives within their communities. Coffeeshops became homes away from home for many who sought, for the first time, to engage in discourse with their neighbors and discuss intriguing and thought-provoking matters, especially those regarding philosophy to politics. Coffeehouses were essential to the Enlightenment, for they were centers of free-thinking and self-discovery. Although many coffeehouse patrons were scholars, a great deal were not. Coffeehouses attracted a diverse set of people, including not only the educated wealthy but also members of the bourgeoisie and the lower class. While it may seem positive that patrons, being doctors, lawyers, merchants, etc. represented almost all classes, the coffeeshop environment sparked fear in those who sought to preserve class distinction. One of the most popular critiques of the coffeehouse claimed that it "allowed promiscuous association among people from different rungs of the social ladder, from the artisan to the aristocrat" and was therefore compared to Noah's Ark, receiving all types of animals, clean or unclean. This unique culture served as a catalyst for journalism when Joseph Addison and Richard Steele recognized its potential as an audience. Together, Steele and Addison published The Spectator (1711), a daily publication which aimed, through fictional narrator Mr. Spectator, both to entertain and to provoke discussion regarding serious philosophical matters.

Question: Which venue represents a turning point in history during which people discovered that they could have enjoyable social lives within their communities?
Answer: Coffeehouses

Question: Coffehouses were essential to what movement by becoming centers of free-thinking and self-discovery?
Answer: the Enlightenment

Question: In what year was The Spectator published?
Answer: 1711

Question: Which literary work used the fictional narrator Mr. Spectator to entertain and provoke discussion regarding serious philosophical matters?
Answer: The Spectator
Age_of_Enlightenment

The major opponent of Freemasonry was the Roman Catholic Church, so that in countries with a large Catholic element, such as France, Italy, Spain, and Mexico, much of the ferocity of the political battles involve the confrontation between what Davies calls the reactionary Church and enlightened Freemasonry. Even in France, Masons did not act as a group. American historians, while noting that Benjamin Franklin and George Washington were indeed active Masons, have downplayed the importance of Freemasonry in causing the American Revolution because the Masonic order was non-political and included both Patriots and their enemy the Loyalists.

Question: Who was the major opponent to Freemasonry?
Answer: Roman Catholic Church

Question: Which countries had a large Catholic element and therefore had confrontation with Freemasons?
Answer: France, Italy, Spain, and Mexico

Question: Do American historians downplay or attribute the importance of Freemasonry in causing the American Revolution?
Answer: downplay

Question: Who was the political enemy of the Patriots?
Answer: the Loyalists

Question: Were the Masons political or non-political in the American Revolution?
Answer: non-political
Age_of_Enlightenment

The Enlightenment – known in French as the Siècle des Lumières, the Century of Enlightenment, and in German as the Aufklärung – was a philosophical movement which dominated the world of ideas in Europe in the 18th century. The Enlightenment included a range of ideas centered on reason as the primary source of authority and legitimacy, and came to advance ideals such as liberty, progress, tolerance, fraternity, constitutional government and ending the abuses of the church and state. In France, the central doctrines of the Lumières were individual liberty and religious tolerance, in opposition to the principle of absolute monarchy and the fixed dogmas of the Roman Catholic Church. The Enlightenment was marked by increasing empiricism, scientific rigor, and reductionism, along with increased questioning of religious orthodoxy.

Question: How was the Enlightenment known in French?
Answer: Siècle des Lumières

Question: Which movement dominated the world of ideas in Europe in the 18th century?
Answer: The Enlightenment

Question: In France, what were the central doctrines of the Lumieres?
Answer: individual liberty and religious tolerance

Question: The principle of absolute monarchy of which group was at odds with those following the Enlightenment?
Answer: Roman Catholic Church
Age_of_Enlightenment

In the mid-18th century, Paris became the center of an explosion of philosophic and scientific activity challenging traditional doctrines and dogmas. The philosophic movement was led by Voltaire and Jean-Jacques Rousseau, who argued for a society based upon reason rather than faith and Catholic doctrine, for a new civil order based on natural law, and for science based on experiments and observation. The political philosopher Montesquieu introduced the idea of a separation of powers in a government, a concept which was enthusiastically adopted by the authors of the United States Constitution. While the Philosophes of the French Enlightenment were not revolutionaries, and many were members of the nobility, their ideas played an important part in undermining the legitimacy of the Old Regime and shaping the French Revolution.

Question: Which city in the mid-18th century became the center of an explosion of philosophic and scientific activity?
Answer: Paris

Question: Who were the two leaders of Paris' philosophic movement?
Answer: Voltaire and Jean-Jacques Rousseau

Question: Rousseau argued for a society based on what, rather than faith?
Answer: reason

Question: Which philosopher introduced the idea of a separation of powers in government?
Answer: Montesquieu

Question: Montesquieu's ideas were enthusiastically adopted by the authors of what American document?
Answer: the United States Constitution
Age_of_Enlightenment

The most influential publication of the Enlightenment was the Encyclopédie, compiled by Denis Diderot and (until 1759) by Jean le Rond d'Alembert and a team of 150 scientists and philosophers. It was published between 1751 and 1772 in thirty-five volumes, and spread the ideas of the Enlightenment across Europe and beyond. Other landmark publications were the Dictionnaire philosophique (Philosophical Dictionary, 1764) and Letters on the English (1733) written by Voltaire; Rousseau's Discourse on Inequality (1754) and The Social Contract (1762); and Montesquieu's Spirit of the Laws (1748). The ideas of the Enlightenment played a major role in inspiring the French Revolution, which began in 1789. After the Revolution, the Enlightenment was followed by an opposing intellectual movement known as Romanticism.

Question: What was the most influential publication of the Enlightenment?
Answer: the Encyclopédie

Question: The Encyclopedie was comprised of how many volumes?
Answer: thirty-five

Question: Voltaire wrote Letters on the English in what year?
Answer: 1733

Question: When was Rousseau's Discourse on Inequality published?
Answer: 1754

Question: What year did the French Revolution begin?
Answer: 1789
Age_of_Enlightenment

There were two distinct lines of Enlightenment thought: the radical enlightenment, inspired by the philosophy of Spinoza, advocating democracy, individual liberty, freedom of expression, and eradication of religious authority; and a second, more moderate variety, supported by René Descartes, John Locke, Christian Wolff, Isaac Newton and others, which sought accommodation between reform and the traditional systems of power and faith. Both lines of thought were opposed by the conservative Counter-Enlightenment.

Question: What was the name of the conservative group opposing the Enlightenment?
Answer: Counter-Enlightenment.

Question: The radical enlightenment was inspired by the philosophy of whom?
Answer: Spinoza

Question: Which Enlightenment philosopher advocated democracy, individual liberty, freedom of expression, and eradication of religious authority?
Answer: Spinoza

Question: Which Enlightenment philosophers sought accomodatin between reform and the traditional systems of power and faith?
Answer: René Descartes, John Locke, Christian Wolff, Isaac Newton and others
Age_of_Enlightenment

The "Radical Enlightenment" promoted the concept of separating church and state, an idea that often credited to English philosopher John Locke (1632–1704). According to his principle of the social contract, Locke said that the government lacked authority in the realm of individual conscience, as this was something rational people could not cede to the government for it or others to control. For Locke, this created a natural right in the liberty of conscience, which he said must therefore remain protected from any government authority.

Question: Who is credited with the concept of separating church and state?
Answer: John Locke

Question: Which term describes John Locke's movement to seperate church and state?
Answer: The "Radical Enlightenment"

Question: In what year was John Locke born?
Answer: 1632

Question: In what realm did John Locke feel the government lacked authority?
Answer: the realm of individual conscience
Age_of_Enlightenment

A number of novel ideas about religion developed with the Enlightenment, including Deism and talk of atheism. Deism, according to Thomas Paine, is the simple belief in God the Creator, with no reference to the Bible or any other miraculous source. Instead, the Deist relies solely on personal reason to guide his creed, which was eminently agreeable to many thinkers of the time. Atheism was much discussed, but there were few proponents. Wilson and Reill note that, "In fact, very few enlightened intellectuals, even when they were vocal critics of Christianity, were true atheists. Rather, they were critics of orthodox belief, wedded rather to skepticism, deism, vitalism, or perhaps pantheism." Some followed Pierre Bayle and argued that atheists could indeed be moral men. Many others like Voltaire held that without belief in a God who punishes evil, the moral order of society was undermined. That is, since atheists gave themselves to no Supreme Authority and no law, and had no fear of eternal consequences, they were far more likely to disrupt society. Bayle (1647–1706) observed that in his day, "prudent persons will always maintain an appearance of [religion].". He believed that even atheists could hold concepts of honor and go beyond their own self-interest to create and interact in society. Locke said that if there were no God and no divine law, the result would be moral anarchy: every individual "could have no law but his own will, no end but himself. He would be a god to himself, and the satisfaction of his own will the sole measure and end of all his actions".

Question: According to Thomas Paine, what is the definition of Deism?
Answer: the simple belief in God the Creator, with no reference to the Bible or any other miraculous source

Question: Which philosopher argued that atheists could indeed be moral men?
Answer: Pierre Bayle

Question: Which philosopher argued that without belief in a God who punishes evil, the moral order of society was undermined?
Answer: Voltaire

Question: Who felt that since atheists gave themselves no Supreme Authority and no law, they were more likely to disrupt society?
Answer: Voltaire
Age_of_Enlightenment

The word "public" implies the highest level of inclusivity – the public sphere by definition should be open to all. However, this sphere was only public to relative degrees. Enlightenment thinkers frequently contrasted their conception of the "public" with that of the people: Condorcet contrasted "opinion" with populace, Marmontel "the opinion of men of letters" with "the opinion of the multitude," and d'Alembert the "truly enlightened public" with "the blind and noisy multitude". Additionally, most institutions of the public sphere excluded both women and the lower classes. Cross-class influences occurred through noble and lower class participation in areas such as the coffeehouses and the Masonic lodges.

Question: Whixh population groups were excluded from most institutions of the public sphere?
Answer: women and the lower classes

Question: Which two areas experienced criss-cross influences through noble and lower class participation?
Answer: coffeehouses and the Masonic lodges

Question: Marmontel contrasted "the opinion of men of letters" with what?
Answer: "the opinion of the multitude,"

Question: d'Alembert contrasted the "truly enlightened public" with whom?
Answer: "the blind and noisy multitude"