Divyanshu67/squad_v2 huggingface dataset:
Swaziland

In 2004, the Swaziland government acknowledged for the first time that it suffered an AIDS crisis, with 38.8% of tested pregnant women infected with HIV (see AIDS in Africa). The then Prime Minister Themba Dlamini declared a humanitarian crisis due to the combined effect of drought, land degradation, increased poverty, and HIV/AIDS. According to the 2011 UNAIDS Report, Swaziland is close to achieving universal access to HIV/AIDS treatment, defined as 80% coverage or greater. Estimates of treatment coverage range from 70% to 80% of those infected. Life expectancy had fallen from 61 years in 2000 to 32 years in 2009. Tuberculosis is also a significant problem, with an 18% mortality rate. Many patients have a multi-drug resistant strain, and 83% are co-infected with HIV.

Question: Of pregnant women, how many are believed to be infected with HIV?
Answer: 38.8%

Question: Who was the prime minister of Swaziland in 2004?
Answer: Themba Dlamini

Question: What does UNAIDS consider universal access to HIV/AIDS treatment?
Answer: 80% coverage or greater

Question: What percentage of HIV/AIDS infected in Swaziland are believed to be treated?
Answer: 70% to 80%

Question: What is the rate of mortality for those with tuberculosis in Swaziland?
Answer: 18%

Question: What crisis began in 2004?

Question: What percentage of women have HIV?

Question: Who declared a humanitarian crisis in Africa?

Question: What has the life expectancy risen to since 2000?
Swaziland

Education in Swaziland begins with pre-school education for infants, primary, secondary and high school education for general education and training (GET), and universities and colleges at tertiary level. Pre-school education is usually for children 5-year or younger after that the students can enroll in a primary school anywhere in the country. In Swaziland early childhood care and education (ECCE) centres are in the form of preschools or neighbourhood care points (NCPs). In the country 21.6% of preschool age children have access to early childhood education.

Question: What age attends pre-school in Swaziland?
Answer: 5-year or younger

Question: What percentage of children of age for preschool have access to education in Swaziland?
Answer: 21.6%

Question: In reference to education in Swaziland, hat is an NCP otherwise known as?
Answer: neighbourhood care points

Question: What is does ECCE refer to in the Swazi educational system?
Answer: early childhood care and education

Question: Where do 5 year-olds attend primary school at?

Question: What percentage of preschool children do not have acess to early education?

Question: What percentage of children have acess to primary school at NCPs?
Swaziland

The secondary and high school education system in Swaziland is a five-year programme divided into three years junior secondary and two years senior secondary. There is an external public examination (Junior Certificate) at the end of the junior secondary that learners have to pass to progress to the senior secondary level. The Examination Council of Swaziland (ECOS) administers this examination. At the end of the senior secondary level, learners sit for a public examination, the Swaziland General Certificate of Secondary Education (SGCSE) and International General Certificate of Secondary Education (IGCSE) which is accredited by the Cambridge International Examination (CIE). A few schools offer the Advanced Studies (AS) programme in their curriculum.

Question: How many years does a student spend in secondary and high school in Swaziland?
Answer: five

Question: For how many years is a Swazi student in junior secondary school?
Answer: three

Question: What is the ECOS within the Swazi education system?
Answer: Examination Council of Swaziland

Question: What do students finishing senior secondary school get?
Answer: Swaziland General Certificate of Secondary Education

Question: What institution does the accreditation for the IGCSE in Swaziland?
Answer: Cambridge International Examination

Question: What education system is divided into 3 years?

Question: What is the name of the private axamination taken at the end of junior secondary?

Question: Who determines if students can go to senior secondary?

Question: What private examination do students sit for at the end of senior secondary?
Swaziland

The University of Swaziland, Southern African Nazarene University, Swaziland Christian University are the institutions that offer university education in the country. A campus of Limkokwing University of Creative Technology can be found at Sidvwashini, a suburb of the capital Mbabane. There are some teaching and nursing assistant colleges around the country. Ngwane Teacher's College and William Pitcher College are the country's teaching colleges. The Good Shepherd Hospital in Siteki is home to the College for Nursing Assistants.

Question: The University of Swaziland, Southern Nazarene University, offer higher learning in Swaziland, what is one other University?
Answer: Swaziland Christian University

Question: Where can one find the Limkoking University of Creative Technology?
Answer: Sidvwashini

Question: What is the capital of Swaziland?
Answer: Mbabane

Question: Where in Swaziland is The Good shepherd Hospital?
Answer: Siteki

Question: What nursing school does The Good Shepherd Hospital contain?
Answer: College for Nursing Assistants

Question: What are the 3 schools that offer a university education on the continent?

Question: What campus can be found in the capital?

Question: What is the nursing and teaching college?

Question: What is Siteki the capital of?
Swaziland

The main centre for technical training in Swaziland is the Swaziland College of Technology which is slated to become a full university. It aims to provide and facilitating high quality training and learning in technology and business studies in collaboration with the Commercial, Industrial and Public Sectors. Other technical and vocational institutions are the Gwamile Vocational and Commercial Training Institute located in Matsapha and the Manzini Industrial and Training Centre (MITC) in Manzini. Other vocational institutions include Nhlangano Agricultural Skills Training Center and Siteki Industrial Training Centre.

Question: Which school is the main location for technical education in Swaziland?
Answer: Swaziland College of Technology

Question: What types of education does the Swaziland College of Technology offer?
Answer: technology and business studies

Question: What is the location of the Gwamile Vocational and Commercial Training Institute?
Answer: Matsapha

Question: There is an educational facility in Manzini within Swaziland known by the acronym MITC, what does it stand for?
Answer: Manzini Industrial and Training Centre

Question: What university offers technical training?

Question: What types of education will the Swaziland College of of Technology when it becomes a university?

Question: What is the name of the commercial trainning institute in Manzini?

Question: What training center is located in Siteki?
Swaziland

In addition to these institutions, Swaziland also has the Swaziland Institute of Management and Public Administration (SIMPA) and Institute of Development Management (IDM). SIMPA is a government owned management and development institute and IDM is a regional organisation in Botswana, Lesotho and Swaziland that provides training, consultancy, and research in management. The Mananga management centre was established as Mananga Agricultural Management Centre in 1972 as an International Management Development Centre catering for middle and senior managers, it is located at Ezulwini.

Question: In terms of education in Swaziland what does the acronym SIMPA represent?
Answer: Swaziland Institute of Management and Public Administration

Question: In Swaziland, what is SIMPA?
Answer: a government owned management and development institute

Question: In which locations is the Institute of Development Management?
Answer: Botswana, Lesotho and Swaziland

Question: What service does the IDM provide?
Answer: training, consultancy, and research in management

Question: In what year was the Mananga Management Centre founded?
Answer: 1972

Question: When was the SIMPA established?

Question: What development and management istitute is privatly owned?
Swaziland

The Sangoma is a traditional diviner chosen by the ancestors of that particular family. The training of the Sangoma is called "kwetfwasa". At the end of the training, a graduation ceremony takes place where all the local sangoma come together for feasting and dancing. The diviner is consulted for various reasons, such the cause of sickness or even death. His diagnosis is based on "kubhula", a process of communication, through trance, with the natural superpowers. The Inyanga (a medical and pharmaceutical specialist in western terms) possesses the bone throwing skill ("kushaya ematsambo") used to determine the cause of the sickness.

Question: In Swaziland, what is kwetfwasa?
Answer: training of the Sangoma

Question: What is a Sangoma in Swaziland?
Answer: a traditional diviner

Question: Why might one want to discover when consulting a sangoma in Swaziland?
Answer: the cause of sickness or even death

Question: How does a sangoma in Swaziland communicate?
Answer: kubhula

Question: What is kushaya ematsambo used for?
Answer: to determine the cause of the sickness

Question: Who is chosen by their chiefdom?

Question: What ceremony involves the whole village?

Question: Who puts their patients in a trance?

Question: What is thrown to cure the sick?
Swaziland

Swaziland's most well-known cultural event is the annual Umhlanga Reed Dance. In the eight-day ceremony, girls cut reeds and present them to the queen mother and then dance. (There is no formal competition.) It is done in late August or early September. Only childless, unmarried girls can take part. The aims of the ceremony are to preserve girls' chastity, provide tribute labour for the Queen mother, and to encourage solidarity by working together. The royal family appoints a commoner maiden to be "induna" (captain) of the girls and she announces over the radio the dates of the ceremony. She will be an expert dancer and knowledgeable on royal protocol. One of the King's daughters will be her counterpart.

Question: What is the most widely known event in Swazi culture?
Answer: Umhlanga Reed Dance.

Question: How long is the Umhlanga Reed Dance?
Answer: eight

Question: During what time of year is the Umhlanga Reed Dance?
Answer: late August or early September

Question: What individuals can take part in the Umhlanga Reed Dance?
Answer: childless, unmarried girls

Question: As it relates to girls, what is the purpose of the Umhlanga Reed Dance?
Answer: to preserve girls' chastity

Question: What is Swazilands oldest cultural event?

Question: Who cuts reeds and then dances for their mothers?

Question: Who's daughter becomes the Induna?

Question: What fosters loyalty to the Queen Mother?
Swaziland

The Reed Dance today is not an ancient ceremony but a development of the old "umchwasho" custom. In "umchwasho", all young girls were placed in a female age-regiment. If any girl became pregnant outside of marriage, her family paid a fine of one cow to the local chief. After a number of years, when the girls had reached a marriageable age, they would perform labour service for the Queen Mother, ending with dancing and feasting. The country was under the chastity rite of "umchwasho" until 19 August 2005.

Question: Until what date was Swaziland bound by umchwasho?
Answer: 19 August 2005

Question: What occurs during the custom of umchwaso in Swaziland?
Answer: If any girl became pregnant outside of marriage, her family paid a fine

Question: Who became bound by umchwaso in Swaziland?
Answer: all young girls

Question: From where did the Reed Dance originate?
Answer: the old "umchwasho" custom

Question: What would the end of umchwasho be marked with?
Answer: dancing and feasting

Question: What is an ancient ceremony?

Question: Who pays a fine to a girls parents if she becomes pregnant?

Question: What was first practiced in 2005?

Question: Who preformed labour for the chieften?
Translation

The English word "translation" derives from the Latin translatio (which itself comes from trans- and from fero, the supine form of which is latum—together meaning "a carrying across" or "a bringing across"). The modern Romance languages use equivalents of the English term "translation" that are derived from that same Latin source or from the alternative Latin traducere ("to lead across" or "to bring across"). The Slavic and Germanic languages (except in the case of the Dutch equivalent, "vertaling"—a "re-language-ing") likewise use calques of these Latin sources.

Question: What Latin word does the English word translation come from?
Answer: translatio

Question: What languages use equivalents of the English term "translation" that come from the same Latin source?
Answer: Romance

Question: What does Latin's traducere mean in English?
Answer: "to lead across"

Question: Slavic and Germanic languages also use a similar loanword from what source?
Answer: Latin

Question: What does the Dutch word "vertaling" roughly translate to?
Answer: "re-language-ing"

Question: What French word does the English word translation come from?

Question: What languages use equivalents of the German term "translation" that come from the same Latin source?

Question: What does Russia's traducere mean in English?

Question: What does the American word "vertaling" roughly translate to?

Question: What language is always derived from Latin?
Translation

Despite occasional theoretical diversity, the actual practice of translation has hardly changed since antiquity. Except for some extreme metaphrasers in the early Christian period and the Middle Ages, and adapters in various periods (especially pre-Classical Rome, and the 18th century), translators have generally shown prudent flexibility in seeking equivalents — "literal" where possible, paraphrastic where necessary — for the original meaning and other crucial "values" (e.g., style, verse form, concordance with musical accompaniment or, in films, with speech articulatory movements) as determined from context.

Question: How much has translation changed since antiquity?
Answer: hardly

Question: What kind of diversity has the practice of translation had?
Answer: theoretical

Question: When were there some extreme metaphrasers?
Answer: early Christian period and the Middle Ages

Question: What have general been prudent about?
Answer: seeking equivalents

Question: For crucial values, what type of values do translators use where possible?
Answer: literal

Question: How much has translation stayed the same since antiquity?

Question: What kind of segregation has the practice of translation had?

Question: When were there some minor metaphrasers?

Question: What have translators generally been awful at doing?

Question: What type of values do translators avoid where possible?
Translation

In general, translators have sought to preserve the context itself by reproducing the original order of sememes, and hence word order — when necessary, reinterpreting the actual grammatical structure, for example, by shifting from active to passive voice, or vice versa. The grammatical differences between "fixed-word-order" languages (e.g. English, French, German) and "free-word-order" languages (e.g., Greek, Latin, Polish, Russian) have been no impediment in this regard. The particular syntax (sentence-structure) characteristics of a text's source language are adjusted to the syntactic requirements of the target language.

Question: What have translators tried to preserve?
Answer: context itself

Question: How do translators preserve context?
Answer: reproducing the original order of sememes

Question: What is it sometimes necessary to reinterpret when translating?
Answer: grammatical structure

Question: What is the active voice sometimes shifted to when needed?
Answer: passive

Question: What are the syntax characteristics of a text's source language adjusted to for a target language?
Answer: syntactic requirements

Question: What have translators tried to get rid of?

Question: How do translators obfuscate context?

Question: What is it sometimes unnecessary to reinterpret when translating?

Question: What is the active voice never shifted to when needed?
Translation

Generally, the greater the contact and exchange that have existed between two languages, or between those languages and a third one, the greater is the ratio of metaphrase to paraphrase that may be used in translating among them. However, due to shifts in ecological niches of words, a common etymology is sometimes misleading as a guide to current meaning in one or the other language. For example, the English actual should not be confused with the cognate French actuel ("present", "current"), the Polish aktualny ("present", "current," "topical," "timely," "feasible"), the Swedish aktuell ("topical", "presently of importance"), the Russian актуальный ("urgent", "topical") or the Dutch actueel.

Question: A greater ratio of metaphrase to paraphrase can be used translating when there as been greater what between languages?
Answer: contact and exchange

Question: What is a common etymology sometimes misleading as?
Answer: guide to current meaning

Question: What does the French "actuel" mean in English?
Answer: present

Question: How would you convey that something is "presently of importance" in Swedish?
Answer: aktuell

Question: To indicate something is feasible in Polish, what word could be used?
Answer: aktualny

Question: What is a common etymology sometimes clarified as?

Question: What does the German "actuel" mean in English?

Question: How would you convey that something is "presently of importance" in Hebrew?

Question: What word can't be used to indicate something is impossible in Polish?

Question: What never exists between two different languages?
Translation

The translator's role as a bridge for "carrying across" values between cultures has been discussed at least since Terence, the 2nd-century-BCE Roman adapter of Greek comedies. The translator's role is, however, by no means a passive, mechanical one, and so has also been compared to that of an artist. The main ground seems to be the concept of parallel creation found in critics such as Cicero. Dryden observed that "Translation is a type of drawing after life..." Comparison of the translator with a musician or actor goes back at least to Samuel Johnson’s remark about Alexander Pope playing Homer on a flageolet, while Homer himself used a bassoon.

Question: How long has a translator's part in bridging values between cultures been discussed?
Answer: at least since Terence

Question: What did Terence adapt from the Greek's?
Answer: comedies

Question: A translator's role is less like a robot and more like a what?
Answer: artist

Question: Where was the concept of parallel creation found?
Answer: Cicero

Question: Who remarked about Alexander Pope playing Homer on a flageolet?
Answer: Samuel Johnson

Question: How long has a translator's part in bridging values between cultures been avoided?

Question: What did Terence destroy from the Greek's?

Question: What is a translator's role never like?

Question: Where was the concept of parallel creation lost?

Question: Who remained silent about Alexander Pope playing Homer on a flageolet?
Translation

Though earlier approaches to translation are less commonly used today, they retain importance when dealing with their products, as when historians view ancient or medieval records to piece together events which took place in non-Western or pre-Western environments. Also, though heavily influenced by Western traditions and practiced by translators taught in Western-style educational systems, Chinese and related translation traditions retain some theories and philosophies unique to the Chinese tradition.

Question: When it comes to translation, what is less commonly used today?
Answer: earlier approaches

Question: When do earlier approaches to translation still have relevance for historians?
Answer: when historians view ancient or medieval records

Question: What do historians try to piece together from pre-Western environments?
Answer: events

Question: What do Chinese and related translations retain unique to their tradition?
Answer: theories and philosophies

Question: When it comes to translation what is illegally used today?

Question: When do earlier approaches to translation lose relevance for historians?

Question: What do historians try to take apart from pre-Western environments?

Question: What do Chinese and related translations have none of for their tradition?
Translation

Translation of material into Arabic expanded after the creation of Arabic script in the 5th century, and gained great importance with the rise of Islam and Islamic empires. Arab translation initially focused primarily on politics, rendering Persian, Greek, even Chinese and Indic diplomatic materials into Arabic. It later focused on translating classical Greek and Persian works, as well as some Chinese and Indian texts, into Arabic for scholarly study at major Islamic learning centers, such as the Al-Karaouine (Fes, Morocco), Al-Azhar (Cairo, Egypt), and the Al-Nizamiyya of Baghdad. In terms of theory, Arabic translation drew heavily on earlier Near Eastern traditions as well as more contemporary Greek and Persian traditions.

Question: When did translation of material into Arabic begin to increase?
Answer: 5th century

Question: What allowed the expansion of Arabic translations during the 5th century?
Answer: creation of Arabic script

Question: What material was initial Arab translations primarily focused on?
Answer: politics

Question: What cultures' classical works were later translated into Arabic?
Answer: Greek and Persian

Question: What type of translation drew heavily on earlier Near Eastern traditions?
Answer: Arabic

Question: When did translation of material into Arabic begin to stop?

Question: What allowed the reduction of Arabic translations during the 5th century?

Question: What material was initial Arab translations rarely focused on?

Question: What cultures' classical works were never translated into Arabic?

Question: What type of translation had no influence from earlier Near Eastern traditions?
Translation

Arabic translation efforts and techniques are important to Western translation traditions due to centuries of close contacts and exchanges. Especially after the Renaissance, Europeans began more intensive study of Arabic and Persian translations of classical works as well as scientific and philosophical works of Arab and oriental origins. Arabic and, to a lesser degree, Persian became important sources of material and perhaps of techniques for revitalized Western traditions, which in time would overtake the Islamic and oriental traditions.

Question: Why are Arabic translation efforts important to Western translation traditions?
Answer: centuries of close contacts and exchanges

Question: When did Europeans begin more intense studying of Arabic translations of classical works?
Answer: after the Renaissance

Question: What did Arabic, and to a less extent Persian, become to Europeans?
Answer: important sources of material

Question: What helped revitalize Western translation traditions from Arabic?
Answer: techniques

Question: What would Western traditions eventually do?
Answer: overtake the Islamic and oriental traditions

Question: Why are Arabic translation efforts pointless to Western translation traditions?

Question: When did Europeans begin less intense studying of Arabic translations of classical works?

Question: Who never studied Arabic and Persian translations?

Question: What helped ruin Western translation traditions from Arabic?

Question: What would Western traditions eventually avoid?
Translation

The movement to translate English and European texts transformed the Arabic and Ottoman Turkish languages, and new words, simplified syntax, and directness came to be valued over the previous convolutions. Educated Arabs and Turks in the new professions and the modernized civil service expressed skepticism, writes Christopher de Bellaigue, "with a freedom that is rarely witnessed today.... No longer was legitimate knowledge defined by texts in the religious schools, interpreted for the most part with stultifying literalness. It had come to include virtually any intellectual production anywhere in the world." One of the neologisms that, in a way, came to characterize the infusion of new ideas via translation was "darwiniya", or "Darwinism".

Question: What transformed Arabic languages?
Answer: movement to translate English and European texts

Question: What came to be valued over previous convolutions?
Answer: new words, simplified syntax, and directness

Question: Who expressed skepticism regarding the transformation of Arabic?
Answer: Educated Arabs and Turks

Question: What was legitimate knowledge no longer defined by?
Answer: texts in the religious schools

Question: What was a neologism expressing the introduction of new ideas via translation?
Answer: Darwinism

Question: What kept Arabic languages the same?

Question: What came to be hated over previous convolutions?

Question: Who expressed hostility regarding the transformation of Arabic?

Question: What was fake knowledge no longer defined by?

Question: What was not considered a neologism expressing the introduction of new ideas via translation?
Translation

After World War I, when Britain and France divided up the Middle East's countries, apart from Turkey, between them, pursuant to the Sykes-Picot agreement—in violation of solemn wartime promises of postwar Arab autonomy—there came an immediate reaction: the Muslim Brotherhood emerged in Egypt, the House of Saud took over the Hijaz, and regimes led by army officers came to power in Iran and Turkey. "[B]oth illiberal currents of the modern Middle East," writes de Bellaigne, "Islamism and militarism, received a major impetus from Western empire-builders." As often happens in countries undergoing social crisis, the aspirations of the Muslim world's translators and modernizers, such as Muhammad Abduh, largely had to yield to retrograde currents.

Question: What two countries divvied up the Middle East's countries after WWI?
Answer: Britain and France

Question: What was the dividing up of the Middle Eastern countries in violation of?
Answer: solemn wartime promises of postwar Arab autonomy

Question: A reaction to Britain and France's actions was the emergence of what group in Egypt?
Answer: Muslim Brotherhood

Question: de Bellaigne attributed the growth of Islamism and militarism to what Western catalyst?
Answer: empire-builders

Question: What did the aspirations of the Muslim world's translators find themselves yielding to?
Answer: retrograde currents

Question: What two countries abandoned Middle East's countries after WWI?

Question: What was the merging of Middle Eastern countries in violation of?

Question: What group's emergence in Egypt was a punishment to Britain and Korea's actions?

Question: What did the aspirations of the Muslim world's translators find themselves immune to?

Question: Who was not interested in being a translator?
Translation

Many non-transparent-translation theories draw on concepts from German Romanticism, the most obvious influence being the German theologian and philosopher Friedrich Schleiermacher. In his seminal lecture "On the Different Methods of Translation" (1813) he distinguished between translation methods that move "the writer toward [the reader]", i.e., transparency, and those that move the "reader toward [the author]", i.e., an extreme fidelity to the foreignness of the source text. Schleiermacher favored the latter approach; he was motivated, however, not so much by a desire to embrace the foreign, as by a nationalist desire to oppose France's cultural domination and to promote German literature.

Question: Where do many non-transparent translation theories delve for concepts?
Answer: German Romanticism

Question: What nationality was Friedrich Schleiermacher?
Answer: German

Question: When did Schleiermacher publish his lecture "On the Different Methods of Translation"?
Answer: 1813

Question: Moving the writer toward the reader would be an example of what type of translation method?
Answer: transparency

Question: What method of translation did Schleiermacher favor?
Answer: extreme fidelity to the foreignness of the source text

Question: Where do no non-transparent translation theories delve for concepts?

Question: What nationality was Friedrich Schleiermacher afraid of?

Question: When did Schleiermacher erase his lecture "On the Different Methods of Translation"?

Question: What type of translation method would moving the writer away from the reader be an example of?

Question: What method of translation did Schleiermacher dislike?
Translation

Comparison of a back-translation with the original text is sometimes used as a check on the accuracy of the original translation, much as the accuracy of a mathematical operation is sometimes checked by reversing the operation. But the results of such reverse-translation operations, while useful as approximate checks, are not always precisely reliable. Back-translation must in general be less accurate than back-calculation because linguistic symbols (words) are often ambiguous, whereas mathematical symbols are intentionally unequivocal.

Question: What is sometimes used to check the accuracy of a translation?
Answer: Comparison of a back-translation with the original text

Question: How are mathematical operations checked?
Answer: by reversing the operation

Question: What operations are results from not always completely reliable?
Answer: reverse-translation operations

Question: What symbol set has a defining property of ambiguity?
Answer: linguistic

Question: What symbol set has the property of being intentionally unequivocal?
Answer: mathematical

Question: What is no longer used to check the accuracy of a translation?

Question: How are mathematical operations ignored?

Question: What operations are always reliable?

Question: What symbol set has no defining property of ambiguity?

Question: What symbol set has the property of being unintentionally unequivocal?
Translation

Mark Twain provided humorously telling evidence for the frequent unreliability of back-translation when he issued his own back-translation of a French translation of his short story, "The Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County". He published his back-translation in a 1903 volume together with his English-language original, the French translation, and a "Private History of the 'Jumping Frog' Story". The latter included a synopsized adaptation of his story that Twain stated had appeared, unattributed to Twain, in a Professor Sidgwick’s Greek Prose Composition (p. 116) under the title, "The Athenian and the Frog"; the adaptation had for a time been taken for an independent ancient Greek precursor to Twain's "Jumping Frog" story.

Question: Who provided a humorous example of the unreliability of back-translation? 
Answer: Mark Twain

Question: For what language did Twain create a back-translation?
Answer: French

Question: When was Twain's back-translation published?
Answer: 1903

Question: What include a synopsized adaptation of Twain's story?
Answer: "Private History of the 'Jumping Frog' Story"

Question: What had been thought for a while to be an independent ancient Greek precursor to Twain's story?
Answer: "The Athenian and the Frog"

Question: Who provided a boring example of the unreliability of back-translation?

Question: What language did Twain remove a back-translation?

Question: When was Twain's back-translation rejected?

Question: What lacked a synopsized adaptation of Twain's story?

Question: What had been thought for a while to be a dependent ancient Roman precursor to Twain's story?
Translation

When a historic document survives only in translation, the original having been lost, researchers sometimes undertake back-translation in an effort to reconstruct the original text. An example involves the novel The Saragossa Manuscript by the Polish aristocrat Jan Potocki (1761–1815), who wrote the novel in French and anonymously published fragments in 1804 and 1813–14. Portions of the original French-language manuscript were subsequently lost; however, the missing fragments survived in a Polish translation that was made by Edmund Chojecki in 1847 from a complete French copy, now lost. French-language versions of the complete Saragossa Manuscript have since been produced, based on extant French-language fragments and on French-language versions that have been back-translated from Chojecki’s Polish version.

Question: What do researchers use back-translation to try to reconstruct when a document survives only in translation?
Answer: the original text

Question: Who was Jan Potocki?
Answer: Polish aristocrat

Question: What language was The Saragossa Manuscript originally written in?
Answer: French

Question: When had Edmund Chojecki translated portions of the Saragossa Manuscript into Polish from French?
Answer: 1847

Question: What fragments were the complete Saragossa Manuscripts now produced based on?
Answer: French-language

Question: What do researchers use back-translation to try to destroy when a document survives only in translation?

Question: Who was Jan Potocki related to?

Question: When had Edmund Chojecki translated portions of the Saragossa Manuscript into Polish from Japanese?
Translation

Translation has served as a school of writing for many authors. Translators, including monks who spread Buddhist texts in East Asia, and the early modern European translators of the Bible, in the course of their work have shaped the very languages into which they have translated. They have acted as bridges for conveying knowledge between cultures; and along with ideas, they have imported from the source languages, into their own languages, loanwords and calques of grammatical structures, idioms and vocabulary.

Question: What has served as a school of writing for many authors?
Answer: Translation

Question: Who spread Buddhist texts in East Asia?
Answer: monks

Question: What did translators shape in the course of their work?
Answer: languages

Question: What have translators acted as by conveying knowledge between cultures?
Answer: bridges

Question: Where were idioms and vocabulary imported from?
Answer: source languages

Question: What has served as an enemy of writing for many authors?

Question: Who spread Buddhist texts in South America?

Question: What did translators lose in the course of their work?

Question: What have translators acted as by conveying ignorance between cultures?

Question: Where were idioms and vocabulary hidden from?
Translation

Interpreters have sometimes played crucial roles in history. A prime example is La Malinche, also known as Malintzin, Malinalli and Doña Marina, an early-16th-century Nahua woman from the Mexican Gulf Coast. As a child she had been sold or given to Maya slave-traders from Xicalango, and thus had become bilingual. Subsequently given along with other women to the invading Spaniards, she became instrumental in the Spanish conquest of Mexico, acting as interpreter, adviser, intermediary and lover to Hernán Cortés.

Question: What roles have interpreters occasionally played in history?
Answer: crucial

Question: What region did La Malinche hail from?
Answer: Mexican Gulf Coast

Question: Where were the slave-traders La Malinche was sold or given to from?
Answer: Xicalango

Question: What was La Malinche essential to?
Answer: Spanish conquest of Mexico

Question: In addition to being an interpreter and adviser, what function did La Malinche serve for Hernán Cortés?
Answer: lover

Question: What roles have interpreters occasionally lied about in history?

Question: What region did La Malinche refuse to visit?

Question: Where were the slave-traders La Malinche stole?

Question: What was La Malinche not involved with?
Translation

Web-based human translation is generally favored by companies and individuals that wish to secure more accurate translations. In view of the frequent inaccuracy of machine translations, human translation remains the most reliable, most accurate form of translation available. With the recent emergence of translation crowdsourcing, translation-memory techniques, and internet applications, translation agencies have been able to provide on-demand human-translation services to businesses, individuals, and enterprises.

Question: What type of translation is favored by those wanting more accurate translations?
Answer: Web-based human translation

Question: What reputation does machine translations have?
Answer: frequent inaccuracy

Question: What type of translation is still the most accurate and reliable?
Answer: human

Question: Because of crowdsourcing, what type of translation are agencies able to provide?
Answer: on-demand human-translation services

Question: Who purchases the services of translation agencies?
Answer: businesses, individuals, and enterprises

Question: What type of translation is disliked by those wanting more accurate translations?

Question: What reputation does machine translations lose?

Question: What type of translation is still never accurate and reliable?

Question: What type of translation are agencies unable to provide?

Question: Who hides the services of translation agencies?
Translation

Relying exclusively on unedited machine translation, however, ignores the fact that communication in human language is context-embedded and that it takes a person to comprehend the context of the original text with a reasonable degree of probability. It is certainly true that even purely human-generated translations are prone to error; therefore, to ensure that a machine-generated translation will be useful to a human being and that publishable-quality translation is achieved, such translations must be reviewed and edited by a human.

Question: Unedited machine translation will miss what crucial aspect of human language?
Answer: context-embedded

Question: What does it take a person to be able to do?
Answer: comprehend the context of the original text

Question: What can even translations completely done by a human still be prone to?
Answer: error

Question: How must machine translations be transformed by a human?
Answer: reviewed and edited

Question: What crucial aspect of human language will be missed from edited alien translation?

Question: What does it take an animal to be able to do?

Question: What can translations completely done by a human not be prone to?

Question: How must machine translations be transformed by a robot?
Translation

In Asia, the spread of Buddhism led to large-scale ongoing translation efforts spanning well over a thousand years. The Tangut Empire was especially efficient in such efforts; exploiting the then newly invented block printing, and with the full support of the government (contemporary sources describe the Emperor and his mother personally contributing to the translation effort, alongside sages of various nationalities), the Tanguts took mere decades to translate volumes that had taken the Chinese centuries to render.[citation needed]

Question: Where did Buddhism spread?
Answer: Asia

Question: Buddhism's spread led to what large-scale effort?
Answer: translation

Question: How long did the translation effort take?
Answer: well over a thousand years

Question: What Empire was especially good at translation?
Answer: The Tangut Empire

Question: What were the Tanguts able to do in only decades that took the Chinese centuries?
Answer: translate volumes

Question: Where did Buddhism end?

Question: What small-scale effort was led to by the spread of Buddhism?

Question: How long did the translation effort stop?

Question: What Empire was not good at translation?

Question: What were the Tanguts not able to do that took the Chinese centuries?
Translation

The Arabs undertook large-scale efforts at translation. Having conquered the Greek world, they made Arabic versions of its philosophical and scientific works. During the Middle Ages, translations of some of these Arabic versions were made into Latin, chiefly at Córdoba in Spain. King Alfonso X el Sabio (Alphonse the Wise) of Castille in the 13th century promoted this effort by founding a Schola Traductorum (School of Translation) in Toledo. There Arabic texts, Hebrew texts, and Latin texts were translated into the other tongues by Muslim, Jewish and Christian scholars, who also argued the merits of their respective religions. Latin translations of Greek and original Arab works of scholarship and science helped advance European Scholasticism, and thus European science and culture.

Question: Who attempted a large-scale effort at translation?
Answer: Arabs

Question: What did the Arabs create Arabic versions of?
Answer: philosophical and scientific works

Question: When were some of the Arabic translations of earlier sentences translated into Latin?
Answer: Middle Ages

Question: What is Schola Traductorum in English?
Answer: School of Translation

Question: Latin translations indirectly advanced whose science and culture?
Answer: European

Question: Who attempted no effort at translation?

Question: What did the Arabs destroy Arabic versions of?

Question: When were some of the Arabic translations of earlier sentences removed from Latin?

Question: What is Schola Traductorum not considered in English?

Question: Whose science and culture did Latin translations indirectly harm?
Translation

The first great English translation was the Wycliffe Bible (ca. 1382), which showed the weaknesses of an underdeveloped English prose. Only at the end of the 15th century did the great age of English prose translation begin with Thomas Malory's Le Morte Darthur—an adaptation of Arthurian romances so free that it can, in fact, hardly be called a true translation. The first great Tudor translations are, accordingly, the Tyndale New Testament (1525), which influenced the Authorized Version (1611), and Lord Berners' version of Jean Froissart's Chronicles (1523–25).

Question: What was the first great English translation?
Answer: Wycliffe Bible

Question: When was the Wycliffe Bible translated?
Answer: 1382

Question: When did the age of great English prose translation begin?
Answer: end of the 15th century

Question: What adaptation of Arthurian romances took so many liberties with the source material that it could hardly be called a translation?
Answer: Le Morte Darthur

Question: The Tyndale New Testament was one of the first great translations from what style?
Answer: Tudor

Question: What was the last great German translation?

Question: When was the Wycliffe Bible burned?

Question: When did the age of great English prose translation stop?

Question: What adaptation of Arthurian romances took no liberties with the source material?
Translation

Meanwhile, in Renaissance Italy, a new period in the history of translation had opened in Florence with the arrival, at the court of Cosimo de' Medici, of the Byzantine scholar Georgius Gemistus Pletho shortly before the fall of Constantinople to the Turks (1453). A Latin translation of Plato's works was undertaken by Marsilio Ficino. This and Erasmus' Latin edition of the New Testament led to a new attitude to translation. For the first time, readers demanded rigor of rendering, as philosophical and religious beliefs depended on the exact words of Plato, Aristotle and Jesus.

Question: Whose court did Pletho arrive in and begin a new period of translation in Renaissance Italy?
Answer: Cosimo de' Medici

Question: What title did Georgius Gemistus Pletho carry?
Answer: Byzantine scholar

Question: When did Constantinople fall to the Turks?
Answer: 1453

Question: Who undertook translating Plato's works to Latin?
Answer: Marsilio Ficino

Question: What did religious beliefs depend upon when it came to Plato, Aristotle and Jesus?
Answer: the exact words

Question: Whose court did Pletho buy and begin a new period of translation in Renaissance Italy?

Question: What title did Georgius Gemistus Pletho lose status as?

Question: When did Constantinople defeat the Turks?

Question: Who couldn't translate Plato's works to Latin?

Question: What did scientific beliefs depend upon when it came to Plato, Aristotle and Jesus?
Translation

Throughout the 18th century, the watchword of translators was ease of reading. Whatever they did not understand in a text, or thought might bore readers, they omitted. They cheerfully assumed that their own style of expression was the best, and that texts should be made to conform to it in translation. For scholarship they cared no more than had their predecessors, and they did not shrink from making translations from translations in third languages, or from languages that they hardly knew, or—as in the case of James Macpherson's "translations" of Ossian—from texts that were actually of the "translator's" own composition.

Question: What was the guiding ideal of translators throughout the 18th century?
Answer: ease of reading

Question: If a translator didn't understand something in a text or thought it too boring to present to readers, what did they do with it?
Answer: omitted

Question: What did translators of this time assume was better than the actual text they were translating?
Answer: their own style of expression

Question: How much did the translators care about scholarship?
Answer: no more than had their predecessors

Question: What did James Macpherson "translate" from?
Answer: own composition

Question: What was the guiding ideal of translators throughout the 14th century?

Question: What did translators of this time assume was worse than the actual text they were translating?

Question: How much did the translators avoid scholarship?

Question: What did James Macpherson never "translate" from?
Translation

The 19th century brought new standards of accuracy and style. In regard to accuracy, observes J.M. Cohen, the policy became "the text, the whole text, and nothing but the text", except for any bawdy passages and the addition of copious explanatory footnotes. In regard to style, the Victorians' aim, achieved through far-reaching metaphrase (literality) or pseudo-metaphrase, was to constantly remind readers that they were reading a foreign classic. An exception was the outstanding translation in this period, Edward FitzGerald's Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam (1859), which achieved its Oriental flavor largely by using Persian names and discreet Biblical echoes and actually drew little of its material from the Persian original.

Question: What new standards of translation came with the 19th century?
Answer: accuracy and style

Question: Who observed that the policy became "the text, the whole text, and nothing but the text"?
Answer: J.M. Cohen

Question: What sort of passages were still left out of the supposed "whole" text?
Answer: bawdy

Question: What did the Victorians aim to remind the reader of their translations?
Answer: that they were reading a foreign classic

Question: How did the translation of Rubaiyat achieve an Oriental flavor?
Answer: by using Persian names and discreet Biblical echoes

Question: What banned standards of translation came with the 19th century?

Question: Who ignored that the policy became "the text, the whole text, and nothing but the text"?

Question: What sort of passages were left in the supposed "whole" text?

Question: What did the Victorians aim to remind the writer of in their translations?

Question: How did the translation of Rubaiyat disregard an Oriental flavor?