Divyanshu67/squad_v2 huggingface dataset:
Ottoman_Empire

In southern Europe, a Catholic coalition led by Philip II of Spain won a victory over the Ottoman fleet at the Battle of Lepanto (1571). It was a startling, if mostly symbolic, blow to the image of Ottoman invincibility, an image which the victory of the Knights of Malta against the Ottoman invaders in the 1565 Siege of Malta had recently set about eroding. The battle was far more damaging to the Ottoman navy in sapping experienced manpower than the loss of ships, which were rapidly replaced. The Ottoman navy recovered quickly, persuading Venice to sign a peace treaty in 1573, allowing the Ottomans to expand and consolidate their position in North Africa.

Question: Which Spaniard led a battle in 1571?
Answer: Philip II

Question: What battle did the Spanish win in 1571?
Answer: Battle of Lepanto

Question: What siege occurred in 1565?
Answer: Siege of Malta

Question: In what year did Venice sign a peace treaty with the Ottomans?
Answer: 1573

Question: After signing a peace treaty with Venice, in what region did the Ottoman empire expand?
Answer: North Africa
Ottoman_Empire

By contrast, the Habsburg frontier had settled somewhat, a stalemate caused by a stiffening of the Habsburg defences. The Long War against Habsburg Austria (1593–1606) created the need for greater numbers of Ottoman infantry equipped with firearms, resulting in a relaxation of recruitment policy. This contributed to problems of indiscipline and outright rebelliousness within the corps, which were never fully solved. Irregular sharpshooters (Sekban) were also recruited, and on demobilization turned to brigandage in the Jelali revolts (1595–1610), which engendered widespread anarchy in Anatolia in the late 16th and early 17th centuries. With the Empire's population reaching 30 million people by 1600, the shortage of land placed further pressure on the government . In spite of these problems, the Ottoman state remained strong, and its army did not collapse or suffer crushing defeats. The only exceptions were campaigns against the Safavid dynasty of Persia, where many of the Ottoman eastern provinces were lost, some permanently. This 1603–1618 war eventually resulted in the Treaty of Nasuh Pasha, which ceded the entire Caucasus, except westernmost Georgia, back into Iranian Safavid possession. Campaigns during this era became increasingly inconclusive, even against weaker states with much smaller forces, such as Poland or Austria.

Question: What was the late 16th century war against Habsburg Austria known as?
Answer: The Long War

Question: During what years did the Ottoman war against Habsburg Austria occur?
Answer: 1593–1606

Question: What were ottoman irregular sharpshooters known as?
Answer: Sekban

Question: What was the population of the Ottoman empire at the beginning of the 17th century?
Answer: 30 million people

Question: A war occurring from 1603 to 1618 resulted in what treaty?
Answer: Treaty of Nasuh Pasha
Ottoman_Empire

During his brief majority reign, Murad IV (1612–1640) reasserted central authority and recaptured Iraq (1639) from the Safavids. The resulting Treaty of Zuhab of that same year decisively parted the Caucasus and adjacent regions between the two neighbouring empires as it had already been defined in the 1555 Peace of Amasya. The Sultanate of women (1648–1656) was a period in which the mothers of young sultans exercised power on behalf of their sons. The most prominent women of this period were Kösem Sultan and her daughter-in-law Turhan Hatice, whose political rivalry culminated in Kösem's murder in 1651. During the Köprülü Era (1656–1703), effective control of the Empire was exercised by a sequence of Grand Viziers from the Köprülü family. The Köprülü Vizierate saw renewed military success with authority restored in Transylvania, the conquest of Crete completed in 1669, and expansion into Polish southern Ukraine, with the strongholds of Khotyn and Kamianets-Podilskyi and the territory of Podolia ceding to Ottoman control in 1676.

Question: Who recaptured Iraq in 1639?
Answer: Murad IV

Question: Who had control over Iraq before it was recaptured in 1639?
Answer: the Safavids

Question: When was Kösem murdered?
Answer: 1651

Question: What years define the Köprülü Era?
Answer: 1656–1703

Question: What territory was conquered by the Köprülü Vizierate in 1669?
Answer: Crete
Ottoman_Empire

This period of renewed assertiveness came to a calamitous end in May 1683 when Grand Vizier Kara Mustafa Pasha led a huge army to attempt a second Ottoman siege of Vienna in the Great Turkish War of 1683–1687. The final assault being fatally delayed, the Ottoman forces were swept away by allied Habsburg, German and Polish forces spearheaded by the Polish king Jan III Sobieski at the Battle of Vienna. The alliance of the Holy League pressed home the advantage of the defeat at Vienna, culminating in the Treaty of Karlowitz (26 January 1699), which ended the Great Turkish War. The Ottomans surrendered control of significant territories, many permanently. Mustafa II (1695–1703) led the counterattack of 1695–96 against the Habsburgs in Hungary, but was undone at the disastrous defeat at Zenta (in modern Serbia), 11 September 1697.

Question: Which Grand Vizier attempted a siege of Vienna in 1683?
Answer: Grand Vizier Kara Mustafa Pasha

Question: What was the war that took place from 1683 to 1687 known as?
Answer: the Great Turkish War

Question: Which polish king led the fight against the Ottoman empire in the Battle of Vienna?
Answer: Jan III Sobieski

Question: What was the alliance against the late 17th century Ottoman empire known as?
Answer: the Holy League

Question: What treaty was signed 26 January 1699?
Answer: Treaty of Karlowitz
Ottoman_Empire

After the Austro-Turkish War of 1716–1718 the Treaty of Passarowitz confirmed the loss of the Banat, Serbia and "Little Walachia" (Oltenia) to Austria. The Treaty also revealed that the Ottoman Empire was on the defensive and unlikely to present any further aggression in Europe. The Austro-Russian–Turkish War, which was ended by the Treaty of Belgrade in 1739, resulted in the recovery of Serbia and Oltenia, but the Empire lost the port of Azov, north of the Crimean Peninsula, to the Russians. After this treaty the Ottoman Empire was able to enjoy a generation of peace, as Austria and Russia were forced to deal with the rise of Prussia.

Question: Oltenia is also known as what?
Answer: Little Walachia

Question: The Austro-Turkish war took place over what years?
Answer: 1716–1718

Question: The Austro Turkish War culminated in the signing of what treaty?
Answer: Treaty of Passarowitz

Question: The Treaty of Belgrade was the result of a war known as what?
Answer: Austro-Russian–Turkish War

Question: What port was lost by the Ottoman empire as a result of the Treaty of Belgrade?
Answer: port of Azov
Ottoman_Empire

Educational and technological reforms came about, including the establishment of higher education institutions such as the Istanbul Technical University. In 1734 an artillery school was established to impart Western-style artillery methods, but the Islamic clergy successfully objected under the grounds of theodicy. In 1754 the artillery school was reopened on a semi-secret basis. In 1726, Ibrahim Muteferrika convinced the Grand Vizier Nevşehirli Damat İbrahim Pasha, the Grand Mufti, and the clergy on the efficiency of the printing press, and Muteferrika was later granted by Sultan Ahmed III permission to publish non-religious books (despite opposition from some calligraphers and religious leaders). Muteferrika's press published its first book in 1729 and, by 1743, issued 17 works in 23 volumes, each having between 500 and 1,000 copies.

Question: What is one university that was formed in the early 18th century of the empire?
Answer: Istanbul Technical University

Question: What type of school was established in the empire in 1734?
Answer: an artillery school

Question: In 1754 what man convinced the Grand Vizier to allow the use of the printing press?
Answer: Ibrahim Muteferrika

Question: Who was the Ottoaman Grand Vizier in 1726?
Answer: Nevşehirli Damat İbrahim Pasha

Question: In what year did an Ottoman press produce its first book?
Answer: 1729
Ottoman_Empire

In 1768 Russian-backed Ukrainian Haidamaks, pursuing Polish confederates, entered Balta, an Ottoman-controlled town on the border of Bessarabia in Ukraine, and massacred its citizens and burned the town to the ground. This action provoked the Ottoman Empire into the Russo-Turkish War of 1768–1774. The Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca of 1774 ended the war and provided freedom to worship for the Christian citizens of the Ottoman-controlled provinces of Wallachia and Moldavia. By the late 18th century, a number of defeats in several wars with Russia led some people in the Ottoman Empire to conclude that the reforms of Peter the Great had given the Russians an edge, and the Ottomans would have to keep up with Western technology in order to avoid further defeats.

Question: Which group supported by Russia entered Balta in 1768?
Answer: Ukrainian Haidamaks

Question: Near what region was Balta bording?
Answer: Bessarabia

Question: During what years was the Russo-Turkish war?
Answer: 1768–1774

Question: The Russo-Turkish War resulted in what treaty?
Answer: Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca

Question: The culmination of the Russo-Turkish war granted what to the citizens of Ottoman controlled Provinces in Moldavia?
Answer: freedom to worship
Ottoman_Empire

The Serbian revolution (1804–1815) marked the beginning of an era of national awakening in the Balkans during the Eastern Question. Suzerainty of Serbia as a hereditary monarchy under its own dynasty was acknowledged de jure in 1830. In 1821, the Greeks declared war on the Sultan. A rebellion that originated in Moldavia as a diversion was followed by the main revolution in the Peloponnese, which, along with the northern part of the Gulf of Corinth, became the first parts of the Ottoman Empire to achieve independence (in 1829). By the mid-19th century, the Ottoman Empire was called the "sick man" by Europeans. The suzerain states – the Principality of Serbia, Wallachia, Moldavia and Montenegro – moved towards de jure independence during the 1860s and 1870s.

Question: During what years did the Serbian Revolution occur?
Answer: 1804–1815

Question: What Serbian monarchy was acknowledged in 1830?
Answer: Suzerainty of Serbia

Question: There was a war proclaimed against the Ottoman Sultan in 1821, who declared it?
Answer: the Greeks

Question: Some parts of the Ottoman Empire gained independence in what year?
Answer: 1829

Question: What did Europeans refer to the Ottoman empire as in the 19th century?
Answer: the "sick man"
Ottoman_Empire

The Christian population of the empire, owing to their higher educational levels, started to pull ahead of the Muslim majority, leading to much resentment on the part of the latter. In 1861, there were 571 primary and 94 secondary schools for Ottoman Christians with 140,000 pupils in total, a figure that vastly exceeded the number of Muslim children in school at the same time, who were further hindered by the amount of time spent learning Arabic and Islamic theology. In turn, the higher educational levels of the Christians allowed them to play a large role in the economy. In 1911, of the 654 wholesale companies in Istanbul, 528 were owned by ethnic Greeks. Of course, it would be a mistake to ignore the geopolitical dimensions of this dynamic. The preponderance of Christian merchants owed not to any innate business sense on their part, although plenty of European observers were keen on making this point. In fact, in many cases, Christians and also Jews were able to gain protection from European consuls and citizenship, meaning they were protected from Ottoman law and not subject to the same economic regulations as their Muslim comrades.

Question: How many primary schools existed for Christians in the Ottoman empire in 1861?
Answer: 571

Question: How many Christian pupils were in ottoman schools in 1861?
Answer: 140,000

Question: Greeks in Istanbul owned how many wholesale companies in 1911?
Answer: 528

Question: Jews and Christians were offered protection in the form of what assistance by Europe?
Answer: consuls and citizenship

Question: There were how many wholesale companies in Istanbul in 1911?
Answer: 654
Ottoman_Empire

The Crimean War (1853–1856) was part of a long-running contest between the major European powers for influence over territories of the declining Ottoman Empire. The financial burden of the war led the Ottoman state to issue foreign loans amounting to 5 million pounds sterling on 4 August 1854. The war caused an exodus of the Crimean Tatars, about 200,000 of whom moved to the Ottoman Empire in continuing waves of emigration. Toward the end of the Caucasian Wars, 90% of the Circassians were ethnically cleansed and exiled from their homelands in the Caucasus and fled to the Ottoman Empire, resulting in the settlement of 500,000 to 700,000 Circassians in Turkey.[page needed] Some Circassian organisations give much higher numbers, totaling 1–1.5 million deported or killed.

Question: During what years did the Crimean War take place?
Answer: 1853–1856

Question: On what date did the Ottoman empire issue foreign loans to deal with the cost of the war?
Answer: 4 August 1854

Question: Roughly 200,000 individuals of what group left Crimea during the war?
Answer: Crimean Tatars

Question: Roughly 90% of what group were pushed from their homes or ethnically cleansed during the Caucasian Wars?
Answer: Circassians

Question: Where did Circassians settle to when leaving their homes in the Caucasus?
Answer: Turkey
Ottoman_Empire

As the Ottoman state attempted to modernize its infrastructure and army in response to threats from the outside, it also opened itself up to a different kind of threat: that of creditors. Indeed, as the historian Eugene Rogan has written, "the single greatest threat to the independence of the Middle East" in the nineteenth century "was not the armies of Europe but its banks." The Ottoman state, which had begun taking on debt with the Crimean War, was forced to declare bankruptcy in 1875. By 1881, the Ottoman Empire agreed to have its debt controlled by an institution known as the Ottoman Public Debt Administration, a council of European men with presidency alternating between France and Britain. The body controlled swaths of the Ottoman economy, and used its position to insure that European capital continued to penetrate the empire, often to the detriment of local Ottoman interests.

Question: What historian wrote that banks were the single greatest threat to mid-east independence? 
Answer: Eugene Rogan

Question: In what year did the Ottoman Empire declare bankruptcy?
Answer: 1875

Question: What was the administration that the empire used to control its debt called?
Answer: Ottoman Public Debt Administration

Question: Who served on the debt controlling administration of the Ottoman Empire?
Answer: European men with presidency alternating between France and Britain.

Question: European capital in the Ottoman empire resulted in what?
Answer: the detriment of local Ottoman interests
Ottoman_Empire

The Ottoman bashi-bazouks brutally suppressed the Bulgarian uprising of 1876, massacring up to 100,000 people in the process. The Russo-Turkish War (1877–78) ended with a decisive victory for Russia. As a result, Ottoman holdings in Europe declined sharply; Bulgaria was established as an independent principality inside the Ottoman Empire, Romania achieved full independence. Serbia and Montenegro finally gained complete independence, but with smaller territories. In 1878, Austria-Hungary unilaterally occupied the Ottoman provinces of Bosnia-Herzegovina and Novi Pazar.

Question: Who held back the Bulgarian uprising in 1876?
Answer: Ottoman bashi-bazouks

Question: What war occurred from 1877 to 1878?
Answer: Russo-Turkish War

Question: Bulgaria became independent within the Empire as the result of what war?
Answer: The Russo-Turkish War

Question: What nation attained full independence as a result of the Russo-Turkish war?
Answer: Romania
Ottoman_Empire

As the Ottoman Empire gradually shrank in size, some 7–9 million Turkish-Muslims from its former territories in the Caucasus, Crimea, Balkans, and the Mediterranean islands migrated to Anatolia and Eastern Thrace. After the Empire lost the Balkan Wars (1912–13), it lost all its Balkan territories except East Thrace (European Turkey). This resulted in around 400,000 Muslims fleeing with the retreating Ottoman armies (with many dying from cholera brought by the soldiers), and with some 400,000 non-Muslims fleeing territory still under Ottoman rule. Justin McCarthy estimates that during the period 1821 to 1922 several million Muslims died in the Balkans, with the expulsion of a similar number.

Question: Millions of Muslims left the empire and migrated to what places?
Answer: Anatolia and Eastern Thrace

Question: When did the Balkan Wars take place?
Answer: 1912–13

Question: What was the sole territory that the empire kept in the Balkans after 1913?
Answer: East Thrace (European Turkey)

Question: How many Muslims fled the Balkans with the Ottoman armies?
Answer: 400,000

Question: Which individual estimated millions of Muslim deaths in the Balkans in the late 19th and early 20th century?
Answer: Justin McCarthy
Ottoman_Empire

The defeat and dissolution of the Ottoman Empire (1908–1922) began with the Second Constitutional Era, a moment of hope and promise established with the Young Turk Revolution. It restored the Ottoman constitution of 1876 and brought in multi-party politics with a two-stage electoral system (electoral law) under the Ottoman parliament. The constitution offered hope by freeing the empire’s citizens to modernize the state’s institutions, rejuvenate its strength, and enable it to hold its own against outside powers. Its guarantee of liberties promised to dissolve inter-communal tensions and transform the empire into a more harmonious place. Instead, this period became the story of the twilight struggle of the Empire. Young Turks movement members once underground (named committee, group, etc.) established (declared) their parties. Among them “Committee of Union and Progress,” and “Freedom and Accord Party” were major parties. On the other end of the spectrum were ethnic parties which included; Poale Zion, Al-Fatat, and Armenian national movement organized under Armenian Revolutionary Federation. Profiting from the civil strife, Austria-Hungary officially annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1908. The last of Ottoman censuses was performed with the 1914 census. Ottoman military reforms resulted with the Ottoman Modern Army which engaged with Italo-Turkish War (1911), Balkan Wars (1912–1913), and continuous unrest (Counter coup followed by restoration and Saviors followed by Raid on Porte) in the Empire up to World War I.

Question: What era kicked off the end of the Ottoman empire?
Answer: Second Constitutional Era

Question: What was the revolution that sparked the end of the Ottoman Empire?
Answer: the Young Turk Revolution

Question: The restoration of what happened in 1876?
Answer: the Ottoman constitution

Question: What were two major parties established by Young Turk members?
Answer: Committee of Union and Progress,” and “Freedom and Accord Party”

Question: What territories were annexed by Austria-Hungary in 1908?
Answer: Bosnia and Herzegovina
Ottoman_Empire

The history of the Ottoman Empire during World War I began with the Ottoman engagement in the Middle Eastern theatre. There were several important Ottoman victories in the early years of the war, such as the Battle of Gallipoli and the Siege of Kut. The Arab Revolt which began in 1916 turned the tide against the Ottomans on the Middle Eastern front, where they initially seemed to have the upper hand during the first two years of the war. The Armistice of Mudros was signed on 30 October 1918, and set the partition of the Ottoman Empire under the terms of the Treaty of Sèvres. This treaty, as designed in the conference of London, allowed the Sultan to retain his position and title. The occupation of Constantinople and İzmir led to the establishment of a Turkish national movement, which won the Turkish War of Independence (1919–22) under the leadership of Mustafa Kemal (later given the surname "Atatürk"). The sultanate was abolished on 1 November 1922, and the last sultan, Mehmed VI (reigned 1918–22), left the country on 17 November 1922. The caliphate was abolished on 3 March 1924.

Question: Where did the Ottoman empire begin its part in the first world war?
Answer: Middle Eastern theatre

Question: The Battle of Gallipoli and the Siege of Kut resulted in what?
Answer: Ottoman victories

Question: The Arab Revolt began in what year?
Answer: 1916

Question: What was the date that the Armistice of Mudros came to be signed?
Answer: 30 October 1918

Question: When did the Turkish War of Independence take place?
Answer: 1919–22
Ottoman_Empire

In 1915, as the Russian Caucasus Army continued to advance into eastern Anatolia, the Ottoman government started the deportation of its ethnic Armenian population, resulting in the death of approximately 1.5 million Armenians in what became known as the Armenian Genocide. The genocide was carried out during and after World War I and implemented in two phases: the wholesale killing of the able-bodied male population through massacre and subjection of army conscripts to forced labour, followed by the deportation of women, children, the elderly and infirm on death marches leading to the Syrian desert. Driven forward by military escorts, the deportees were deprived of food and water and subjected to periodic robbery, rape, and systematic massacre. Large-scale massacres were also committed against the Empire's Greek and Assyrian minorities as part of the same campaign of ethnic cleansing.

Question: When did the Russian Caucasus Army advance into eastern Anatolia?
Answer: In 1915

Question: What ethnic group was deported by the Ottoman Government from eastern Anatolia?
Answer: ethnic Armenian

Question: How many ethnic Armenians are believed to have died in the Armenian Genocide?
Answer: 1.5 million

Question: Armenian women and children were deported on death marches through what desert?
Answer: the Syrian desert

Question: Two other ethnic minorities were massacred during Ottoman ethnic cleansing, what were they?
Answer: Greek and Assyrian minorities
Ottoman_Empire

Before the reforms of the 19th and 20th centuries, the state organisation of the Ottoman Empire was a simple system that had two main dimensions, which were the military administration and the civil administration. The Sultan was the highest position in the system. The civil system was based on local administrative units based on the region's characteristics. The Ottomans practiced a system in which the state (as in the Byzantine Empire) had control over the clergy. Certain pre-Islamic Turkish traditions that had survived the adoption of administrative and legal practices from Islamic Iran remained important in Ottoman administrative circles. According to Ottoman understanding, the state's primary responsibility was to defend and extend the land of the Muslims and to ensure security and harmony within its borders within the overarching context of orthodox Islamic practice and dynastic sovereignty.

Question: What was the highest ranked person in the Ottoman Empire until the 19th century?
Answer: Sultan was the highest position

Question: On type of system were the civil administrations of the empire based on? 
Answer: local administrative units based on the region's characteristics

Question: Who had control over the clergy in the Ottoman empire?
Answer: the state

Question: What was the main responsibility of the Ottoman state as it relates to lands?
Answer: to defend and extend the land of the Muslims

Question: What type of practice guided the Ottoman state in its responsibilities?
Answer: orthodox Islamic practice
Ottoman_Empire

The Ottoman Empire or, as a dynastic institution, the House of Osman was unprecedented and unequaled in the Islamic world for its size and duration. In Europe, only the House of Habsburg had a similarly unbroken line of sovereigns (kings/emperors) from the same family who ruled for so long, and during the same period, between the late 13th and early 20th centuries. The Ottoman dynasty was Turkish in origin. On eleven occasions, the sultan was deposed (replaced by another sultan of the Ottoman dynasty, who were either the former sultan's brother, son or nephew) because he was perceived by his enemies as a threat to the state. There were only two attempts in Ottoman history to unseat the ruling Ottoman dynasty, both failures, which suggests a political system that for an extended period was able to manage its revolutions without unnecessary instability. As such, the last Ottoman sultan Mehmed VI (r. 1918–1922) was a direct patrilineal (male-line) descendant of the first Ottoman sultan Osman I (r. 1299–1326), which was unparallelled in both Europe (e.g. the male line of the House of Habsburg became extinct in 1740) and in the Islamic world. The primary purpose of the Imperial Harem was to ensure the birth of male heirs to the Ottoman throne and secure the continuation of the direct patrilineal (male-line) descendance of the Ottoman sultans.

Question: What was another name for the Ottoman Empire?
Answer: House of Osman

Question: What was the other longest ruling House in Europe known as?
Answer: House of Habsburg

Question: From what origin did the Ottoman empire come to be?
Answer: Turkish

Question: How many times was the the sitting sultan in the House of Osman removed?
Answer: eleven occasions

Question: When was the reign of sultan Mehmed VI?
Answer: 1918–1922
Ottoman_Empire

The highest position in Islam, caliphate, was claimed by the sultans starting since Murad I, which was established as Ottoman Caliphate. The Ottoman sultan, pâdişâh or "lord of kings", served as the Empire's sole regent and was considered to be the embodiment of its government, though he did not always exercise complete control. The Imperial Harem was one of the most important powers of the Ottoman court. It was ruled by the Valide Sultan. On occasion, the Valide Sultan would become involved in state politics. For a time, the women of the Harem effectively controlled the state in what was termed the "Sultanate of Women". New sultans were always chosen from the sons of the previous sultan. The strong educational system of the palace school was geared towards eliminating the unfit potential heirs, and establishing support among the ruling elite for a successor. The palace schools, which would also educate the future administrators of the state, were not a single track. First, the Madrasa (Ottoman Turkish: Medrese‎) was designated for the Muslims, and educated scholars and state officials according to Islamic tradition. The financial burden of the Medrese was supported by vakifs, allowing children of poor families to move to higher social levels and income. The second track was a free boarding school for the Christians, the Enderûn, which recruited 3,000 students annually from Christian boys between eight and twenty years old from one in forty families among the communities settled in Rumelia or the Balkans, a process known as Devshirme (Devşirme).

Question: The Ottoman Caliphate claimed by Murad Ir epresented what in Islam?
Answer: The highest position

Question: The person with this what title was believed to be the embodiment of the Ottoman government?
Answer: pâdişâh or "lord of kings"

Question: What was the importantance of the imperial Harem?
Answer: one of the most important powers of the Ottoman court

Question: What was the purpose of the palace educational system?
Answer: eliminating the unfit potential heirs, and establishing support among the ruling elite for a successor

Question: What was the name of the boarding school for Christians during the Ottoman Caliphate?
Answer: Enderûn
Ottoman_Empire

Though the sultan was the supreme monarch, the sultan's political and executive authority was delegated. The politics of the state had a number of advisors and ministers gathered around a council known as Divan (after the 17th century it was renamed the "Porte"). The Divan, in the years when the Ottoman state was still a Beylik, was composed of the elders of the tribe. Its composition was later modified to include military officers and local elites (such as religious and political advisors). Later still, beginning in 1320, a Grand Vizier was appointed to assume certain of the sultan's responsibilities. The Grand Vizier had considerable independence from the sultan with almost unlimited powers of appointment, dismissal and supervision. Beginning with the late 16th century, sultans withdrew from politics and the Grand Vizier became the de facto head of state.

Question: The sultan of the ottoman empire had what honorific?
Answer: the supreme monarch

Question: What was the council that handled state politics named?
Answer: Divan

Question: What type of people were initially in the Divan?
Answer: elders of the tribe

Question: At a later point other groups were admitted into the Divan, what groups?
Answer: military officers and local elites

Question: A Grand Vizar began to be appointed in what year?
Answer: 1320
Ottoman_Empire

The Ottoman legal system accepted the religious law over its subjects. At the same time the Qanun (or Kanun), a secular legal system, co-existed with religious law or Sharia. The Ottoman Empire was always organized around a system of local jurisprudence. Legal administration in the Ottoman Empire was part of a larger scheme of balancing central and local authority. Ottoman power revolved crucially around the administration of the rights to land, which gave a space for the local authority to develop the needs of the local millet. The jurisdictional complexity of the Ottoman Empire was aimed to permit the integration of culturally and religiously different groups. The Ottoman system had three court systems: one for Muslims, one for non-Muslims, involving appointed Jews and Christians ruling over their respective religious communities, and the "trade court". The entire system was regulated from above by means of the administrative Qanun, i.e. laws, a system based upon the Turkic Yassa and Töre, which were developed in the pre-Islamic era.[citation needed]

Question: What was the name of the secular legal system under the Ottoman Caliphate?
Answer: Qanun (or Kanun)

Question: What was religious law known as?
Answer: Sharia

Question: What did the Ottoman Empire attempt to balance in its legal policies?
Answer: central and local authority

Question: How many court systems did the Ottoman empire have?
Answer: three court systems

Question: What were the laws of the court system based upon?
Answer: Turkic Yassa and Töre
Ottoman_Empire

These court categories were not, however, wholly exclusive: for instance, the Islamic courts—which were the Empire's primary courts—could also be used to settle a trade conflict or disputes between litigants of differing religions, and Jews and Christians often went to them to obtain a more forceful ruling on an issue. The Ottoman state tended not to interfere with non-Muslim religious law systems, despite legally having a voice to do so through local governors. The Islamic Sharia law system had been developed from a combination of the Qur'an; the Hadīth, or words of the prophet Muhammad; ijmā', or consensus of the members of the Muslim community; qiyas, a system of analogical reasoning from earlier precedents; and local customs. Both systems were taught at the Empire's law schools, which were in Istanbul and Bursa.

Question: What were the primary courts of the empire?
Answer: Islamic courts

Question: From what works was Sharia developed?
Answer: the Qur'an; the Hadīth

Question: Whose words contributed to the Islamic Sharia law system?
Answer: the prophet Muhammad

Question: Where were the empire's law schools?
Answer: in Istanbul and Bursa.

Question: What other religious groups went to Islamic courts?
Answer: Jews and Christians
Ottoman_Empire

The Ottoman Islamic legal system was set up differently from traditional European courts. Presiding over Islamic courts would be a Qadi, or judge. Since the closing of the ijtihad, or Gate of Interpretation, Qadis throughout the Ottoman Empire focused less on legal precedent, and more with local customs and traditions in the areas that they administered. However, the Ottoman court system lacked an appellate structure, leading to jurisdictional case strategies where plaintiffs could take their disputes from one court system to another until they achieved a ruling that was in their favor.

Question: Who was the one that presided over the empire's Islamic Courts?
Answer: Qadi

Question: At what juncture did the Qadi focus less on precedent?
Answer: closing of the ijtihad, or Gate of Interpretation

Question: What was one thing the Ottoman legal system lacked?
Answer: an appellate structure

Question: What did Qadis focus on in some areas?
Answer: local customs and traditions

Question: What is another word for Qadi?
Answer: judge
Ottoman_Empire

These reforms were based heavily on French models, as indicated by the adoption of a three-tiered court system. Referred to as Nizamiye, this system was extended to the local magistrate level with the final promulgation of the Mecelle, a civil code that regulated marriage, divorce, alimony, will, and other matters of personal status. In an attempt to clarify the division of judicial competences, an administrative council laid down that religious matters were to be handled by religious courts, and statute matters were to be handled by the Nizamiye courts.

Question: Reforms in the Ottoman court system were based on what model?
Answer: French models

Question: How many tiers did the Ottoman court system adopt?
Answer: three

Question: What was the new Ottoman court system known as?
Answer: Nizamiye

Question: What code regulated marriage?
Answer: the Mecelle
Ottoman_Empire

The first military unit of the Ottoman State was an army that was organized by Osman I from the tribesmen inhabiting the hills of western Anatolia in the late 13th century. The military system became an intricate organization with the advance of the Empire. The Ottoman military was a complex system of recruiting and fief-holding. The main corps of the Ottoman Army included Janissary, Sipahi, Akıncı and Mehterân. The Ottoman army was once among the most advanced fighting forces in the world, being one of the first to use muskets and cannons. The Ottoman Turks began using falconets, which were short but wide cannons, during the Siege of Constantinople. The Ottoman cavalry depended on high speed and mobility rather than heavy armour, using bows and short swords on fast Turkoman and Arabian horses (progenitors of the Thoroughbred racing horse), and often applied tactics similar to those of the Mongol Empire, such as pretending to retreat while surrounding the enemy forces inside a crescent-shaped formation and then making the real attack. The decline in the army's performance became clear from the mid-17th century and after the Great Turkish War. The 18th century saw some limited success against Venice, but in the north the European-style Russian armies forced the Ottomans to concede land.

Question: In what century did the first Osman I organized military unit form?
Answer: 13th century

Question: From where did tribesmen that formed a unit organized by Osman I originate?
Answer: the hills of western Anatolia

Question: There were four corps of the Ottoman Army, what were they?
Answer: Janissary, Sipahi, Akıncı and Mehterân

Question: The Ottoman army was among the first to use what two pieces of weapons technology?
Answer: muskets and cannons

Question: In what conflict did the Ottoman Turks use falconets?
Answer: Siege of Constantinople
Ottoman_Empire

However, the collapsing Ottoman economy could not sustain the fleet's strength for too long. Sultan Abdülhamid II distrusted the admirals who sided with the reformist Midhat Pasha, and claimed that the large and expensive fleet was of no use against the Russians during the Russo-Turkish War. He locked most of the fleet inside the Golden Horn, where the ships decayed for the next 30 years. Following the Young Turk Revolution in 1908, the Committee of Union and Progress sought to develop a strong Ottoman naval force. The Ottoman Navy Foundation was established in 1910 to buy new ships through public donations.

Question: Which sultan distrusted his admirals during the Russo-Turkish war?
Answer: Sultan Abdülhamid II

Question: Who was the reformist that had the backing of Ottoman admirals during the Russo-Turkish war?
Answer: Midhat Pasha

Question: Where was the Ottoman fleet left to decay?
Answer: the Golden Horn

Question: When was the Young Turk Revolution?
Answer: 1908

Question: What Ottoman group wanted to form a stronger navy in the early 20th century?
Answer: the Committee of Union and Progress
Ottoman_Empire

The establishment of Ottoman military aviation dates back to between June 1909 and July 1911. The Ottoman Empire started preparing its first pilots and planes, and with the founding of the Aviation School (Tayyare Mektebi) in Yeşilköy on 3 July 1912, the Empire began to tutor its own flight officers. The founding of the Aviation School quickened advancement in the military aviation program, increased the number of enlisted persons within it, and gave the new pilots an active role in the Ottoman Army and Navy. In May 1913 the world's first specialized Reconnaissance Training Program was started by the Aviation School and the first separate reconnaissance division was established.[citation needed] In June 1914 a new military academy, the Naval Aviation School (Bahriye Tayyare Mektebi) was founded. With the outbreak of World War I, the modernization process stopped abruptly. The Ottoman aviation squadrons fought on many fronts during World War I, from Galicia in the west to the Caucasus in the east and Yemen in the south.

Question: What was the first date that the Ottoman empire had an air-based military unit?
Answer: June 1909

Question: Where was the first Ottoman Aviation school?
Answer: Yeşilköy

Question: On what date was the Aviation School founded?
Answer: 3 July 1912

Question: What happened at the aviation school in May 1913?
Answer: the world's first specialized Reconnaissance Training Program was started

Question: What new military academy was formed in June 1914?
Answer: the Naval Aviation School (Bahriye Tayyare Mektebi)
Ottoman_Empire

Ottoman government deliberately pursued a policy for the development of Bursa, Edirne, and Istanbul, successive Ottoman capitals, into major commercial and industrial centres, considering that merchants and artisans were indispensable in creating a new metropolis. To this end, Mehmed and his successor Bayezid, also encouraged and welcomed migration of the Jews from different parts of Europe, who were settled in Istanbul and other port cities like Salonica. In many places in Europe, Jews were suffering persecution at the hands of their Christian counterparts, such as in Spain after the conclusion of Reconquista. The tolerance displayed by the Turks was welcomed by the immigrants.

Question: The goal of developing Bursa and Istanbul was an intentional act to create what?
Answer: commercial and industrial centres

Question: Who was Mehmed's successor?
Answer: Bayezid

Question: Who did Mehmed and Bayezid encourage to come to Istanbul?
Answer: the Jews from different parts of Europe

Question: What group were Jews being persecuted by in Europe?
Answer: their Christian counterparts

Question: Persecution of Jews in Spain occurred after what event concluded?
Answer: the conclusion of Reconquista
Ottoman_Empire

The Ottoman economic mind was closely related to the basic concepts of state and society in the Middle East in which the ultimate goal of a state was consolidation and extension of the ruler's power, and the way to reach it was to get rich resources of revenues by making the productive classes prosperous. The ultimate aim was to increase the state revenues without damaging the prosperity of subjects to prevent the emergence of social disorder and to keep the traditional organization of the society intact.

Question: The economic goal of the state was to serve as what for the ruler?
Answer: consolidation and extension of the ruler's power

Question: In what regions concepts was the Ottoman economic system based on?
Answer: the Middle East

Question: What was a way to reach the economic goals of the Ottoman economic system?
Answer: making the productive classes prosperous

Question: What was the final goal of the state economic system?
Answer: to increase the state revenues without damaging the prosperity of subjects

Question: What did the state economic system hope to avoid?
Answer: the emergence of social disorder
Ottoman_Empire

The organization of the treasury and chancery were developed under the Ottoman Empire more than any other Islamic government and, until the 17th century, they were the leading organization among all their contemporaries. This organization developed a scribal bureaucracy (known as "men of the pen") as a distinct group, partly highly trained ulama, which developed into a professional body. The effectiveness of this professional financial body stands behind the success of many great Ottoman statesmen.

Question: Two of the most developed economic organizations under the Ottoman Empire were what?
Answer: the treasury and chancery

Question: What were the scribes of the chancery known as?
Answer: men of the pen

Question: Part of the scribal bureaucracy were trained what?
Answer: ulama

Question: What did the scribal bureaucracy become?
Answer: a professional body

Question: The Ottoman Empire had the most developed economic organizations among Islamic Governments until which century?
Answer: the 17th century
Ottoman_Empire

The economic structure of the Empire was defined by its geopolitical structure. The Ottoman Empire stood between the West and the East, thus blocking the land route eastward and forcing Spanish and Portuguese navigators to set sail in search of a new route to the Orient. The Empire controlled the spice route that Marco Polo once used. When Vasco da Gama bypassed Ottoman controlled routes and established direct trade links with India in 1498, and Christopher Columbus first journeyed to the Bahamas in 1492, the Ottoman Empire was at its zenith.

Question: What serviced as the foundation for the structure of the economy of the Ottoman empire?
Answer: its geopolitical structure

Question: The Ottoman Empire caused navigators from which two nations to find another route to the Orient?
Answer: Spanish and Portuguese

Question: Who once used the spice route that the Ottoman Empire controlled?
Answer: Marco Polo

Question: When were direct trade links established with India?
Answer: 1498

Question: When did Christopher Columbus sail to the Bahamas?
Answer: 1492
Ottoman_Empire

Modern Ottoman studies think that the change in relations between the Ottoman Turks and central Europe was caused by the opening of the new sea routes. It is possible to see the decline in the significance of the land routes to the East as Western Europe opened the ocean routes that bypassed the Middle East and Mediterranean as parallel to the decline of the Ottoman Empire itself. The Anglo-Ottoman Treaty, also known as the Treaty of Balta Liman that opened the Ottoman markets directly to English and French competitors, would be seen as one of the staging posts along this development.

Question: What is believed to have caused the opening of new sea routes during the Ottoman Empire?
Answer: change in relations between the Ottoman Turks and central Europe

Question: The formation of sea routes bypassing the Middle East may have led to the decline of what?
Answer: the Ottoman Empire itself

Question: What is another name for the Treaty of Balta Liman?
Answer: The Anglo-Ottoman Treaty

Question: What did the Treaty of Balta Liman do for Ottoman markets?
Answer: opened the Ottoman markets directly to English and French competitors

Question: In what direction did land routes lose their importance?
Answer: East
Ottoman_Empire

By developing commercial centres and routes, encouraging people to extend the area of cultivated land in the country and international trade through its dominions, the state performed basic economic functions in the Empire. But in all this the financial and political interests of the state were dominant. Within the social and political system they were living in Ottoman administrators could not have comprehended or seen the desirability of the dynamics and principles of the capitalist and mercantile economies developing in Western Europe.

Question: The development of what caused people to expand areas of cultivation in the Ottoman Empire?
Answer: commercial centres and routes

Question: What dominated all economic and political interests?
Answer: interests of the state

Question: What were the types of economies that were being developed in western Europe?
Answer: capitalist and mercantile economies

Question: The expansion of international trade through the Empire was the result of what?
Answer: developing commercial centres and routes
Ottoman_Empire

The rise of port cities saw the clustering of populations caused by the development of steamships and railroads. Urbanization increased from 1700 to 1922, with towns and cities growing. Improvements in health and sanitation made them more attractive to live and work in. Port cities like Salonica, in Greece, saw its population rise from 55,000 in 1800 to 160,000 in 1912 and İzmir which had a population of 150,000 in 1800 grew to 300,000 by 1914. Some regions conversely had population falls – Belgrade saw its population drop from 25,000 to 8,000 mainly due to political strife.

Question: The rise of ports caused what in populations?
Answer: the clustering of populations

Question: Steamships and railroads rose with what else?
Answer: The rise of port cities

Question: In what year did urbanization in the Ottoman empire begin to increase?
Answer: 1700

Question: What were two improvements that made cities more desirable to live in?
Answer: Improvements in health and sanitation

Question: What was the population of Salonica in 1800?
Answer: 55,000
Ottoman_Empire

Ottoman Turkish was the official language of the Empire. It was an Oghuz Turkic language highly influenced by Persian and Arabic. The Ottomans had several influential languages: Turkish, spoken by the majority of the people in Anatolia and by the majority of Muslims of the Balkans except in Albania and Bosnia; Persian, only spoken by the educated; Arabic, spoken mainly in Arabia, North Africa, Iraq, Kuwait, the Levant and parts of the Horn of Africa; and Somali throughout the Horn of Africa. In the last two centuries, usage of these became limited, though, and specific: Persian served mainly as a literary language for the educated, while Arabic was used for religious rites.

Question: What was the official language of the Ottoman Empire?
Answer: Ottoman Turkish

Question: What were the main influences of the official language of the Empire?
Answer: Persian and Arabic

Question: What language was spoken by most people in Anatolia?
Answer: Turkish

Question: Which languages influenced by the empire was spoken in Iraq?
Answer: Arabic

Question: What language was used for religious uses in the Empire?
Answer: Arabic