Divyanshu67/squad_v2 huggingface dataset:
Endangered_Species_Act

The "No Surprises" rule is meant to protect the landowner if "unforeseen circumstances" occur which make the landowner's efforts to prevent or mitigate harm to the species fall short. The "No Surprises" policy may be the most controversial of the recent reforms of the law, because once an Incidental Take Permit is granted, the Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) loses much ability to further protect a species if the mitigation measures by the landowner prove insufficient. The landowner or permittee would not be required to set aside additional land or pay more in conservation money. The federal government would have to pay for additional protection measures.

Question: What is the name of the rule that protects the landowner if their conservation efforts fall short?
Answer: The "No Surprises" rule

Question: Why is this particular rule so controversial?
Answer: the Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) loses much ability to further protect a species if the mitigation measures by the landowner prove insufficient.

Question: If the landowner fails to adequately protect the species, what penalties do they face with the "No Surprises" rule?
Answer: The landowner or permittee would not be required to set aside additional land or pay more in conservation money

Question: Who covers the cost of additional efforts if the ITP holder's efforts fall short?
Answer: The federal government would have to pay for additional protection measures

Question: Why is the ITP controversial?

Question: What policy protects the species from unforeseen circumstances?

Question: What is granted after the No Surprises rule comes into play?

Question: What is the federal government is not required to pay for?

Question: What does the No Surprises rule requires landowners to put aside?
Endangered_Species_Act

The "Safe Harbor" agreement is a voluntary agreement between the private landowner and FWS. The landowner agrees to alter the property to benefit or even attract a listed or proposed species in exchange for assurances that the FWS will permit future "takes" above a pre-determined level. The policy relies on the "enhancement of survival" provision of Section §1539(a)(1)(A). A landowner can have either a "Safe Harbor" agreement or an Incidental Take Permit, or both. The policy was developed by the Clinton Administration in 1999.

Question: What two groups are bound by a "Safe Harbor" agreement?
Answer: the private landowner and FWS

Question: In exchange for altering the property to a more beneficial state, what does the landowner gain from the Safe Harbor agreement?
Answer: assurances that the FWS will permit future "takes" above a pre-determined level

Question: Which presidential administration developed Safe Harbor policy?
Answer: the Clinton Administration

Question: Are Safe Harbor agreements and ITPs mutually exclusive?
Answer: A landowner can have either a "Safe Harbor" agreement or an Incidental Take Permit, or both.

Question: What provision is the ITP under?

Question: When did FWS create the Safe Harbor agreement?

Question: What form of agreement can a landowner no longer have if they acquire an ITP?

Question: What provision relies on the Safe Harbor agreement?

Question: What administration developed Section §1539(a)(1)(A)?
Endangered_Species_Act

The Candidate Conservation Agreement is closely related to the "Safe Harbor" agreement, the main difference is that the Candidate Conservation Agreements With Assurances(CCA) are meant to protect unlisted species by providing incentives to private landowners and land managing agencies to restore, enhance or maintain habitat of unlisted species which are declining and have the potential to become threatened or endangered if critical habitat is not protected. The FWS will then assure that if, in the future the unlisted species becomes listed, the landowner will not be required to do more than already agreed upon in the CCA.

Question: How do Candidate Conservation Agreements differ from Safe Harbor agreements?
Answer: Candidate Conservation Agreements With Assurances(CCA) are meant to protect unlisted species

Question: How does a CCA help protect a private landowner?
Answer: if, in the future the unlisted species becomes listed, the landowner will not be required to do more than already agreed upon in the CCA.

Question: How does a CCA impact unlisted species?
Answer: enhance or maintain habitat of unlisted species which are declining and have the potential to become threatened or endangered

Question: What agreement is the Safe Harbor Agreement primarily different from?

Question: How does the Safe Harbor agreement protect unlisted species?

Question: What organization can make a landowner do activities beyond those agreed on in the CCA?

Question: What does Safe Harbor protect?
Endangered_Species_Act

Two examples of animal species recently delisted are: the Virginia northern flying squirrel (subspecies) on August, 2008, which had been listed since 1985, and the gray wolf (Northern Rocky Mountain DPS). On April 15, 2011, President Obama signed the Department of Defense and Full-Year Appropriations Act of 2011. A section of that Appropriations Act directed the Secretary of the Interior to reissue within 60 days of enactment the final rule published on April 2, 2009, that identified the Northern Rocky Mountain population of gray wolf (Canis lupus) as a distinct population segment (DPS) and to revise the List of Endangered and Threatened Wildlife by removing most of the gray wolves in the DPS.

Question: What animal species was delisted in August 2008?
Answer: the Virginia northern flying squirrel

Question: How long had the squirrel been listed as endangered?
Answer: listed since 1985

Question: Which president signed an Act directing the delisting of the Northern Rocky Mountain population of gray wolf?
Answer: President Obama

Question: What animal was added in 2008?

Question: When was the gray wolf added to the list?

Question: Who delisted the flying squirrel?

Question: What did the Secretary of the Interior sign in 2011?

Question: What is the latin name for the flying squirrel?
Endangered_Species_Act

As of September 2012, fifty-six species have been delisted; twenty-eight due to recovery, ten due to extinction (seven of which are believed to have been extinct prior to being listed), ten due to changes in taxonomic classification practices, six due to discovery of new populations, one due to an error in the listing rule, and one due to an amendment to the Endangered Species Act specifically requiring the species delisting. Twenty-five others have been down listed from "endangered" to "threatened" status.

Question: As of September 2012, how many species had been delisted due to recovery?
Answer: twenty-eight

Question: Of the ten species removed due to extinction, how many are believe to have already been extinct when listed?
Answer: seven

Question: How many species have been downgraded from endangered to threatened status?
Answer: Twenty-five

Question: How many species were delisted due to discoveries of new populations?
Answer: six

Question: How many species were delisted in September 2012?

Question: How many species have gone from threatened to endangered?

Question: How many new populations were lost?

Question: How many species have recovered since 2012 due to changes?

Question: When was the amendment to the ESA published?
Endangered_Species_Act

Opponents of the Endangered Species Act argue that with over 2,000 endangered species listed, and only 28 delisted due to recovery, the success rate of 1% over nearly three decades proves that there needs to be serious reform in their methods to actually help the endangered animals and plants. Others argue that the ESA may encourage preemptive habitat destruction by landowners who fear losing the use of their land because of the presence of an endangered species; known colloquially as "Shoot, Shovel and Shut-Up." One example of such perverse incentives is the case of a forest owner who, in response to ESA listing of the red-cockaded woodpecker, increased harvesting and shortened the age at which he harvests his trees to ensure that they do not become old enough to become suitable habitat. While no studies have shown that the Act's negative effects, in total, exceed the positive effects, many economists believe that finding a way to reduce such perverse incentives would lead to more effective protection of endangered species.

Question: How many species are currently listed?
Answer: over 2,000

Question: What is the success rate of the list and the Endangered Species Act initiatives?
Answer: 1%

Question: What is the name given to the act of pre-emptive habitat destruction by landowners fearing a protected species?
Answer: "Shoot, Shovel and Shut-Up."

Question: How did a land owner impact the protected red-cockaded woodpecker species?
Answer: increased harvesting and shortened the age at which he harvests his trees to ensure that they do not become old enough to become suitable habitat

Question: Less than how many species are still listed?

Question: How long has the ESA been using the "Shoot, Shovel, and Shut-up" method?

Question: What have studies shown the negative effects outweigh?

Question: What is another name for the ESA's practices?

Question: What is the success rate of Shoot, Shovel, and Shut-Up?
Endangered_Species_Act

According to research published in 1999 by Alan Green and the Center for Public Integrity (CPI), loopholes in the ESA are commonly exploited in the exotic pet trade. Although the legislation prohibits interstate and foreign transactions for list species, no provisions are made for in-state commerce, allowing these animals to be sold to roadside zoos and private collectors. Additionally, the ESA allows listed species to be shipped across state lines as long as they are not sold. According to Green and the CPI, this allows dealers to "donate" listed species through supposed "breeding loans" to anyone, and in return they can legally receive a reciprocal monetary "donation" from the receiving party. Furthermore, an interview with an endangered species specialist at the US Fish and Wildlife Service revealed that the agency does not have sufficient staff to perform undercover investigations, which would catch these false "donations" and other mislabeled transactions.

Question: What is one particular industry that exploits Endangered Species Act loopholes?
Answer: exotic pet trade

Question: What is one particular loophole that aids roadside zoos and private collectors?
Answer: no provisions are made for in-state commerce

Question: What allows exploitation of interstate commerce regulations?
Answer: the ESA allows listed species to be shipped across state lines as long as they are not sold

Question: How can fake breeding loans be used to sell wildlife?
Answer: in return they can legally receive a reciprocal monetary "donation" from the receiving party.

Question: Why are there not more arrests from undercover investigations of interstate wildlife commerce?
Answer: the US Fish and Wildlife Service revealed that the agency does not have sufficient staff to perform undercover investigations

Question: When did people begin exploiting ESA loopholes?

Question: What organization prevents animals from being sold to zoos or collectors?

Question: What is the name of the endangered species specialist that was interviewed?

Question: What agency is overstaffed?

Question: What named organization has been exploiting loopholes?
Endangered_Species_Act

Green and the CPI further noted another exploit of the ESA in their discussion of the critically endangered cotton-top tamarin (Saguinus oedipus). Not only had they found documentation that 151 of these primates had inadvertently made their way from the Harvard-affiliated New England Regional Primate Research Center into the exotic pet trade through the aforementioned loophole, but in October 1976, over 800 cotton-top tamarins were imported into the United States in order to beat the official listing of the species under the ESA.

Question: The Center for Public Integrity found that 151 of what primate were moved from the New England Primate Research Center into exotic pet trade?
Answer: cotton-top tamarin

Question: What happened in 1976 that impacted this primate's classification as Endanger?
Answer: over 800 cotton-top tamarins were imported into the United States

Question: What school is affiliated with the New England Primate Research Center?
Answer: Harvard

Question: What school was running the pet trade?

Question: How many cotton-top tamarins were traded out of the US in 1976?

Question: Who works for the New England Regional Primate Research Center?

Question: What was the official number of the cotton-top tamarins species under the ESA?

Question: How many primates did Harvard purchase?
Endangered_Species_Act

Section 6 of the Endangered Species Act provided funding for development of programs for management of threatened and endangered species by state wildlife agencies. Subsequently, lists of endangered and threatened species within their boundaries have been prepared by each state. These state lists often include species which are considered endangered or threatened within a specific state but not within all states, and which therefore are not included on the national list of endangered and threatened species. Examples include Florida, Minnesota, Maine, and California.

Question: Section 6 of the Endangered Species Act provided funding for what purpose?
Answer: development of programs for management of threatened and endangered species by state wildlife agencies

Question: What is one notable drawback with state wildlife agencies creating their own lists?
Answer: These state lists often include species which are considered endangered or threatened within a specific state but not within all states

Question: What states are listing species that are endangered in their own state, but that are not endangered in all other states?
Answer: Florida, Minnesota, Maine, and California

Question: What states do not have their own lists?

Question: What defunded the development of programs for managing endangered species?

Question: What did Section 6 of the act separate boundaries by?

Question: Who funded species within specific states?
Endangered_Species_Act

A reward will be paid to any person who furnishes information which leads to an arrest, conviction, or revocation of a license, so long as they are not a local, state, or federal employee in the performance of official duties. The Secretary may also provide reasonable and necessary costs incurred for the care of fish, wildlife, and forest service or plant pending the violation caused by the criminal. If the balance ever exceeds $500,000 the Secretary of the Treasury is required to deposit an amount equal to the excess into the cooperative endangered species conservation fund.

Question: Is the public given incentive to report Endangered Species Act violations?
Answer: A reward will be paid to any person who furnishes information which leads to an arrest, conviction, or revocation of a license

Question: Given that a violator caused wildlife harm, who may provide financial assistance for the care of the harmed wildlife?
Answer: The Secretary

Question: Costs over what balance lead to the Secretary of the Treasury depositing money into the cooperative endangered species conservation fund?
Answer: $500,000

Question: What do local employees get if they report information that leads to an arrest?

Question: Up to how much is the reward worth?

Question: What must the Secretary do if the budget is below $500,000?

Question: What three types of employees are allowed to accept a reward?

Question: What kind of cost does the Secretary not cover?
Vacuum

Vacuum is space void of matter. The word stems from the Latin adjective vacuus for "vacant" or "void". An approximation to such vacuum is a region with a gaseous pressure much less than atmospheric pressure. Physicists often discuss ideal test results that would occur in a perfect vacuum, which they sometimes simply call "vacuum" or free space, and use the term partial vacuum to refer to an actual imperfect vacuum as one might have in a laboratory or in space. In engineering and applied physics on the other hand, vacuum refers to any space in which the pressure is lower than atmospheric pressure. The Latin term in vacuo is used to describe an object as being in what would otherwise be a vacuum.

Question: The word Vacuum stems from what Latin adjective?
Answer: vacuus

Question: What does the term used by Physicists, partial vacuum, refer to?
Answer: imperfect vacuum

Question: What is a vacuum?
Answer: space void of matter

Question: What type of pressure is less than atmospheric pressure in a vacuum?
Answer: gaseous

Question: What Latin term is used to describe an object in a vacuum?
Answer: in vacuo

Question: What Latin adjective does atmospheric pressure come from?

Question: What is the definition of atmospheric pressure?

Question: What do physicists often discuss will occur in a certain atmospheric pressure?

Question: What does the term partial atmospheric pressure refer to?

Question: What latin term is used to describe an object under atmospheric pressure?
Vacuum

The quality of a partial vacuum refers to how closely it approaches a perfect vacuum. Other things equal, lower gas pressure means higher-quality vacuum. For example, a typical vacuum cleaner produces enough suction to reduce air pressure by around 20%. Much higher-quality vacuums are possible. Ultra-high vacuum chambers, common in chemistry, physics, and engineering, operate below one trillionth (10−12) of atmospheric pressure (100 nPa), and can reach around 100 particles/cm3. Outer space is an even higher-quality vacuum, with the equivalent of just a few hydrogen atoms per cubic meter on average. According to modern understanding, even if all matter could be removed from a volume, it would still not be "empty" due to vacuum fluctuations, dark energy, transiting gamma rays, cosmic rays, neutrinos, and other phenomena in quantum physics. In the electromagnetism in the 19th century, vacuum was thought to be filled with a medium called aether. In modern particle physics, the vacuum state is considered the ground state of matter.

Question: The Vacuum state is considered what?
Answer: the ground state of matter.

Question: A typical vacuum cleaner produces enough suction to do what to air pressure?
Answer: reduce air pressure by around 20%

Question: The quality of a partial vacuum refers to what?
Answer: how closely it approaches a perfect vacuum

Question: Outer space has a high quality vacuum with what equivalent?
Answer: a few hydrogen atoms per cubic meter

Question: If all matter is removed from a vacuum, would it be empty space?
Answer: it would still not be "empty"

Question: What does a few hydrogen atoms per cubic meter reduce air pressure by?

Question: What does the quality of dark energy refer to?

Question: What does lower amounts of dark matter mean?

Question: In what century was dark matter discovered?

Question: What does dark matter usually operate below in space?
Vacuum

Historically, there has been much dispute over whether such a thing as a vacuum can exist. Ancient Greek philosophers debated the existence of a vacuum, or void, in the context of atomism, which posited void and atom as the fundamental explanatory elements of physics. Following Plato, even the abstract concept of a featureless void faced considerable skepticism: it could not be apprehended by the senses, it could not, itself, provide additional explanatory power beyond the physical volume with which it was commensurate and, by definition, it was quite literally nothing at all, which cannot rightly be said to exist. Aristotle believed that no void could occur naturally, because the denser surrounding material continuum would immediately fill any incipient rarity that might give rise to a void.

Question: What did Aristotle believe about a void?
Answer: no void could occur naturally,

Question: What was historically disputed about vacuums?
Answer: whether such a thing as a vacuum can exist.

Question: What did something that was literally nothing at all,According to Plato, mean?
Answer: cannot rightly be said to exist

Question: Aristotle thought what would fill any rarity that might give rise to a void?
Answer: denser surrounding material continuum

Question: What did Greek philosophers believe could not occur naturally?

Question: What language was spoken by Plato?

Question: What did Aristotle believe were the fundamental elements of understanding physics?

Question: What can an atom not be understood by according to Greek philosophers?

Question: What did Ancient Greek philosophers believe atoms could not do?
Vacuum

In his Physics, book IV, Aristotle offered numerous arguments against the void: for example, that motion through a medium which offered no impediment could continue ad infinitum, there being no reason that something would come to rest anywhere in particular. Although Lucretius argued for the existence of vacuum in the first century BC and Hero of Alexandria tried unsuccessfully to create an artificial vacuum in the first century AD, it was European scholars such as Roger Bacon, Blasius of Parma and Walter Burley in the 13th and 14th century who focused considerable attention on these issues. Eventually following Stoic physics in this instance, scholars from the 14th century onward increasingly departed from the Aristotelian perspective in favor of a supernatural void beyond the confines of the cosmos itself, a conclusion widely acknowledged by the 17th century, which helped to segregate natural and theological concerns.

Question: In what century did believes start to move away from Aristotle's idea regarding a void?
Answer: 14th century

Question: What thought process was used in the beginning belief of the existence of vacuums?
Answer: Stoic physics

Question: What belief regarding a cosmic void was accepted by most in the 17th century?
Answer: a supernatural void beyond the confines of the cosmos itself

Question: Roger Bacon,Walter Burley and Blasius of Parma were from what century?
Answer: 13th and 14th

Question: What book was written by Lucretius?

Question: How many arguments against the void did Lucretius give in his Physics, book IV?

Question: In what year did Aristotle first study physics?

Question: What did Lucretuis try to unsuccessfully create in the 14th century?

Question: What belief about a void was accepted by most in the first cenury AD?
Vacuum

Rapid decompression can be much more dangerous than vacuum exposure itself. Even if the victim does not hold his or her breath, venting through the windpipe may be too slow to prevent the fatal rupture of the delicate alveoli of the lungs. Eardrums and sinuses may be ruptured by rapid decompression, soft tissues may bruise and seep blood, and the stress of shock will accelerate oxygen consumption leading to hypoxia. Injuries caused by rapid decompression are called barotrauma. A pressure drop of 13 kPa (100 Torr), which produces no symptoms if it is gradual, may be fatal if it occurs suddenly.

Question: What does Rapid decompression do to the lungs?
Answer: rupture of the delicate alveoli

Question: What causes barotrauma?
Answer: rapid decompression

Question: What amount of pressure drop can kill you if it occurs suddenly?
Answer: 13 kPa (100 Torr),

Question: What does acceleration of oxygen consumption do?
Answer: hypoxia

Question: rapid decompression is more dangerous than what?
Answer: vacuum exposure

Question: What can tissues seeping blood be more dangerous than?

Question: What does increasing oxygen consumption do to the lungs?

Question: Venting through the windpipe may end up rupturing eardrums and what?

Question: What will seep out of the windpipe if you hold your breath?

Question: What is venting through the windpipe also called?
Vacuum

Almost two thousand years after Plato, René Descartes also proposed a geometrically based alternative theory of atomism, without the problematic nothing–everything dichotomy of void and atom. Although Descartes agreed with the contemporary position, that a vacuum does not occur in nature, the success of his namesake coordinate system and more implicitly, the spatial–corporeal component of his metaphysics would come to define the philosophically modern notion of empty space as a quantified extension of volume. By the ancient definition however, directional information and magnitude were conceptually distinct. With the acquiescence of Cartesian mechanical philosophy to the "brute fact" of action at a distance, and at length, its successful reification by force fields and ever more sophisticated geometric structure, the anachronism of empty space widened until "a seething ferment" of quantum activity in the 20th century filled the vacuum with a virtual pleroma.

Question: What did Descartes believe about vacuums in nature?
Answer: that a vacuum does not occur in nature

Question: Whose work with metaphysics would come to define the notion of empty space?
Answer: Descartes

Question: What philosophy combined with Descartes to push quantum activity in the 20th century?
Answer: Cartesian mechanical philosophy

Question: What dichotomy did Descartes center his theory around?

Question: What position did Plato agree with?

Question: Where did Plato believe a vaccuum did not occur?

Question: What philosophy was behind Plato's understanding of a vacuum?

Question: What did Plato's discoveries about atomism come to define about empty space?
Vacuum

In 1930, Paul Dirac proposed a model of the vacuum as an infinite sea of particles possessing negative energy, called the Dirac sea. This theory helped refine the predictions of his earlier formulated Dirac equation, and successfully predicted the existence of the positron, confirmed two years later. Werner Heisenberg's uncertainty principle formulated in 1927, predict a fundamental limit within which instantaneous position and momentum, or energy and time can be measured. This has far reaching consequences on the "emptiness" of space between particles. In the late 20th century, so-called virtual particles that arise spontaneously from empty space were confirmed.

Question: An infinite sea of particles with negative energy  was a model propesed by whom?
Answer: Paul Dirac

Question: What year was the Dirac sea modeled?
Answer: 1930

Question: When werer virtual particles confirmed?
Answer: late 20th century

Question: What year was the uncertainty principle formed?
Answer: 1927,

Question: What theorized that time and energy can be measured?
Answer: Werner Heisenberg's uncertainty principle

Question: What kind of energy did Werner Heisenberg believe a vacuum held?

Question: What did Heisenberg call the particles with negative energy inside a vacuum?

Question: What did Heisenberg predict the existence of in 1930?

Question: How long did it take for the uncertainty principle by Dirac to be confirmed?

Question: What in the late 20th century did Dirac theorize can be measured?
Vacuum

In general relativity, a vanishing stress-energy tensor implies, through Einstein field equations, the vanishing of all the components of the Ricci tensor. Vacuum does not mean that the curvature of space-time is necessarily flat: the gravitational field can still produce curvature in a vacuum in the form of tidal forces and gravitational waves (technically, these phenomena are the components of the Weyl tensor). The black hole (with zero electric charge) is an elegant example of a region completely "filled" with vacuum, but still showing a strong curvature.

Question: what is a perfect example of a filled vacuum showing a curvature?
Answer: The black hole

Question: Who's equations  helped to imply vanishing of the Ricci tensor?
Answer: Einstein

Question: what produces curvature in a vacuum?
Answer: tidal forces and gravitational waves

Question: What has no electric charge?
Answer: black hole

Question: What kind of electric charge does a vanishing stress-energy tensor have?

Question: What is a black hole a part of?

Question: What field around the Earth was discovered by Einstein?

Question: Tidal forces and gravitational waves can produce zero what?

Question: What is the shape of a gravitational field?
Vacuum

In the medieval Middle Eastern world, the physicist and Islamic scholar, Al-Farabi (Alpharabius, 872–950), conducted a small experiment concerning the existence of vacuum, in which he investigated handheld plungers in water.[unreliable source?] He concluded that air's volume can expand to fill available space, and he suggested that the concept of perfect vacuum was incoherent. However, according to Nader El-Bizri, the physicist Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen, 965–1039) and the Mu'tazili theologians disagreed with Aristotle and Al-Farabi, and they supported the existence of a void. Using geometry, Ibn al-Haytham mathematically demonstrated that place (al-makan) is the imagined three-dimensional void between the inner surfaces of a containing body. According to Ahmad Dallal, Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī also states that "there is no observable evidence that rules out the possibility of vacuum". The suction pump later appeared in Europe from the 15th century.

Question: Al-Farabi concluded a perfect vacuum was incoherent using what?
Answer: handheld plungers in water.

Question: Ibn al-Haytham used geometry to demonstrate  what?
Answer: place (al-makan) is the imagined three-dimensional void between the inner surfaces of a containing body

Question: who stated that there was no evidence to rule out a vacuum?
Answer: Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī

Question: what did Al-Farabi say expanded to fill available space
Answer: air's volume

Question: What type of pump appeared in the 15th century?
Answer: suction pump

Question: What was Aristotle able to demonstrate about place?

Question: In what century did Aristotle develop the suction pump?

Question: What did Aristotle investigate to test the existence of a vacuum?

Question: What did Aristotle suggest about the concept of a perfect vacuum after his experiment?

Question: What did Aristotle state there was no evidence to rule out?
Vacuum

Medieval thought experiments into the idea of a vacuum considered whether a vacuum was present, if only for an instant, between two flat plates when they were rapidly separated. There was much discussion of whether the air moved in quickly enough as the plates were separated, or, as Walter Burley postulated, whether a 'celestial agent' prevented the vacuum arising. The commonly held view that nature abhorred a vacuum was called horror vacui. Speculation that even God could not create a vacuum if he wanted to was shut down[clarification needed] by the 1277 Paris condemnations of Bishop Etienne Tempier, which required there to be no restrictions on the powers of God, which led to the conclusion that God could create a vacuum if he so wished. Jean Buridan reported in the 14th century that teams of ten horses could not pull open bellows when the port was sealed.

Question: Who required no restrictions regarding God's power?
Answer: Bishop Etienne Tempier

Question: When did Buridan state that teams of ten horses could not open a bellow with a sealed port?
Answer: 14th century

Question: the 1277 Paris Condemnations led to what conclusion?
Answer: God could create a vacuum if he so wished.

Question: What was a common belief about vacuums and nature?
Answer: nature abhorred a vacuum

Question: what was the belief that nature abhorred a vaccuum called?
Answer: horror vacui

Question: What did Bishop Etienne Tempier believe prevented a vacuum from forming?

Question: What was the commonly held view in the medieval period that God could not create a vacuum called?

Question: What point of view regarding God became popular in the 14th century?

Question: According to Walter Burley in the 14th century, what could teams of ten horses not pull open?

Question: What did Walter Burley require there be no restrictions on in the 14th century?
Vacuum

In 1654, Otto von Guericke invented the first vacuum pump and conducted his famous Magdeburg hemispheres experiment, showing that teams of horses could not separate two hemispheres from which the air had been partially evacuated. Robert Boyle improved Guericke's design and with the help of Robert Hooke further developed vacuum pump technology. Thereafter, research into the partial vacuum lapsed until 1850 when August Toepler invented the Toepler Pump and Heinrich Geissler invented the mercury displacement pump in 1855, achieving a partial vacuum of about 10 Pa (0.1 Torr). A number of electrical properties become observable at this vacuum level, which renewed interest in further research.

Question: What was the vacuum created by the mercury displacement pump?
Answer: partial vacuum of about 10 Pa (0.1 Torr).

Question: What year was the Toepler Pump invented?
Answer: 1850

Question: What was first invented by Otto von Guericke ?
Answer: vacuum pump

Question: Who conducted the Magdeburg experiment?
Answer: Otto von Guericke

Question: What was made visible at a partial vacuum of 10 Pa?
Answer: A number of electrical properties

Question: What was invented by Robert Boyle in 1654?

Question: What was the famous experiment called that Robert Boyle conducted?

Question: What type of vacuum did Robert Boyle achieve in 1855?

Question: What did Heinrich Geissler help Otto von Guericke further develop?

Question: In what year did Otto von Guericke invent the mercury displacement pump?
Vacuum

While outer space provides the most rarefied example of a naturally occurring partial vacuum, the heavens were originally thought to be seamlessly filled by a rigid indestructible material called aether. Borrowing somewhat from the pneuma of Stoic physics, aether came to be regarded as the rarefied air from which it took its name, (see Aether (mythology)). Early theories of light posited a ubiquitous terrestrial and celestial medium through which light propagated. Additionally, the concept informed Isaac Newton's explanations of both refraction and of radiant heat. 19th century experiments into this luminiferous aether attempted to detect a minute drag on the Earth's orbit. While the Earth does, in fact, move through a relatively dense medium in comparison to that of interstellar space, the drag is so minuscule that it could not be detected. In 1912, astronomer Henry Pickering commented: "While the interstellar absorbing medium may be simply the ether, [it] is characteristic of a gas, and free gaseous molecules are certainly there".

Question: What was originally believed the heavens were filled with?
Answer: aether

Question: Why were experiments done on luminiferous aether in the 19 Century?
Answer: "While the interstellar absorbing medium may be simply the ether, [it] is characteris

Question: Who stated that the character of a gas and free molecule were in ether?
Answer: Henry Pickering

Question: Where are the highest amounts of naturally occurring partial vacuums?
Answer: outer space

Question: What was ether originally thought to be made of?
Answer: rigid indestructible material

Question: What did Issac Newton believe existed in space in 1912?

Question: What were molecules originally thought to be made of?

Question: What is another name for mythology?

Question: Where did the ideas about the properties of molecules come from?

Question: What did experiments with molecules attempt to detect on the Earths orbit?
Vacuum

The quality of a vacuum is indicated by the amount of matter remaining in the system, so that a high quality vacuum is one with very little matter left in it. Vacuum is primarily measured by its absolute pressure, but a complete characterization requires further parameters, such as temperature and chemical composition. One of the most important parameters is the mean free path (MFP) of residual gases, which indicates the average distance that molecules will travel between collisions with each other. As the gas density decreases, the MFP increases, and when the MFP is longer than the chamber, pump, spacecraft, or other objects present, the continuum assumptions of fluid mechanics do not apply. This vacuum state is called high vacuum, and the study of fluid flows in this regime is called particle gas dynamics. The MFP of air at atmospheric pressure is very short, 70 nm, but at 100 mPa (~6997100000000000000♠1×10−3 Torr) the MFP of room temperature air is roughly 100 mm, which is on the order of everyday objects such as vacuum tubes. The Crookes radiometer turns when the MFP is larger than the size of the vanes.

Question: What indicated the quality of a vacuum?
Answer: amount of matter remaining in the system

Question: How is vacuum generally measured?
Answer: its absolute pressure

Question: What does the MFP of residual gases show?
Answer: average distance that molecules will travel between collisions with each other.

Question: What is particle gas dynamics?
Answer: study of fluid flows

Question: What indicates the quality of residual gases?

Question: How much matter is left in residual gases?

Question: How are residual gases measured?

Question: What other factors are necessary to measure residual gases?

Question: What is the study of residual gases in a spacecraft called?
Vacuum

The SI unit of pressure is the pascal (symbol Pa), but vacuum is often measured in torrs, named for Torricelli, an early Italian physicist (1608–1647). A torr is equal to the displacement of a millimeter of mercury (mmHg) in a manometer with 1 torr equaling 133.3223684 pascals above absolute zero pressure. Vacuum is often also measured on the barometric scale or as a percentage of atmospheric pressure in bars or atmospheres. Low vacuum is often measured in millimeters of mercury (mmHg) or pascals (Pa) below standard atmospheric pressure. "Below atmospheric" means that the absolute pressure is equal to the current atmospheric pressure.

Question: Absolute pressure  being equal to current atmospheric pressure means what?
Answer: "Below atmospheric"

Question: What is a torr equal to?
Answer: displacement of a millimeter of mercury

Question: What is another often used options to measure vacuum?
Answer: barometric scale

Question: During what years was mercury commonly in use?

Question: What is the barometric scale equal to?

Question: What element did Torricelli discover in 1608?

Question: How many pascals does the barometric scale equal?

Question: What is another way to measure the state of being below atmospheric?
Vacuum

Hydrostatic gauges (such as the mercury column manometer) consist of a vertical column of liquid in a tube whose ends are exposed to different pressures. The column will rise or fall until its weight is in equilibrium with the pressure differential between the two ends of the tube. The simplest design is a closed-end U-shaped tube, one side of which is connected to the region of interest. Any fluid can be used, but mercury is preferred for its high density and low vapour pressure. Simple hydrostatic gauges can measure pressures ranging from 1 torr (100 Pa) to above atmospheric. An important variation is the McLeod gauge which isolates a known volume of vacuum and compresses it to multiply the height variation of the liquid column. The McLeod gauge can measure vacuums as high as 10−6 torr (0.1 mPa), which is the lowest direct measurement of pressure that is possible with current technology. Other vacuum gauges can measure lower pressures, but only indirectly by measurement of other pressure-controlled properties. These indirect measurements must be calibrated via a direct measurement, most commonly a McLeod gauge.

Question: Why is mercury the better option for liquid used in a Hydrostatic gauge?
Answer: its high density and low vapour pressure

Question: What is a vertical column of liquid in a tube which has different pressures at each end called?
Answer: Hydrostatic gauges

Question: What is a hydrostatic gauge used for?
Answer: measure pressures ranging from 1 torr (100 Pa) to above atmospheric

Question: Why is the McLeod gauge special?
Answer: can measure vacuums as high as 10−6 torr

Question: An indirect measurement of pressure is most often calibrated by what?
Answer: McLeod gauge

Question: What is the level of mercury in the air calibrated by?

Question: What is the density level of mercury in the air?

Question: What is used to measure mercury in the air?

Question: What is the lowest amount of mercury that can be measured in the air?

Question: What measurements are used to measure mercury in the air?
Vacuum

Ion gauges are used in ultrahigh vacuum. They come in two types: hot cathode and cold cathode. In the hot cathode version an electrically heated filament produces an electron beam. The electrons travel through the gauge and ionize gas molecules around them. The resulting ions are collected at a negative electrode. The current depends on the number of ions, which depends on the pressure in the gauge. Hot cathode gauges are accurate from 10−3 torr to 10−10 torr. The principle behind cold cathode version is the same, except that electrons are produced in a discharge created by a high voltage electrical discharge. Cold cathode gauges are accurate from 10−2 torr to 10−9 torr. Ionization gauge calibration is very sensitive to construction geometry, chemical composition of gases being measured, corrosion and surface deposits. Their calibration can be invalidated by activation at atmospheric pressure or low vacuum. The composition of gases at high vacuums will usually be unpredictable, so a mass spectrometer must be used in conjunction with the ionization gauge for accurate measurement.

Question: What are the two types of Ion gauges?
Answer: hot cathode and cold cathode.

Question: What affects the number of ions in a gauge?
Answer: the pressure in the gauge

Question: What gauge is accurate from 10-2 torr to 10-9 torr?
Answer: Cold cathode gauges

Question: What must be used for accurate measurement on the composition of gases at a high vacuums?
Answer: mass spectrometer must be used in conjunction with the ionization gauge

Question: Why does a mass spectrometer need to be used with gauge to be accurate at high vacuum gas measurement?
Answer: composition of gases at high vacuums will usually be unpredictable

Question: What are the two types of mass spectrometers?

Question: In the hot cathode version what does corrosion produce?

Question: What is ionized when electrodes travel through a mass spectrometer?

Question: What is the accuracy of a mass spectrometer?

Question: What is the nature of electrically heated filaments at high vacuums?
Vacuum

Cold or oxygen-rich atmospheres can sustain life at pressures much lower than atmospheric, as long as the density of oxygen is similar to that of standard sea-level atmosphere. The colder air temperatures found at altitudes of up to 3 km generally compensate for the lower pressures there. Above this altitude, oxygen enrichment is necessary to prevent altitude sickness in humans that did not undergo prior acclimatization, and spacesuits are necessary to prevent ebullism above 19 km. Most spacesuits use only 20 kPa (150 Torr) of pure oxygen. This pressure is high enough to prevent ebullism, but decompression sickness and gas embolisms can still occur if decompression rates are not managed.

Question: density of oxygen like that of sea-level atmosphere is needed to do what?
Answer: sustain life at pressures much lower than atmospheric,

Question: What is the lowest altitude where acclimatization or a suit is not needed to prevent sickness in humans?
Answer: of up to 3 km

Question: What do colder air temperatures found at altitudes above 19km compensate for?

Question: What is needed at altitudes of up to 3km to prevent altitiude sickness?

Question: What do cold or oxygen-rich atmospheres usuall cause?

Question: How much pure oxygen is in the atmosphere?

Question: When people are acclimated to the altitude, gas embolisms and what can happen?
Vacuum

Humans and animals exposed to vacuum will lose consciousness after a few seconds and die of hypoxia within minutes, but the symptoms are not nearly as graphic as commonly depicted in media and popular culture. The reduction in pressure lowers the temperature at which blood and other body fluids boil, but the elastic pressure of blood vessels ensures that this boiling point remains above the internal body temperature of 37 °C. Although the blood will not boil, the formation of gas bubbles in bodily fluids at reduced pressures, known as ebullism, is still a concern. The gas may bloat the body to twice its normal size and slow circulation, but tissues are elastic and porous enough to prevent rupture. Swelling and ebullism can be restrained by containment in a flight suit. Shuttle astronauts wore a fitted elastic garment called the Crew Altitude Protection Suit (CAPS) which prevents ebullism at pressures as low as 2 kPa (15 Torr). Rapid boiling will cool the skin and create frost, particularly in the mouth, but this is not a significant hazard.

Question: When will a person or animal lose consciousness  when exposed to a vacuum?
Answer: after a few seconds

Question: A shuttle astronauts prevents ebullism at 2 kPa with what item?
Answer: the Crew Altitude Protection Suit (CAPS)

Question: What is the forming of gas bubbles in body fluids at a lowered pressure called?
Answer: ebullism

Question: What prevents body rupture at low altitude when human body is bloated by gas bubbles?
Answer: tissues are elastic and porous

Question: At what temperature does frost usually occur in space?

Question: When exposed to frost who will die from ebullism within minutes?

Question: What will frost cause in body fluids at reduced pressures?

Question: What can a person wear to prevent frost on the skin?

Question: What does a CAPS suit prevent frost at pressures as low as?
Vacuum

In ultra high vacuum systems, some very "odd" leakage paths and outgassing sources must be considered. The water absorption of aluminium and palladium becomes an unacceptable source of outgassing, and even the adsorptivity of hard metals such as stainless steel or titanium must be considered. Some oils and greases will boil off in extreme vacuums. The permeability of the metallic chamber walls may have to be considered, and the grain direction of the metallic flanges should be parallel to the flange face.

Question: What can boil away in extreme vaccum exposure?
Answer: Some oils and greases

Question: How should the grain direct of metallic flanges run to flange faces?
Answer: parallel

Question: What are 2 metals that can be absorbed in an ultra high vacuum system?
Answer: stainless steel or titanium

Question: What becomes a concern in an ultra high vacuum system regarding aluminum or palladium?
Answer: water absorption

Question: What will boil off when aluminum absorbs water?

Question: How should palladium be placed when it has oil on it?

Question: What are two metals that can be absorbed in an metallic flange?

Question: In what area will water boil off?

Question: What will grease usually run parallel to?
Vacuum

In quantum mechanics and quantum field theory, the vacuum is defined as the state (that is, the solution to the equations of the theory) with the lowest possible energy (the ground state of the Hilbert space). In quantum electrodynamics this vacuum is referred to as 'QED vacuum' to distinguish it from the vacuum of quantum chromodynamics, denoted as QCD vacuum. QED vacuum is a state with no matter particles (hence the name), and also no photons. As described above, this state is impossible to achieve experimentally. (Even if every matter particle could somehow be removed from a volume, it would be impossible to eliminate all the blackbody photons.) Nonetheless, it provides a good model for realizable vacuum, and agrees with a number of experimental observations as described next.

Question: The state with the lowest possible energy in quantum mechanics defines what ?
Answer: vacuum

Question: A vacuum state with no matter particles or photons is called what?
Answer: QED

Question: why is a QED vacuum impossible to achieve ?
Answer: impossible to eliminate all the blackbody photons

Question: What is a QCD?
Answer: vacuum of quantum chromodynamics,

Question: What are blackbody photons in quantum mechanics?

Question: What do blackbody photons with no matter particles or photons form?

Question: Why is a blackbody field impossible to achieve?

Question: What would you need to remove to create a blackbody field?

Question: What is a blackbody photon referred to in quantum mechanics?