Divyanshu67/squad_v2 huggingface dataset:
Capital_punishment_in_the_United_States

Various methods have been used in the history of the American colonies and the United States but only five methods are currently used. Historically, burning, crushing, breaking on wheel, and bludgeoning were used for a small number of executions, while hanging was the most common method. The last person burned at the stake was a black slave in South Carolina in August 1825. The last person to be hanged in chains was a murderer named John Marshall in West Virginia on April 4, 1913. Although beheading was a legal method in Utah from 1851 to 1888, it was never used.

Question: How many execution methods are currently used in the United States?
Answer: five

Question: What was the most common historical method of execution in the United States?
Answer: hanging

Question: In what state did the last burning at the stake take place in the US?
Answer: South Carolina

Question: Who was the last person hanged in chains in the Untied States?
Answer: John Marshall

Question: When was execution by beheading ended in Utah?
Answer: 1888

Question: How many execution methods are currently outlawed in the United States?

Question: What was the least common historical method of execution in the United States?

Question:  In what state did the first burning at the stake take place in the US?

Question:  Who was the first person hanged in chains in the Untied States?

Question:  When was execution by beheading started in Utah?
Capital_punishment_in_the_United_States

African Americans made up 41 percent of death row inmates while making up only 12.6 percent of the general population. (They have made up 34 percent of those actually executed since 1976.) However, that number is lower than that of prison inmates, which is 47 percent. According to the US Department of Justice, African Americans accounted for 52.5% of homicide offenders from 1980 to 2008, with whites 45.3% and Native Americans and Asians 2.2%. This means African Americans are less likely to be executed on a per capita basis. However, according to a 2003 Amnesty International report, blacks and whites were the victims of murder in almost equal numbers, yet 80 percent of the people executed since 1977 were convicted of murders involving white victims. 13.5% of death row inmates are of Hispanic or Latino descent, while they make up 17.4% of the general population.

Question: What percentage of American death row prisoners are African American?
Answer: 41

Question: What percentage of people executed in the United States since 1976 have been African American?
Answer: 34

Question: What percentage of American prison inmates are African American?
Answer: 47

Question: What percentage of homicides were committed by Asians between 1980 and 2008?
Answer: 2.2%

Question: What percentage of the American population is Hispanic?
Answer: 17.4%

Question: What percentage of American death row prisoners are South American

Question: What percentage of people executed in the United States since 1976 have been South American?

Question: What percentage of American prison inmates are South American?

Question:  What percentage of homicides were committed by Canadians between 1980 and 2008?

Question:  What percentage of the Canadian population is Hispanic?
Capital_punishment_in_the_United_States

The legal administration of the death penalty in the United States is complex. Typically, it involves four critical steps: (1) sentencing, (2) direct review, (3) state collateral review, and (4) federal habeas corpus. Recently, a narrow and final fifth level of process – (5) the Section 1983 challenge – has become increasingly important. (Clemency or pardon, through which the Governor or President of the jurisdiction can unilaterally reduce or abrogate a death sentence, is an executive rather than judicial process.) The number of new death sentences handed down peaked in 1995–1996 (309). There were 73 new death sentences handed down in 2014, the lowest number since 1973 (44).

Question: In the United States, how many important steps are usually present in the administration of capital punishment?
Answer: four

Question: Along with the President, what officeholder can issue pardons?
Answer: Governor

Question: How many death sentences were issued in the period 1995-1996?
Answer: 309

Question: How many capital sentences were given in 1973?
Answer: 44

Question: In what year were there 73 death penalty convictions?
Answer: 2014

Question: In the United States, how many important steps are never present in the administration of capital punishment?

Question:  Along with the President, what officeholder can't issue pardons?

Question: How many death sentences were rejected in the period 1995-1996?

Question: How many capital sentences were rejected in 1973?

Question:  In what year were there 73 death penalty convictions overturned?
Capital_punishment_in_the_United_States

All of the executions which have taken place since the 1936 hanging of Bethea in Owensboro have been conducted within a wall or enclosure. For example, Fred Adams was legally hanged in Kennett, Missouri, on April 2, 1937, within a 10-foot (3 m) wooden stockade. Roscoe "Red" Jackson was hanged within a stockade in Galena, Missouri, on May 26, 1937. Two Kentucky hangings were conducted after Galena in which numerous persons were present within a wooden stockade, that of John "Peter" Montjoy in Covington, Kentucky on December 17, 1937, and that of Harold Van Venison in Covington on June 3, 1938. An estimated 400 witnesses were present for the hanging of Lee Simpson in Ryegate, Montana, on December 30, 1939. The execution of Timothy McVeigh on June 11, 2001 was witnessed by some 300 people, some by closed-circuit television.

Question: Where was Bethea hanged?
Answer: Owensboro

Question: On what date was Fred Adams hanged?
Answer: April 2, 1937

Question: In what state did the hanging of Adams take place?
Answer: Missouri

Question: What was Roscoe Jackson's nickname?
Answer: Red

Question: How many people witnessed Timothy McVeigh's execution?
Answer: 300

Question: Where was Bethea freed?

Question:  On what date was Fred Adams freed?

Question: In what state did the freedom of Adams take place?

Question:  What was Roscoe Jackson's birthdate?

Question:  How many people refused Timothy McVeigh's execution?
Capital_punishment_in_the_United_States

James Liebman, a professor of law at Columbia Law School, stated in 1996 that his study found that when habeas corpus petitions in death penalty cases were traced from conviction to completion of the case that there was "a 40 percent success rate in all capital cases from 1978 to 1995." Similarly, a study by Ronald Tabak in a law review article puts the success rate in habeas corpus cases involving death row inmates even higher, finding that between "1976 and 1991, approximately 47 percent of the habeas petitions filed by death row inmates were granted." The different numbers are largely definitional, rather than substantive. Freedam's statistics looks at the percentage of all death penalty cases reversed, while the others look only at cases not reversed prior to habeas corpus review.

Question: What institution does James Liebman work for?
Answer: Columbia Law School

Question: What does James Liebman teach?
Answer: law

Question: According to Liebman, about what percentage of death penalty habeas corpus petitions were successful between 1978 and 1995?
Answer: 40

Question: According to Tabak, what percentage of habeas corpus petitions were granted to death row inmates between 1976 and 1991?
Answer: 47

Question: In what year did Liebman announce his findings?
Answer: 1996

Question: What institution did James Liebman get fired from?

Question:  What does James Liebman reject?

Question: According to Liebman, about what percentage of death penalty habeas corpus petitions were successful between 1988 and 1999?

Question:  According to Tabak, what percentage of habeas corpus petitions were granted to death row inmates between 1978 and 1993

Question:  In what year did Liebman reject his findings?
Capital_punishment_in_the_United_States

The last use of the firing squad between 1608 and the moratorium on judicial executions between 1967 and 1977 was when Utah shot James W. Rodgers on March 30, 1960. The last use of the gallows between 1608 and the moratorium was when Kansas hanged George York on June 22, 1965. The last use of the electric chair between the first electrocution on August 6, 1890 and the moratorium was when Oklahoma electrocuted James French on August 10, 1966. The last use of the gas chamber between the first gassing on February 8, 1924 and the moratorium was when Colorado gassed Luis Monge on June 2, 1967.

Question: Who was executed on March 30, 1960?
Answer: James W. Rodgers

Question: What method of execution was used on James W. Rodgers?
Answer: firing squad

Question: In what state was Rodgers executed?
Answer: Utah

Question: On what date was George York executed?
Answer: June 22, 1965

Question: Which state executed James French?
Answer: Oklahoma

Question: Who was executed on March 30, 1990?

Question:  What method of execution was not used on James W. Rodgers?

Question: In what state was Rodgers born?

Question:  On what date was George York freed?

Question:  Which state freed James French?
Capital_punishment_in_the_United_States

Since 1642 (in the 13 colonies, the United States under the Articles of Confederation, and the current United States) an estimated 364 juvenile offenders have been put to death by the states and the federal government. The earliest known execution of a prisoner for crimes committed as a juvenile was Thomas Graunger in 1642. Twenty-two of the executions occurred after 1976, in seven states. Due to the slow process of appeals, it was highly unusual for a condemned person to be under 18 at the time of execution. The youngest person to be executed in the 20th century was George Stinney, who was electrocuted in South Carolina at the age of 14 on June 16, 1944. The last execution of a juvenile may have been Leonard Shockley, who died in the Maryland gas chamber on April 10, 1959, at the age of 17. No one has been under age 19 at time of execution since at least 1964. Since the reinstatement of the death penalty in 1976, 22 people have been executed for crimes committed under the age of 18. Twenty-one were 17 at the time of the crime. The last person to be executed for a crime committed as a juvenile was Scott Hain on April 3, 2003 in Oklahoma.

Question: About how many American juveniles have been executed since 1642?
Answer: 364

Question: In what year was Thomas Graunger executed?
Answer: 1642

Question: Since 1976, how many Americans have been executed for crimes committed as juveniles?
Answer: Twenty-two

Question: How old was George Stinney when he was executed?
Answer: 14

Question: What method was used to execute Leonard Shockley?
Answer: gas chamber

Question: About how many American juveniles have been executed since 1842?

Question:  In what year was Thomas Graunger freed?

Question:  Since 1976, how many Americans have been executed for crimes committed as adults?

Question:  How old was George Stinney when he was freed?

Question:  What method was used to free Leonard Shockley?
Capital_punishment_in_the_United_States

In May 2014, Oklahoma Director of Corrections, Robert Patton, recommended an indefinite hold on executions in the state after the botched execution of African-American Clayton Lockett. The prisoner had to be tasered to restrain him prior to the execution, and the lethal injection missed a vein in his groin, resulting in Lockett regaining consciousness, trying to get up, and to speak, before dying of a heart attack 43 minutes later, after the attempted execution had been called off. In 2015, the state approved nitrogen asphyxiation as a method of execution.

Question: As of May 2014, what was Robert Patton's job title?
Answer: Director of Corrections

Question: What state employed Robert Patton in May 2014?
Answer: Oklahoma

Question: What race was Clayton Lockett?
Answer: African-American

Question: What was Clayton Lockett's cause of death?
Answer: heart attack

Question: What gas did Oklahoma decide to use for executions in 2015?
Answer: nitrogen

Question: As of May 2011, what was Robert Patton's job title?

Question:  What state executed Robert Patton in May 2014?

Question:  What religion was Clayton Lockett?

Question: What was Clayton Lockett's crime?

Question:  What gas did Oklahoma decide to use for freedoms in 2015?
Capital_punishment_in_the_United_States

Opponents argue that the death penalty is not an effective means of deterring crime, risks the execution of the innocent, is unnecessarily barbaric in nature, cheapens human life, and puts a government on the same base moral level as those criminals involved in murder. Furthermore, some opponents argue that the arbitrariness with which it is administered and the systemic influence of racial, socio-economic, geographic, and gender bias on determinations of desert make the current practice of capital punishment immoral and illegitimate.

Question: Along with gender, geography and race, what bias do some opponents of the death penalty see in its administration?
Answer: socio-economic

Question: According to opponents of the death penalty, what does the death penalty cheapen?
Answer: human life

Question: According to death penalty opponents, on whose moral level does execution place the government?
Answer: criminals involved in murder

Question: What do death penalty opponents argue that capital punishment isn't effective at doing?
Answer: deterring crime

Question: Who do death penalty opponents believe may sometimes be executed?
Answer: the innocent

Question: Along with gender, geography and race, what bias do some people who agree with the death penalty see in its administration?

Question: According to opponents of the death penalty, what does the death penalty strengthen?

Question:  According to death penalty supporters, on whose moral level does execution place the government?

Question: What do death penalty opponents argue that capital punishment is effective at doing?

Question:  Who do death penalty opponents believe will never be executed?
Capital_punishment_in_the_United_States

Sixteen was held to be the minimum permissible age in the 1988 Supreme Court decision of Thompson v. Oklahoma. The Court, considering the case Roper v. Simmons in March 2005, found the execution of juvenile offenders unconstitutional by a 5–4 margin, effectively raising the minimum permissible age to 18. State laws have not been updated to conform with this decision. In the American legal system, unconstitutional laws do not need to be repealed; instead, they are held to be unenforceable. (See also List of juvenile offenders executed in the United States)

Question: According to Thompson v. Oklahoma, what was the youngest age at which a person might be executed?
Answer: Sixteen

Question: In what year was Thompson v. Oklahoma decided?
Answer: 1988

Question: In what month and year was Roper v. Simmons decided?
Answer: March 2005

Question: In Roper v. Simmons, how many Supreme Court justices believed juvenile execution to be unconstitutional?
Answer: 5

Question: Based on Roper v. Simmons, what is now the minimum age to be executed in the United States?
Answer: 18

Question: According to Thompson v. Oklahoma, what was the oldest age at which a person might be executed?

Question:  In what year was Thompson v. Oklahoma postponed?

Question:  In what month and year was Roper v. Simmons postponed?

Question: In Roper v. Simmons, how many Supreme Court justices believed juvenile execution to be constitutional?

Question: Based on Roper v. Simmons, what is now the maximum age to be executed in the United States?
Capital_punishment_in_the_United_States

Around 1890, a political movement developed in the United States to mandate private executions. Several states enacted laws which required executions to be conducted within a "wall" or "enclosure" to "exclude public view." For example, in 1919, the Missouri legislature adopted a statute (L.1919, p. 781) which required, "the sentence of death should be executed within the county jail, if convenient, and otherwise within an enclosure near the jail." The Missouri law permitted the local sheriff to distribute passes to individuals (usually local citizens) whom he believed should witness the hanging, but the sheriffs – for various reasons – sometimes denied passes to individuals who wanted to watch. Missouri executions conducted after 1919 were not "public" because they were conducted behind closed walls, and the general public was not permitted to attend.

Question: In what year did Missouri pass a law stating that executions should be inside of or near a jail?
Answer: 1919

Question: What procedure did Missouri use to execute prisoners in 1919?
Answer: hanging

Question: In the Missouri of 1919, who handed out passes to witness executions?
Answer: the local sheriff

Question: In approximately what year did a movement in favor of private executions begin in the US?
Answer: 1890

Question: In what year did Missouri pass a law stating that executions should be outside of a jail?

Question:  What procedure did Missouri use to free prisoners in 1919?

Question: In the Missouri of 1959, who handed out passes to witness executions?

Question: In approximately what year did a movement in favor of public executions begin in the US?
Capital_punishment_in_the_United_States

Previous post-Furman mass clemencies took place in 1986 in New Mexico, when Governor Toney Anaya commuted all death sentences because of his personal opposition to the death penalty. In 1991, outgoing Ohio Governor Dick Celeste commuted the sentences of eight prisoners, among them all four women on the state's death row. And during his two terms (1979–1987) as Florida's Governor, Bob Graham, although a strong death penalty supporter who had overseen the first post-Furman involuntary execution as well as 15 others, agreed to commute the sentences of six people on the grounds of "possible innocence" or "disproportionality."

Question: Who commuted all state capital sentences in 1986?
Answer: Toney Anaya

Question: Of what state was Toney Anaya governor?
Answer: New Mexico

Question: Who was Governor of Ohio in 1991?
Answer: Dick Celeste

Question: How many women were on Ohio's death row in 1991?
Answer: four

Question: In what year did Bob Graham become Governor of Florida?
Answer: 1979

Question: Who commuted all state capital sentences in 1936?

Question:  Of what state was Toney Anaya senator?

Question:  Who was Governor of Nebraska in 1991?

Question:  How many men were on Ohio's death row in 1991?

Question: In what year did Bob Graham become Senator of Florida?
Capital_punishment_in_the_United_States

In 2010, bills to abolish the death penalty in Kansas and in South Dakota (which had a de facto moratorium at the time) were rejected. Idaho ended its de facto moratorium, during which only one volunteer had been executed, on November 18, 2011 by executing Paul Ezra Rhoades; South Dakota executed Donald Moeller on October 30, 2012, ending a de facto moratorium during which only two volunteers had been executed. Of the 12 prisoners whom Nevada has executed since 1976, 11 waived their rights to appeal. Kentucky and Montana have executed two prisoners against their will (KY: 1997 and 1999, MT: 1995 and 1998) and one volunteer, respectively (KY: 2008, MT: 2006). Colorado (in 1997) and Wyoming (in 1992) have executed only one prisoner, respectively.

Question: Along with South Dakota, what state rejected a death penalty abolition bill in 2010?
Answer: Kansas

Question: Who did Idaho execute in 2011?
Answer: Paul Ezra Rhoades

Question: Who was executed on October 30, 2012?
Answer: Donald Moeller

Question: Since 1976, how many prisoners has Nevada executed?
Answer: 12

Question: Since 1976, in what year was a prisoner executed in Wyoming?
Answer: 1992

Question: Along with North Dakota, what state rejected a death penalty abolition bill in 2010?

Question:  Who did Idaho execute in 2013?

Question:  Who was freed on October 30, 2012?

Question: Since 1976, in what year was a prisoner freed in Wyoming?
Capital_punishment_in_the_United_States

Pharmaceutical companies whose products are used in the three-drug cocktails for lethal injections are predominantly European, and they have strenuously objected to the use of their drugs for executions and taken steps to prevent their use. For example, Hospira, the sole American manufacturer of sodium thiopental, the critical anesthetic in the three-drug cocktail, announced in 2011 that it would no longer manufacture the drug for the American market, in part for ethical reasons and in part because its transfer of sodium thiopental manufacturing to Italy would subject it to the European Union's Torture Regulation, which forbids the use of any product manufactured within the Union for torture (as execution by lethal injection is considered by the Regulation). Since the drug manufacturers began taking these steps and the EU regulation ended the importation of drugs produced in Europe, the resulting shortage of execution drugs has led to or influenced decisions to impose moratoria in Arkansas, California, Kentucky, Louisiana, Mississippi, Montana, Nevada, North Carolina, and Tennessee.

Question: How many drugs are used to administer lethal injection?
Answer: three

Question: What lethal injection drug is manufactured by Hospira?
Answer: sodium thiopental

Question: When did Hospira cease to manufacture its lethal injection drug for the United States?
Answer: 2011

Question: In what country does Hospira manufacture sodium thiopental today?
Answer: Italy

Question: What EU law forbids products used in torture to be manufactured in the European Union?
Answer: Torture Regulation

Question:  How many hours does it take to administer lethal injection?

Question:  What lethal injection drug is not manufactured by Hospira?

Question: When did Hospira begin to manufacture its lethal injection drug for the United States?

Question: In what state does Hospira manufacture sodium thiopental today?
Capital_punishment_in_the_United_States

In the decades since Furman, new questions have emerged about whether or not prosecutorial arbitrariness has replaced sentencing arbitrariness. A study by Pepperdine University School of Law published in Temple Law Review, "Unpredictable Doom and Lethal Injustice: An Argument for Greater Transparency in Death Penalty Decisions," surveyed the decision-making process among prosecutors in various states. The authors found that prosecutors' capital punishment filing decisions remain marked by local "idiosyncrasies," suggesting they are not in keeping with the spirit of the Supreme Court's directive. This means that "the very types of unfairness that the Supreme Court sought to eliminate" may still "infect capital cases." Wide prosecutorial discretion remains because of overly broad criteria. California law, for example, has 22 "special circumstances," making nearly all premeditated murders potential capital cases. The 32 death penalty states have varying numbers and types of "death qualifiers" – circumstances that allow for capital charges. The number varies from a high of 34 in California to 22 in Colorado and Delaware to 12 in Texas, Nebraska, Georgia and Montana. The study's authors call for reform of state procedures along the lines of reforms in the federal system, which the U.S. Department of Justice initiated with a 1995 protocol. Crimes subject to the death penalty vary by jurisdiction. All jurisdictions that use capital punishment designate the highest grade of murder a capital crime, although most jurisdictions require aggravating circumstances. Treason against the United States, as well as treason against the states of Arkansas, California, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, and Missouri are capital offenses.

Question: What University studied "Predictable Doom"?

Question: How many cases are not special circumstances in California?

Question: What happened in 1997?
Age_of_Enlightenment

French historians traditionally place the Enlightenment between 1715, the year that Louis XIV died, and 1789, the beginning of the French Revolution. Some recent historians begin the period in the 1620s, with the start of the scientific revolution. The Philosophes, the French term for the philosophers of the period, widely circulated their ideas through meetings at scientific academies, Masonic lodges, literary salons and coffee houses, and through printed books and pamphlets. The ideas of the Enlightenment undermined the authority of the monarchy and the church, and paved the way for the revolutions of the 18th and 19th centuries. A variety of 19th-century movements, including liberalism and neo-classicism, trace their intellectual heritage back to the Enlightenment.

Question: In what year did Louis XIV die?
Answer: 1715

Question: In what year did the French Revolution begin?
Answer: 1789

Question: In what decade did the scientific revolution begin?
Answer: 1620s
Age_of_Enlightenment

Francis Hutcheson, a moral philosopher, described the utilitarian and consequentialist principle that virtue is that which provides, in his words, "the greatest happiness for the greatest numbers". Much of what is incorporated in the scientific method (the nature of knowledge, evidence, experience, and causation) and some modern attitudes towards the relationship between science and religion were developed by his protégés David Hume and Adam Smith. Hume became a major figure in the skeptical philosophical and empiricist traditions of philosophy.

Question: Which moral philosopher said "the greatest happiness for the greatest numbers"?
Answer: Francis Hutcheson

Question: Which two men were Francis Hutecheson's proteges?
Answer: David Hume and Adam Smith

Question: The nature of knowledge, evidence, experience, and causation together are called what?
Answer: the scientific method

Question: What type of philosopher was Francis Hutcheson?
Answer: moral

Question: In what areas of philosophy did Hume become a major figure?
Answer: skeptical philosophical and empiricist traditions
Age_of_Enlightenment

The influence of science also began appearing more commonly in poetry and literature during the Enlightenment. Some poetry became infused with scientific metaphor and imagery, while other poems were written directly about scientific topics. Sir Richard Blackmore committed the Newtonian system to verse in Creation, a Philosophical Poem in Seven Books (1712). After Newton's death in 1727, poems were composed in his honour for decades. James Thomson (1700–1748) penned his "Poem to the Memory of Newton," which mourned the loss of Newton, but also praised his science and legacy.

Question: Who wrote "Poem to the Memory of Newton?"
Answer: James Thomson

Question: In what year did Newton die?
Answer: 1727

Question: Whose death in 1727 prompted poems to be written in his honour for decades?
Answer: Newton

Question: Who wrote Creation, a Philosophical Poem in Seven Books?
Answer: Sir Richard Blackmore

Question: In what year was Creation, a Philosophical Poem in Seven Books written?
Answer: 1712
Age_of_Enlightenment

John Locke, one of the most influential Enlightenment thinkers, based his governance philosophy in social contract theory, a subject that permeated Enlightenment political thought. The English philosopher Thomas Hobbes ushered in this new debate with his work Leviathan in 1651. Hobbes also developed some of the fundamentals of European liberal thought: the right of the individual; the natural equality of all men; the artificial character of the political order (which led to the later distinction between civil society and the state); the view that all legitimate political power must be "representative" and based on the consent of the people; and a liberal interpretation of law which leaves people free to do whatever the law does not explicitly forbid.

Question: What did John Locke base his governance philosphy in?
Answer: social contract theory

Question: Which English philosopher wrote Leviathan in 1651?
Answer: Thomas Hobbes

Question: Who developed the view that all legitimate political power must be "representative?"
Answer: Thomas Hobbes

Question: Which of Hobbes' ideas led to the distinction between civil society and the state?
Answer: the artificial character of the political order
Age_of_Enlightenment

Both Rousseau and Locke's social contract theories rest on the presupposition of natural rights, which are not a result of law or custom, but are things that all men have in pre-political societies, and are therefore universal and inalienable. The most famous natural right formulation comes from John Locke in his Second Treatise, when he introduces the state of nature. For Locke the law of nature is grounded on mutual security, or the idea that one cannot infringe on another's natural rights, as every man is equal and has the same inalienable rights. These natural rights include perfect equality and freedom, and the right to preserve life and property. Locke also argued against slavery on the basis that enslaving yourself goes against the law of nature; you cannot surrender your own rights, your freedom is absolute and no one can take it from you. Additionally, Locke argues that one person cannot enslave another because it is morally reprehensible, although he introduces a caveat by saying that enslavement of a lawful captive in time of war would not go against one's natural rights.

Question: How does John Locke define mutual security?
Answer: the idea that one cannot infringe on another's natural rights

Question: What do Locke's idea of natural rights include?
Answer: perfect equality and freedom, and the right to preserve life and property

Question: Why did John Locke believe that one person cannot enslave another?
Answer: because it is morally reprehensible

Question: What was John Locke's one exception to denouncing slavery?
Answer: enslavement of a lawful captive in time of war would not go against one's natural rights

Question: In which of John Locke's works are natural rights most famously defined and discussed?
Answer: Second Treatise
Age_of_Enlightenment

Enlightenment era religious commentary was a response to the preceding century of religious conflict in Europe, especially the Thirty Years' War. Theologians of the Enlightenment wanted to reform their faith to its generally non-confrontational roots and to limit the capacity for religious controversy to spill over into politics and warfare while still maintaining a true faith in God. For moderate Christians, this meant a return to simple Scripture. John Locke abandoned the corpus of theological commentary in favor of an "unprejudiced examination" of the Word of God alone. He determined the essence of Christianity to be a belief in Christ the redeemer and recommended avoiding more detailed debate. Thomas Jefferson in the Jefferson Bible went further; he dropped any passages dealing with miracles, visitations of angels, and the resurrection of Jesus after his death. He tried to extract the practical Christian moral code of the New Testament.

Question: Who dropped any passages dealing with miracles or visitations of angels from his work the Jefferson Bible?
Answer: Thomas Jefferson

Question: The Enlightenment era religious commentary was, in part, a response to which war?
Answer: Thirty Years' War

Question: What did the Enlightenment mean for moderate Christians?
Answer: a return to simple Scripture

Question: Did John Locke want to foster or avoid increased detailed debate on the essence of Christianity?
Answer: avoid
Age_of_Enlightenment

The Enlightenment took hold in most European countries, often with a specific local emphasis. For example, in France it became associated with anti-government and anti-Church radicalism while in Germany it reached deep into the middle classes and where it expressed a spiritualistic and nationalistic tone without threatening governments or established churches. Government responses varied widely. In France, the government was hostile, and the philosophes fought against its censorship, sometimes being imprisoned or hounded into exile. The British government for the most part ignored the Enlightenment's leaders in England and Scotland, although it did give Isaac Newton a knighthood and a very lucrative government office.

Question: In which country did the Enlightenment become associated with anti-government and anti-Church radicalism?
Answer: France

Question: Which of the Enlightenment's leaders did the British government give a knighthood and lucrative government office?
Answer: Isaac Newton

Question: In which country did the government respond with hostility to the Enlightenment, even imprisoning philosophes?
Answer: France

Question: Was government response to the Enlightenment uniformly positive or widely varied?
Answer: varied

Question: In which class did the Enlightenment reach deepest, expressing a nationalistic tone?
Answer: middle
Age_of_Enlightenment

The Enlightenment has always been contested territory. Its supporters "hail it as the source of everything that is progressive about the modern world. For them, it stands for freedom of thought, rational inquiry, critical thinking, religious tolerance, political liberty, scientific achievement, the pursuit of happiness, and hope for the future." However, its detractors accuse it of 'shallow' rationalism, naïve optimism, unrealistic universalism, and moral darkness. From the start there was a Counter-Enlightenment in which conservative and clerical defenders of traditional religion attacked materialism and skepticism as evil forces that encouraged immorality. By 1794, they pointed to the Terror during the French Revolution as confirmation of their predictions. As the Enlightenment was ending, Romantic philosophers argued that excessive dependence on reason was a mistake perpetuated by the Enlightenment, because it disregarded the bonds of history, myth, faith and tradition that were necessary to hold society together.

Question: What two ideas did conservative and clerical defenders of traditional religion attack as evil forces that encouraged immorality?
Answer: materialism and skepticism

Question: By 1794, what did those against the Enlightenment point to as confirmation of their predictions?
Answer: Terror during the French Revolution

Question: Which type of philosophers argued that excessive dependence on reason was a mistake perpetuated by the Enlightenment?
Answer: Romantic
Age_of_Enlightenment

There is little consensus on the precise beginning of the Age of Enlightenment; the beginning of the 18th century (1701) or the middle of the 17th century (1650) are often used as epochs. French historians usually place the period, called the Siècle des Lumières (Century of Enlightenments), between 1715 and 1789, from the beginning of the reign of Louis XV until the French Revolution. If taken back to the mid-17th century, the Enlightenment would trace its origins to Descartes' Discourse on Method, published in 1637. In France, many cited the publication of Isaac Newton's Principia Mathematica in 1687. It is argued by several historians and philosophers that the beginning of the Enlightenment is when Descartes shifted the epistemological basis from external authority to internal certainty by his cogito ergo sum published in 1637. As to its end, most scholars use the last years of the century, often choosing the French Revolution of 1789 or the beginning of the Napoleonic Wars (1804–15) as a convenient point in time with which to date the end of the Enlightenment.

Question: Most scholars use the beginning of the Napoleonic Wars or which other battle as a convenient date to end the Enlightenment?
Answer: French Revolution

Question: French historians generally use the beginning of which King's reign to date the start of the Enlightenment?
Answer: Louis XV

Question: What do French historians commonly call the Age of Enlightenment?
Answer: Siècle des Lumières (Century of Enlightenments)

Question: In what year was Descartes' Discourse on Method published?
Answer: 1637

Question: In what year was Issaac Newton's Principia Mathematica published?
Answer: 1687
Age_of_Enlightenment

The creation of the public sphere has been associated with two long-term historical trends: the rise of the modern nation state and the rise of capitalism. The modern nation state, in its consolidation of public power, created by counterpoint a private realm of society independent of the state, which allowed for the public sphere. Capitalism also increased society's autonomy and self-awareness, and an increasing need for the exchange of information. As the nascent public sphere expanded, it embraced a large variety of institutions; the most commonly cited were coffee houses and cafés, salons and the literary public sphere, figuratively localized in the Republic of Letters. In France, the creation of the public sphere was helped by the aristocracy's move from the King's palace at Versailles to Paris in about 1720, since their rich spending stimulated the trade in luxuries and artistic creations, especially fine paintings.

Question: The creation of the public sphere is associated with the rise of capitalism and which other historical trend?
Answer: rise of the modern nation state

Question: What increased society's autonomy, self-awareness, and need for exchange of information?
Answer: Capitalism

Question: In what year did the aristocracy move from the King's palace at Versailles to Paris?
Answer: 1720
Age_of_Enlightenment

The desire to explore, record and systematize knowledge had a meaningful impact on music publications. Jean-Jacques Rousseau's Dictionnaire de musique (published 1767 in Geneva and 1768 in Paris) was a leading text in the late 18th century. This widely available dictionary gave short definitions of words like genius and taste, and was clearly influenced by the Enlightenment movement. Another text influenced by Enlightenment values was Charles Burney's A General History of Music: From the Earliest Ages to the Present Period (1776), which was a historical survey and an attempt to rationalize elements in music systematically over time. Recently, musicologists have shown renewed interest in the ideas and consequences of the Enlightenment. For example, Rose Rosengard Subotnik's Deconstructive Variations (subtitled Music and Reason in Western Society) compares Mozart's Die Zauberflöte (1791) using the Enlightenment and Romantic perspectives, and concludes that the work is "an ideal musical representation of the Enlightenment".

Question: The desire to explore, record and systematize knowledge had a meaningful impact on what other form of publication?
Answer: music

Question: What publication of Jean-Jacques Rousseau was a leading text in the late 18th century and was published 1767 in Geneva and 1768 in Paris?
Answer: Dictionnaire de musique

Question: In what year was Charles Burney's A General History of Music: From the Earliest Ages to the Present Period published?
Answer: 1776

Question: What Mozart piece did Rose Rosengard Subotnik conclude is "an ideal musical representation of the Enlightenment"?
Answer: Die Zauberflöte (1791)

Question: Which two perspectives did Rose Rosengard Subotnik use to compare Mozart's Die Cauberflote?
Answer: Enlightenment and Romantic
Age_of_Enlightenment

Many women played an essential part in the French Enlightenment, due to the role they played as salonnières in Parisian salons, as the contrast to the male philosophes. The salon was the principal social institution of the republic, and "became the civil working spaces of the project of Enlightenment." Women, as salonnières, were "the legitimate governors of [the] potentially unruly discourse" that took place within. While women were marginalized in the public culture of the Ancien Régime, the French Revolution destroyed the old cultural and economic restraints of patronage and corporatism (guilds), opening French society to female participation, particularly in the literary sphere.

Question: What was the principal social institution of the republic during the French Enlightenment?
Answer: salon

Question: Was French society open or fearful of female participation in the literary sphere during the Enlightenment?
Answer: open

Question: What female occupation allowed women to play an essential part in the French Enlightenment?
Answer: salonnières

Question: Which event destroyed the former patronage and corporatism of France and allowed women to participate in society?
Answer: French Revolution
Age_of_Enlightenment

The vast majority of the reading public could not afford to own a private library, and while most of the state-run "universal libraries" set up in the 17th and 18th centuries were open to the public, they were not the only sources of reading material. On one end of the spectrum was the Bibliothèque Bleue, a collection of cheaply produced books published in Troyes, France. Intended for a largely rural and semi-literate audience these books included almanacs, retellings of medieval romances and condensed versions of popular novels, among other things. While some historians have argued against the Enlightenment's penetration into the lower classes, the Bibliothèque Bleue represents at least a desire to participate in Enlightenment sociability. Moving up the classes, a variety of institutions offered readers access to material without needing to buy anything. Libraries that lent out their material for a small price started to appear, and occasionally bookstores would offer a small lending library to their patrons. Coffee houses commonly offered books, journals and sometimes even popular novels to their customers. The Tatler and The Spectator, two influential periodicals sold from 1709 to 1714, were closely associated with coffee house culture in London, being both read and produced in various establishments in the city. This is an example of the triple or even quadruple function of the coffee house: reading material was often obtained, read, discussed and even produced on the premises.

Question: Where was Bibliotheque Bleue located?
Answer: Troyes, France

Question: For what audience were the books of the Bibliotheque Bleue written?
Answer: largely rural and semi-literate

Question: Which two influential periodicals  were closely associated with London coffee house culture and were sold from 1909 to 1714? 
Answer: The Tatler and The Spectator

Question: What collection of cheaply produced books represents the lower class' desire to participate in the Enlightenment?
Answer: Bibliothèque Bleue
Age_of_Enlightenment

The target audience of natural history was French polite society, evidenced more by the specific discourse of the genre than by the generally high prices of its works. Naturalists catered to polite society's desire for erudition – many texts had an explicit instructive purpose. However, natural history was often a political affair. As E. C. Spary writes, the classifications used by naturalists "slipped between the natural world and the social ... to establish not only the expertise of the naturalists over the natural, but also the dominance of the natural over the social". The idea of taste (le goût) was a social indicator: to truly be able to categorize nature, one had to have the proper taste, an ability of discretion shared by all members of polite society. In this way natural history spread many of the scientific developments of the time, but also provided a new source of legitimacy for the dominant class. From this basis, naturalists could then develop their own social ideals based on their scientific works.

Question: Who was the target audience of natural history?
Answer: French polite society

Question: Many texts had explicit instructive purposes as Naturalists catered to polite society's desire for what?
Answer: erudition

Question: The idea of what quality was a social indicator that provided a new source of legitimacy for the dominant class?
Answer: taste (le goût)

Question: Was the target audience of natural history evidenced more by the price of publications or its specific discourse of the genre?
Answer: specific discourse of the genre
Age_of_Enlightenment

The first technical dictionary was drafted by John Harris and entitled Lexicon Technicum: Or, An Universal English Dictionary of Arts and Sciences. Harris' book avoided theological and biographical entries; instead it concentrated on science and technology. Published in 1704, the Lexicon technicum was the first book to be written in English that took a methodical approach to describing mathematics and commercial arithmetic along with the physical sciences and navigation. Other technical dictionaries followed Harris' model, including Ephraim Chambers' Cyclopaedia (1728), which included five editions, and was a substantially larger work than Harris'. The folio edition of the work even included foldout engravings. The Cyclopaedia emphasized Newtonian theories, Lockean philosophy, and contained thorough examinations of technologies, such as engraving, brewing, and dyeing.

Question: Who drafted the first technical dictionary?
Answer: John Harris

Question: What was the first technical dictionary drafted by John Harris titled?
Answer: Lexicon Technicum: Or, An Universal English Dictionary of Arts and Sciences

Question: Did the Lexicon Technicum focus on theological and biographical entries or science and technology?
Answer: science and technology

Question: What year was the Lexicon Technicum published?
Answer: 1704

Question: In what language was the Lexicon Technicum written?
Answer: English
Age_of_Enlightenment

The first significant work that expressed scientific theory and knowledge expressly for the laity, in the vernacular, and with the entertainment of readers in mind, was Bernard de Fontenelle's Conversations on the Plurality of Worlds (1686). The book was produced specifically for women with an interest in scientific writing and inspired a variety of similar works. These popular works were written in a discursive style, which was laid out much more clearly for the reader than the complicated articles, treatises, and books published by the academies and scientists. Charles Leadbetter's Astronomy (1727) was advertised as "a Work entirely New" that would include "short and easie  [sic] Rules and Astronomical Tables." The first French introduction to Newtonianism and the Principia was Eléments de la philosophie de Newton, published by Voltaire in 1738. Émilie du Châtelet's translation of the Principia, published after her death in 1756, also helped to spread Newton's theories beyond scientific academies and the university. Francesco Algarotti, writing for a growing female audience, published Il Newtonianism per le dame, which was a tremendously popular work and was translated from Italian into English by Elizabeth Carter. A similar introduction to Newtonianism for women was produced by Henry Pembarton. His A View of Sir Isaac Newton's Philosophy was published by subscription. Extant records of subscribers show that women from a wide range of social standings purchased the book, indicating the growing number of scientifically inclined female readers among the middling class. During the Enlightenment, women also began producing popular scientific works themselves. Sarah Trimmer wrote a successful natural history textbook for children titled The Easy Introduction to the Knowledge of Nature (1782), which was published for many years after in eleven editions.

Question: What book was published in 1686 specifically for women with an interest in scientific writing?
Answer: Conversations on the Plurality of Worlds

Question: Who was the author of Conversations on the Plurality of Worlds (1686)?
Answer: Bernard de Fontenelle

Question: Who wrote a successful natural history textbook for children titled The Easy Introduction to the Knowledge of Nature (1782)?
Answer: Sarah Trimmer

Question: How many editions were published of Sarah Trimmer's history textbook for children?
Answer: eleven

Question: Emilie du Chatelet's translation of what Newton work was published after her death in 1756?
Answer: Principia