Divyanshu67/squad_v2 huggingface dataset:
Supreme_court

In Brazil, the Supreme Federal Tribunal (Supremo Tribunal Federal) is the highest court. It is both the constitutional court and the court of last resort in Brazilian law. It only reviews cases that may be unconstitutional or final habeas corpus pleads for criminal cases. It also judges, in original jurisdiction, cases involving members of congress, senators, ministers of state, members of the high courts and the President and Vice-President of the Republic. The Superior Court of Justice (Tribunal Superior de Justiça) reviews State and Federal Circuit courts decisions for civil law and criminal law cases, when dealing with federal law or conflicting rulings. The Superior Labour Tribunal (Tribunal Superior do Trabalho) reviews cases involving labour law. The Superior Electoral Tribunal (Tribunal Superior Eleitoral) is the court of last resort of electoral law, and also oversees general elections. The Superior Military Tribunal (Tribunal Superior Militar) is the highest court in matters of federal military law.

Question: What is the highest court in Brazil?
Answer: Supreme Federal Tribunal (Supremo Tribunal Federal)

Question: What are the two areas this court has supremacy over?
Answer: cases that may be unconstitutional or final habeas corpus pleads for criminal cases

Question: Which legislative bodies does this court sit in cases over?
Answer: cases involving members of congress, senators

Question: What other government officials are subject to judgments of Brazil's highest court?
Answer: ministers of state, members of the high courts and the President and Vice-President of the Republic

Question: What is Brazil's high court for labor law?
Answer: The Superior Labour Tribunal (Tribunal Superior do Trabalho)

Question: The Superior Labour Tribunal oversees what type of elections?

Question: What two types of cases does the Superior Military Tribunal only review?

Question: What conflicting outcomes does the Superior Electoral Tribunal deal with?

Question: What is the Brazilian name for the Supreme Court?
Supreme_court

Final interpretation of and amendments to the German Constitution, the Grundgesetz, is the task of the Bundesverfassungsgericht (Federal Constitutional Court), which is the de facto highest German court, as it can declare both federal and state legislation ineffective, and has the power to overrule decisions of all other federal courts, despite not being a regular court of appeals on itself in the German court system. It is also the only court possessing the power and authority to outlaw political parties, if it is deemed that these parties have repeatedly violated articles of the Constitution.

Question: What is Germany's constitution called?
Answer: the Grundgesetz

Question: What German high court has the responsibility for interpreting this document?
Answer: Bundesverfassungsgericht

Question: The english translation of this court and its duties is what?
Answer: Federal Constitutional Court

Question: What unique electoral power does this German high court possess?
Answer: the power and authority to outlaw political parties

Question: Under what circumstances may the court enact this responsibility?
Answer: it is deemed that these parties have repeatedly violated articles of the Constitution

Question: What is the German term for the German Constitutional Court?

Question: What is the German term for Federal Constitution?

Question: What can happen to a political party if it has repeatedly violated the German Court System?

Question: What can the German Court declare in regard to legislation?
Supreme_court

When it comes to civil and criminal cases, the Bundesgerichtshof is at the top of the hierarchy of courts. The other branches of the German judicial system each have their own appellate systems, each topped by a high court; these are the Bundessozialgericht for matters of social security, the Bundesarbeitsgericht for employment and labour, the Bundesfinanzhof for taxation and financial issues, and the Bundesverwaltungsgericht for administrative law. The so-called Gemeinsamer Senat der Obersten Gerichtshöfe (Joint Senate of the Supreme Courts) is not a supreme court in itself, but an ad-hoc body that is convened in only when one supreme court intends to diverge from another supreme court's legal opinion or when a certain case exceeds the authority of one court. As the courts have well-defined areas of responsibility, situations like these are rather rare and so, the Joint Senate gathers very infrequently, and only to consider matters which are mostly definitory.

Question: The German high court has jurisdiction over what two areas of law?
Answer: civil and criminal cases

Question: What court has supremacy for matters of social security?
Answer: Bundessozialgericht

Question: What court sits in supremacy for cases related to employment and labor law in Germany?
Answer: Bundesarbeitsgericht

Question: Germany's Joint Senate of the Supreme Courts is also known by what name?
Answer: Gemeinsamer Senat der Obersten Gerichtshöfe

Question: What else does Bundesgerichtshof deal with besides taxation?

Question: What is the Bundessozialgericht at the top of?

Question: What type of law is Bundesarbeitsgericht for?

Question: What is the German term for the Senate of the Supreme Courts?

Question: How often does the Joint Supreme Court gather?
Supreme_court

In the Netherlands, the Supreme Court of the Netherlands is the highest. Its decisions, known as "arresten", are absolutely final. The court is banned from testing legislation against the constitution, pursuant to the principle of the sovereignty of the States-General; the court can, however, test legislation against some treaties. Also, the ordinary courts in the Netherlands, including the Hoge Raad, do not deal with administrative law, which is dealt with in separate administrative courts, the highest of which is the Council of State (Raad van State)

Question: Decisions of the Dutch Supreme Court are called what?
Answer: arresten

Question: The Supreme Court of the Netherlands cannot interpret what?
Answer: legislation against the constitution

Question: What areas of interpretative oversight does the supreme court have?
Answer: legislation against some treaties

Question: Holland's regular court system does not handle cases related to what area of law?
Answer: administrative law

Question: The high court for administrative law is also known as what?
Answer: Council of State (Raad van State)

Question: What is another term for the Supreme Court of the Netherlands?

Question: What is the court banned from according to the principle of the States-General?

Question: What is the term for the Council of States-General?

Question: What is the name of a court that deals with administrative law?
Supreme_court

While the Philippines is generally considered a civil law nation, its Supreme Court is heavily modelled after the American Supreme Court. This can be attributed to the fact that the Philippines was colonized by both Spain and the United States, and the system of laws of both nations strongly influenced the development of Philippine laws and jurisprudence. Even as the body of Philippine laws remain mostly codified, the Philippine Civil Code expressly recognizes that decisions of the Supreme Court "form part of the law of the land", belonging to the same class as statutes. The 1987 Philippine Constitution also explicitly grants to the Supreme Court the power of judicial review over laws and executive actions. The Supreme Court is composed of 1 Chief Justice and 14 Associate Justices. The court sits either en banc or in divisions, depending on the nature of the case to be decided.

Question: What type of legal system is the Philippines officially?
Answer: a civil law nation

Question: The high court in The Philippines is modeled after what judicial body?
Answer: the American Supreme Court

Question: What document grants the Philippines Supreme Court the right of judicial review?
Answer: 1987 Philippine Constitution

Question: How many justices make up the Philippines Supreme Court?
Answer: 1 Chief Justice and 14 Associate Justices

Question: When all judges of a court hear a case at once it is called?
Answer: en banc

Question: What nation's court is the American Supreme Court heavily modeled after?

Question: In addition to the Philippines, what country was Spain colonized by?

Question: What was written in 1897?

Question: What does the Philippine Statute Code state about the decisions of the Supreme Court?
Supreme_court

Spanish Supreme Court is the highest court for all cases in Spain (both private and public). Only those cases related to human rights can be appealed at the Constitutional Court (which also decides about acts accordance with Spanish Constitution).
In Spain, high courts cannot create binding precedents; however, lower rank courts usually observe Supreme Court interpretations. In most private law cases, two Supreme Court judgements supporting a claim are needed to appeal at the Supreme Court.
Five sections form the Spanish Supreme court:

Question: The Spanish Supreme Court hears all cases related to law in what areas?
Answer: private and public

Question: What types of cases can be appealed to Spain's Constitutional Court?
Answer: those cases related to human rights

Question: What is the other power of this latter court?
Answer: decides about acts accordance with Spanish Constitution

Question: High courts in Spain do not establish what for lower court rulings?
Answer: binding precedents

Question: In practicality, how do lower courts typically view the rulings of higher courts?
Answer: lower rank courts usually observe Supreme Court interpretations

Question: What are five Supreme Court judgement supporting a claim needed for?

Question: What do lower rank courts always observe?

Question: What action does the Supreme Court only allow for cases related to human rights?
Supreme_court

In Sweden, the Supreme Court and the Supreme Administrative Court respectively function as the highest courts of the land. The Supreme Administrative Court considers cases concerning disputes between individuals and administrative organs, as well as disputes among administrative organs, while the Supreme Court considers all other cases. The judges are appointed by the Government. In most cases, the Supreme Courts will only grant leave to appeal a case (prövningstillstånd) if the case involves setting a precedent in the interpretation of the law. Exceptions are issues where the Supreme Court is the court of first instance. Such cases include an application for a retrial of a criminal case in the light of new evidence, and prosecutions made against an incumbent minister of the Government for severe neglect of duty. If a lower court has to try a case which involves a question where there is no settled interpretation of the law, it can also refer the question to the relevant Supreme Court for an answer.

Question: Sweden's two high courts are what?
Answer: the Supreme Court and the Supreme Administrative Court

Question: What is a type of case heard by the Supreme Administrative Court?
Answer: cases concerning disputes between individuals and administrative organs

Question: The Supreme Court hears what?
Answer: all other cases

Question: How are judges placed on Sweden's high courts?
Answer: appointed by the Government

Question: The ability to appeal a case provided by Sweden's court system is called what?
Answer: prövningstillstånd

Question: What is the Swedish term for government?

Question: What other cases does the Supreme Court consider besides disputes between individuals and administrative organs?

Question: What two courts are equally the highest courts of the land?

Question: The Supreme Court appoints what position?
Supreme_court

In Sri Lanka, the Supreme Court of Sri Lanka was created in 1972 after the adoption of a new Constitution. The Supreme Court is the highest and final superior court of record and is empowered to exercise its powers, subject to the provisions of the Constitution. The court rulings take precedence over all lower Courts. The Sri Lanka judicial system is complex blend of both common-law and civil-law. In some cases such as capital punishment, the decision may be passed on to the President of the Republic for clemency petitions. However, when there is 2/3 majority in the parliament in favour of president (as with present), the supreme court and its judges' powers become nullified as they could be fired from their positions according to the Constitution, if the president wants. Therefore, in such situations, Civil law empowerment vanishes.

Question: When was the Supreme Court of Sri Lanka created?
Answer: 1972

Question: The Sri Lankan Supreme Court's decisions override what?
Answer: all lower Courts

Question: Sri Lankan law mixes what two categories of jurisprudence?
Answer: common-law and civil-law

Question: What majority is necessary in the Sri Lankan Parliament to dismiss a president and the Court?
Answer: 2/3

Question: What was created in 1927?

Question: What was adopted before 1972?

Question: What do capital-law and civil-law blend together to make?

Question: The president of the country may play a role in what type of cases?
Supreme_court

In South Africa, a "two apex" system existed from 1994 to 2013. The Supreme Court of Appeal (SCA) was created in 1994 and replaced the Appellate Division of the Supreme Court of South Africa as the highest court of appeal in non-constitutional matters. The SCA is subordinate to the Constitutional Court, which is the highest court in matters involving the interpretation and application of the Constitution. But in August 2013 the Constitution was amended to make the Constitutional Court the country's single apex court, superior to the SCA in all matters, both constitutional and non-constitutional.

Question: South Africa used what type of system to determine it's high courts until 2013?
Answer: "two apex"

Question: When was the Supreme Court of Appeal created?
Answer: 1994

Question: What court in South Africa has authority over the SCA?
Answer: the Constitutional Court

Question: When did the Constitutional Court become the highest court in South Africa in all matters?
Answer: August 2013

Question: What existed from 1993 to 2014?

Question: What was created in 2013 to replace the Appellate Division of the Supreme Court of South Africa?

Question: What was amended in August 1994?

Question: What is the Constitutional Court subordinate to?
Supreme_court

In most nations with constitutions modelled after the Soviet Union, the legislature was given the power of being the court of last resort. In the People's Republic of China, the final power to interpret the law is vested in the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress (NPCSC). This power includes the power to interpret the basic laws of Hong Kong and Macau, the constitutional documents of the two special administrative regions which are common law and Portuguese-based legal system jurisdictions respectively. This power is a legislative power and not a judicial one in that an interpretation by the NPCSC does not affect cases which have already been decided.

Question: What nation's model gives the power of the high court to the legistlature?
Answer: Soviet Union

Question: What is the name of China's high court which sits as a legislative committee?
Answer: Standing Committee of the National People's Congress (NPCSC)

Question: Current decisions by the NPCSC do not affect what?
Answer: cases which have already been decided

Question: Hong Kong's legal system was traditionally based on what?
Answer: common law

Question: Macau's legal system comes from what tradition?
Answer: Portuguese-based legal system

Question: What is the NCPSC also known as?

Question: What country can interpret the laws of Macau and China?

Question: What country is the Chinese legal system based on?
Textual_criticism

Textual criticism is a branch of textual scholarship, philology, and literary criticism that is concerned with the identification of textual variants in either manuscripts or printed books. Ancient scribes made alterations when copying manuscripts by hand. Given a manuscript copy, several or many copies, but not the original document, the textual critic might seek to reconstruct the original text (the archetype or autograph) as closely as possible. The same processes can be used to attempt to reconstruct intermediate versions, or recensions, of a document's transcription history. The ultimate objective of the textual critic's work is the production of a "critical edition" containing a scholarly curated text.

Question: What type of documents does a textual critic usually analyze?
Answer: a manuscript copy, several or many copies, but not the original document

Question: What is the proper name for textual scholarship?
Answer: philology

Question: Why are there differences in ancient copies of the same text?
Answer: Ancient scribes made alterations when copying manuscripts by hand

Question: What do textual critics call a revised edition of a text?
Answer: recensions

Question: What type of edition does a textual critic usually analyze?

Question: What is the goal of the textual author?

Question: What is the proper name for textual profession?

Question: Why are there differences in modern copies of the same text?

Question: What do textual critics call a perfectly translated edition of a text?
Textual_criticism

Many ancient works, such as the Bible and the Greek tragedies,[citation needed] survive in hundreds of copies, and the relationship of each copy to the original may be unclear. Textual scholars have debated for centuries which sources are most closely derived from the original, hence which readings in those sources are correct.[citation needed] Although biblical books that are letters, like Greek plays, presumably had one original, the question of whether some biblical books, like the Gospels, ever had just one original has been discussed. Interest in applying textual criticism to the Qur'an has also developed after the discovery of the Sana'a manuscripts in 1972, which possibly date back to the 7–8th centuries.

Question: Interest in an analysis of what text has arose in the early 1970's?
Answer: Qur'an

Question: Why are scholars concerned with analysis of the Gospels over the letters?
Answer: biblical books that are letters, like Greek plays, presumably had one original

Question: Why is it important for textual critics to analyze the Gospels?
Answer: the question of whether some biblical books, like the Gospels, ever had just one original has been discussed

Question: What manuscripts prompted a textual analysis of the Qur'an
Answer: Sana'a manuscripts

Question: When were the Sana'a manuscripts probably written?
Answer: possibly date back to the 7–8th centuries.

Question: Interest in an analysis of what text has arose in the early 8th century?

Question: Why are scholars concerned with analysis of plays?

Question: Why is it important for textual critics to analyze plays?

Question:  What books prompted a textual analysis of modern work?

Question: Which manuscript was written in 1972?
Textual_criticism

In the English language, the works of Shakespeare have been a particularly fertile ground for textual criticism—both because the texts, as transmitted, contain a considerable amount of variation, and because the effort and expense of producing superior editions of his works have always been widely viewed as worthwhile. The principles of textual criticism, although originally developed and refined for works of antiquity, the Bible, and Shakespeare, have been applied to many works, extending backwards from the present to the earliest known written documents, in Mesopotamia and Egypt—a period of about five millennia. However, the application of textual criticism to non-religious works does not antedate the invention of printing. While Christianity has been relatively receptive to textual criticism, application of it to the Jewish (Masoretic) Torah and the Qur'an is, to the devout, taboo.[citation needed]

Question: What is one reasons Shakespeare is a good place to focus on textual criticism?
Answer: the texts, as transmitted, contain a considerable amount of variation,

Question: Aside from Shakespeare, what is another book that is a major focus of textual criticism?
Answer: Bible

Question: Name two of the oldest civilizations that textual criticism has focused on.
Answer: Mesopotamia and Egypt

Question: Why is there opposition to textual criticism of Jewish and Muslim religious books?
Answer: is, to the devout, taboo.

Question: Over approximately what expanse of time can textual criticism be applied to written works?
Answer: a period of about five millennia

Question: Why do critics hate focusing on Shakespeare?

Question: What book did Shakespeare write?

Question: When were the most recent documents in criticism?

Question: It's too taboo to criticize the Torah, Qur'an, and what other religion?
Textual_criticism

Maas comments further that "A dictation revised by the author must be regarded as equivalent to an autograph manuscript". The lack of autograph manuscripts applies to many cultures other than Greek and Roman. In such a situation, a key objective becomes the identification of the first exemplar before any split in the tradition. That exemplar is known as the archetype. "If we succeed in establishing the text of [the archetype], the constitutio (reconstruction of the original) is considerably advanced.

Question: What is the first goal when attempting to analyze a new text?
Answer: identification of the first exemplar

Question: Why is finding the first exemplar important in textual criticism?
Answer: split in the tradition

Question: The exemplar is otherwise known as what?
Answer: the archetype

Question: The final product of reconstruction is known as what?
Answer: the constitutio

Question: What is the second goal when attempting to analyze a new text?

Question: Why is finding the last exemplar important in textual criticism?

Question:  The first product of reconstruction is known as what?

Question:  The middle product of reconstruction is known as what?

Question:  The final product of reconstruction is known as what?
Textual_criticism

The textual critic's ultimate objective is the production of a "critical edition".[citation needed] This contains the text that the author has determined most closely approximates the original, and is accompanied by an apparatus criticus or critical apparatus. The critical apparatus presents the author's work in three parts: first, a list or description of the evidence that the editor used (names of manuscripts, or abbreviations called sigla); second, the editor's analysis of that evidence (sometimes a simple likelihood rating),[citation needed]; and third, a record of rejected variants of the text (often in order of preference).[citation needed]

Question: What is included in or accompanies in "critical edition"?
Answer: apparatus criticus or critical apparatus

Question: What is the purpose of the critical apparatus?
Answer: presents the author's work in three parts

Question: What is the goal of the textual critic?
Answer: a "critical edition"

Question: A critical edition of a text is accompanied by what?
Answer: apparatus criticus or critical apparatus.

Question: What is included in the first part of the critical apparatus?
Answer: a list or description of the evidence that the editor used (names of manuscripts, or abbreviations called sigla)

Question: What is included in the second part of the critical apparatus?
Answer: the editor's analysis of that evidence (sometimes a simple likelihood rating)

Question: What is included in the final part of the critical apparatus?
Answer: a record of rejected variants of the text (often in order of preference)

Question: What is included in "ultimate edition"?

Question: What is the purpose of the rejected apparatus?

Question: How many parts is in the textual apparatus?

Question: What is the fourth part in the critical apparatus?
Textual_criticism

Before mechanical printing, literature was copied by hand, and many variations were introduced by copyists. The age of printing made the scribal profession effectively redundant. Printed editions, while less susceptible to the proliferation of variations likely to arise during manual transmission, are nonetheless not immune to introducing variations from an author's autograph. Instead of a scribe miscopying his source, a compositor or a printing shop may read or typeset a work in a way that differs from the autograph. Since each scribe or printer commits different errors, reconstruction of the lost original is often aided by a selection of readings taken from many sources. An edited text that draws from multiple sources is said to be eclectic. In contrast to this approach, some textual critics prefer to identify the single best surviving text, and not to combine readings from multiple sources.

Question: Why are there multiple variations of texts before the advent of the printing press?
Answer: literature was copied by hand

Question: Are printed editions immune to variation?
Answer: not immune to introducing variations from an author's autograph

Question: How do differences in works arise when using a printing press?
Answer: a compositor or a printing shop may read or typeset a work in a way that differs from the autograph

Question: An edited text compiled through many sources is known as what?
Answer: eclectic.

Question: How did they copy literature before they did it by hand?

Question: How did they copy literature after mechanical printing?

Question: How do printing presses provide identical copies?

Question: Why do textual critics prefer to use multiple sources?
Textual_criticism

When comparing different documents, or "witnesses", of a single, original text, the observed differences are called variant readings, or simply variants or readings. It is not always apparent which single variant represents the author's original work. The process of textual criticism seeks to explain how each variant may have entered the text, either by accident (duplication or omission) or intention (harmonization or censorship), as scribes or supervisors transmitted the original author's text by copying it. The textual critic's task, therefore, is to sort through the variants, eliminating those most likely to be un-original, hence establishing a "critical text", or critical edition, that is intended to best approximate the original. At the same time, the critical text should document variant readings, so the relation of extant witnesses to the reconstructed original is apparent to a reader of the critical edition. In establishing the critical text, the textual critic considers both "external" evidence (the age, provenance, and affiliation of each witness) and "internal" or "physical" considerations (what the author and scribes, or printers, were likely to have done).

Question: Different documents that represent the same original text are called what?
Answer: witnesses

Question: What are the variations in the text of witnesses known as?
Answer: variant readings, or simply variants or readings.

Question: How or why do variations enter a witness text?
Answer: either by accident (duplication or omission) or intention (harmonization or censorship)

Question: As well as representing the original text, a critical text must also do what?
Answer: document variant readings

Question: Why is it important to document variations in witness texts when compiling a critical text?
Answer: so the relation of extant witnesses to the reconstructed original is apparent to a reader of the critical edition.

Question: Identical documents that represent different text are called what?

Question: What are the similarities in the text of witnesses known as?

Question: When do variations enter a witness text?

Question: What is the fourth way the textual critic considers evidence?

Question: What is the fifth way the textual critic considers evidence?
Textual_criticism

The collation of all known variants of a text is referred to as a variorum, namely a work of textual criticism whereby all variations and emendations are set side by side so that a reader can track how textual decisions have been made in the preparation of a text for publication. The Bible and the works of William Shakespeare have often been the subjects of variorum editions, although the same techniques have been applied with less frequency to many other works, such as Walt Whitman's Leaves of Grass, and the prose writings of Edward Fitzgerald.

Question: What is a variorum?
Answer: The collation of all known variants of a text

Question: What is the purpose of a variorum?
Answer: so that a reader can track how textual decisions have been made in the preparation of a text for publication

Question: Name one author who is less frequently the subject of a variorum.
Answer: Edward Fitzgerald

Question: Name two works that are often the subject of a variorum.
Answer: The Bible and the works of William Shakespeare

Question: What is the name for the collation of all unknown variants of a text?

Question: What is it called when the variations are texts are read separately?

Question: What book wasn't a product of variorum?

Question: What author wasn't part of a variorum?

Question: Leaves of Grass did not undergo what process?
Textual_criticism

Eclectic readings also normally give an impression of the number of witnesses to each available reading. Although a reading supported by the majority of witnesses is frequently preferred, this does not follow automatically. For example, a second edition of a Shakespeare play may include an addition alluding to an event known to have happened between the two editions. Although nearly all subsequent manuscripts may have included the addition, textual critics may reconstruct the original without the addition.

Question: What is often included in an eclectic reading?
Answer: an impression of the number of witnesses

Question: Why would someone prefer a second edition to a first edition?
Answer: a second edition of a Shakespeare play may include an addition alluding to an event known to have happened between the two editions

Question: Do textual critics always include additions found in the majority of subsequent versions of a work?
Answer: textual critics may reconstruct the original without the addition.

Question: What do eclectic readings not do?

Question: Why do people prefer a first edition Shakespeare play?

Question: Which edition did not include an addition alluding to an event?

Question: Textual critics may reconstruct the last edition of a work without what?
Textual_criticism

External evidence is evidence of each physical witness, its date, source, and relationship to other known witnesses. Critics will often prefer the readings supported by the oldest witnesses. Since errors tend to accumulate, older manuscripts should have fewer errors. Readings supported by a majority of witnesses are also usually preferred, since these are less likely to reflect accidents or individual biases. For the same reasons, the most geographically diverse witnesses are preferred. Some manuscripts show evidence that particular care was taken in their composition, for example, by including alternative readings in their margins, demonstrating that more than one prior copy (exemplar) was consulted in producing the current one. Other factors being equal, these are the best witnesses. The role of the textual critic is necessary when these basic criteria are in conflict. For instance, there will typically be fewer early copies, and a larger number of later copies. The textual critic will attempt to balance these criteria, to determine the original text.

Question: What is external evidence?
Answer: evidence of each physical witness, its date, source, and relationship to other known witnesses.

Question: Why are older manuscripts preferred?
Answer: Since errors tend to accumulate, older manuscripts should have fewer errors.

Question: What characteristic of a compilation of witnesses is the most beneficial to a textual critic?
Answer: geographically diverse

Question: What characteristic of a single witness is the most beneficial to a textual critic?
Answer: more than one prior copy (exemplar) was consulted in producing the current one

Question: External evidence is evidence of each physical witness, its date, source, relationship to other known witnesses, and what else?

Question: Why do critics prefer the newest witnesses?

Question: Why do critics prefer minority of witnesses?

Question: Why do critics prefer geographically similar witnesses?

Question: There are more early copies than what type of copies?
Textual_criticism

Two common considerations have the Latin names lectio brevior (shorter reading) and lectio difficilior (more difficult reading). The first is the general observation that scribes tended to add words, for clarification or out of habit, more often than they removed them. The second, lectio difficilior potior (the harder reading is stronger), recognizes the tendency for harmonization—resolving apparent inconsistencies in the text. Applying this principle leads to taking the more difficult (unharmonized) reading as being more likely to be the original. Such cases also include scribes simplifying and smoothing texts they did not fully understand.

Question: Define "lectio brevior"
Answer: shorter reading

Question: Define "lectio difficilior"
Answer: more difficult reading

Question: What is the main principle of lectio brevior?
Answer: scribes tended to add words, for clarification or out of habit

Question: What is the main principle of lectio difficilior?
Answer: the tendency for harmonization—resolving apparent inconsistencies in the text.

Question: Is a lectio brevrio or lectio difficilior approach more akin to the original text?
Answer: Applying this principle leads to taking the more difficult (unharmonized) reading as being more likely to be the original.

Question: What's the term for "longer reading"?

Question: What's the term for "easier reading"?

Question: What is the term for when words are deducted for clarification?

Question: What is the term for when there are consistencies in the text?
Textual_criticism

Brooke Foss Westcott (1825–1901) and Fenton J. A. Hort (1828–1892) published an edition of the New Testament in Greek in 1881. They proposed nine critical rules, including a version of Bengel's rule, "The reading is less likely to be original that shows a disposition to smooth away difficulties." They also argued that "Readings are approved or rejected by reason of the quality, and not the number, of their supporting witnesses", and that "The reading is to be preferred that most fitly explains the existence of the others."

Question: How many rules were proposed in the 1881 publication of the New Testament in Greek?
Answer: They proposed nine critical rules

Question: What is Bengel's rule?
Answer: The reading is less likely to be original that shows a disposition to smooth away difficulties.

Question: Does ease of reading correlate to accuracy in relation to the original text?
Answer: "The reading is to be preferred that most fitly explains the existence of the others."

Question: What is more important for a textual critic: quality or quantity?
Answer: Readings are approved or rejected by reason of the quality, and not the number, of their supporting witnesses

Question: What is the criteria needed to include or dismiss a reading when critiquing texts?
Answer: The reading is to be preferred that most fitly explains the existence of the others.

Question: When did Westcott and Hort meet?

Question: When did Westcott and Hort go into business together?

Question: When did they propose Bengel's rule?

Question: The number of supporting witnesses explains why readings are what?

Question: Which reading is less preferred?
Textual_criticism

Since the canons of criticism are highly susceptible to interpretation, and at times even contradict each other, they may be employed to justify a result that fits the textual critic's aesthetic or theological agenda. Starting in the 19th century, scholars sought more rigorous methods to guide editorial judgment. Best-text editing (a complete rejection of eclecticism) became one extreme. Stemmatics and copy-text editing – while both eclectic, in that they permit the editor to select readings from multiple sources – sought to reduce subjectivity by establishing one or a few witnesses presumably as being favored by "objective" criteria.[citation needed] The citing of sources used, and alternate readings, and the use of original text and images helps readers and other critics determine to an extent the depth of research of the critic, and to independently verify their work.

Question: Is textual criticism immune to bias on the part of the critic?
Answer: justify a result that fits the textual critic's aesthetic or theological agenda

Question: When did scientists begin searching for a more defined guideline for textual criticism?
Answer: 19th century

Question: What inclusion helps readers and critics understand the motivation behind the compiler?
Answer: The citing of sources used, and alternate readings, and the use of original text and images

Question: What is a further benefit of including sources, texts and original images in a critique?
Answer: the depth of research of the critic

Question: What canons are not susceptible to interpretation?

Question: What canons are not contradictory?

Question: When did scholars stop looking for more rigorous methods?

Question: The editor sought to raise subjectivity by what?

Question: Who was only permitted to select one reading?
Textual_criticism

Stemmatics, stemmology or stemmatology is a rigorous approach to textual criticism. Karl Lachmann (1793–1851) greatly contributed to making this method famous, even though he did not invent it. The method takes its name from the word stemma. The Ancient Greek word στέμματα and its loanword in classical Latin stemmata may refer to "family trees". This specific meaning shows the relationships of the surviving witnesses (the first known example of such a stemma, albeit with the name, dates from 1827). The family tree is also referred to as a cladogram. The method works from the principle that "community of error implies community of origin." That is, if two witnesses have a number of errors in common, it may be presumed that they were derived from a common intermediate source, called a hyparchetype. Relations between the lost intermediates are determined by the same process, placing all extant manuscripts in a family tree or stemma codicum descended from a single archetype. The process of constructing the stemma is called recension, or the Latin recensio.

Question: What is stemmatics?
Answer: a rigorous approach to textual criticism

Question: What is a cladogram?
Answer: The family tree is also referred to as a cladogram.

Question: What is implied when two witnesses have a number of errors in common?
Answer: it may be presumed that they were derived from a common intermediate source

Question: What is a hyparchetype?
Answer: a common intermediate source

Question: What is recension?
Answer: The process of constructing the stemma

Question: A loose approach to textual criticism is called what?

Question: When did Karl Lachmann contribute to making stemmatics famous?

Question: How did Lachmann make stemmatics famous?

Question: The final stage of the stemma is called what?

Question: Recension and Latin recensio is latin for what?
Textual_criticism

The process of selectio resembles eclectic textual criticism, but applied to a restricted set of hypothetical hyparchetypes. The steps of examinatio and emendatio resemble copy-text editing. In fact, the other techniques can be seen as special cases of stemmatics in which a rigorous family history of the text cannot be determined but only approximated. If it seems that one manuscript is by far the best text, then copy text editing is appropriate, and if it seems that a group of manuscripts are good, then eclecticism on that group would be proper.

Question: Which steps most closely resembles copy-text editing?
Answer: examinatio and emendatio

Question: What process is best used when only one manuscript is viable?
Answer: copy text editing

Question: What process is best used when there are a number of viable manuscripts available?
Answer: eclecticism

Question: The process of selectio does not resemble what type of criticism?

Question: Eclectic criticism is not similar to what type of process?

Question:  Which steps do not resemble copy-text editing?

Question: What process is not used when there are a number of viable manuscripts available?

Question: When manuscripts are bad, what process gets used?
Textual_criticism

The critic Joseph Bédier (1864–1938) launched a particularly withering attack on stemmatics in 1928. He surveyed editions of medieval French texts that were produced with the stemmatic method, and found that textual critics tended overwhelmingly to produce trees divided into just two branches. He concluded that this outcome was unlikely to have occurred by chance, and that therefore, the method was tending to produce bipartite stemmas regardless of the actual history of the witnesses. He suspected that editors tended to favor trees with two branches, as this would maximize the opportunities for editorial judgment (as there would be no third branch to "break the tie" whenever the witnesses disagreed). He also noted that, for many works, more than one reasonable stemma could be postulated, suggesting that the method was not as rigorous or as scientific as its proponents had claimed.

Question: What was Joseph Bédier's main criticism of the stemmatic method?
Answer: critics tended overwhelmingly to produce trees divided into just two branches.

Question: Why is a methos that only produces two branches seen as inferior?
Answer: the method was tending to produce bipartite stemmas regardless of the actual history of the witnesses.

Question: To what did Joseph Bédier attribute the prevalence of the stemmatic method?
Answer: editors tended to favor trees with two branches

Question: Why would editors only want two alternative branches when analyzing a text?
Answer: this would maximize the opportunities for editorial judgment

Question: What was the final implication of Joseph Bédier's analysis of the stemmatic method?
Answer: the method was not as rigorous or as scientific as its proponents had claimed.

Question: Why did Joseph Bédier prefer stemmatics?

Question:  Why is a method that only produces two branches seen as the best?

Question: Trees with two branches minimized opportunities for that?

Question: When witnesses agree, what did the third branch do?

Question: Which method was more rigorous than originally claimed?
Textual_criticism

The stemmatic method's final step is emendatio, also sometimes referred to as "conjectural emendation." But in fact, the critic employs conjecture at every step of the process. Some of the method's rules that are designed to reduce the exercise of editorial judgment do not necessarily produce the correct result. For example, where there are more than two witnesses at the same level of the tree, normally the critic will select the dominant reading. However, it may be no more than fortuitous that more witnesses have survived that present a particular reading. A plausible reading that occurs less often may, nevertheless, be the correct one.

Question: What is the last step in the stemmatic method?
Answer: emendatio

Question: At what point can a critic using the stemmatic become less concerned with critical analysis?
Answer: the critic employs conjecture at every step of the process

Question: Why may the dominant reading may be the weaker reading?
Answer: , it may be no more than fortuitous that more witnesses have survived that present a particular reading

Question: What is the first step in the stemmatic method?

Question: What judgement produces the correct result?

Question: Which reading does the critic select when there are only two witnesses at the same tree?

Question: A reading that occurs left often is always considered what?
Textual_criticism

The bibliographer Ronald B. McKerrow introduced the term copy-text in his 1904 edition of the works of Thomas Nashe, defining it as "the text used in each particular case as the basis of mine." McKerrow was aware of the limitations of the stemmatic method, and believed it was more prudent to choose one particular text that was thought to be particularly reliable, and then to emend it only where the text was obviously corrupt. The French critic Joseph Bédier likewise became disenchanted with the stemmatic method, and concluded that the editor should choose the best available text, and emend it as little as possible.

Question: When was the term copy-text introduced?
Answer: 1904

Question: What was the initial definition of copy-text?
Answer: the text used in each particular case as the basis of mine

Question: Explain the process used by McKerrow as an alternative to the stemmaic method
Answer: choose one particular text that was thought to be particularly reliable, and then to emend it only where the text was obviously corrupt.

Question: When was Ronald B. McKerrow born?

Question: What year did Thomas Nashe introduce the term copy-text?

Question: Thomas Nash is a bibliographer who published whose works?

Question: Nashe was aware of limitations of which method?

Question: Ronald B. McKerror was a french critic who did like which method?
Textual_criticism

By 1939, in his Prolegomena for the Oxford Shakespeare, McKerrow had changed his mind about this approach, as he feared that a later edition – even if it contained authorial corrections – would "deviate more widely than the earliest print from the author's original manuscript." He therefore concluded that the correct procedure would be "produced by using the earliest "good" print as copy-text and inserting into it, from the first edition which contains them, such corrections as appear to us to be derived from the author." But, fearing the arbitrary exercise of editorial judgment, McKerrow stated that, having concluded that a later edition had substantive revisions attributable to the author, "we must accept all the alterations of that edition, saving any which seem obvious blunders or misprints."

Question: Why did McKerrow alter his previous method of criticism?
Answer: deviate more widely than the earliest print from the author's original manuscript."

Question: How did McKerrow alter his approach to copy-text analysis?
Answer: inserting into it, from the first edition which contains them, such corrections as appear to us to be derived from the author."

Question: What did McKerrow concede about his new copy-text method?
Answer: we must accept all the alterations of that edition, saving any which seem obvious blunders or misprints

Question: What work was the first to see McKerrow use his new method?
Answer: Prolegomena for the Oxford Shakespeare

Question: What book did Shakespeare publish in 1939?

Question: McKerrow stayed firm in which opinion?

Question: How many revisions did early editions have?

Question: McKerrow thinks we should only accept one revision for what reason?
Textual_criticism

Although Greg argued that an editor should be free to use his judgment to choose between competing substantive readings, he suggested that an editor should defer to the copy-text when "the claims of two readings ... appear to be exactly balanced. ... In such a case, while there can be no logical reason for giving preference to the copy-text, in practice, if there is no reason for altering its reading, the obvious thing seems to be to let it stand." The "exactly balanced" variants are said to be indifferent.

Question: Are there times when an editor's judgement should be deferred?
Answer: the claims of two readings ... appear to be exactly balanced

Question: What should one do when two readings are contradictory but balanced?
Answer: if there is no reason for altering its reading, the obvious thing seems to be to let it stand.

Question: What do editors call variants that are exactly balanced?
Answer: indifferent

Question: Who argued that an editor should not be free to use their own judgement?

Question: What do editors call variants that are not balanced?

Question: What is the term for variants that are somewhat balanced?

Question: An editor should not defer to what when variants are balanced?