Divyanshu67/squad_v2 huggingface dataset:
Madrasa

However, in English, the term madrasah usually refers to the specifically Islamic institutions. A typical Islamic school usually offers two courses of study: a ḥifẓ course teaching memorization of the Qur'an (the person who commits the entire Qurʼan to memory is called a ḥāfiẓ); and an ʻālim course leading the candidate to become an accepted scholar in the community. A regular curriculum includes courses in Arabic, tafsir (Qur'anic interpretation), sharīʻah (Islamic law), hadiths (recorded sayings and deeds of Muhammad), mantiq (logic), and Muslim history. In the Ottoman Empire, during the Early Modern Period, the study of hadiths was introduced by Süleyman I. Depending on the educational demands, some madaris also offer additional advanced courses in Arabic literature, English and other foreign languages, as well as science and world history. Ottoman madaris along with religious teachings also taught "styles of writing, grammary, syntax, poetry, composition, natural sciences, political sciences, and etiquette."

Question: What is the English connotative understanding of the word madrash? 
Answer: Islamic institutions

Question: What is taught through a hifz class or set of classes?
Answer: memorization of the Qur'an

Question: What is shariah?
Answer: Islamic law

Question: What is the discipline taught in mantiq courses?
Answer: logic

Question: What set of courses does someone need to take for preparation to be considered as a scholar?
Answer: ʻālim

Question: What is the Spanish connotative understanding of the word madrash?

Question:  What is never taught through a hifz class or set of classes?

Question:  What is the opposite of shariah?

Question:  What is the discipline not taught in mantiq courses?

Question: What set of beliefs does someone need to have to be considered as a scholar?
Madrasa

People of all ages attend, and many often move on to becoming imams.[citation needed] The certificate of an ʻālim, for example, requires approximately twelve years of study.[citation needed] A good number of the ḥuffāẓ (plural of ḥāfiẓ) are the product of the madaris. The madaris also resemble colleges, where people take evening classes and reside in dormitories. An important function of the madaris is to admit orphans and poor children in order to provide them with education and training. Madaris may enroll female students; however, they study separately from the men.[citation needed]

Question: What age groups are usually enrolled in madaris?
Answer: all ages

Question: How long does someone have to be enrolled in alim courses to earn a certificate or graduate?
Answer: approximately twelve years

Question: In what ways are madaris similar to western colleges?
Answer: people take evening classes and reside in dormitories

Question: Why do madaris extend enrollment to children of less fortunate circumstances?
Answer: provide them with education and training

Question: What is the format for co-education for women in madaris?
Answer: they study separately from the men

Question:  What age groups are never enrolled in madaris?

Question:  How long does someone have to be enrolled in alim courses before they can drop out?

Question:  In what ways are madaris similar to eastern colleges?

Question: Why do madaris extend enrollment to rich children?

Question:  What is the format for co-education for adults in madaris?
Madrasa

The term "Islamic education" means education in the light of Islam itself, which is rooted in the teachings of the Quran - holy book of Muslims. Islamic education and Muslim education are not the same. Because Islamic education has epistemological integration which is founded on Tawhid - Oneness or monotheism. For details Read "A Qur’anic Methodology for Integrating Knowledge and Education: Implications for Malaysia’s Islamic Education Strategy" written Tareq M Zayed  and "Knowledge of Shariah and Knowledge to Manage ‘Self’ and ‘System’: Integration of Islamic Epistemology with the Knowledge and Education" authored by Tareq M Zayed

Question: What is the meaning of Islamic education?
Answer: education in the light of Islam itself

Question: What book is the basis for education in Islamic traditions?
Answer: Quran

Question: What types of education greatly differs from Islamic education?
Answer: Muslim education

Question: What is Islamic religion traditionally considered as far as theology is concerned?
Answer: monotheism

Question: What is the meaning of non-Islamic education?

Question:  What book is the basis for religion-free education in Islamic traditions?

Question:  What types of education is exactly the same as Islamic education?

Question: What is Islamic religion in the modern sense considered as far as theology is concerned?
Madrasa

The first institute of madrasa education was at the estate of Hazrat Zaid bin Arkam near a hill called Safa, where Hazrat Muhammad was the teacher and the students were some of his followers.[citation needed] After Hijrah (migration) the madrasa of "Suffa" was established in Madina on the east side of the Al-Masjid an-Nabawi mosque. Hazrat 'Ubada bin Samit was appointed there by Hazrat Muhammad as teacher and among the students.[citation needed] In the curriculum of the madrasa, there were teachings of The Qur'an,The Hadith, fara'iz, tajweed, genealogy, treatises of first aid, etc. There were also trainings of horse-riding, art of war, handwriting and calligraphy, athletics and martial arts. The first part of madrasa based education is estimated from the first day of "nabuwwat" to the first portion of the "Umaiya" caliphate.[citation needed]

Question: Where was the first madrasa located?
Answer: the estate of Hazrat Zaid bin Arkam

Question: Who was the teacher at the first madrasa?
Answer: Hazrat Muhammad

Question: Who was named as a teacher at the second madrasa, housed in a mosque?
Answer: Hazrat 'Ubada bin Samit

Question: What handwriting art form was taught in the early madaris?
Answer: calligraphy

Question: What type of physical fitness activities were taught in the early madaris?
Answer: athletics and martial arts

Question:  Where was the second madrasa located?

Question:  Who was the teacher at the third madrasa?

Question: Who was named as a teacher at the last madrasa?

Question: What martial arts was taught in the early madaris?

Question: What type of ball sports were taught in the early madaris?
Madrasa

During the rule of the Fatimid and Mamluk dynasties and their successor states in the medieval Middle East, many of the ruling elite founded madaris through a religious endowment known as the waqf. Not only was the madrasa a potent symbol of status but it was an effective means of transmitting wealth and status to their descendants. Especially during the Mamlūk period, when only former slaves could assume power, the sons of the ruling Mamlūk elite were unable to inherit. Guaranteed positions within the new madaris thus allowed them to maintain status. Madaris built in this period include the Mosque-Madrasah of Sultan Ḥasan in Cairo.

Question: Which class of people founded the madaris during the medieval period?
Answer: ruling elite

Question: How were the madaris funded during the medieval period?
Answer: through a religious endowment

Question: What class of people inherited status during the Mamluk Period?
Answer: former slaves

Question: What allowed the ruling elite to maintain power during the Mamluk period?
Answer: Guaranteed positions within the new madaris

Question: In what city was the Mosque-Madrasah of Sultan Hasan?
Answer: Cairo

Question: Which class of people founded the madaris during the ancient period?

Question:  How were the madaris funded during the prehistoric period?

Question:  What class of people rejected status during the Mamluk Period?

Question: What allowed the plebeians to maintain power during the Mamluk period?

Question: What city rejected the Mosque-Madrasah of Sultan Hasan?
Madrasa

At the beginning of the Caliphate or Islamic Empire, the reliance on courts initially confined sponsorship and scholarly activities to major centres. Within several centuries, the development of Muslim educational institutions such as the madrasah and masjid eventually introduced such activities to provincial towns and dispersed them across the Islamic legal schools and Sufi orders. In addition to religious subjects, they also taught the "rational sciences," as varied as mathematics, astronomy, astrology, geography, alchemy, philosophy, magic, and occultism, depending on the curriculum of the specific institution in question. The madaris, however, were not centres of advanced scientific study; scientific advances in Islam were usually carried out by scholars working under the patronage of royal courts. During this time,[when?] the Caliphate experienced a growth in literacy, having the highest literacy rate of the Middle Ages, comparable to classical Athens' literacy in antiquity but on a much larger scale. The emergence of the maktab and madrasa institutions played a fundamental role in the relatively high literacy rates of the medieval Islamic world.

Question: Who traditionally paid for scholars to study natural sciences?
Answer: royal courts

Question: What group of people had the highest literacy rates during the Middle Ages?
Answer: Caliphate

Question: What schools had the biggest impact on the rising literacy rates in the Caliphate?
Answer: maktab and madrasa institutions

Question: How long did it take for madaris to spread to smaller cities and towns?
Answer: several centuries

Question: Who disapproved of scholars to study natural sciences?

Question: What group of people had the lowest literacy rates during the Middle Ages?

Question: What schools had the biggest impact on the declining literacy rates in the Caliphate?

Question: When did madaris spread to larger cities?
Madrasa

In the medieval Islamic world, an elementary school was known as a maktab, which dates back to at least the 10th century. Like madaris (which referred to higher education), a maktab was often attached to an endowed mosque. In the 11th century, the famous Persian Islamic philosopher and teacher Ibn Sīnā (known as Avicenna in the West), in one of his books, wrote a chapter about the maktab entitled "The Role of the Teacher in the Training and Upbringing of Children," as a guide to teachers working at maktab schools. He wrote that children can learn better if taught in classes instead of individual tuition from private tutors, and he gave a number of reasons for why this is the case, citing the value of competition and emulation among pupils, as well as the usefulness of group discussions and debates. Ibn Sīnā described the curriculum of a maktab school in some detail, describing the curricula for two stages of education in a maktab school.

Question: When were the first recorded Islamic elementary schools?
Answer: 10th century

Question: What term refers to Islamic elementary schools?
Answer: maktab

Question: Who wrote a training guide for Islamic maktab teachers?
Answer: Ibn Sīnā

Question: What did Ibn Sina prefer over private tutors?
Answer: classes

Question: How many component of education did Ibn Sina describe in their teachings?
Answer: two

Question:  When were the last recorded Islamic elementary schools?

Question:  What term refers to non-Islamic elementary schools?

Question:  Who wrote a training guide for Islamic maktab students?

Question:  What did Ibn Sina prefer over public schools?

Question: What's the third component of education from Ibn Sina?
Madrasa

Ibn Sīnā refers to the secondary education stage of maktab schooling as a period of specialisation when pupils should begin to acquire manual skills, regardless of their social status. He writes that children after the age of 14 should be allowed to choose and specialise in subjects they have an interest in, whether it was reading, manual skills, literature, preaching, medicine, geometry, trade and commerce, craftsmanship, or any other subject or profession they would be interested in pursuing for a future career. He wrote that this was a transitional stage and that there needs to be flexibility regarding the age in which pupils graduate, as the student's emotional development and chosen subjects need to be taken into account.

Question: What type of skills did Ibn Sina state children should learn in secondary education?
Answer: manual skills

Question: According to Ibn Sina, at what age should children choose a direction for their education?
Answer: 14

Question: According to Ibn Sina, what is needed to support transition at the secondary stage of education?
Answer: flexibility

Question: What should secondary training provide a student in the secondary stage of school? 
Answer: future career

Question: What type of skills did Ibn Sina state children should learn in primary education?

Question: According to Ibn Sina, at what age should children drop out of school?

Question: According to Ibn Sina, what is needed to support transition at the primary stage of education?

Question: What should secondary training provide a teacher in the secondary stage of school?

Question: What besides emotional development do parents need to take into account?
Madrasa

During its formative period, the term madrasah referred to a higher education institution, whose curriculum initially included only the "religious sciences", whilst philosophy and the secular sciences were often excluded. The curriculum slowly began to diversify, with many later madaris teaching both the religious and the "secular sciences", such as logic, mathematics and philosophy. Some madaris further extended their curriculum to history, politics, ethics, music, metaphysics, medicine, astronomy and chemistry. The curriculum of a madrasah was usually set by its founder, but most generally taught both the religious sciences and the physical sciences. Madaris were established throughout the Islamic world, examples being the 9th century University of al-Qarawiyyin, the 10th century al-Azhar University (the most famous), the 11th century Niẓāmīyah, as well as 75 madaris in Cairo, 51 in Damascus and up to 44 in Aleppo between 1155 and 1260. Many more were also established in the Andalusian cities of Córdoba, Seville, Toledo, Granada (Madrasah of Granada), Murcia, Almería, Valencia and Cádiz during the Caliphate of Córdoba.

Question: What discipline was studied in traditional madrasah?
Answer: religious sciences

Question: What was traditionally left out of the madrasah curriculum?
Answer: philosophy and the secular sciences

Question: Who decided the content that would be delivered in a particular madrasah?
Answer: its founder

Question: What is the most widely known madrasah?
Answer: al-Azhar University

Question: How many madaris have been founded in Cairo?
Answer: 75

Question: What discipline was rejected in traditional madrasah?

Question:  What was recently rejected in madrasah?

Question: Who decided the content that would be rejected in a particular madrasah?

Question:  What is the least widely known madrasah?

Question:  How many madaris have been founded outside of Cairo?
Madrasa

Madaris were largely centred on the study of fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence). The ijāzat al-tadrīs wa-al-iftāʼ ("licence to teach and issue legal opinions") in the medieval Islamic legal education system had its origins in the 9th century after the formation of the madhāhib (schools of jurisprudence). George Makdisi considers the ijāzah to be the origin of the European doctorate. However, in an earlier article, he considered the ijāzah to be of "fundamental difference" to the medieval doctorate, since the former was awarded by an individual teacher-scholar not obliged to follow any formal criteria, whereas the latter was conferred on the student by the collective authority of the faculty. To obtain an ijāzah, a student "had to study in a guild school of law, usually four years for the basic undergraduate course" and ten or more years for a post-graduate course. The "doctorate was obtained after an oral examination to determine the originality of the candidate's theses", and to test the student's "ability to defend them against all objections, in disputations set up for the purpose." These were scholarly exercises practised throughout the student's "career as a graduate student of law." After students completed their post-graduate education, they were awarded ijazas giving them the status of faqīh 'scholar of jurisprudence', muftī 'scholar competent in issuing fatwās', and mudarris 'teacher'.

Question: What term refers to Islamic law?
Answer: fiqh

Question: When did Islamic law school begin?
Answer: 9th century

Question: How long did a student have to study law, in early Islamic law graduate schools, in order to graduate?
Answer: ten or more years

Question: What traditional schooling has been considered modeled after the traditional Islamic graduate schools?
Answer: European doctorate

Question:  What term refers to non-Islamic law?

Question:  When did Islamic law school end?

Question: How long did a student have to study law in order to drop out?

Question: What modern schooling has been considered modeled after the non-Islamic graduate schools?
Madrasa

The Arabic term ijāzat al-tadrīs was awarded to Islamic scholars who were qualified to teach. According to Makdisi, the Latin title licentia docendi 'licence to teach' in the European university may have been a translation of the Arabic, but the underlying concept was very different. A significant difference between the ijāzat al-tadrīs and the licentia docendi was that the former was awarded by the individual scholar-teacher, while the latter was awarded by the chief official of the university, who represented the collective faculty, rather than the individual scholar-teacher.

Question: What did earning the ijazat al-tadris award students?
Answer: licence to teach

Question: Who awarded a teaching license in Islamic schools?
Answer: individual scholar-teacher

Question: Who awarded a teaching license in European schools?
Answer: chief official of the university

Question: What type of license is closely related to the ijazat al-tadris?
Answer: licentia docendi

Question:  What did earning the ijazat al-tadris discipline students?

Question:  Who awarded a teaching license in non-Islamic schools?

Question:  Who rejected a teaching license in European schools?

Question:  What type of license is very different from the ijazat al-tadris?

Question: Who was not the chief official of the university?
Madrasa

Much of the study in the madrasah college centred on examining whether certain opinions of law were orthodox. This scholarly process of "determining orthodoxy began with a question which the Muslim layman, called in that capacity mustaftī, presented to a jurisconsult, called mufti, soliciting from him a response, called fatwa, a legal opinion (the religious law of Islam covers civil as well as religious matters). The mufti (professor of legal opinions) took this question, studied it, researched it intensively in the sacred scriptures, in order to find a solution to it. This process of scholarly research was called ijtihād, literally, the exertion of one's efforts to the utmost limit."

Question: What determination of the study of law was held to much debate?
Answer: whether certain opinions of law were orthodox

Question: What is the Islamic term for issuing a legal opinion?
Answer: fatwa

Question: What type of matters are covered through Islamic law?
Answer: civil as well as religious

Question: What is ijtihad?
Answer: process of scholarly research

Question: What determination of the study of law was never scrutinized?

Question: What is the non-Islamic term for issuing a legal opinion?

Question: What type of matters are covered through non-Islamic law?

Question: What is the opposite of ijtihad?

Question: What isn't the translation of ijtihad?
Madrasa

There is disagreement whether madaris ever became universities. Scholars like Arnold H. Green and Seyyed Hossein Nasr have argued that starting in the 10th century, some medieval Islamic madaris indeed became universities. George Makdisi and others, however, argue that the European university has no parallel in the medieval Islamic world. Darleen Pryds questions this view, pointing out that madaris and European universities in the Mediterranean region shared similar foundations by princely patrons and were intended to provide loyal administrators to further the rulers' agenda. Other scholars regard the university as uniquely European in origin and characteristics.

Question: When did some madaris become considered like traditional colleges?
Answer: 10th century

Question: What class of people founded both European universities and Islamic madaris
Answer: princely patrons

Question: What was considered to be the underlying purpose of madaris?
Answer: further the rulers' agenda

Question: Who argued that European universities and Islamic madaris have very little in common?
Answer: George Makdisi

Question: When did some madaris become considered unlike traditional colleges?

Question: What class of people founded only European universities?

Question: What class of people founded only Islamic madaris?

Question:  What was considered to be the overt purpose of madaris?

Question: Who agreed that European universities and Islamic madaris have very little in common?
Madrasa

However, the classification of madaris as "universities" is disputed on the question of understanding of each institution on its own terms. In madaris, the ijāzahs were only issued in one field, the Islamic religious law of sharīʻah, and in no other field of learning. Other academic subjects, including the natural sciences, philosophy and literary studies, were only treated "ancillary" to the study of the Sharia. For example, a natural science like astronomy was only studied (if at all) to supply religious needs, like the time for prayer. This is why Ptolemaic astronomy was considered adequate, and is still taught in some modern day madaris. The Islamic law undergraduate degree from al-Azhar, the most prestigious madrasa, was traditionally granted without final examinations, but on the basis of the students' attentive attendance to courses. In contrast to the medieval doctorate which was granted by the collective authority of the faculty, the Islamic degree was not granted by the teacher to the pupil based on any formal criteria, but remained a "personal matter, the sole prerogative of the person bestowing it; no one could force him to give one".

Question: What field does the ijazah signify expertise in?
Answer: Islamic religious law of sharīʻah

Question: What was the purpose of studying natural sciences in madaris?
Answer: supply religious needs

Question: Who decided if a student earned a law degree in undergraduate madaris?
Answer: the teacher

Question: What scientific discipline is still taught in modern madaris?
Answer: Ptolemaic astronomy

Question: What is considered the most famous madrasa?
Answer: al-Azhar

Question:  What field does the ijazah signify having no expertise in?

Question: What was the purpose of not studying natural sciences in madaris?

Question: Who disallowed when a student earned a law degree in undergraduate madaris?

Question:  What scientific discipline is no longer taught in modern madaris?

Question:  What is considered the least famous madrasa?
Madrasa

Medievalist specialists who define the university as a legally autonomous corporation disagree with the term "university" for the Islamic madaris and jāmi‘ahs because the medieval university (from Latin universitas) was structurally different, being a legally autonomous corporation rather than a waqf institution like the madrasa and jāmiʻah. Despite the many similarities, medieval specialists have coined the term "Islamic college" for madrasa and jāmiʻah to differentiate them from the legally autonomous corporations that the medieval European universities were. In a sense, the madrasa resembles a university college in that it has most of the features of a university, but lacks the corporate element. Toby Huff summarises the difference as follows:

Question: What do scholars believe is missing from madaris that prevent them from being considered universities?
Answer: corporate element

Question: What do scholars that specialize in the medieval period describe madaris as?
Answer: Islamic college

Question: Who argues that madaris are not the same as traditional European universities?
Answer: Medievalist specialists

Question: What are two examples of waqfs?
Answer: madrasa and jāmiʻah

Question: What do scholars believe is included from madaris that guarantees them being considered universities?

Question: What do scholars that don't specialize in the medieval period describe madaris as?

Question:  What is the third example of waqfs?

Question: Who agrees that madaris are not the same as traditional European universities?
Madrasa

As Muslim institutions of higher learning, the madrasa had the legal designation of waqf. In central and eastern Islamic lands, the view that the madrasa, as a charitable endowment, will remain under the control of the donor (and their descendent), resulted in a "spurt" of establishment of madaris in the 11th and 12th centuries. However, in Western Islamic lands, where the Maliki views prohibited donors from controlling their endowment, madaris were not as popular. Unlike the corporate designation of Western institutions of higher learning, the waqf designation seemed to have led to the exclusion of non-orthodox religious subjects such a philosophy and natural science from the curricula. The madrasa of al-Qarawīyīn, one of the two surviving madaris that predate the founding of the earliest medieval universities and are thus claimed to be the "first universities" by some authors, has acquired official university status as late as 1947. The other, al-Azhar, did acquire this status in name and essence only in the course of numerous reforms during the 19th and 20th century, notably the one of 1961 which introduced non-religious subjects to its curriculum, such as economics, engineering, medicine, and agriculture. It should also be noted that many medieval universities were run for centuries as Christian cathedral schools or monastic schools prior to their formal establishment as universitas scholarium; evidence of these immediate forerunners of the university dates back to the 6th century AD, thus well preceding the earliest madaris. George Makdisi, who has published most extensively on the topic concludes in his comparison between the two institutions:

Question: When did more madaris begin to form more rapidly?
Answer: 11th and 12th centuries

Question: Where are madaris considered less desirable?
Answer: Western Islamic lands

Question: When did the al-Qarawiyin officially become a university?
Answer: 1947

Question: When the madaris are considered as a charity, who controls the school?
Answer: the donor

Question: What disciplines were introduced at al-Azhar in 1961?
Answer: economics, engineering, medicine, and agriculture

Question: When did more madaris begin to form more slowly?

Question:  Where are madaris considered more desirable?

Question:  When did the al-Qarawiyin officially stop being a university?

Question: When the madaris are considered as a charity, who controls the students?

Question:  What disciplines were destroyed at al-Azhar in 1961?
Madrasa

Nevertheless, Makdisi has asserted that the European university borrowed many of its features from the Islamic madrasa, including the concepts of a degree and doctorate. Makdisi and Hugh Goddard have also highlighted other terms and concepts now used in modern universities which most likely have Islamic origins, including "the fact that we still talk of professors holding the 'Chair' of their subject" being based on the "traditional Islamic pattern of teaching where the professor sits on a chair and the students sit around him", the term 'academic circles' being derived from the way in which Islamic students "sat in a circle around their professor", and terms such as "having 'fellows', 'reading' a subject, and obtaining 'degrees', can all be traced back" to the Islamic concepts of aṣḥāb ('companions, as of Muhammad'), qirāʼah ('reading aloud the Qur'an') and ijāzah ('licence [to teach]') respectively. Makdisi has listed eighteen such parallels in terminology which can be traced back to their roots in Islamic education. Some of the practices now common in modern universities which Makdisi and Goddard trace back to an Islamic root include "practices such as delivering inaugural lectures, wearing academic robes, obtaining doctorates by defending a thesis, and even the idea of academic freedom are also modelled on Islamic custom." The Islamic scholarly system of fatwá and ijmāʻ, meaning opinion and consensus respectively, formed the basis of the "scholarly system the West has practised in university scholarship from the Middle Ages down to the present day." According to Makdisi and Goddard, "the idea of academic freedom" in universities was also "modelled on Islamic custom" as practised in the medieval Madrasa system from the 9th century. Islamic influence was "certainly discernible in the foundation of the first deliberately planned university" in Europe, the University of Naples Federico II founded by Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor in 1224.

Question: What institutions have been considered to take some its ideas from madaris?
Answer: European university

Question: What Eurpoean university practices are considered to be adapted from madaris?
Answer: degree and doctorate

Question: How many corollaries dd Makdisi make between Islamic language and European educational practices?
Answer: eighteen

Question: What freedom specifically did Makdisi believe European schools learned from Islamic traditions?
Answer: academic

Question: What clothing practice did Makdisi believe European schools learned from madaris?
Answer: wearing academic robes

Question: What institutions have been considered to get no its ideas from madaris?

Question: What Eurpoean university practices are considered to be not adapted from madaris?

Question: How many corollaries dd Makdisi make between non-Islamic language and non-European educational practices?

Question: What freedom specifically did Makdisi believe non-European schools learned from non-Islamic traditions?

Question: What clothing practice did Makdisi believe European schools did not learn from madaris?
Madrasa

However, all of these facets of medieval university life are considered by standard scholarship to be independent medieval European developments with no tracable Islamic influence. Generally, some reviewers have pointed out the strong inclination of Makdisi of overstating his case by simply resting on "the accumulation of close parallels", but all the while failing to point to convincing channels of transmission between the Muslim and Christian world. Norman Daniel points out that the Arab equivalent of the Latin disputation, the taliqa, was reserved for the ruler's court, not the madrasa, and that the actual differences between Islamic fiqh and medieval European civil law were profound. The taliqa only reached Islamic Spain, the only likely point of transmission, after the establishment of the first medieval universities. In fact, there is no Latin translation of the taliqa and, most importantly, no evidence of Latin scholars ever showing awareness of Arab influence on the Latin method of disputation, something they would have certainly found noteworthy. Rather, it was the medieval reception of the Greek Organon which set the scholastic sic et non in motion. Daniel concludes that resemblances in method had more to with the two religions having "common problems: to reconcile the conflicting statements of their own authorities, and to safeguard the data of revelation from the impact of Greek philosophy"; thus Christian scholasticism and similar Arab concepts should be viewed in terms of a parallel occurrence, not of the transmission of ideas from one to the other, a view shared by Hugh Kennedy.

Question: What other religion was considered to share parallels in teaching styles with the Muslim faith?
Answer: Christian

Question: What was Makdisi accused of doing when evaluating the parallels between European and Islamic schools?
Answer: overstating his case

Question: What is the European version of fiqh?
Answer: civil law

Question: What do scholars believe is the reason for similarities between Islamic and European schools?
Answer: parallel occurrence

Question: What other religion was considered to be opposite in teaching styles with the Muslim faith?

Question: What was Makdisi not accused of doing when evaluating the parallels between European and Islamic schools?

Question:  What is the non-European version of fiqh?

Question:  What do scholars believe is the reason for differences between Islamic and European schools?
Madrasa

Prior to the 12th century, women accounted for less than one percent of the world’s Islamic scholars. However, al-Sakhawi and Mohammad Akram Nadwi have since found evidence of over 8,000 female scholars since the 15th century. al-Sakhawi devotes an entire volume of his 12-volume biographical dictionary al-Ḍawʾ al-lāmiʻ to female scholars, giving information on 1,075 of them. More recently, the scholar Mohammad Akram Nadwi, currently a researcher from the Oxford Centre for Islamic Studies, has written 40 volumes on the muḥaddithāt (the women scholars of ḥadīth), and found at least 8,000 of them.

Question: What percentage of Islamic women were educated before the 1200s?
Answer: less than one percent

Question: How many female Islamic scholars were on record after the 1400s?
Answer: over 8,000

Question: In what book was a section reserved for the study of Islamic female students?
Answer: al-Ḍawʾ al-lāmiʻ

Question: How many female students were discussed in the al-Daw' al-Iami?
Answer: 1,075

Question: What percentage of Islamic women were educated before the 2000s?

Question:  How many female Islamic scholars were on record after the 1600s?

Question: In what book was a section reserved for the study of Islamic male students?

Question:  How many male students were discussed in the al-Daw' al-Iami?
Madrasa

From around 750, during the Abbasid Caliphate, women “became renowned for their brains as well as their beauty”. In particular, many well known women of the time were trained from childhood in music, dancing and poetry. Mahbuba was one of these. Another feminine figure to be remembered for her achievements was Tawaddud, "a slave girl who was said to have been bought at great cost by Hārūn al-Rashīd because she had passed her examinations by the most eminent scholars in astronomy, medicine, law, philosophy, music, history, Arabic grammar, literature, theology and chess". Moreover, among the most prominent feminine figures was Shuhda who was known as "the Scholar" or "the Pride of Women" during the 12th century in Baghdad. Despite the recognition of women's aptitudes during the Abbasid dynasty, all these came to an end in Iraq with the sack of Baghdad in 1258.

Question: What disciplines were women trained in during the first century?
Answer: music, dancing and poetry

Question: Who was the most well known female scholar in Islamic schools?
Answer: Shuhda

Question: Where did Shuhda attend school?
Answer: Baghdad

Question: When was formal education for Islamic women halted?
Answer: 1258

Question: During which Caliphate did Islamic women begin attending formal school?
Answer: Abbasid

Question: What disciplines were women trained in during the second century?

Question:  Who was the least well known female scholar in Islamic schools?

Question:  Where did Shuhda work?

Question:  When was formal education for Islamic women encouraged?

Question: During which Caliphate did Islamic women stop going to formal school?
Madrasa

According to the Sunni scholar Ibn ʻAsākir in the 12th century, there were opportunities for female education in the medieval Islamic world, writing that women could study, earn ijazahs (academic degrees), and qualify as scholars and teachers. This was especially the case for learned and scholarly families, who wanted to ensure the highest possible education for both their sons and daughters. Ibn ʻAsakir had himself studied under 80 different female teachers in his time. Female education in the Islamic world was inspired by Muhammad's wives, such as Khadijah, a successful businesswoman. According to a hadith attributed to Muhammad, he praised the women of Medina because of their desire for religious knowledge:

Question: What titles could women earn by going to Islamic schools?
Answer: scholars and teachers

Question: Who wanted to ensured that their daughters were educated in Islamic schools?
Answer: learned and scholarly families

Question: Why did the prophet Muhammad esteem women in Medina?
Answer: their desire for religious knowledge

Question: Who created a pathway for education for women in the Islamic world?
Answer: Muhammad's wives

Question: Which one of Muhammad's wives had a particular impact on his view of women and education?
Answer: Khadijah

Question: What titles could men earn by going to Islamic schools?

Question: Who wanted to ensured that their daughters were not educated in Islamic schools?

Question:  Why did the prophet Muhammad esteem men in Medina?

Question: Which one of Muhammad's sons had a particular impact on his view of women and education?
Madrasa

"The first Ottoman Medrese was created in İznik in 1331 and most Ottoman medreses followed the traditions of Sunni Islam." "When an Ottoman sultan established a new medrese, he would invite scholars from the Islamic world—for example, Murad II brought scholars from Persia, such as ʻAlāʼ al-Dīn and Fakhr al-Dīn who helped enhance the reputation of the Ottoman medrese". This reveals that the Islamic world was interconnected in the early modern period as they travelled around to other Islamic states exchanging knowledge. This sense that the Ottoman Empire was becoming modernised through globalization is also recognised by Hamadeh who says: "Change in the eighteenth century as the beginning of a long and unilinear march toward westernisation reflects the two centuries of reformation in sovereign identity." İnalcık also mentions that while scholars from for example Persia travelled to the Ottomans in order to share their knowledge, Ottomans travelled as well to receive education from scholars of these Islamic lands, such as Egypt, Persia and Turkestan. Hence, this reveals that similar to today's modern world, individuals from the early modern society travelled abroad to receive education and share knowledge and that the world was more interconnected than it seems. Also, it reveals how the system of "schooling" was also similar to today's modern world where students travel abroad to different countries for studies. Examples of Ottoman madaris are the ones built by Mehmed the Conqueror. He built eight madaris that were built "on either side of the mosque where there were eight higher madaris for specialised studies and eight lower medreses, which prepared students for these." The fact that they were built around, or near mosques reveals the religious impulses behind madrasa building and it reveals the interconnectedness between institutions of learning and religion. The students who completed their education in the lower medreses became known as danismends. This reveals that similar to the education system today, the Ottomans' educational system involved different kinds of schools attached to different kinds of levels. For example, there were lower madaris and specialised ones, and for one to get into the specialised area meant that he had to complete the classes in the lower one in order to adequately prepare himself for higher learning.

Question: Who traveled abroad to get an education at madaris?
Answer: Ottomans

Question: How many madaris were started by Mehmed the Conqueror?
Answer: eight

Question: How would a student matriculate to the next level of schooling in the Ottoman Empire?
Answer: complete the classes in the lower one

Question: Where were Ottoman madaris built?
Answer: near mosques

Question: When was the first Ottoman madrasa built?
Answer: 1331

Question:  Who didn't traveled abroad to get an education at madaris?

Question:  How many madaris were not started by Mehmed the Conqueror?

Question: How would a teacher matriculate to the next level of schooling in the Ottoman Empire?

Question:  Where were Ottoman madaris torn down?

Question:  When was the first Ottoman madrasa torn down?
Madrasa

Although Ottoman madaris had a number of different branches of study, such as calligraphic sciences, oral sciences, and intellectual sciences, they primarily served the function of an Islamic centre for spiritual learning. "The goal of all knowledge and in particular, of the spiritual sciences is knowledge of God." Religion, for the most part, determines the significance and importance of each science. As İnalcık mentions: "Those which aid religion are good and sciences like astrology are bad." However, even though mathematics, or studies in logic were part of the madrasa's curriculum, they were all centred around religion. Even mathematics had a religious impulse behind its teachings. "The Ulema of the Ottoman medreses held the view that hostility to logic and mathematics was futile since these accustomed the mind to correct thinking and thus helped to reveal divine truths" – key word being "divine". İnalcık also mentions that even philosophy was only allowed to be studied so that it helped to confirm the doctrines of Islam." Hence, madaris – schools were basically religious centres for religious teachings and learning in the Ottoman world. Although scholars such as Goffman have argued that the Ottomans were highly tolerant and lived in a pluralistic society, it seems that schools that were the main centres for learning were in fact heftily religious and were not religiously pluralistic, but centred around Islam. Similarly, in Europe "Jewish children learned the Hebrew letters and texts of basic prayers at home, and then attended a school organised by the synagogue to study the Torah." Wiesner-Hanks also says that Protestants also wanted to teach "proper religious values." This shows that in the early modern period, Ottomans and Europeans were similar in their ideas about how schools should be managed and what they should be primarily focused on. Thus, Ottoman madaris were very similar to present day schools in the sense that they offered a wide range of studies; however, these studies, in their ultimate objective, aimed to further solidify and consolidate Islamic practices and theories.

Question: What was the essential mission of Islamic schools in the Ottoman Empire?
Answer: spiritual learning

Question: Why was philosophy taught in Ottoman madaris?
Answer: confirm the doctrines of Islam

Question: What type of social structure did the Ottoman Empire have?
Answer: pluralistic

Question: What religion was at the center of education in the Ottoman Empire?
Answer: Islam

Question: What did Ottoman madaris have that was similar to modern American schools?
Answer: wide range of studies

Question: What was the essential mission of non-Islamic schools in the Ottoman Empire?

Question:  Why wasn't philosophy taught in Ottoman madaris?

Question:  What type of social structure did the Ottoman Empire not have?

Question: What religion was not at the center of education in the Ottoman Empire?

Question:  What did Ottoman madaris have that was different to modern American schools?
Madrasa

As with any other country during the Early Modern Period, such as Italy and Spain in Europe, the Ottoman social life was interconnected with the medrese. Medreses were built in as part of a Mosque complex where many programmes, such as aid to the poor through soup kitchens, were held under the infrastructure of a mosque, which reveals the interconnectedness of religion and social life during this period. "The mosques to which medreses were attached, dominated the social life in Ottoman cities." Social life was not dominated by religion only in the Muslim world of the Ottoman Empire; it was also quite similar to the social life of Europe during this period. As Goffman says: "Just as mosques dominated social life for the Ottomans, churches and synagogues dominated life for the Christians and Jews as well." Hence, social life and the medrese were closely linked, since medreses taught many curricula, such as religion, which highly governed social life in terms of establishing orthodoxy. "They tried moving their developing state toward Islamic orthodoxy." Overall, the fact that mosques contained medreses comes to show the relevance of education to religion in the sense that education took place within the framework of religion and religion established social life by trying to create a common religious orthodoxy. Hence, medreses were simply part of the social life of society as students came to learn the fundamentals of their societal values and beliefs.

Question: What kind of social service was provided through the madaris?
Answer: aid to the poor through soup kitchens

Question: What had a hold over social life in the Ottoman Empire as well as other cultures?
Answer: religion

Question: Where did students learn about religious and social norms?
Answer: medreses

Question: What practice was desired through connecting religion and schools?
Answer: Islamic orthodoxy

Question:  What kind of social service was not provided through the madaris?

Question: What had a hold over social life in only the Ottoman Empire, not other cultures?

Question:  Where did teachers learn about religious and social norms?

Question: What practice was never desired through connecting religion and schools?
Madrasa

In India the majority of these schools follow the Hanafi school of thought. The religious establishment forms part of the mainly two large divisions within the country, namely the Deobandis, who dominate in numbers (of whom the Darul Uloom Deoband constitutes one of the biggest madaris) and the Barelvis, who also make up a sizeable portion (Sufi-oriented). Some notable establishments include: Al Jamiatul Ashrafia, Mubarakpur, Manzar Islam Bareilly, Jamia Nizamdina New Delhi, Jamia Nayeemia Muradabad which is one of the largest learning centres for the Barelvis. The HR[clarification needed] ministry of the government of India has recently[when?] declared that a Central Madrasa Board would be set up. This will enhance the education system of madaris in India. Though the madaris impart Quranic education mainly, efforts are on to include Mathematics, Computers and science in the curriculum. In July 2015, the state government of Maharashtra created a stir de-recognised madrasa education, receiving critisicm from several political parties with the NCP accusing the ruling BJP of creating Hindu-Muslim friction in the state, and Kamal Farooqui of the All India Muslim Personal Law Board saying it was "ill-designed"

Question: What group makes up a larger percentage of people in India?
Answer: Deobandis

Question: What is the largest school for Barelvis people in India?
Answer: Jamia Nayeemia Muradabad

Question: What disciplines does India want to introduce to madaris?
Answer: Mathematics, Computers and science

Question: In what year did the Indian government begin to stop recognizing madaris as schools?
Answer: 2015

Question: What problems are arising due to the political conflicts over schools?
Answer: Hindu-Muslim friction

Question:  What group makes up a smaller percentage of people in India?

Question:  What is the smallest school for Barelvis people outside of India?

Question:  What disciplines does India want to keep away from madaris?

Question: In what year did the Indian government begin recognize madaris as schools?

Question: What problems are not arising due to the social conflicts over schools?