Divyanshu67/squad_v2 huggingface dataset:
Crucifixion_of_Jesus

The Gospel of Matthew describes many women at the crucifixion, some of whom are named in the Gospels. Apart from these women, the three Synoptic Gospels speak of the presence of others: "the chief priests, with the scribes and elders"; two robbers crucified, one on Jesus' right and one on his left, whom the Gospel of Luke presents as the penitent thief and the impenitent thief; "the soldiers", "the centurion and those who were with him, keeping watch over Jesus"; passers-by; "bystanders", "the crowds that had assembled for this spectacle"; and "his acquaintances"

Question: Matthew described that who was present at the Crucifixion?
Answer: many women

Question: The three gospels speak of the presence of which priests?
Answer: the chief priests

Question: How many people were crucified with Jesus?
Answer: two robbers crucified, one on Jesus' right and one on his left

Question: Who kept watch over Jesus?
Answer: the soldiers

Question: Name one other group present at the Crucifixion?
Answer: acquaintances

Question: Who were the women keeping watch over according to his acquanitances?

Question: How many acquaintances are named in the Gospels?

Question: What had the scribes and elders been assembled for according to the women?

Question: Where were the elders standing when Jesus was crucified?

Question: What was the attidude of the scribes when watching the crucifixion?
Crucifixion_of_Jesus

Whereas most Christians believe the gibbet on which Jesus was executed was the traditional two-beamed cross, the Jehovah's Witnesses hold the view that a single upright stake was used. The Greek and Latin words used in the earliest Christian writings are ambiguous. The Koine Greek terms used in the New Testament are stauros (σταυρός) and xylon (ξύλον). The latter means wood (a live tree, timber or an object constructed of wood); in earlier forms of Greek, the former term meant an upright stake or pole, but in Koine Greek it was used also to mean a cross. The Latin word crux was also applied to objects other than a cross.

Question: What kind of cross is generally believed that Jesus was crucified on?
Answer: traditional two-beamed cross

Question: What cross do Jehovah Witnesses claim Jesus was crucified on?
Answer: single upright stake

Question: What causes the different accounts of the cross used?
Answer: The Greek and Latin words used in the earliest Christian writings are ambiguous

Question: What latin word was used to describe the cross used?
Answer: crux

Question: Why was there doubt about the Latin word?
Answer: crux was also applied to objects other than a cross

Question: What terms did Jehovah's Witnesses use to describe a cross?

Question: What is the definition of koine?

Question: What objects were the word gibbet also applied to?

Question: What is the nature of the words Jehovah's Witnesses use to describe wood?

Question: What language did Jehovah's Witnesses base their religious writings on?
Crucifixion_of_Jesus

However, early Christian writers who speak of the shape of the particular gibbet on which Jesus died invariably describe it as having a cross-beam. For instance, the Epistle of Barnabas, which was certainly earlier than 135, and may have been of the 1st century AD, the time when the gospel accounts of the death of Jesus were written, likened it to the letter T (the Greek letter tau, which had the numeric value of 300), and to the position assumed by Moses in Exodus 17:11–12. Justin Martyr (100–165) explicitly says the cross of Christ was of two-beam shape: "That lamb which was commanded to be wholly roasted was a symbol of the suffering of the cross which Christ would undergo. For the lamb, which is roasted, is roasted and dressed up in the form of the cross. For one spit is transfixed right through from the lower parts up to the head, and one across the back, to which are attached the legs of the lamb." Irenaeus, who died around the end of the 2nd century, speaks of the cross as having "five extremities, two in length, two in breadth, and one in the middle, on which [last] the person rests who is fixed by the nails."

Question: What Epistle described the cross?
Answer: Epistle of Barnabas

Question: Who says with certainty that the cross was made out of two beams?
Answer: Justin Martyr

Question: Why was that type of cross important?
Answer: a symbol of the suffering

Question: How many ends did the cross supposedly have?
Answer: five extremities

Question: How is one attached to the cross?
Answer: fixed by the nails

Question: In what year was Barnabas born?

Question: What numeric value did the significance of the lamb have?

Question: For how long was the Greek alphabet used?

Question: What did Barnabas use to build a cross with?

Question: How many times had Irenaeus seen a roasted lamb?
Crucifixion_of_Jesus

The assumption of the use of a two-beamed cross does not determine the number of nails used in the crucifixion and some theories suggest three nails while others suggest four nails. However, throughout history larger numbers of nails have been hypothesized, at times as high as 14 nails. These variations are also present in the artistic depictions of the crucifixion. In the Western Church, before the Renaissance usually four nails would be depicted, with the feet side by side. After the Renaissance most depictions use three nails, with one foot placed on the other. Nails are almost always depicted in art, although Romans sometimes just tied the victims to the cross. The tradition also carries to Christian emblems, e.g. the Jesuits use three nails under the IHS monogram and a cross to symbolize the crucifixion.

Question: How many nails were suggested they used for the crucifixion?
Answer: three nails

Question: According to some sources, what is theorized to be the maximum nails used?
Answer: 14 nails

Question: What adds to the confusion of the number of nails used?
Answer: artistic depictions of the crucifixion

Question: What do all artworks have in common regarding the crucifixion?
Answer: Nails are almost always depicted

Question: Jesuits claim how many nails were used?
Answer: three nails

Question: How many paintings have been made about the crucifixion?

Question: Before the Renaissance where did Jesuits usually place their art?

Question: What artistic medium was appreciated by Romans?

Question: There were 14 western churches before what period?

Question: What are Romans usually depicted in?
Crucifixion_of_Jesus

The placing of the nails in the hands, or the wrists is also uncertain. Some theories suggest that the Greek word cheir (χειρ) for hand includes the wrist and that the Romans were generally trained to place nails through Destot's space (between the capitate and lunate bones) without fracturing any bones. Another theory suggests that the Greek word for hand also includes the forearm and that the nails were placed near the radius and ulna of the forearm. Ropes may have also been used to fasten the hands in addition to the use of nails.

Question: Where were the nails placed?
Answer: the hands, or the wrists

Question: Who claims the hands were pierced?
Answer: the Greek

Question: The Romans tried to affix by avoiding what?
Answer: without fracturing any bones

Question: What other location is offered by the Greek?
Answer: forearm

Question: What other way to affix to the cross is there?
Answer: Ropes

Question: Do theories say if Destot's bones were fractured?

Question: What bones are the radius and ulna located between?

Question: What did Destot use instead of nails to avoid fracturing bones?

Question: What was the nationality of Destot?

Question: What other location does Destot believe was used for crucifixion?
Crucifixion_of_Jesus

Another issue has been the use of a hypopodium as a standing platform to support the feet, given that the hands may not have been able to support the weight. In the 17th century Rasmus Bartholin considered a number of analytical scenarios of that topic. In the 20th century, forensic pathologist Frederick Zugibe performed a number of crucifixion experiments by using ropes to hang human subjects at various angles and hand positions. His experiments support an angled suspension, and a two-beamed cross, and perhaps some form of foot support, given that in an Aufbinden form of suspension from a straight stake (as used by the Nazis in the Dachau concentration camp during World War II), death comes rather quickly.

Question: What was said to be used as a platform for crucifixion?
Answer: a hypopodium

Question: Why was a platform used?
Answer: the hands may not have been able to support the weight

Question: Who considered this topic in the 17th century?
Answer: Rasmus Bartholin

Question: Who performed crucifixion experiments in the 20th century to test theories?
Answer: Frederick Zugibe

Question: Who also used suspension as a form of punishment?
Answer: Nazis

Question: In what century did Rasmos Bartholin perform crucifixion experiments?

Question: What was the occupation of Rasmus Bartholin?

Question: What was an aufbinden used for to support the feet in crucifixion?

Question: Who did Bartholin hang in his experiments on crucifixion in the 20th century?

Question: What did Bartholin use to hang human subjects during crucifixion experiments?
Crucifixion_of_Jesus

The only words of Jesus on the cross in the Mark and Matthew accounts, this is a quotation of Psalm 22. Since other verses of the same Psalm are cited in the crucifixion accounts, it is often considered a literary and theological creation. Geza Vermes, however, points out that the verse is cited in Aramaic rather than the Hebrew in which it usually would have been recited, and suggests that by the time of Jesus, this phrase had become a proverbial saying in common usage. Compared to the accounts in the other Gospels, which he describes as 'theologically correct and reassuring', he considers this phrase 'unexpected, disquieting and in consequence more probable'. He describes it as bearing 'all the appearances of a genuine cry'. Raymond Brown likewise comments that he finds 'no persuasive argument against attributing to the Jesus of Mark/Matt the literal sentiment of feeling forsaken expressed in the Psalm quote'.

Question: What Psalm gives the words of Jesus on the cross?
Answer: Psalm 22

Question: What contradiction is found in this Psalm?
Answer: verse is cited in Aramaic rather than the Hebrew

Question: What was the psalm said to be in Jesus' time?
Answer: a proverbial saying in common usage

Question: How do the other gospels describe Jesus' last words?
Answer: theologically correct and reassuring

Question: How does the sentence appear to historians?
Answer: a genuine cry

Question: What kind of writing did Geza Vermes usually produce?

Question: What language did Geza Vermes study while in school?

Question: What language was learned by Geza Vermes when he was a child?

Question: How did Raymond Brown describe the effect Jesus had on society?

Question: Does Geza Vermes believe that there is a valid argument against the existence of Jesus?
Crucifixion_of_Jesus

Some Christian writers considered the possibility that pagan commentators may have mentioned this event, mistaking it for a solar eclipse - although this would have been impossible during the Passover, which takes place at the full moon. Christian traveller and historian Sextus Julius Africanus and Christian theologian Origen refer to Greek historian Phlegon, who lived in the 2nd century AD, as having written "with regard to the eclipse in the time of Tiberius Caesar, in whose reign Jesus appears to have been crucified, and the great earthquakes which then took place"

Question: As what was the event mistaken by some pagans?
Answer: a solar eclipse

Question: Why was a solar eclipse impossible?
Answer: the full moon

Question: Which Greek historian wrote about these natural occurrences?
Answer: Greek historian Phlegon

Question: Who reigned Rome during the Crucifixion of Jesus?
Answer: Tiberius Caesar

Question: What other event supposedly took place that shook people?
Answer: earthquakes

Question: In what year was the first known solar eclipse?

Question: During what event was Phlegon born?

Question: What Jewish feast day was first celebrated in the 2nd century AD?

Question: What did Origen believe he witnessed when he wrote about it in the 2nd century AD?

Question: During who's rule did Origen write about an eclipse?
Crucifixion_of_Jesus

Sextus Julius Africanus further refers to the writings of historian Thallus: "This darkness Thallus, in the third book of his History, calls, as appears to me without reason, an eclipse of the sun. For the Hebrews celebrate the passover on the 14th day according to the moon, and the passion of our Saviour falls on the day before the passover; but an eclipse of the sun takes place only when the moon comes under the sun." Christian apologist Tertullian believed the event was documented in the Roman archives.

Question: Which historian was referenced for the reports?
Answer: Thallus

Question: What event did Thallus describe?
Answer: an eclipse of the sun

Question: What day do Hebrews celebrate Passover?
Answer: the 14th day

Question: When does the passion of Jesus fall?
Answer: the day before the passover

Question: Where were these events documented?
Answer: the Roman archives

Question: For how many years had the Romans kept archives?

Question: Where did Africanus believe that the recording of the date of Passover was documented?

Question: What was the occupation of Africanus?

Question: His book of History was Tertullian's what in a series of books written?

Question: When did the Romans begin their rule of Jerusalem?
Crucifixion_of_Jesus

Colin Humphreys and W. G. Waddington of Oxford University considered the possibility that a lunar, rather than solar, eclipse might have taken place. They concluded that such an eclipse would have been visible, for thirty minutes, from Jerusalem and suggested the gospel reference to a solar eclipse was the result of a scribe wrongly amending a text. Historian David Henige dismisses this explanation as 'indefensible' and astronomer Bradley Schaefer points out that the lunar eclipse would not have been visible during daylight hours.

Question: What is recently considered the type of eclipse that occurred?
Answer: lunar

Question: How long would a lunar eclipse be visible?
Answer: thirty minutes

Question: What person possibly made a mistake while copying text?
Answer: a scribe wrongly amending a text

Question: Which historian says this opinion is indefensible?
Answer: David Henige

Question: What inconsistency would be found in this explanation?
Answer: the lunar eclipse would not have been visible during daylight hours

Question: What university is David Henige employed by?

Question: What event did David Henige believe might have happened instead of a solar eclipse?

Question: For how many minutes did David Henige belive the lunar eclipse would be visible?

Question: What city was Henige originally from?

Question: What does Colin Humphreys dismiss the explanation as?
Crucifixion_of_Jesus

Modern biblical scholarship treats the account in the synoptic gospels as a literary creation by the author of the Mark Gospel, amended in the Luke and Matthew accounts, intended to heighten the importance of what they saw as a theologically significant event, and not intended to be taken literally. This image of darkness over the land would have been understood by ancient readers, a typical element in the description of the death of kings and other major figures by writers such as Philo, Dio Cassius, Virgil, Plutarch and Josephus. Géza Vermes describes the darkness account as typical of "Jewish eschatological imagery of the day of the Lord", and says that those interpreting it as a datable eclipse are "barking up the wrong tree".

Question: Who created the account of Jesus?
Answer: author of the Mark Gospel

Question: Who amended the account at a later date?
Answer: Luke

Question: What prompts darkness over the land in old literary works?
Answer: the death of kings and other major figures

Question: What ethnicity are these literary works mostly?
Answer: Jewish

Question: Who describes the idea of an eclipse as totally wrong?
Answer: Géza Vermes

Question: What does Philo believe those who take the image of darkness literally are doing?

Question: What prompted Philo to become a writer?

Question: What did Philo not intend to happen after someone read his writings?

Question: What nationality was Dio Cassius?

Question: What group of readers would have read works by Geza Vermes?
Crucifixion_of_Jesus

In his book The Crucifixion of Jesus, physician and forensic pathologist Frederick Zugibe studied the likely circumstances of the death of Jesus in great detail. Zugibe carried out a number of experiments over several years to test his theories while he was a medical examiner. These studies included experiments in which volunteers with specific weights were hanging at specific angles and the amount of pull on each hand was measured, in cases where the feet were also secured or not. In these cases the amount of pull and the corresponding pain was found to be significant.

Question: Who wrote The Crucifixion of Jesus?
Answer: Frederick Zugibe

Question: What did Frederick Zugibe study in detail for this book?
Answer: the likely circumstances of the death of Jesus

Question: How did Zugibe try to prove his theories?
Answer: carried out a number of experiments over several years

Question: What kind of experiments did Zugibe run?
Answer: experiments in which volunteers with specific weights were hanging

Question: What specifics were recorded in his experiments?
Answer: amount of pull and the corresponding pain

Question: What book was written by volunteers?

Question: What did volunteers study to write the book about Jesus' crucifixion?

Question: How did volunteers study how Jesus died?

Question: In what way did volunteers hang Zugibe during the experiments?

Question: What did volunteers find increased in Zugibe depending on if his feet were secured?
Crucifixion_of_Jesus

Christians believe that Jesus’ death was instrumental in restoring humankind to relationship with God. Christians believe that through faith in Jesus’ substitutionary death and triumphant resurrection people are reunited with God and receive new joy and power in this life as well as eternal life in heaven after the body’s death. Thus the crucifixion of Jesus along with his resurrection restores access to a vibrant experience of God’s presence, love and grace as well as the confidence of eternal life.

Question: What do Christians believe regarding Jesus' death?
Answer: instrumental in restoring humankind to relationship with God

Question: How are people united with God?
Answer: through faith in Jesus’ substitutionary death

Question: What specific fact do Christians believe about death?
Answer: eternal life in heaven after the body’s death

Question: Jesus's Resurrection fills believer with what?
Answer: confidence of eternal life

Question: What feeling usually fills a believer regarding the resurrection?
Answer: joy

Question: What is one thing people need to have to gain employment?

Question: What kind of music do Christians often have during church service?

Question: Who do Christians believe created the universe?

Question: What is one thing that people are afraid of?

Question: What is one thing you need to have in your house to see at night?
Crucifixion_of_Jesus

In Johannine "agent Christology" the submission of Jesus to crucifixion is a sacrifice made as an agent of God or servant of God, for the sake of eventual victory. This builds on the salvific theme of the Gospel of John which begins in John 1:29 with John the Baptist's proclamation: "The Lamb of God who takes away the sins of the world". Further reinforcement of the concept is provided in Revelation 21:14 where the "lamb slain but standing" is the only one worthy of handling the scroll (i.e. the book) containing the names of those who are to be saved.

Question: What book details the submission of Jesus to being crucified?
Answer: agent Christology

Question: Why did Jesus accept Crucifixion.
Answer: sake of eventual victory

Question: What theme is central is the Gospel of John in resurrection?
Answer: salvific theme

Question: How is Resurrection detailed in the book of Revelations?
Answer: lamb slain but standing

Question: What is another name for Jesus given?
Answer: The Lamb of God

Question: Why did Johannine accept who would be saved?

Question: What book was written by John the Baptist?

Question: What sacrifice did John the Baptist make as an agent of?

Question: What did John the Baptist want to take away?

Question: What did Johannine believe he was not?
Crucifixion_of_Jesus

Paul's Christology has a specific focus on the death and resurrection of Jesus. For Paul, the crucifixion of Jesus is directly related to his resurrection and the term "the cross of Christ" used in Galatians 6:12 may be viewed as his abbreviation of the message of the gospels. For Paul, the crucifixion of Jesus was not an isolated event in history, but a cosmic event with significant eschatological consequences, as in 1 Corinthians 2:8. In the Pauline view, Jesus, obedient to the point of death (Philippians 2:8) died "at the right time" (Romans 4:25) based on the plan of God. For Paul the "power of the cross" is not separable from the Resurrection of Jesus.

Question: Who's Christology focuses on the death and Resurrection?
Answer: Paul's Christology

Question: How is the crucifixion related to the resurrection per Paul?
Answer: directly related

Question: What term does Paul use for the Gospels?
Answer: the cross of Christ

Question: Paul claims the Resurrection was needed for what reason?
Answer: based on the plan of God

Question: How does Paul view the Resurrection of Jesus?
Answer: power of the cross

Question: At what time is it believed Paul wrote 1 Corinthians?

Question: By what plan did Paul write some of the Gospels?

Question: When have cosmic events usually happened?

Question: What is the birth of Jesus thought to be in history?

Question: Why is it believed that Paul was born?
Crucifixion_of_Jesus

John Calvin supported the "agent of God" Christology and argued that in his trial in Pilate's Court Jesus could have successfully argued for his innocence, but instead submitted to crucifixion in obedience to the Father. This Christological theme continued into the 20th century, both in the Eastern and Western Churches. In the Eastern Church Sergei Bulgakov argued that the crucifixion of Jesus was "pre-eternally" determined by the Father before the creation of the world, to redeem humanity from the disgrace caused by the fall of Adam. In the Western Church, Karl Rahner elaborated on the analogy that the blood of the Lamb of God (and the water from the side of Jesus) shed at the crucifixion had a cleansing nature, similar to baptismal water.

Question: What did John Calvin claim Jesus could have done?
Answer: successfully argued for his innocence

Question: Why did Jesus submit to crucifixion?
Answer: obedience to the Father

Question: The Eastern Church believes what regarding the death and ressurection?
Answer: "pre-eternally" determined by the Father

Question: What did Jesus's death accomplish per the Eastern Church?
Answer: redeem humanity from the disgrace caused by the fall of Adam

Question: What is the blood of the lamb?
Answer: had a cleansing nature, similar to baptismal water

Question: What kind of Christology was supported by Karl Rahner?

Question: What did Karl Rahner believe Jesus could have successfully argued for?

Question: According to Rahner how did Jesus submit during his trial?

Question: How did John Calvin believe the crucifixion was determined?

Question: What was the blood of Jesus similar to according to John Calvin?
Crucifixion_of_Jesus

Jesus' death and resurrection underpin a variety of theological interpretations as to how salvation is granted to humanity. These interpretations vary widely in how much emphasis they place on the death of Jesus as compared to his words. According to the substitutionary atonement view, Jesus' death is of central importance, and Jesus willingly sacrificed himself as an act of perfect obedience as a sacrifice of love which pleased God. By contrast the moral influence theory of atonement focuses much more on the moral content of Jesus' teaching, and sees Jesus' death as a martyrdom. Since the Middle Ages there has been conflict between these two views within Western Christianity. Evangelical Protestants typically hold a substitutionary view and in particular hold to the theory of penal substitution. Liberal Protestants typically reject substitutionary atonement and hold to the moral influence theory of atonement. Both views are popular within the Roman Catholic church, with the satisfaction doctrine incorporated into the idea of penance.

Question: What does Jesus' death and Resurrection support?
Answer: how salvation is granted to humanity

Question: How important is Jesus' death to modern theology?
Answer: central importance

Question: Did Jesus sacrifice himself without fighting?
Answer: Jesus willingly sacrificed himself

Question: Why did Jesus sacrifice himself?
Answer: an act of perfect obedience

Question: What church is the sacrifice important to?
Answer: the Roman Catholic church

Question: According to the moral influence theory, Jesus death is how important?

Question: What kind of obedience do those believe in moral influence theory believe Jesus went to his death in?

Question: What do moral influence theorists believe God thought of Jesus's sacrifice?

Question: Since what period in time has the Roman Catholic Church existed?

Question: What kind of substitution do moral influence theorists believe Jesus's death particularly was?
Crucifixion_of_Jesus

The presence of the Virgin Mary under the cross[Jn. 19:26-27] has in itself been the subject of Marian art, and well known Catholic symbolism such as the Miraculous Medal and Pope John Paul II's Coat of Arms bearing a Marian Cross. And a number of Marian devotions also involve the presence of the Virgin Mary in Calvary, e.g., Pope John Paul II stated that "Mary was united to Jesus on the Cross". Well known works of Christian art by masters such as Raphael (e.g., the Mond Crucifixion), and Caravaggio (e.g., his Entombment) depict the Virgin Mary as part of the crucifixion scene.

Question: Who was present under the cross?
Answer: Virgin Mary

Question: What symbol is popular in Marian Art?
Answer: Marian Cross

Question: Which pope claims Mary was present at Jesus' Crucifixion?
Answer: Pope John Paul II

Question: Who painted the Mond Crucifixion.
Answer: Raphael

Question: Who was responsible for the art names "His Entombment"?
Answer: Caravaggio

Question: What kind of medal did Raphael put in one of his paintings?

Question: What pope did Caravaggio crate a portrait of?

Question: What was Pope John Paul II wearing in his portrait?

Question: Who did Caravaggio believe Mary was united to on the cross?

Question: What famous artist worked for Pope John Paul II?
Supreme_court

However, not all highest courts are named as such. Civil law states do not tend to have singular highest courts. Additionally, the highest court in some jurisdictions is not named the "Supreme Court", for example, the High Court of Australia; this is because decisions by the High Court could formerly be appealed to the Privy Council. On the other hand, in some places the court named the "Supreme Court" is not in fact the highest court; examples include the New York Supreme Court, the Supreme Courts of several Canadian provinces/territories and the former Supreme Court of Judicature of England and Wales, which are all superseded by higher Courts of Appeal.

Question: What kinds of governed nations may not have a specific, individual high court?
Answer: Civil law states

Question: What is an example of a highest court not being specifically called a Supreme Court?
Answer: the High Court of Australia

Question: To which body can decisions made by this specific high court be appealed?
Answer: the Privy Council

Question: What Canadian courts also are not specifically the highest courts in that country?
Answer: the Supreme Courts of several Canadian provinces/territories

Question: What is the highest court in all jurisdictions named?

Question: What do civil law states tend to have?

Question: Where can decisions from the Privy Council be appealed to?

Question: What is the Courts of Appeal superseded by in England?
Supreme_court

Some countries have multiple "supreme courts" whose respective jurisdictions have different geographical extents, or which are restricted to particular areas of law. In particular, countries with a federal system of government typically[citation needed] have both a federal supreme court (such as the Supreme Court of the United States), and supreme courts for each member state (such as the Supreme Court of Nevada), with the former having jurisdiction over the latter only to the extent that the federal constitution extends federal law over state law. Jurisdictions with a civil law system often have a hierarchy of administrative courts separate from the ordinary courts, headed by a supreme administrative court as it the case in the Netherlands. A number of jurisdictions also maintain a separate constitutional court (first developed in the Czechoslovak Constitution of 1920), such as Austria, France, Germany, Luxemburg, Portugal, Spain and South Africa.

Question: Countries with more than one supreme court may divide their primacy by what factors?
Answer: different geographical extents, or which are restricted to particular areas of law

Question: What is an example of the highest court in a federal system of government?
Answer: the Supreme Court of the United States

Question: What are some countries that have a separate supreme court to decide constitutional matters?
Answer: Austria, France, Germany, Luxemburg, Portugal, Spain and South Africa

Question: A court system with a hierarchy of different administrative courts occurs in what kind of legal system?
Answer: a civil law system

Question: How are some of the "federal court" jurisdictions divided?

Question: What types of supreme courts to countries with a civil system of government have?

Question: What document was written in 1902?

Question: What do jurisdictions with a federal law system often have?
Supreme_court

In jurisdictions using a common law system, the doctrine of stare decisis applies, whereby the principles applied by the supreme court in its decisions are binding upon all lower courts; this is intended to apply a uniform interpretation and implementation of the law. In civil law jurisdictions the doctrine of stare decisis is not generally considered to apply, so the decisions of the supreme court are not necessarily binding beyond the immediate case before it; however, in practice the decisions of the supreme court usually provide a very strong precedent, or jurisprudence constante, for both itself and all lower courts.

Question: What term describes a system where the supreme court's decisions are binding over the lower courts?
Answer: stare decisis

Question: What jurisdictions does this system not apply to?
Answer: civil law jurisdictions

Question: In a civil law jurisdiction, rulings by a supreme court are only binding for which decisions?
Answer: the immediate case before it

Question: Even in civil law jurisdictions, decisions by supreme courts establish what?
Answer: a very strong precedent

Question: What is the legal term for the precedence established by multiple court rulings?
Answer: jurisprudence constante

Question: What doctrine applies in jurisdictions that have a supreme court system?

Question: What does stare decisis say about decisions made by lower courts in regard the supreme court?

Question: What is the civil court precedent also known as?

Question: What are not necessarily binding in common law jurisdictions?
Supreme_court

In Canada, the Supreme Court of Canada was established in 1875 but only became the highest court in the country in 1949 when the right of appeal to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council was abolished. This court hears appeals of decisions made by courts of appeal from the provinces and territories and appeals of decisions made by the Federal Court of Appeal. The court's decisions are final and binding on the federal courts and the courts from all provinces and territories. The title "Supreme" can be confusing because, for example, The Supreme Court of British Columbia does not have the final say and controversial cases heard there often get appealed in higher courts - it is in fact one of the lower courts in such a process.

Question: When was Canada's Supreme Court first established?
Answer: 1875

Question: Canada's Supreme Court didn't actually become that country's highest court until when?
Answer: 1949

Question: If a provincial case is appealed, how is the Supreme Court's decision applied?
Answer: The court's decisions are final and binding

Question: Before 1949, Supreme Court decisions in Canada could be appealed to what body?
Answer: the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council

Question: What was established in 1785?

Question: What was abolished in 1499?

Question: What does the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council hear?

Question: Why can the title "Supreme Court" be confusing?
Supreme_court

In Hong Kong, the Supreme Court of Hong Kong (now known as the High Court of Hong Kong) was the final court of appeal during its colonial times which ended with transfer of sovereignty in 1997. The final adjudication power, as in any other British Colonies, rested with the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council (JCPC) in London, United Kingdom. Now the power of final adjudication is vested in the Court of Final Appeal created in 1997. Under the Basic Law, its constitution, the territory remains a common law jurisdiction. Consequently, judges from other common law jurisdictions (including England and Wales) can be recruited and continue to serve in the judiciary according to Article 92 of the Basic Law. On the other hand, the power of interpretation of the Basic Law itself is vested in the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress (NPCSC) in Beijing (without retroactive effect), and the courts are authorised to interpret the Basic Law when trying cases, in accordance with Article 158 of the Basic Law. This arrangement became controversial in light of the right of abode issue in 1999, raising concerns for judicial independence.

Question: When did Britain formally surrender sovreignty over Hong Kong?
Answer: 1997

Question: When Hong Kong was a colony of Great Britain, which body was the highest court of appeal?
Answer: the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council (JCPC)

Question: Where is the JCPC located?
Answer: London, United Kingdom

Question: When was the Court of Final Appeal established?
Answer: 1997

Question: The Standing Committee of the National People's Congress is seated in what city?
Answer: Beijing

Question: What event occurred in Hong Kong in 1979?

Question: What is also known as the CJPC?

Question: What was created in 1979?

Question: What does Article 29 of the Basic Law state?

Question: What does Article 185 of the Basic Law state?
Supreme_court

In India, the Supreme Court of India was created on January 28, 1950 after adoption of the Constitution. Article 141 of the Constitution of India states that the law declared by Supreme Court is to be binding on all Courts within the territory of India. It is the highest court in India and has ultimate judicial authority to interpret the Constitution and decide questions of national law (including local bylaws). The Supreme Court is also vested with the power of judicial review to ensure the application of the rule of law.

Question: On what date was India's Supreme Court established?
Answer: January 28, 1950

Question: What article of India's Constitution makes decisions by their Supreme Court binding on lower courts?
Answer: Article 141

Question: India's Supreme Court has ultimate power to determine interpretations of what?
Answer: the Constitution

Question: When the Supreme Court ensures that lower courts have properly applied the law it is called what?
Answer: judicial review

Question: In addition to national laws, India's Supreme Court may also interpret what regulations?
Answer: local bylaws

Question: What was created on January 29, 1850?

Question: What was adopted after the creation of the Supreme Court of India?

Question: What does Article 414 of the Constitution of India say?

Question: Why is the Supreme Court vested with the power of judicial authority?
Supreme_court

The Supreme Court is the highest court in Ireland. It has authority to interpret the constitution, and strike down laws and activities of the state that it finds to be unconstitutional. It is also the highest authority in the interpretation of the law. Constitutionally it must have authority to interpret the constitution but its further appellate jurisdiction from lower courts is defined by law. The Irish Supreme Court consists of its presiding member, the Chief Justice, and seven other judges. Judges of the Supreme Court are appointed by the President in accordance with the binding advice of the Government. The Supreme Court sits in the Four Courts in Dublin.

Question: What is the highest ranking court in Ireland?
Answer: The Supreme Court

Question: Ireland's highest court has the power to determine whether laws are allowed by what document?
Answer: the constitution

Question: Who is the highest judge in Ireland's Supreme Court?
Answer: the Chief Justice

Question: Besides chief justice, how many other judges sit on Ireland's Supreme Court?
Answer: seven other judges

Question: Where is Ireland's Supreme Court seated?
Answer: the Four Courts in Dublin

Question: The lower courts are made of a Chief Justice and how many other judges?

Question: What organization's advice does the Chief Justice take when appointing Supreme Court Judges?

Question: Where does the appellate court sit in Dublin?
Supreme_court

Israel's Supreme Court is at the head of the court system in the State of Israel. It is the highest judicial instance. The Supreme Court sits in Jerusalem. The area of its jurisdiction is the entire State. A ruling of the Supreme Court is binding upon every court, other than the Supreme Court itself. The Israeli supreme court is both an appellate court and the high court of justice. As an appellate court, the Supreme Court considers cases on appeal (both criminal and civil) on judgments and other decisions of the District Courts. It also considers appeals on judicial and quasi-judicial decisions of various kinds, such as matters relating to the legality of Knesset elections and disciplinary rulings of the Bar Association. As the High Court of Justice (Hebrew: Beit Mishpat Gavoha Le'Zedek בית משפט גבוה לצדק; also known by its initials as Bagatz בג"ץ), the Supreme Court rules as a court of first instance, primarily in matters regarding the legality of decisions of State authorities: Government decisions, those of local authorities and other bodies and persons performing public functions under the law, and direct challenges to the constitutionality of laws enacted by the Knesset. The court has broad discretionary authority to rule on matters in which it considers it necessary to grant relief in the interests of justice, and which are not within the jurisdiction of another court or tribunal. The High Court of Justice grants relief through orders such as injunction, mandamus and Habeas Corpus, as well as through declaratory judgments. The Supreme Court can also sit at a further hearing on its own judgment. In a matter on which the Supreme Court has ruled - whether as a court of appeals or as the High Court of Justice - with a panel of three or more justices, it may rule at a further hearing with a panel of a larger number of justices. A further hearing may be held if the Supreme Court makes a ruling inconsistent with a previous ruling or if the Court deems that the importance, difficulty or novelty of a ruling of the Court justifies such hearing. The Supreme Court also holds the unique power of being able to order "trial de novo" (a retrial).

Question: Where is Israel's Supreme Court located?
Answer: Jerusalem

Question: Israel's Supreme Court fulfills what two major functions?
Answer: both an appellate court and the high court of justice

Question: Israel's legislative body is called what?
Answer: the Knesset

Question: Israel's Supreme court has uses what internal method to review its own decisions?
Answer: a panel of three or more justices

Question: A retrial is also called what?
Answer: "trial de novo"

Question: Where does the Israeli appellate court sit?

Question: What types of cases does the appeals court hear?

Question: What does the Supreme Court of Jusice grant?

Question: What is an "order trial de novo" also known as?
Supreme_court

The new Supreme Court of New Zealand was officially established at the beginning of 2004, although it did not come into operation until July. The High Court of New Zealand was until 1980 known as the Supreme Court. The Supreme Court has a purely appellate jurisdiction and hears appeals from the Court of Appeal of New Zealand. In some cases, an appeal may be removed directly to the Supreme Court from the High Court. For certain cases, particularly cases which commenced in the District Court, a lower court (typically the High Court or the Court of Appeal) may be the court of final jurisdiction.

Question: When did New Zealand's Supreme Court come into being?
Answer: 2004

Question: What is the role of New Zealand's highest court?
Answer: purely appellate

Question: What court's decisions may be appealed to New Zealand's supreme court?
Answer: Court of Appeal of New Zealand

Question: New Zealand's second ranking court is known as what?
Answer: the High Court

Question: Local decisions by what judicial body may remain within the jurisdiction of local courts?
Answer: the District Court

Question: What was officially established at the beginning of 1980?

Question: What was the Supreme Court known as until 2004?

Question: Where are appeals always moved to from the High Court?

Question: What are the District Court and Court of Appeal considered to be?
Supreme_court

With respect to Pakistan's territories (i.e. FATA, Azad Kashmir, Northern Areas and Islamabad Capital Territory (ICT)) the Supreme Court's jurisdiction is rather limited and varies from territory to territory; it can hear appeals only of a constitutional nature from FATA and Northern Areas, while ICT generally functions the same as provinces. Azad Kashmir has its own courts system and the constitution of Pakistan does not apply to it as such; appeals from Azad Kashmir relate to its relationship with Pakistan.

Question: What are some of the territories within Pakistan?
Answer: FATA, Azad Kashmir, Northern Areas and Islamabad Capital Territory (ICT)

Question: What type of cases may Pakistan's Supreme Court hear from FATA?
Answer: appeals only of a constitutional nature

Question: What Pakistani territory's own courts retain supremacy?
Answer: Azad Kashmir

Question: What is the relationship between Pakistan's Constitution and Azad Kashmir?
Answer: does not apply to it

Question: What is the Islamabad Territory Capital also known as?

Question: What are FATA, Azad Northern, Kashmir Areas, and ICT?

Question: Which province has its own courts system?
Supreme_court

The Supreme Court of the United Kingdom is the ultimate court for criminal and civil matters in England, Wales and Northern Ireland and for civil matters in Scotland. (The supreme court for criminal matters in Scotland is the High Court of Justiciary.) The Supreme Court was established by the Constitutional Reform Act 2005 with effect from 1 October 2009, replacing and assuming the judicial functions of the House of Lords. Devolution issues under the Scotland Act 1998, Government of Wales Act and Northern Ireland Act were also transferred to the new Supreme Court by the Constitutional Reform Act, from the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council.

Question: The Supreme Court of the United Kingdom holds Supremacy in what jurisdictions?
Answer: England, Wales and Northern Ireland and for civil matters in Scotland

Question: What is the high court in Scotland that has supremacy on criminal matters?
Answer: the High Court of Justiciary

Question: What legislation established the Supremacy of the Supreme Court of the UK?
Answer: Constitutional Reform Act 2005

Question: When did this act go into affect?
Answer: 1 October 2009

Question: What body previously had judicial supremacy in the UK prior to this?
Answer: House of Lords

Question: The Constitutional Reform Act of 2009 established what?

Question: What went into effect in 2005?

Question: What issues were addressed under the Scotland Act of 1989?

Question: What was the first judicial body in the United Kingdom?

Question: Where is the Supreme court the ultimate court for criminal and judicial matters?
Supreme_court

The titles of state supreme court vary, which can cause confusion between jurisdictions because one state may use a name for its highest court that another uses for a lower court. In New York, Maryland, and the District of Columbia the highest court is called the Court of Appeals, a name used by many states for their intermediate appellate courts. Further, trial courts of general jurisdiction in New York are called the Supreme Court, and the intermediate appellate court is called the Supreme Court, Appellate Division. In West Virginia, the highest court of the state is the Supreme Court of Appeals. In Maine and Massachusetts the highest court is styled the "Supreme Judicial Court"; the last is the oldest appellate court of continuous operation in the Western Hemisphere.

Question: What may cause some confusion in the US regarding state supreme courts?
Answer: titles of state supreme court vary

Question: The Court of Appeals is the high court in which US States or territories?
Answer: New York, Maryland, and the District of Columbia

Question: What is West Virginia's highest court called?
Answer: Supreme Court of Appeals

Question: What state's supreme court is the oldest appellate court body in the western hemisphere?
Answer: Massachusetts

Question: Supreme Courts in New York serve what function?
Answer: trial courts of general jurisdiction

Question: What is the highest court in Virginia?

Question: What state has the oldest judicial court of continuous operation in the Western Hemisphere?

Question: In New York, what is the intermediate judicial court called?
Supreme_court

In Austria, the Austrian Constitution of 1920 (based on a draft by Hans Kelsen) introduced judicial review of legislative acts for their constitutionality. This function is performed by the Constitutional Court (Verfassungsgerichtshof), which is also charged with the review of administrative acts on whether they violate constitutionally guaranteed rights. Other than that, administrative acts are reviewed by the Administrative Court (Verwaltungsgerichtshof). The Supreme Court (Oberste Gerichtshof (OGH)), stands at the top of Austria's system of "ordinary courts" (ordentliche Gerichte) as the final instance in issues of private law and criminal law.

Question: What document established judicial oversight of legislation in Austria?
Answer: the Austrian Constitution of 1920

Question: What court is charged with the responsibility of deciding the constitutionality of laws in Austria?
Answer: Constitutional Court

Question: What is the German word for this constitutional high court?
Answer: Verfassungsgerichtshof

Question: What is the Constitutional Court's power over the executive branch of Austrian government?
Answer: the review of administrative acts on whether they violate constitutionally guaranteed rights

Question: The Supreme Court of Austria is known by what German name?
Answer: Oberste Gerichtshof (OGH)

Question: What was drafted in 1902?

Question: Who wrote the Austrian Constitution?

Question: What is the Austrian term for Administrative Court?

Question: What is the Austrian term for Constitutional Court?

Question: What is the Austrian term for "ordinary courts?"