Divyanshu67/squad_v2 huggingface dataset:
Estonian_language

The first extant Estonian book is a bilingual German-Estonian translation of the Lutheran catechism by S. Wanradt and J. Koell dating to 1535, during the Protestant Reformation period. An Estonian grammar book to be used by priests was printed in German in 1637. The New Testament was translated into southern Estonian in 1686 (northern Estonian, 1715). The two languages were united based on northern Estonian by Anton thor Helle.

Question: What two people are responsible for the first still in existence book in the Estonian Language?
Answer: S. Wanradt and J. Koell

Question: In what year was S. Wanradt and J. Koell's book written?
Answer: 1535

Question: What type of book was it?
Answer: bilingual German-Estonian translation of the Lutheran catechism

Question: What book specifically for the use of priests was printed in Estonian?
Answer: An Estonian grammar book

Question: What year was the priests' grammar book put into print?
Answer: 1637

Question: Who wrote the last Estonian book?

Question: What book was published in Eastern Estonia in 1715?

Question: What book was not used by priests in 1637?

Question: Who wrote in Eastern Estonian?

Question: Who wrote the grammar book in 1637?
Estonian_language

The birth of native Estonian literature was in 1810 to 1820 when the patriotic and philosophical poems by Kristjan Jaak Peterson were published. Peterson, who was the first student at the then German-language University of Dorpat to acknowledge his Estonian origin, is commonly regarded as a herald of Estonian national literature and considered the founder of modern Estonian poetry. His birthday on March 14 is celebrated in Estonia as the Mother Tongue Day. A fragment from Peterson's poem "Kuu" expresses the claim reestablishing the birthright of the Estonian language:

Question: Which Estonian poet's works were printed from 1810 to 1820?
Answer: Kristjan Jaak Peterson

Question: What subjects were Kristjan Jaak Peterson poems on?
Answer: patriotic and philosophical

Question: When was Peterson born?
Answer: March 14

Question: What is another name given for Peterson's birthday?
Answer: Mother Tongue Day

Question: What university did Peterson attend?
Answer: German-language University of Dorpat

Question: Which Estonian playwright works were printed from 1810 to 1820?

Question:  What subjects were Kristjan Jaak Peterson novels on?

Question: Whose birthday is on March 13th?

Question: What day is Father Tongue Day on?

Question:  What university was Peterson rejected from?
Estonian_language

From 1525 to 1917 14,503 titles were published in Estonian, as opposed to the 23,868 titles which were published between 1918 and 1940.[citation needed]

Question: In the years between 1918 and 1940 how many Estonian language books were printed?
Answer: 23,868

Question: In the roughly four centuries previous to 1918 how many Estonian language books were printed?
Answer: 14,503

Question: In what language were 14,503 books published prior to 1918?
Answer: Estonian

Question: How many books were published in Etonian before 1525?

Question: How many Estonian books were published after 1917 through today?

Question: How many books were published before 1918?

Question: How many books were published after 1940?
Estonian_language

Writings in Estonian became significant only in the 19th century with the spread of the ideas of the Age of Enlightenment, during the Estophile Enlightenment Period (1750–1840). Although Baltic Germans at large regarded the future of Estonians as being a fusion with themselves, the Estophile educated class admired the ancient culture of the Estonians and their era of freedom before the conquests by Danes and Germans in the 13th century.

Question: What Age's ideas allowed Estonian writings to gain significance?
Answer: Age of Enlightenment

Question: Who thought their future would be fused with Estonians?
Answer: Baltic Germans

Question: Who had admiration for the ancient Estonian culture?
Answer: Estophile educated class

Question: Who conquered the ancient Estonians?
Answer: Danes and Germans

Question: When did the ancient Estonian era of freedom come to an end?
Answer: 13th century

Question:  What Age's ideas did not allow Estonian writings to gain significance?

Question:  Who did not want their future to be fused with Estonians?

Question:  Who had did not like the ancient Estonian culture?

Question:  Who conquered the ancient Danes?

Question:  Who conquered the ancient Germans?
Estonian_language

After the Estonian War of Independence in 1919, the Estonian language became the state language of the newly independent country. In 1945, 97.3% of Estonia considered itself ethnic Estonian and spoke the language.

Question: What year did Estonia's War of Independence take place?
Answer: 1919

Question: After Estonia achieved independence what was made their state language?
Answer: Estonian

Question: What percentage of Estonians thought of themselves as ethnic Estonian's in 1945?
Answer: 97.3%

Question: What language was spoken by ethnic Estonians?
Answer: Estonian

Question: What year did Estonia have a civil war?

Question: What percentage of Estonians did not speak Estonian in 1945?

Question: What war took place in 1945?

Question: What language did ethnic Estonians refuse to speak?

Question: What year did Estonia fail at getting independence?
Estonian_language

When Estonia was invaded and occupied by the Soviet Union in World War II, the status of the Estonian language changed to the first of two official languages (Russian being the other one). As with Latvia many immigrants entered Estonia under Soviet encouragement. In the second half of the 1970s, the pressure of bilingualism (for Estonians) intensified, resulting in widespread knowledge of Russian throughout the country. The Russian language was termed as ‘the language of friendship of nations’ and was taught to Estonian children, sometimes as early as in kindergarten. Although teaching Estonian to non-Estonians in schools was compulsory, in practice learning the language was often considered unnecessary.

Question: What happened to Estonia during WWII?
Answer: invaded and occupied

Question: Who invaded Estonia?
Answer: Soviet Union

Question: After the Soviet invasion what other language became the second official Estonian language?
Answer: Russian

Question: What was another country with similar immigration patterns to post Soviet Estonia?
Answer: Latvia

Question: What became more intense in the 1970's in Estonia?
Answer: pressure of bilingualism

Question: What country did not occupy Estonia?

Question: What happened to Estonia during WWI from the Soviet Union?

Question:  What became more intense in the early 1970's in Estonia?

Question: What is the third language of Estonia?

Question: What language was terms the "language of enemy nations"?
Estonian_language

During the Perestroika era, The Law on the Status of the Estonian Language was adopted in January 1989. The collapse of the Soviet Union led to the restoration of Republic of Estonia's independence. Estonian went back to being the only state language in Estonia which in practice meant that use of Estonian was promoted while the use of Russian was discouraged.

Question: What historical event once again freed Estonia?
Answer: collapse of the Soviet Union

Question: Following the Soviet collapse what became the only official Estonian Language?
Answer: Estonian

Question: What language was no longer promoted as one of Estonia's main languages?
Answer: Russian

Question: What came into being in January 1989?
Answer: The Law on the Status of the Estonian Language

Question: What historical event once again enslaved Estonia?

Question: Following the Soviet rise what became the only official Estonian Language?

Question: What language became less popular prior to the Soviet collapse?

Question:  What came into being in February 1989?

Question: When was Russian encouraged to be used in Estonia?
Estonian_language

The return of Soviet immigrants to their countries of origin has brought the proportion of Estonians in Estonia back above 70%. And again as in Latvia, today many of the remnant non-Estonians in Estonia have adopted the Estonian language; about 40% at the 2000 census.

Question: Following the departure of the Soviet immigrants what was the percentage of Estonians in Estonia?
Answer: above 70%

Question: When Soviet immigrants joined Estonia, how many Estonians lived in Estonia?

Question: How many native Estonians adopted Estonian?

Question: What percentage of Estonians spoke Russian in 2000?

Question: What percentage of Soviets spoke Estonian?

Question: What percentage of Latvians spoke Russian?
Estonian_language

The Estonian dialects are divided into two groups – the northern and southern dialects, historically associated with the cities of Tallinn in the north and Tartu in the south, in addition to a distinct kirderanniku dialect, that of the northeastern coast of Estonia.

Question: How many groups of Estonian dialects are there?
Answer: two

Question: What are the names of the Estonian dialect groups?
Answer: the northern and southern dialects

Question: What is the northern city to which the northern dialect is associated?
Answer: Tallinn

Question: Where is the kirderanniku dialect spoken?
Answer: the northeastern coast of Estonia

Question: What is the city where the southern dialect was historically spoken?
Answer: Tartu

Question: What city is north of Tallinn?

Question: What city is south of Tartu?

Question: What is the city where the eastern dialect was historically spoken?

Question:  Where is the kirderanniku dialect not spoken?
Estonian_language

The northern group consists of the keskmurre or central dialect that is also the basis for the standard language, the läänemurre or western dialect, roughly corresponding to Läänemaa and Pärnumaa, the saarte murre (islands') dialect of Saaremaa and Hiiumaa and the idamurre or eastern dialect on the northwestern shore of Lake Peipsi.

Question: What dialect is also known as the central dialect?
Answer: the keskmurre

Question: What is the dialect from Lake Peipsi?
Answer: the idamurre or eastern dialect

Question: What dialects of the northern group are spoken on the saarte murre?
Answer: Saaremaa and Hiiumaa

Question: What is another name for Estonian's northern group's western dialect?
Answer: the läänemurre

Question: What dialect is also known as the middle dialect?

Question:  What is the dialect from the city of Peipsi?

Question: What dialects of the southern group are spoken on the saarte murre?

Question: What is another name for Estonian's southern dialect?
Estonian_language

The southern group (South Estonian language) consists of the Tartu, Mulgi, Võru (Võro) and Setu (Seto) dialects. These are sometimes considered either variants of a South Estonian language, or separate languages altogether. Also, Seto and Võro distinguish themselves from each other less by language and more by their culture and their respective Christian confession.

Question: What dialects comprise the southern group?
Answer: the Tartu, Mulgi, Võru (Võro) and Setu (Seto) dialects

Question: More importantly than their language aspect how do the Seto and Võro dialects set themselves apart from each other?
Answer: their culture

Question: Aside from being thought of as variants of Estonian's southern group what else are the Tartu, Mulgi, Võru (Võro) and Setu (Seto) dialects sometimes considered?
Answer: separate languages altogether

Question: What religion is associated with Seto and Võro?
Answer: Christian

Question:  What dialects do not comprise the southern group?

Question: How are the seto and voro communties similar?

Question:  What religion is rejected by the Seto and Võro?
Estonian_language

Like Finnish, Estonian employs the Latin script as the basis for its alphabet, which adds the letters ä, ö, ü, and õ, plus the later additions š and ž. The letters c, q, w, x and y are limited to proper names of foreign origin, and f, z, š, and ž appear in loanwords and foreign names only. Ö and ü are pronounced similarly to their equivalents in Swedish and German. Unlike in standard German but like Finnish and Swedish (when followed by 'r'), Ä is pronounced [æ], as in English mat. The vowels Ä, Ö and Ü are clearly separate phonemes and inherent in Estonian, although the letter shapes come from German. The letter õ denotes /ɤ/, unrounded /o/, or a close-mid back unrounded vowel. It is almost identical to the Bulgarian ъ /ɤ̞/ and the Vietnamese ơ, and is used to transcribe the Russian ы.

Question: From what script does the Estonian language get its alphabet?
Answer: Latin

Question: What is another language that uses Latin for its alphabet?
Answer: Finnish

Question: In the Estonian language how is the letter A pronounced?
Answer: [æ], as in English mat

Question:  From what script does the Swedish language get its alphabet?

Question:  From what script does the German language get its alphabet?

Question: What vowels are not separate phonemes?

Question: What letters are not limited to proper names of foreign origin?
Estonian_language

Although the Estonian orthography is generally guided by phonemic principles, with each grapheme corresponding to one phoneme, there are some historical and morphological deviations from this: for example preservation of the morpheme in declension of the word (writing b, g, d in places where p, k, t is pronounced) and in the use of 'i' and 'j'.[clarification needed] Where it is very impractical or impossible to type š and ž, they are substituted with sh and zh in some written texts, although this is considered incorrect. Otherwise, the h in sh represents a voiceless glottal fricative, as in Pasha (pas-ha); this also applies to some foreign names.

Question: What principles usually govern the Estonian orthography?
Answer: phonemic principles

Question: To how many phoneme's does each grapheme correspond?
Answer: one

Question: What type of deviations are there from the single phoneme to each grapheme general principle?
Answer: some historical and morphological deviations

Question: On what occasions are š and ž replaced with sh and zh?
Answer: Where it is very impractical or impossible to type š and ž

Question: What is an example of a word containing a voiceless glottal fricative?
Answer: Pasha (pas-ha)

Question:  What principles never govern the Estonian orthography?

Question: On what occasions are š and ž replaced with ch and zu?

Question:  What is an example of a word not containing a voiceless glottal fricative?

Question: Foreign names are not considered what?
Estonian_language

Modern Estonian orthography is based on the Newer Orthography created by Eduard Ahrens in the second half of the 19th century based on Finnish orthography. The Older Orthography it replaced was created in the 17th century by Bengt Gottfried Forselius and Johann Hornung based on standard German orthography. Earlier writing in Estonian had by and large used an ad hoc orthography based on Latin and Middle Low German orthography. Some influences of the standard German orthography — for example, writing 'W'/'w' instead of 'V'/'v' persisted well into the 1930s.

Question:  In what Orthagraphy does Modern Estonian orthography have its basis?
Answer: Newer Orthography

Question: Who is responsible for the creation of the Newer Orthography?
Answer: Eduard Ahrens

Question: In what century was the Newer Orthography created?
Answer: 19th century

Question: Previous to the Newer Orthography what orthography was in place?
Answer: Older Orthography

Question: From what other country's orthography did the Older Orthography get its basis?
Answer: standard German orthography

Question: In what Orthagraphy does Modern Estonian orthography reject?

Question: When was Eduard Ahrens born?

Question: When did Eduard Ahrens die?

Question: When did Newer Orthography end?

Question: When did German orthography stop being influential?
Estonian_language

It should be noted that Estonian words and names quoted in international publications from Soviet sources are often back-transliterations from the Russian transliteration. Examples are the use of "ya" for "ä" (e.g. Pyarnu instead of Pärnu), "y" instead of "õ" (e.g., Pylva instead of Põlva) and "yu" instead of "ü" (e.g., Pyussi instead of Püssi). Even in the Encyclopædia Britannica one can find "ostrov Khiuma", where "ostrov" means "island" in Russian and "Khiuma" is back-transliteration from Russian instead of "Hiiumaa" (Hiiumaa > Хийума(а) > Khiuma).

Question: In Soviet international publications what language's transliteration are Estonian words and names often back-transliterations from?
Answer: Russian

Question: What famous encyclopedia contains a Russian back-transliteration of Estonian?
Answer: Encyclopædia Britannica

Question: What is the Russian back-transliteration from Encyclopædia Britannica?
Answer: "ostrov Khiuma"

Question: What famous encyclopedia contains a Estonian back-transliteration of Russian?

Question: What is the Estonian back-transliteration from Encyclopædia Britannica?

Question: What is the Estonian translation of ostrov?

Question: What is the Estonian translation of Khiuma?
Estonian_language

Typologically, Estonian represents a transitional form from an agglutinating language to a fusional language. The canonical word order is SVO (subject–verb–object).

Question: What is the typological form of Estonian?
Answer: transitional

Question: What is Estonian typologically transitioning from?
Answer: an agglutinating language

Question: What sort of form is Estonian transitioning into?
Answer: a fusional language

Question: How are words ordered in Estonian canonically?
Answer: subject–verb–object

Question:  What is not the typological form of Estonian?

Question:  What sort of form is Estonian moving away from into?

Question: What is the incorrect order of words in Estonian canonically?
Estonian_language

In Estonian, nouns and pronouns do not have grammatical gender, but nouns and adjectives decline in fourteen cases: nominative, genitive, partitive, illative, inessive, elative, allative, adessive, ablative, translative, terminative, essive, abessive, and comitative, with the case and number of the adjective(s) always agreeing with that of the noun (except in the terminative, essive, abessive and comitative, where there is agreement only for the number, the adjective being in the genitive form). Thus the illative for kollane maja ("a yellow house") is kollasesse majja ("into a yellow house"), but the terminative is kollase majani ("as far as a yellow house"). With respect to the Proto-Finnic language, elision has occurred; thus, the actual case marker may be absent, but the stem is changed, cf. maja – majja and the Pohjanmaa dialect of Finnish maja – majahan.

Question: What language lacks gendered nouns and pronouns?
Answer: Estonian

Question: In the nominative, genitive, partitive, illative, inessive, elative, allative, adessive, ablative, translative cases what always agrees with the noun in number and case?
Answer: adjectives

Question: What language relies on gendered nouns and pronouns?

Question: In nominative cases what never agrees with the noun in number and case?

Question: What is "a yellow house" in Finnish?

Question: How many cases to verbs decline?
Estonian_language

The direct object of the verb appears either in the accusative (for total objects) or in the partitive (for partial objects). The accusative coincides with the genitive in the singular and with nominative in the plural. Accusative vs. partitive case opposition of the object used with transitive verbs creates a telicity contrast, just as in Finnish. This is a rough equivalent of the perfective vs. imperfective aspect opposition.

Question: What other language has a telicity contrast?
Answer: Finnish

Question: Aside from the accusative, where can the direct object of the verb be found?
Answer: partitive

Question: What is the accusative used for?
Answer: total objects

Question: What language does not have a telicity contrast?

Question: Where can the direct object of the noun be found?

Question:  Why is the accusative rejected?

Question: What is an example of a partial object?

Question: What does a transitive noun create?
Estonian_language

The verbal system lacks a distinctive future tense (the present tense serves here) and features special forms to express an action performed by an undetermined subject (the "impersonal").

Question: From what system is a distinctive future tense lacking?
Answer: verbal system

Question: What is used in place of the future tense?
Answer: present tense

Question: What does Estonian use to show actions performed by an undecided subject?
Answer: special forms

Question:  From what system is a distinctive future tense prominent?

Question: What is used in place of the past tense?

Question: What does Estonian use to show actions performed by an determined subject?

Question: What is performed by the undetermined subject?
Estonian_language

Although the Estonian and Germanic languages are of very different origins, one can identify many similar words in Estonian and English, for example. This is primarily because the Estonian language has borrowed nearly one third of its vocabulary from Germanic languages, mainly from Low Saxon (Middle Low German) during the period of German rule, and High German (including standard German). The percentage of Low Saxon and High German loanwords can be estimated at 22–25 percent, with Low Saxon making up about 15 percent.[citation needed]

Question: Close to 33 percent of Estonian's vocabulary belong to what group of languages?
Answer: Germanic languages

Question: What is the main Germanic language from which Estonia gets the Germanic portion of its vocabulary?
Answer: Low Saxon

Question: When did Low Saxon make its appearance as part of the Estonian language?
Answer: during the period of German rule

Question: From what other Germanic language does Estonian derive its vocabulary?
Answer: High German

Question: Standard German is part of what Germanic language?
Answer: High German

Question: What language does Estonian have very close origins with?

Question: When did Low Saxon stop being part of the Estonian language?

Question: From what non-Germanic language does Estonian derive its vocabulary?

Question: Non-Standard German is part of what Germanic language?

Question: Less than 30 percent of Estonian's vocabulary belong to what group of languages?
Estonian_language

Often 'b' & 'p' are interchangeable, for example 'baggage' becomes 'pagas', 'lob' (to throw) becomes 'loopima'. The initial letter 's' is often dropped, for example 'skool' becomes 'kool', 'stool' becomes 'tool'.

Question: What two letters can be replaced with each other a lot of the time in Estonian?
Answer: 'b' & 'p'

Question: What happens in many cases when a word starts with an 's'?
Answer: The initial letter 's' is often dropped

Question: In an example of replacing 'b' with 'p' how is 'baggage' pronounced?
Answer: pagas

Question: What two letters can never be replaced with each other in Estonian?

Question:  What happens to the first letter when a word starts with an 'L'?

Question: In an example of replacing 's' with 'g' how is 'baggage' pronounced?

Question: What word does Tool become when you apply the interchangeable rule?

Question: What word does Loopima become when you drop the appropriate letter?
Estonian_language

Estonian language planners such as Ado Grenzstein (a journalist active in Estonia in the 1870s–90s) tried to use formation ex nihilo, Urschöpfung; i.e. they created new words out of nothing.

Question: Who was the journalist who was also a language planner?
Answer: Ado Grenzstein

Question: In what years did Ado Grenzstein do journalism work in Estonia?
Answer: 1870s–90s

Question: What is another term for making up words from nothing?
Answer: formation ex nihilo

Question: Who in the course of their language planning attempted to use the formation ex nihilo technique?
Answer: Ado Grenzstein

Question:  Who was the journalist refused to be a language planner?

Question:  In what years did Ado Grenzstein do journalism work in Germany?

Question: When was Ado Grenzstein born?

Question: When did Ado Grenzstein die?

Question: What is the word for creating new words out of old words?
Estonian_language

The most famous reformer of Estonian, Johannes Aavik (1880–1973), used creations ex nihilo (cf. ‘free constructions’, Tauli 1977), along with other sources of lexical enrichment such as derivations, compositions and loanwords (often from Finnish; cf. Saareste and Raun 1965: 76). In Aavik’s dictionary (1921), which lists approximately 4000 words, there are many words which were (allegedly) created ex nihilo, many of which are in common use today. Examples are

Question: Of all of Estonian's language reformers who is the most well known?
Answer: Johannes Aavik

Question: What was the period of time in which Johannes Aavik was alive?
Answer: 1880–1973

Question: What is the technique Aavic used to create Estonian words out of nothing?
Answer: creations ex nihilo

Question: In what publication can examples of ex nihilo words be found?
Answer: Aavik’s dictionary

Question: How many words did Aavik put in his dictionary?
Answer: approximately 4000

Question: Of all of Estonian's language reformers who is the least well known?

Question:  What was the period of time in which Johannes Aavik lived in Germany?

Question: What is the technique Aavic used to create Estonian words out of old words?

Question:  In what publication were examples of ex nihilo words eliminated?

Question: What dictionary has under 3000 words?
Estonian_language

Many of the coinages that have been considered (often by Aavik himself) as words concocted ex nihilo could well have been influenced by foreign lexical items, for example words from Russian, German, French, Finnish, English and Swedish. Aavik had a broad classical education and knew Ancient Greek, Latin and French. Consider roim ‘crime’ versus English crime or taunima ‘to condemn, disapprove’ versus Finnish tuomita ‘to condemn, to judge’ (these Aavikisms appear in Aavik’s 1921 dictionary). These words might be better regarded as a peculiar manifestation of morpho-phonemic adaptation of a foreign lexical item.

Question: What languages did Aavik know?
Answer: Ancient Greek, Latin and French

Question: When was Aavik's dictionary published?
Answer: 1921

Question: What is another term for words created by Aavik?
Answer: Aavikisms

Question: Instead of being created from nothing Aavik's ex nihilo terms are thought to actually possibly have been influenced by what?
Answer: foreign lexical items

Question: What languages did Aavik create?

Question:  When was Aavik's dictionary destroyed?

Question:  What is another term for words Aavik destroyed?

Question: Aavik's ex nihilo terms were not influenced by what?
Paper

Paper is a thin material produced by pressing together moist fibres of cellulose pulp derived from wood, rags or grasses, and drying them into flexible sheets. It is a versatile material with many uses, including writing, printing, packaging, cleaning, and a number of industrial and construction processes.

Question: What is a source for the particles in paper?
Answer: wood

Question: What is a common use for paper?
Answer: writing

Question: What is the last step in paper production?
Answer: drying

Question: What is a thick material produced by pressing cellulose fibers?

Question: From what type of fibers are rags made?

Question: What fails to be a versatile material and has few uses?

Question: How is writing produced?

Question: What is a source for the non-particles in paper?

Question:  What is an uncommon use for paper?

Question:  What is the last step in wood production?
Paper

The pulp papermaking process is said to have been developed in China during the early 2nd century AD, possibly as early as the year 105 A.D., by the Han court eunuch Cai Lun, although the earliest archaeological fragments of paper derive from the 2nd century BC in China. The modern pulp and paper industry is global, with China leading its production and the United States right behind it.

Question: When was the pulp papermaking process developed?
Answer: 2nd century AD

Question: What country was the process developed in?
Answer: China

Question: What country is leading in production of paper?
Answer: China

Question: What country is the second largest produced of paper?
Answer: United States

Question: Which court eunuch was associated with the papermaking process?
Answer: Cai Lun

Question: When is the pulp papermaking process said to have been developed by Han court?

Question: The United States is the leader of which industry, which China following right behind it?

Question: Where is the Han court process said to have been developed?

Question: From where do the earliest Han court fragments derive?

Question:  When was the pulp wood making process developed?

Question:  What country was the process not developed in?

Question:  What country is not leading in production of paper?

Question:  What country is the fifth largest produced of paper?

Question: Which court non-eunuch was associated with the papermaking process?
Paper

The oldest known archaeological fragments of the immediate precursor to modern paper, date to the 2nd century BC in China. The pulp papermaking process is ascribed to Cai Lun, a 2nd-century AD Han court eunuch. With paper as an effective substitute for silk in many applications, China could export silk in greater quantity, contributing to a Golden Age.

Question: Who is credited with the papermaking process?
Answer: Cai Lun

Question: What material did paper replace upon its invention?
Answer: silk

Question: Which Age did the invention of the papermaking process contribute towards?
Answer: Golden Age

Question: What century is the first papermaking process attributed to?
Answer: 2nd

Question: To where can the oldest known fragments of silk be traced?

Question: To whom is the silk paper making process ascribed?

Question: What is silk an effective substitute for in all applications?

Question: What age did China's decreased exportation of silk lead to?

Question: What did China decrease the export of during The Golden Age?

Question: Who is uncredited with the papermaking process?

Question:  What material did paper not replace upon its invention?

Question:  Which Age did the invention of the papermaking process not contribute towards?

Question:  What century is the last papermaking process attributed to?
Paper

Its knowledge and uses spread from China through the Middle East to medieval Europe in the 13th century, where the first water powered paper mills were built. Because of paper's introduction to the West through the city of Baghdad, it was first called bagdatikos. In the 19th century, industrial manufacture greatly lowered its cost, enabling mass exchange of information and contributing to significant cultural shifts. In 1844, the Canadian inventor Charles Fenerty and the German F. G. Keller independently developed processes for pulping wood fibres.

Question: In what century did the papermaking process spread from China to Europe?
Answer: 13th

Question: Which middle eastern city did the papermaking process to Europe from?
Answer: Baghdad

Question: What name did the process take on in Baghdad?
Answer: bagdatikos

Question: In which century did the process become much cheaper than before?
Answer: 19th

Question: Which Canadian inventor helped F.G. Keller to develop their own process?
Answer: Charles Fenerty

Question: In which century were the first oil powered paper mills built?

Question: The knowledge and use of what traveled from the Middle East to China?

Question: What greatly increased the cost of paper in the 19th century?

Question: What did Charles Fenerty and FG Keller work together to develop in 1844?

Question: What was developed by China in 1844?

Question: In what century did the papermaking process spread from France to Europe?

Question: Which middle eastern city did the papermaking process to China from?

Question:  What name did the process take on in China?

Question:  In which century did the process become less cheaper than before?

Question: Which French inventor helped F.G. Keller to develop their own process?
Paper

The word "paper" is etymologically derived from Latin papyrus, which comes from the Greek πάπυρος (papuros), the word for the Cyperus papyrus plant. Papyrus is a thick, paper-like material produced from the pith of the Cyperus papyrus plant, which was used in ancient Egypt and other Mediterranean cultures for writing before the introduction of paper into the Middle East and Europe. Although the word paper is etymologically derived from papyrus, the two are produced very differently and the development of the first is distinct from the development of the second. Papyrus is a lamination of natural plant fibres, while paper is manufactured from fibres whose properties have been changed by maceration.

Question: What Latin word is paper derived from?
Answer: Papyrus

Question: What language is papyrus derived from?
Answer: Greek

Question: What process changes the properties of the fibres used in papermaking?
Answer: maceration

Question: What plant was used in Egypt to make papyrus?
Answer: Cyperus

Question: What part of the Cyperus plant was used in making papyrus?
Answer: the pith

Question: Where does the word papuros come from?

Question: What is the word for the Mediterranean papyrus plant?

Question: Paper is developed identically to what?

Question: Paper is a lamination of natural plant fibers and what is papyrus?

Question: Papyrus are fibers who have been changed through maceration and what is paper?

Question:  What Latin word is paper not derived from?

Question:  What language is papyrus not derived from?

Question: What process doesn't change the properties of the fibres used in papermaking?

Question:  What part of the Cyperus wood was used in making papyrus?
Paper

To make pulp from wood, a chemical pulping process separates lignin from cellulose fibres. This is accomplished by dissolving lignin in a cooking liquor, so that it may be washed from the cellulose; this preserves the length of the cellulose fibres. Paper made from chemical pulps are also known as wood-free papers–not to be confused with tree-free paper; this is because they do not contain lignin, which deteriorates over time. The pulp can also be bleached to produce white paper, but this consumes 5% of the fibres; chemical pulping processes are not used to make paper made from cotton, which is already 90% cellulose.

Question: What is separated from the cellulose fibres?
Answer: lignin

Question: What type of paper is paper made from chemical pulps known as?
Answer: wood-free

Question: What percentage of fibres are wasted in the bleaching process?
Answer: 5%

Question: What percentage of cotton is cellulose?
Answer: 90%

Question: What is separated from pulp to make wood?

Question: What is wood dissolved in to get clean from cellulose?

Question: What is combined with cellulose fibers when making pulp?

Question: What is combined with lignin when making pulp?

Question: When separating lignin from cellulose fibers, what is cooking oil dissolved in?

Question: What is combined with the cellulose fibres?

Question:  What type of paper is wood made from chemical pulps known as?

Question:  What percentage of fibres are used in the bleaching process?

Question:  What percentage of cotton is not cellulose?
Paper

There are three main chemical pulping processes: the sulfite process dates back to the 1840s and it was the dominant method extent before the second world war. The kraft process, invented in the 1870s and first used in the 1890s, is now the most commonly practiced strategy, one of its advantages is the chemical reaction with lignin, that produces heat, which can be used to run a generator. Most pulping operations using the kraft process are net contributors to the electricity grid or use the electricity to run an adjacent paper mill. Another advantage is that this process recovers and reuses all inorganic chemical reagents. Soda pulping is another specialty process used to pulp straws, bagasse and hardwoods with high silicate content.

Question: How many chemical pulping processes are there?
Answer: three

Question: What decade does the sulfite process date to?
Answer: 1840s

Question: What process is most commonly used?
Answer: The kraft process

Question: What is another process used to pulp straws with high silicate content?
Answer: Soda pulping

Question: How many mechanical pulping processes exist?

Question: What is a specialty process used to pulp paper mills?

Question: What is a specialty process used to hardwoods with high silicate content?

Question: What is a specialty process used to bagasse ?

Question: Invented in the 1870s, when was soda pulping first used?

Question: How many non-chemical pulping processes are there?

Question:  What decade did the sulfite process stop?

Question:  What process is least commonly used?

Question: What is another process used to pulp straws with low silicate content?
Paper

There are two major mechanical pulps, the thermomechanical one (TMP) and groundwood pulp (GW). In the TMP process, wood is chipped and then fed into large steam heated refiners, where the chips are squeezed and converted to fibres between two steel discs. In the groundwood process, debarked logs are fed into grinders where they are pressed against rotating stones to be made into fibres. Mechanical pulping does not remove the lignin, so the yield is very high, >95%, however it causes the paper thus produced to turn yellow and become brittle over time. Mechanical pulps have rather short fibres, thus producing weak paper. Although large amounts of electrical energy are required to produce mechanical pulp, it costs less than the chemical kind.

Question: Besides the thermomechanical process, what is a process used in pulping?
Answer: groundwood pulp

Question: What is the main ingredient in the groundwood process?
Answer: debarked logs

Question: What strength of paper is produced by mechanical pulps?
Answer: weak

Question: In which process is wood chipped and fed into small steam heated refiners?

Question: In which process are the chips converted to fibers between three steel discs?

Question: What is fed into mechanical pulps during the groundwood process?

Question: Where are debarked logs fed into during the TMP process?

Question: What are debarked logs pressed against to make pulp?

Question: Besides the thermomechanical process, what is a process not used in pulping?

Question:  What is not the main ingredient in the groundwood process?

Question:  What strength of wood is produced by mechanical pulps?
Paper

Recycled papers can be made from 100% recycled materials or blended with virgin pulp, although they are (generally) not as strong nor as bright as papers made from the latter.

Question: Recylced papers can be made with what new type of pulp?
Answer: virgin

Question: What is the only thing recycled papers can be made from?

Question: What type of paper is generally brighter?

Question: What type of paper is generally stronger?

Question: What type of paper can be made from 10% recycled materials?

Question: What are recycled materials blended with to make latter?

Question:  Recylced papers can be made with what old type of pulp?
Paper

Besides the fibres, pulps may contain fillers such as chalk or china clay, which improve its characteristics for printing or writing. Additives for sizing purposes may be mixed with it and/or applied to the paper web later in the manufacturing process; the purpose of such sizing is to establish the correct level of surface absorbency to suit ink or paint.

Question: What type of clay improves the characteristics of the pulps used in papermaking?
Answer: china clay

Question: What is added for sizing purposes?
Answer: Additives

Question: What besides china clay is used as a filler?
Answer: chalk

Question: Pulps only contain fibers and never what?

Question: What are chalk, china clay and pulp an example of?

Question: When are additives for pulp purposes mixed?

Question: What purposes does sizing the filler serve?

Question: What type of clay damages the characteristics of the pulps used in papermaking?

Question:  What besides china clay is not used as a filler?
Paper

Pressing the sheet removes the water by force; once the water is forced from the sheet, a special kind of felt, which is not to be confused with the traditional one, is used to collect the water; whereas when making paper by hand, a blotter sheet is used instead.

Question: How is the water removed by force from a sheet of paper?
Answer: Pressing

Question: What is used to collect the water expelled from pressing?
Answer: felt

Question: What is used to collect water when hand-making paper?
Answer: blotter sheet

Question: Besides a blotter sheet, what can be used to collect water?
Answer: felt

Question: How is the force removed from the sheet?

Question: Once the felt is forced from the sheet, what is used to collect the water?

Question: What is never used when making paper by hand?

Question: What removes the blotter from the sheet?

Question: How is a special kind of felt removed from the sheet?

Question: How is the water removed by force from a sheet of wood?

Question: What is used to collect the rain expelled from pressing?

Question:  What is used to collect rain when hand-making paper?

Question:  Besides a blotter sheet, what can not be used to collect water?
Paper

Drying involves using air and/or heat to remove water from the paper sheets; in the earliest days of paper making this was done by hanging the sheets like laundry; in more modern times various forms of heated drying mechanisms are used. On the paper machine the most common is the steam heated can dryer. These can reach temperatures above 200 °F (93 °C) and are used in long sequences of more than 40 cans; where the heat produced by these can easily dry the paper to less than 6% moisture.

Question: What is the main component of drying the paper?
Answer: air

Question: At what percentage moisture content is the papermaking process trying to achieve in the end?
Answer: 6

Question: What involves using air and heat to add water to the paper sheets?

Question: When was drying done by laying the sheets on the floor?

Question: Which is the least common on the paper machine?

Question: What is used in short sequences of less than 40 cans?

Question: What is able to dry the paper to less than 200% moisture?

Question: What is not the main component of drying the paper?

Question: At what percentage moisture content is the papermaking process not trying to achieve in the end?
Paper

Paper at this point is uncoated. Coated paper has a thin layer of material such as calcium carbonate or china clay applied to one or both sides in order to create a surface more suitable for high-resolution halftone screens. (Uncoated papers are rarely suitable for screens above 150 lpi.) Coated or uncoated papers may have their surfaces polished by calendering. Coated papers are divided into matte, semi-matte or silk, and gloss. Gloss papers give the highest optical density in the printed image.

Question: Besides calcium, coated paper has a thin layer of what?
Answer: china clay

Question: What process is done to polish the surface of the paper?
Answer: calendering

Question: What is the shiniest type of coated paper?
Answer: Gloss

Question: What papers give the best optical density?
Answer: Gloss

Question: What type of paper has a thick layer of material applied to create a more more suitable surface for halftone screens?

Question: Which resolution are coated papers rarely suited for?

Question: How should papers never have their surfaces polished?

Question: Which type of papers have the lowest optical density in the printed image?

Question: Which type of papers are not divided into matte, smei-matte or silk and gloss?

Question: Besides calcium, coated paper has a thick layer of what?

Question:  What process is done to not polish the surface of the paper?

Question:  What is not the shiniest type of coated paper?

Question: What papers give the worst optical density?
Paper

The paper is then fed onto reels if it is to be used on web printing presses, or cut into sheets for other printing processes or other purposes. The fibres in the paper basically run in the machine direction. Sheets are usually cut "long-grain", i.e. with the grain parallel to the longer dimension of the sheet.

Question: What contraption is used to carry the paper to the web printing presses?
Answer: reels

Question: In what manner are sheets normally cut?
Answer: long-grain

Question: If the paper is not to be used in the web printing process, what is done?
Answer: cut into sheets

Question: What is the paper fed onto unless it is going to be used in web printing presses?

Question: What is the paper fed onto unless it is going to be cut into sheets?

Question: In which direction to the fibers in the paper run opposite of?

Question: What is usually cut in a short-grain fashion?

Question: What is usually cut with the grain perpendicular to the longer dimension of the sheet?

Question: What contraption is not used to carry the paper to the web printing presses?

Question:  In what manner are sheets not usually cut?

Question: If the paper is to be used in the web printing process, what is done?
Paper

All paper produced by paper machines as the Fourdrinier Machine are wove paper, i.e. the wire mesh that transports the web leaves a pattern that has the same density along the paper grain and across the grain. Textured finishes, watermarks and wire patterns imitating hand-made laid paper can be created by the use of appropriate rollers in the later stages of the machine.

Question: What type of paper is produced on a machine like the Fourdrinier?
Answer: wove paper

Question: What is used to apply watermarks and other patterns?
Answer: rollers

Question: What is in common with the lentgh along and across the grain of paper produced by a machine such as the Fourdrinier?
Answer: density

Question: What leaves a pattern on the paper that has a consistent density width and lengthwise?
Answer: wire mesh

Question: What type of paper is never produced by the Fourdrinier Machine?

Question: How are watermarks applied to the Fourdrinier Machine?

Question: How are wire patterns applied to the Fourdrinier Machine?

Question: How are Textured finishes applied to the Fourdrinier Machine?

Question:  What type of paper is not produced on a machine like the Fourdrinier?

Question: What is used to not apply watermarks and other patterns?

Question:  What is in uncommon with the length along and across the grain of paper produced by a machine such as the Fourdrinier?

Question: What leaves a pattern on the paper that doesn't have a consistent density width and lengthwise?
Paper

Wove paper does not exhibit "laidlines", which are small regular lines left behind on paper when it was handmade in a mould made from rows of metal wires or bamboo. Laidlines are very close together. They run perpendicular to the "chainlines", which are further apart. Handmade paper similarly exhibits "deckle edges", or rough and feathery borders.

Question: What type of lines does wove paper not exhibit?
Answer: Laidlines

Question: What are small regular lines left on paper when handmade in a mould?
Answer: Laidlines

Question: What runs perpendicular to the laidlines?
Answer: chainlines

Question: Which is lines are commonly higher in density, laidlines or chainlines?
Answer: Laidlines

Question: What type of lines run parallel to chainlines?

Question: What type of paper exhibits laidlines?

Question: In which way does handpaper run to chianlines?

Question: Which type of paper exhibits smooth borders?

Question: What type of lines are exhibited on woven paper?

Question: What type of lines does wove paper exhibit?

Question: What are large regular lines left on paper when handmade in a mould?

Question:  What runs parallel to the laidlines?

Question: Which is lines are uncommonly higher in density, laidlines or chainlines?