Divyanshu67/squad_v2 huggingface dataset:
Pain

Cultural barriers can also keep a person from telling someone they are in pain. Religious beliefs may prevent the individual from seeking help. They may feel certain pain treatment is against their religion. They may not report pain because they feel it is a sign that death is near. Many people fear the stigma of addiction and avoid pain treatment so as not to be prescribed potentially addicting drugs. Many Asians do not want to lose respect in society by admitting they are in pain and need help, believing the pain should be borne in silence, while other cultures feel they should report pain right away and get immediate relief. Gender can also be a factor in reporting pain. Sexual differences can be the result of social and cultural expectations, with women expected to be emotional and show pain and men stoic, keeping pain to themselves.

Question: What kind of barriers can prevent a person from telling someone they're in pain?
Answer: Cultural

Question: How can religious beliefs contribute to a person remaining in pain?
Answer: prevent the individual from seeking help

Question: Some people may not report pain because they think it's a sign what is near?
Answer: death

Question: What do many people fear pain treatment will lead to?
Answer: potentially addicting drugs

Question: What is an issue of reporting pain specific to Asians?
Answer: do not want to lose respect in society by admitting they are in pain

Question: What can cultural beliefs keep a person from doing?

Question: What can religious barriers prevent?

Question: What race feels they should report pain right away to not lose respect in society?

Question: What do stoic women do about pain?

Question: What are men expected to show while being emotional?
Pain

The International Association for the Study of Pain advocates that the relief of pain should be recognized as a human right, that chronic pain should be considered a disease in its own right, and that pain medicine should have the full status of a specialty. It is a specialty only in China and Australia at this time. Elsewhere, pain medicine is a subspecialty under disciplines such as anesthesiology, physiatry, neurology, palliative medicine and psychiatry. In 2011, Human Rights Watch alerted that tens of millions of people worldwide are still denied access to inexpensive medications for severe pain.

Question: What does the IASP advocate that the relief of pain should be recognized as?
Answer: a human right

Question: What should chronic pain be considered in its own right?
Answer: a disease

Question: What two countries is treating pain a specialty in?
Answer: China and Australia

Question: What is pain medicine often under disciplines like physiatry, neurology, etc?
Answer: subspecialty

Question: As of 2011, how many people worldwide are still denied access to inexpensive medications for severe pain?
Answer: tens of millions

Question: What does the International Association for Pain Study advocate for?

Question: What does the International Association for Pain Study believe about chronic pain?

Question: What does the International Association for Pain Study believe about pain medicine?

Question: What did Human Rights Watch do in 2101?
Pain

 Sugar taken orally reduces the total crying time but not the duration of the first cry in newborns undergoing a painful procedure (a single lancing of the heel). It does not moderate the effect of pain on heart rate and a recent single study found that sugar did not significantly affect pain-related electrical activity in the brains of newborns one second after the heel lance procedure. Sweet oral liquid moderately reduces the incidence and duration of crying caused by immunization injection in children between one and twelve months of age.

Question: What, when taken orally, can reduce total crying time of newsborns undergoing a painful procedure?
Answer: Sugar

Question: What doesn't sugar change the effect of pain on?
Answer: heart rate

Question: Sugar also doesn't measurably change what type of electrical activity in the brains of newborns a second after the heel lance procedure?
Answer: pain-related

Question: A sweet oral liquid does moderately reduce the incidence and duration of what?
Answer: crying

Question: What reduces the duration of the first cry in newborns undergoing painful procedures?

Question: What reduces the duration of crying in children between one and twelve years of age?

Question: What does sugar moderate the effect of pain on?
Pain

A number of meta-analyses have found clinical hypnosis to be effective in controlling pain associated with diagnostic and surgical procedures in both adults and children, as well as pain associated with cancer and childbirth. A 2007 review of 13 studies found evidence for the efficacy of hypnosis in the reduction of chronic pain in some conditions, though the number of patients enrolled in the studies was low, bringing up issues of power to detect group differences, and most lacked credible controls for placebo and/or expectation. The authors concluded that "although the findings provide support for the general applicability of hypnosis in the treatment of chronic pain, considerably more research will be needed to fully determine the effects of hypnosis for different chronic-pain conditions."

Question: Clinical hypnosis may be effective in doing what with pain associated with surgical procedures in adults and children?
Answer: controlling

Question: How many studies in 2007 found evidence for the efficacy of hypnosis in the reduction of chronic pain?
Answer: 13

Question: What did the studies regarding the effectiveness of hypnosis lack?
Answer: credible controls for placebo and/or expectation

Question: What is considerable more research needed to determine for different chronic pain conditions?
Answer: effects of hypnosis

Question: What did a 2013 review of 7 studies find?

Question: What did meta-analyses find to be effective in controlling surgical procedures?

Question: What was found about the number of participants in 7 studies?
Pain

Pain is the most common reason for people to use complementary and alternative medicine. An analysis of the 13 highest quality studies of pain treatment with acupuncture, published in January 2009, concluded there is little difference in the effect of real, sham and no acupuncture. However other reviews have found benefit. Additionally, there is tentative evidence for a few herbal medicine. There is interest in the relationship between vitamin D and pain, but the evidence so far from controlled trials for such a relationship, other than in osteomalacia, is unconvincing.

Question: What is the most common reason people seek out alternative medicine?
Answer: Pain

Question: What did an analysis of the 13 studies of pain treatment conclude about the effect of real treament versus sham treatments?
Answer: little difference in the effect

Question: Some contradictory reviews of 13 high quality studies found actual what?
Answer: benefit

Question: What medicine is there tentative evidence for the efficacy of?
Answer: herbal

Question: Other than in osteomalacia, what is there no evidence of a relationship between pain and?
Answer: vitamin D

Question: What did a January 2013 study find?

Question: What was the treatment method of the 9 studies published in 2013?

Question: What is the other interest in the relationship with vitamins?
Pain

Physical pain is an important political topic in relation to various issues, including pain management policy, drug control, animal rights or animal welfare, torture, and pain compliance. In various contexts, the deliberate infliction of pain in the form of corporal punishment is used as retribution for an offence, or for the purpose of disciplining or reforming a wrongdoer, or to deter attitudes or behaviour deemed unacceptable. In some cultures, extreme practices such as mortification of the flesh or painful rites of passage are highly regarded.

Question: What type of topic is physical pain important in relation to many issues?
Answer: political

Question: Corporal punishment is a form of what type of pain?
Answer: deliberate infliction

Question: What is corporal punishment used as retribution for?
Answer: an offence

Question: How does pain inform attitudes deemed unacceptable?
Answer: deter

Question: What kind of practices do some cultures highly regard?
Answer: extreme

Question: What is animal rights in relation to various issues?

Question: What important political issues relate to infliction of pain?

Question: What reasons are given for pain?

Question: What cultural practices are highly regarded as torture?
Pain

The most reliable method for assessing pain in most humans is by asking a question: a person may report pain that cannot be detected by any known physiological measure. However, like infants (Latin infans meaning "unable to speak"), animals cannot answer questions about whether they feel pain; thus the defining criterion for pain in humans cannot be applied to them. Philosophers and scientists have responded to this difficulty in a variety of ways. René Descartes for example argued that animals lack consciousness and therefore do not experience pain and suffering in the way that humans do. Bernard Rollin of Colorado State University, the principal author of two U.S. federal laws regulating pain relief for animals, writes that researchers remained unsure into the 1980s as to whether animals experience pain, and that veterinarians trained in the U.S. before 1989 were simply taught to ignore animal pain. In his interactions with scientists and other veterinarians, he was regularly asked to "prove" that animals are conscious, and to provide "scientifically acceptable" grounds for claiming that they feel pain. Carbone writes that the view that animals feel pain differently is now a minority view. Academic reviews of the topic are more equivocal, noting that although the argument that animals have at least simple conscious thoughts and feelings has strong support, some critics continue to question how reliably animal mental states can be determined. The ability of invertebrate species of animals, such as insects, to feel pain and suffering is also unclear.

Question: What is the most reliable method of learning about pain in a human?
Answer: asking a question

Question: What can't animals answer?
Answer: whether they feel pain

Question: What did Descartes argue animals lack?
Answer: consciousness

Question: What university is Bernard Rollin associated with?
Answer: Colorado State University

Question: Can invertebrate species of animals like insects feel pain and suffering?
Answer: unclear

Question: What is the word "infants" mean in Latin?

Question: What did Rene Rollin argue about animals and pain?

Question: What was Bernard Descartes' opinion on animals and pain?

Question: What did Rene Carbone write about animals and pain?

Question: How clear is the ability of vertebrae species to feel pain?
Pain

The presence of pain in an animal cannot be known for certain, but it can be inferred through physical and behavioral reactions. Specialists currently believe that all vertebrates can feel pain, and that certain invertebrates, like the octopus, might too. As for other animals, plants, or other entities, their ability to feel physical pain is at present a question beyond scientific reach, since no mechanism is known by which they could have such a feeling. In particular, there are no known nociceptors in groups such as plants, fungi, and most insects, except for instance in fruit flies.

Question: What about pain in an animal isn't able to be known with certainty?
Answer: presence

Question: An animals physical and behavioral reactions may be inferred to indicate the presence of what?
Answer: pain

Question: Who do specialists believe can feel pain?
Answer: vertebrates

Question: No mechanism is known by which what organisms would be able to have a feeling such as pain?
Answer: plants

Question: What do fungi and fruit flies seem to lack?
Answer: nociceptors

Question: What can be known for certain in animals?

Question: What do specialists say all invertebrates can feel?

Question: What does a fruit fly not have?
Database

A database management system (DBMS) is a computer software application that interacts with the user, other applications, and the database itself to capture and analyze data. A general-purpose DBMS is designed to allow the definition, creation, querying, update, and administration of databases. Well-known DBMSs include MySQL, PostgreSQL, Microsoft SQL Server, Oracle, Sybase, SAP HANA, and IBM DB2. A database is not generally portable across different DBMSs, but different DBMS can interoperate by using standards such as SQL and ODBC or JDBC to allow a single application to work with more than one DBMS. Database management systems are often classified according to the database model that they support; the most popular database systems since the 1980s have all supported the relational model as represented by the SQL language.[disputed – discuss] Sometimes a DBMS is loosely referred to as a 'database'.

Question: What does DBMS stand for?
Answer: database management system

Question: What is the purpose of a DBMS?
Answer: to allow the definition, creation, querying, update, and administration of databases

Question: How are DBMSs classified?
Answer: according to the database model that they support

Question: What is the most popular DBMS?
Answer: SQL language

Question: What does DBMS stand against?

Question: What is a DBMS designed to avoid?

Question: What is generally portable across different DBMSs?

Question: What is the least popular DBMS?

Question: When did popular database systems stop releasing updates?
Database

Formally, a "database" refers to a set of related data and the way it is organized. Access to these data is usually provided by a "database management system" (DBMS) consisting of an integrated set of computer software that allows users to interact with one or more databases and provides access to all of the data contained in the database (although restrictions may exist that limit access to particular data). The DBMS provides various functions that allow entry, storage and retrieval of large quantities of information and provides ways to manage how that information is organized.

Question: How is data accessed?
Answer: by a "database management system" (DBMS)

Question: A DBMS consists of what?
Answer: an integrated set of computer software

Question: How much data can a DBMS store?
Answer: large quantities

Question: What does a database refer to informally?

Question: What requires a user to use more than one database?

Question: What allows the entry, storage and retrieval of only small quantities of information?

Question: How much data is typically lost by a DBMS?
Database

Physically, database servers are dedicated computers that hold the actual databases and run only the DBMS and related software. Database servers are usually multiprocessor computers, with generous memory and RAID disk arrays used for stable storage. RAID is used for recovery of data if any of the disks fail. Hardware database accelerators, connected to one or more servers via a high-speed channel, are also used in large volume transaction processing environments. DBMSs are found at the heart of most database applications. DBMSs may be built around a custom multitasking kernel with built-in networking support, but modern DBMSs typically rely on a standard operating system to provide these functions. from databases before the inception of Structured Query Language (SQL). The data recovered was disparate, redundant and disorderly, since there was no proper method to fetch it and arrange it in a concrete structure.[citation needed]

Question: What is used to recover data if disks suffer a failure?
Answer: RAID

Question: How can large quantities of data be accessed?
Answer: Hardware database accelerators

Question: What do most database applications contain?
Answer: DBMSs

Question: What is required for a modern DBMS to function?
Answer: standard operating system

Question: What is used to destroy data if disks suffer a failure?

Question: How can no quantities of data be accessed?

Question: What do most database applications not integrate?

Question: What is required for a broken DBMS to function?

Question: What are non-dedicated computers that hold databases called?
Database

A DBMS has evolved into a complex software system and its development typically requires thousands of human years of development effort.[a] Some general-purpose DBMSs such as Adabas, Oracle and DB2 have been undergoing upgrades since the 1970s. General-purpose DBMSs aim to meet the needs of as many applications as possible, which adds to the complexity. However, the fact that their development cost can be spread over a large number of users means that they are often the most cost-effective approach. However, a general-purpose DBMS is not always the optimal solution: in some cases a general-purpose DBMS may introduce unnecessary overhead. Therefore, there are many examples of systems that use special-purpose databases. A common example is an email system that performs many of the functions of a general-purpose DBMS such as the insertion and deletion of messages composed of various items of data or associating messages with a particular email address; but these functions are limited to what is required to handle email and don't provide the user with all of the functionality that would be available using a general-purpose DBMS.

Question: How long can it take to create a DBMS?
Answer: thousands of human years

Question: Name three DBMSs that have been used since the 1970s.
Answer: Adabas, Oracle and DB2

Question: How is the cost to create a DBMS distributed?
Answer: spread over a large number of users

Question: Name an example of a general-purpose DBMS.
Answer: an email system

Question: How long can it take to search for a DBMS?

Question: What are three DBMSs that have been used during the 1960s?

Question: How is the cost to remove a DBMS distributed?

Question: What is always the optimal solution to manage databases?
Database

Many other databases have application software that accesses the database on behalf of end-users, without exposing the DBMS interface directly. Application programmers may use a wire protocol directly, or more likely through an application programming interface. Database designers and database administrators interact with the DBMS through dedicated interfaces to build and maintain the applications' databases, and thus need some more knowledge and understanding about how DBMSs operate and the DBMSs' external interfaces and tuning parameters.

Question: How are many databases accessed?
Answer: application software

Question: How do administrators work with the DBMS?
Answer: through dedicated interfaces

Question: What is a way for programmers to use the DBMS?
Answer: wire protocol

Question: How are no databases accessed?

Question: How do administrators no longer work with the DBMS?

Question: What is a way for programmers to avoid DBMS?

Question: Who is not typically allowed to interact with a DBMS?

Question: Who needs less knowledge and understanding about how DBMSs operate?
Database

The relational model, first proposed in 1970 by Edgar F. Codd, departed from this tradition by insisting that applications should search for data by content, rather than by following links. The relational model employs sets of ledger-style tables, each used for a different type of entity. Only in the mid-1980s did computing hardware become powerful enough to allow the wide deployment of relational systems (DBMSs plus applications). By the early 1990s, however, relational systems dominated in all large-scale data processing applications, and as of 2015[update] they remain dominant : IBM DB2, Oracle, MySQL and Microsoft SQL Server are the top DBMS. The dominant database language, standardised SQL for the relational model, has influenced database languages for other data models.[citation needed]

Question: Who created the relational model of DBMS?
Answer: Edgar F. Codd

Question: Instead of using links, how was information found in a relational model?
Answer: by content

Question: In what decade did computer hardware become able to handle a relational system?
Answer: 1980s

Question: What type of system in still prominent to this day?
Answer: relational systems

Question: What database language is the most prominent?
Answer: SQL

Question: Who was falsely misrepresented as having created the relational model of DBMS?

Question: How was information lost in a relational model?

Question: What decade did computer hardware lose the ability to handle a relational system?

Question: What type of system in rarely seen to this day?

Question: What database language is now outlawed?
Database

As computers grew in speed and capability, a number of general-purpose database systems emerged; by the mid-1960s a number of such systems had come into commercial use. Interest in a standard began to grow, and Charles Bachman, author of one such product, the Integrated Data Store (IDS), founded the "Database Task Group" within CODASYL, the group responsible for the creation and standardization of COBOL. In 1971 the Database Task Group delivered their standard, which generally became known as the "CODASYL approach", and soon a number of commercial products based on this approach entered the market.

Question: When were DBMSs first used commercially?
Answer: mid-1960s

Question: What group discovered COBOL?
Answer: Database Task Group

Question: Why was COBOL created?
Answer: Interest in a standard

Question: What was the standard protocol called?
Answer: CODASYL approach

Question: When was the standard protocol completed?
Answer: 1971

Question: When were DBMSs last used commercially?

Question: What group destroyed COBOL?

Question: Why was COBOL removed?

Question: When was the standard taken away?

Question: What was the name of the incomplete standard?
Database

IBM also had their own DBMS in 1966, known as Information Management System (IMS). IMS was a development of software written for the Apollo program on the System/360. IMS was generally similar in concept to CODASYL, but used a strict hierarchy for its model of data navigation instead of CODASYL's network model. Both concepts later became known as navigational databases due to the way data was accessed, and Bachman's 1973 Turing Award presentation was The Programmer as Navigator. IMS is classified[by whom?] as a hierarchical database. IDMS and Cincom Systems' TOTAL database are classified as network databases. IMS remains in use as of 2014[update].

Question: What was the DBMS created by IBM called?
Answer: Information Management System (IMS)

Question: What was the purpose of the IBM DBMS?
Answer: the Apollo program

Question: What is the classification of IMS?
Answer: hierarchical database

Question: What was the name of Bachman's Turing Award presentation in 1973?
Answer: The Programmer as Navigator

Question: What was the DBMS designed for IBM by a third-party called?

Question: What was irrelevant to the IBM DBMS?

Question: What is the classification of IMS not considered?

Question: What was the name of Bachman's Turing Award presentation in 1972?

Question: When did IBM lose their own DBMS?
Database

In this paper, he described a new system for storing and working with large databases. Instead of records being stored in some sort of linked list of free-form records as in CODASYL, Codd's idea was to use a "table" of fixed-length records, with each table used for a different type of entity. A linked-list system would be very inefficient when storing "sparse" databases where some of the data for any one record could be left empty. The relational model solved this by splitting the data into a series of normalized tables (or relations), with optional elements being moved out of the main table to where they would take up room only if needed. Data may be freely inserted, deleted and edited in these tables, with the DBMS doing whatever maintenance needed to present a table view to the application/user.

Question: Who proposed using a table to store data?
Answer: Codd

Question: How is data accessed in a table?
Answer: A linked-list system

Question: What model solved the problem of databases where information was missing?
Answer: relational

Question: What system assists a user in seeing a table?
Answer: DBMS

Question: Who proposed using a table to remove data?

Question: How is data lost in a table?

Question: What model couldn't solve the problem of databases where information was missing?

Question: What system can't assist a user in seeing a table?
Database

The relational model also allowed the content of the database to evolve without constant rewriting of links and pointers. The relational part comes from entities referencing other entities in what is known as one-to-many relationship, like a traditional hierarchical model, and many-to-many relationship, like a navigational (network) model. Thus, a relational model can express both hierarchical and navigational models, as well as its native tabular model, allowing for pure or combined modeling in terms of these three models, as the application requires.

Question: How was the relational model able to improve over time?
Answer: without constant rewriting of links and pointers

Question: What is the relationship called in a hierarchical model?
Answer: one-to-many

Question: What is the relationship called in a navigational model?
Answer: many-to-many

Question: What is a third type of model that can be combined with heirarchical and navigation models?
Answer: tabular

Question: How was the relational model able to degrade over time?

Question: What is the only kind of relationship called?

Question: What is the relationship that is avoided in a navigational model?

Question: What is a third type of model that can't be combined with hierarchical and navigation models?
Database

For instance, a common use of a database system is to track information about users, their name, login information, various addresses and phone numbers. In the navigational approach all of this data would be placed in a single record, and unused items would simply not be placed in the database. In the relational approach, the data would be normalized into a user table, an address table and a phone number table (for instance). Records would be created in these optional tables only if the address or phone numbers were actually provided.

Question: How is a database system frequently used?
Answer: to track information about users

Question: How is information stored in a navigational system?
Answer: in a single record

Question: What happens to blank data fields in a navigational system?
Answer: not be placed in the database

Question: How is information stored in a relational system?
Answer: normalized into a user table

Question: How is a database system rarely used?

Question: How is information discarded in a navigational system?

Question: What happens to full data fields in a navigational system?

Question: How is information lost in a relational system?
Database

Linking the information back together is the key to this system. In the relational model, some bit of information was used as a "key", uniquely defining a particular record. When information was being collected about a user, information stored in the optional tables would be found by searching for this key. For instance, if the login name of a user is unique, addresses and phone numbers for that user would be recorded with the login name as its key. This simple "re-linking" of related data back into a single collection is something that traditional computer languages are not designed for.

Question: How is information accessed in a relational model?
Answer: a "key"

Question: What is a key used for?
Answer: uniquely defining a particular record

Question: What technique is used to collect into one place?
Answer: re-linking

Question: How is data in an optional table accessed?
Answer: by searching for this key

Question: How is information hidden in a relational model?

Question: What is a key no longer used for?

Question: What technique is used to collect into nowhere?

Question: How is data in an optional table removed?
Database

Just as the navigational approach would require programs to loop in order to collect records, the relational approach would require loops to collect information about any one record. Codd's solution to the necessary looping was a set-oriented language, a suggestion that would later spawn the ubiquitous SQL. Using a branch of mathematics known as tuple calculus, he demonstrated that such a system could support all the operations of normal databases (inserting, updating etc.) as well as providing a simple system for finding and returning sets of data in a single operation.

Question: How does a program collect information using a navigational system?
Answer: require programs to loop

Question: What is used to solve the problem of looping?
Answer: a set-oriented language

Question: What computer language came about as a result of the looping problem?
Answer: SQL

Question: What type of math was used to create a system to find data sets?
Answer: tuple calculus

Question: Who used tuple calculus to show the functionality of databases?
Answer: Codd

Question: How does a program collect information using a normalized system?

Question: What is used to create the problem of looping?

Question: What computer language lost popularity as a result of the looping problem?

Question: What type of physics was used to create a system to find data sets?

Question: Who used tuple calculus to hide the functionality of databases?
Database

Codd's paper was picked up by two people at Berkeley, Eugene Wong and Michael Stonebraker. They started a project known as INGRES using funding that had already been allocated for a geographical database project and student programmers to produce code. Beginning in 1973, INGRES delivered its first test products which were generally ready for widespread use in 1979. INGRES was similar to System R in a number of ways, including the use of a "language" for data access, known as QUEL. Over time, INGRES moved to the emerging SQL standard.

Question: Who used Codd's paper at Berkeley to improve a geographical database?
Answer: Eugene Wong and Michael Stonebraker

Question: What was the name of the project to create a geographical database?
Answer: INGRES

Question: When was INGRES first tested?
Answer: 1973

Question: What computer language was used in INGRES to access data?
Answer: QUEL

Question: Is QUEL still used to access data in INGRES?
Answer: INGRES moved to the emerging SQL standard

Question: Who used Codd's paper at Yale to improve a geographical database?

Question: What was the name of the project to steal a geographical database?

Question: When was INGRES first avoided?

Question: What computer language was used in INGRES to fabricate data?

Question: What year did INGRES stop widespread use?
Database

Another approach to hardware support for database management was ICL's CAFS accelerator, a hardware disk controller with programmable search capabilities. In the long term, these efforts were generally unsuccessful because specialized database machines could not keep pace with the rapid development and progress of general-purpose computers. Thus most database systems nowadays are software systems running on general-purpose hardware, using general-purpose computer data storage. However this idea is still pursued for certain applications by some companies like Netezza and Oracle (Exadata).

Question: What is a CAFS accelerator?
Answer: a hardware disk controller with programmable search capabilities

Question: Did the CAFS accelerator work as planned?
Answer: efforts were generally unsuccessful

Question: How are today's database systems run?
Answer: general-purpose hardware

Question: Name a company that is still working on the CAFS accellerator?
Answer: Netezza and Oracle (Exadata)

Question: What is a CAFS decelerator?

Question: What is no longer used in modern database systems?

Question: What companies still work on the CAFS decelerator?

Question: What are rarely seen nowadays?

Question: What was a failed approach to hardware support for database management?
Database

IBM started working on a prototype system loosely based on Codd's concepts as System R in the early 1970s. The first version was ready in 1974/5, and work then started on multi-table systems in which the data could be split so that all of the data for a record (some of which is optional) did not have to be stored in a single large "chunk". Subsequent multi-user versions were tested by customers in 1978 and 1979, by which time a standardized query language – SQL[citation needed] – had been added. Codd's ideas were establishing themselves as both workable and superior to CODASYL, pushing IBM to develop a true production version of System R, known as SQL/DS, and, later, Database 2 (DB2).

Question: What is the system IBM created using Codd's research?
Answer: System R

Question: When was IBM's system released?
Answer: 1974/5

Question: What did System R work on to change the way data was stored?
Answer: multi-table systems

Question: When customers first tested IBM's system, what computer language had been added? 
Answer: SQL

Question: What was the name of the database product created by IBM?
Answer: SQL/DS, and, later, Database 2 (DB2)

Question: What is the system IBM lost using Codd's research?

Question: When was IBM's system stolen?

Question: What did System R avoid to change the way data was stored?

Question: When customers first tested IBM's system, what computer language had been removed?

Question: What was the name of the database product created by IBN?
Database

The 1980s ushered in the age of desktop computing. The new computers empowered their users with spreadsheets like Lotus 1-2-3 and database software like dBASE. The dBASE product was lightweight and easy for any computer user to understand out of the box. C. Wayne Ratliff the creator of dBASE stated: "dBASE was different from programs like BASIC, C, FORTRAN, and COBOL in that a lot of the dirty work had already been done. The data manipulation is done by dBASE instead of by the user, so the user can concentrate on what he is doing, rather than having to mess with the dirty details of opening, reading, and closing files, and managing space allocation." dBASE was one of the top selling software titles in the 1980s and early 1990s.

Question: Who created dBASE?
Answer: C. Wayne Ratliff

Question: Why was dBASE successful?
Answer: lightweight and easy for any computer user to understand out of the box

Question: Why was dBASE unique?
Answer: data manipulation is done by dBASE

Question: What is a benefit of using dBASE?
Answer: managing space allocation

Question: Who created BASE?

Question: Why was dBASE unsuccessful?

Question: Why was dBASE considered common?

Question: What is the only benefit of using dBASE?

Question: When was BASE the top selling software title?
Database

The 1990s, along with a rise in object-oriented programming, saw a growth in how data in various databases were handled. Programmers and designers began to treat the data in their databases as objects. That is to say that if a person's data were in a database, that person's attributes, such as their address, phone number, and age, were now considered to belong to that person instead of being extraneous data. This allows for relations between data to be relations to objects and their attributes and not to individual fields. The term "object-relational impedance mismatch" described the inconvenience of translating between programmed objects and database tables. Object databases and object-relational databases attempt to solve this problem by providing an object-oriented language (sometimes as extensions to SQL) that programmers can use as alternative to purely relational SQL. On the programming side, libraries known as object-relational mappings (ORMs) attempt to solve the same problem.

Question: In the 1990s, what type of programming changed the handling of databases?
Answer: object-oriented

Question: What term is used for the difficulty in database table and programmed object translation?
Answer: object-relational impedance mismatch

Question: How is the problem of object-relational impedance mismatch corrected?
Answer: object-oriented language

Question: What is the library programmers use to solve object-relational impedance mismatch?
Answer: object-relational mappings (ORMs)

Question: What type of programming did not influence databases?

Question: What term is no longer used for the difficulty in database table and programmed object translation?

Question: How is the problem of object-relational impedance mismatch started?

Question: What is the hardware programmers use to solve object-relational impedance mismatch?
Database


XML databases are a type of structured document-oriented database that allows querying based on XML document attributes. XML databases are mostly used in enterprise database management, where XML is being used as the machine-to-machine data interoperability standard. XML database management systems include commercial software MarkLogic and Oracle Berkeley DB XML, and a free use software Clusterpoint Distributed XML/JSON Database. All are enterprise software database platforms and support industry standard ACID-compliant transaction processing with strong database consistency characteristics and high level of database security.

Question: What kind of database is XML?
Answer: structured document-oriented database

Question: Where are XML databases frequently used?
Answer: enterprise database management

Question: How is XML used in enterprise database management?
Answer: machine-to-machine data

Question: What type of processing is used in enterprise database software?
Answer: ACID-compliant transaction processing

Question: What kind of database is ZML?

Question: Where are XML databases never used?

Question: How is XML bypassed in enterprise database management?

Question: What type of processing is forbidden in enterprise database software?
Database

In recent years there was a high demand for massively distributed databases with high partition tolerance but according to the CAP theorem it is impossible for a distributed system to simultaneously provide consistency, availability and partition tolerance guarantees. A distributed system can satisfy any two of these guarantees at the same time, but not all three. For that reason many NoSQL databases are using what is called eventual consistency to provide both availability and partition tolerance guarantees with a reduced level of data consistency.

Question: What explains the difficulty in a system containing availability, consistency, and partition tolerance guarantees?
Answer: the CAP theorem

Question: How many guarantees will most databases tolerate?
Answer: two

Question: What is used to offer a balance in guarantees?
Answer: eventual consistency

Question: What can't explain the difficulty in a system containing availability, consistency, and partition tolerance guarantees?

Question: How many guarantees will most databases destroy?

Question: What can satisfy all guarantees at the same time?

Question: What is used to discourage eventual consistency?

Question: What has had low demand in recent years?
Database

The first task of a database designer is to produce a conceptual data model that reflects the structure of the information to be held in the database. A common approach to this is to develop an entity-relationship model, often with the aid of drawing tools. Another popular approach is the Unified Modeling Language. A successful data model will accurately reflect the possible state of the external world being modeled: for example, if people can have more than one phone number, it will allow this information to be captured. Designing a good conceptual data model requires a good understanding of the application domain; it typically involves asking deep questions about the things of interest to an organisation, like "can a customer also be a supplier?", or "if a product is sold with two different forms of packaging, are those the same product or different products?", or "if a plane flies from New York to Dubai via Frankfurt, is that one flight or two (or maybe even three)?". The answers to these questions establish definitions of the terminology used for entities (customers, products, flights, flight segments) and their relationships and attributes.

Question: What should a conceptual data model do?
Answer: reflects the structure of the information to be held

Question: What makes a successful data model?
Answer: accurately reflect the possible state of the external world being modeled

Question: What must one understand in order to create a successful data model?
Answer: the application domain

Question: Asking questions about an organization's needs will help to create what?
Answer: definitions of the terminology used for entities

Question: What does a conceptual data model never do?

Question: What data model is no longer a popular approach?

Question: What must one have no knowledge of in order to create a successful data model?

Question: Who is not allowed to produce a conceptual data model?

Question: What involves asking shallow questions to improve a data model?
Database

Having produced a conceptual data model that users are happy with, the next stage is to translate this into a schema that implements the relevant data structures within the database. This process is often called logical database design, and the output is a logical data model expressed in the form of a schema. Whereas the conceptual data model is (in theory at least) independent of the choice of database technology, the logical data model will be expressed in terms of a particular database model supported by the chosen DBMS. (The terms data model and database model are often used interchangeably, but in this article we use data model for the design of a specific database, and database model for the modelling notation used to express that design.)

Question: In what form is the output of a logical database design?
Answer: schema

Question: Which data model is displayed as a specific model that uses DBMS?
Answer: logical

Question: A conceptual data model in separate from the choice of what?
Answer: database technology

Question: What form is the input of a logical database design?

Question: Which data model is displayed as a nonspecific model that uses DBMS?

Question: What is the conceptual data model dependent on?

Question: What terms are no longer used interchangeably?
Database

While there is typically only one conceptual (or logical) and physical (or internal) view of the data, there can be any number of different external views. This allows users to see database information in a more business-related way rather than from a technical, processing viewpoint. For example, a financial department of a company needs the payment details of all employees as part of the company's expenses, but does not need details about employees that are the interest of the human resources department. Thus different departments need different views of the company's database.

Question: How many conceptual or physical views of data are there?
Answer: one

Question: How many different external views of data are there?
Answer: any number

Question: What is the benefit of external views of data?
Answer: see database information in a more business-related way

Question: How many conceptual or physical views of data do not exist?

Question: How many duplicated external views of data are there?

Question: What is the disadvantage of external views of data?

Question: Who is not allowed to see database information?
Database

The conceptual view provides a level of indirection between internal and external. On one hand it provides a common view of the database, independent of different external view structures, and on the other hand it abstracts away details of how the data are stored or managed (internal level). In principle every level, and even every external view, can be presented by a different data model. In practice usually a given DBMS uses the same data model for both the external and the conceptual levels (e.g., relational model). The internal level, which is hidden inside the DBMS and depends on its implementation, requires a different level of detail and uses its own types of data structure types.

Question: What does the conceptual view offer?
Answer: a level of indirection between internal and external

Question: How does the conceptual view handle how data is managed?
Answer: abstracts away details

Question: What type of view does the conceptual view offer?
Answer: common

Question: What does the conceptual view ignore?

Question: How does the conceptual view handle how data is erased?

Question: What type of view does the conceptual view degrade?

Question: What view can't be presented by a different data model?
Database

Database storage is the container of the physical materialization of a database. It comprises the internal (physical) level in the database architecture. It also contains all the information needed (e.g., metadata, "data about the data", and internal data structures) to reconstruct the conceptual level and external level from the internal level when needed. Putting data into permanent storage is generally the responsibility of the database engine a.k.a. "storage engine". Though typically accessed by a DBMS through the underlying operating system (and often utilizing the operating systems' file systems as intermediates for storage layout), storage properties and configuration setting are extremely important for the efficient operation of the DBMS, and thus are closely maintained by database administrators. A DBMS, while in operation, always has its database residing in several types of storage (e.g., memory and external storage). The database data and the additional needed information, possibly in very large amounts, are coded into bits. Data typically reside in the storage in structures that look completely different from the way the data look in the conceptual and external levels, but in ways that attempt to optimize (the best possible) these levels' reconstruction when needed by users and programs, as well as for computing additional types of needed information from the data (e.g., when querying the database).

Question: What is responsible for putting information into permanent storage?
Answer: database engine

Question: What is database storage?
Answer: physical materialization of a database

Question: What do database administrators closely monitor?
Answer: storage properties and configuration setting

Question: While working, does DBMS store information in one place?
Answer: several types of storage

Question: What are huge quantities of information stored as?
Answer: bits

Question: What is responsible for losing information in permanent storage?

Question: What is no longer considered database storage?

Question: What do database administrators loosely monitor?

Question: How many types of storage are not utilized for DBMS?

Question: What are no quantities of information stored as?
Database

Database access control deals with controlling who (a person or a certain computer program) is allowed to access what information in the database. The information may comprise specific database objects (e.g., record types, specific records, data structures), certain computations over certain objects (e.g., query types, or specific queries), or utilizing specific access paths to the former (e.g., using specific indexes or other data structures to access information). Database access controls are set by special authorized (by the database owner) personnel that uses dedicated protected security DBMS interfaces.

Question: What does database access limit?
Answer: who (a person or a certain computer program) is allowed to access what information

Question: What are examples of database objects?
Answer: record types, specific records, data structures

Question: Who sets database access?
Answer: special authorized (by the database owner) personnel

Question: What does database access have no influence on?

Question: What are examples of the only kind of database errors?

Question: Who has no database access?

Question: Who uses dedicated unprotected security DBMS interfaces?