Divyanshu67/squad_v2 huggingface dataset:
Age_of_Enlightenment

The increased consumption of reading materials of all sorts was one of the key features of the "social" Enlightenment. Developments in the Industrial Revolution allowed consumer goods to be produced in greater quantities at lower prices, encouraging the spread of books, pamphlets, newspapers and journals – "media of the transmission of ideas and attitudes". Commercial development likewise increased the demand for information, along with rising populations and increased urbanisation. However, demand for reading material extended outside of the realm of the commercial, and outside the realm of the upper and middle classes, as evidenced by the Bibliothèque Bleue. Literacy rates are difficult to gauge, but in France at least, the rates doubled over the course of the 18th century. Reflecting the decreasing influence of religion, the number of books about science and art published in Paris doubled from 1720 to 1780, while the number of books about religion dropped to just one-tenth of the total.

Question: The increased consumption of what type of material was one of the key features of the "social" Enlightenment?
Answer: reading materials

Question: Developments in which revolution allowed consumer goods to be produced in greater quantities at lower prices?
Answer: the Industrial Revolution

Question: In additional to rising populations and increased urbanisation, what else did Commercial development increase the need for?
Answer: demand for information

Question: In what country did literacy rates double over the course of the 18th century?
Answer: France

Question: The number of books about religion in Paris from 1720 to 1780 dropped by what percentage?
Answer: just one-tenth of the total
Age_of_Enlightenment

As musicians depended more and more on public support, public concerts became increasingly popular and helped supplement performers' and composers' incomes. The concerts also helped them to reach a wider audience. Handel, for example, epitomized this with his highly public musical activities in London. He gained considerable fame there with performances of his operas and oratorios. The music of Haydn and Mozart, with their Viennese Classical styles, are usually regarded as being the most in line with the Enlightenment ideals.

Question: Whose incomes did public concerts help support?
Answer: performers' and composers'

Question: Handel gained considerable fame with performances of what two types of artistic work?
Answer: operas and oratorios

Question: Which two composers are usually regarded as being the most in line with the Enlightenment ideals?
Answer: Haydn and Mozart

Question: What style of music did Haydn and Mozart share?
Answer: Viennese Classical
Age_of_Enlightenment

The history of Academies in France during the Enlightenment begins with the Academy of Science, founded in 1635 in Paris. It was closely tied to the French state, acting as an extension of a government seriously lacking in scientists. It helped promote and organize new disciplines, and it trained new scientists. It also contributed to the enhancement of scientists' social status, considering them to be the "most useful of all citizens". Academies demonstrate the rising interest in science along with its increasing secularization, as evidenced by the small number of clerics who were members (13 percent). The presence of the French academies in the public sphere cannot be attributed to their membership; although the majority of their members were bourgeois, the exclusive institution was only open to elite Parisian scholars. They perceived themselves as "interpreters of the sciences for the people". For example, it was with this in mind that academicians took it upon themselves to disprove the popular pseudo-science of mesmerism.

Question: What year was the Academy of Science in France founded?
Answer: 1635

Question: Members of what group were considered to be the "most useful of all citizens?"
Answer: scientists

Question: What percentage of clerics were members of the Academy of Science?
Answer: 13 percent

Question: The Academy of Science was only open to which societal group?
Answer: elite Parisian scholars

Question: How did elite Parisian scholars perceive themselves?
Answer: interpreters of the sciences for the people
Age_of_Enlightenment

Many of the leading universities associated with Enlightenment progressive principles were located in northern Europe, with the most renowned being the universities of Leiden, Göttingen, Halle, Montpellier, Uppsala and Edinburgh. These universities, especially Edinburgh, produced professors whose ideas had a significant impact on Britain's North American colonies and, later, the American Republic. Within the natural sciences, Edinburgh's medical also led the way in chemistry, anatomy and pharmacology. In other parts of Europe, the universities and schools of France and most of Europe were bastions of traditionalism and were not hospitable to the Enlightenment. In France, the major exception was the medical university at Montpellier.

Question: Where were many of the leading universities associated with Enlightenment progressive principles located?
Answer: northern Europe

Question: Which six universities were the most renowned in northern Europe?
Answer: Leiden, Göttingen, Halle, Montpellier, Uppsala and Edinburgh

Question: Which university, especially, produced professors whose ideas had a significant impact on the colonies?
Answer: Edinburgh

Question: Which of  France's universities was the exception and was hospitable to the Enlightenment?
Answer: the medical university at Montpellier
Age_of_Enlightenment

The predominant educational psychology from the 1750s onward, especially in northern European countries was associationism, the notion that the mind associates or dissociates ideas through repeated routines. In addition to being conducive to Enlightenment ideologies of liberty, self-determination and personal responsibility, it offered a practical theory of the mind that allowed teachers to transform longstanding forms of print and manuscript culture into effective graphic tools of learning for the lower and middle orders of society. Children were taught to memorize facts through oral and graphic methods that originated during the Renaissance.

Question: How can associationism be defined?
Answer: the notion that the mind associates or dissociates ideas through repeated routines

Question: What was the predominant educational psychology from the 1750s onward?
Answer: associationism,

Question: Children were taught to memorize facts through methods that originated during which time period?
Answer: the Renaissance
Age_of_Enlightenment

However, the prime example of reference works that systematized scientific knowledge in the age of Enlightenment were universal encyclopedias rather than technical dictionaries. It was the goal of universal encyclopedias to record all human knowledge in a comprehensive reference work. The most well-known of these works is Denis Diderot and Jean le Rond d'Alembert's Encyclopédie, ou dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers. The work, which began publication in 1751, was composed of thirty-five volumes and over 71 000 separate entries. A great number of the entries were dedicated to describing the sciences and crafts in detail, and provided intellectuals across Europe with a high-quality survey of human knowledge. In d'Alembert's Preliminary Discourse to the Encyclopedia of Diderot, the work's goal to record the extent of human knowledge in the arts and sciences is outlined:

Question: What were the prime examples of reference works that systemasized scientific knowledge in the age oif Enlightenment?
Answer: universal encyclopedias

Question: What was the goal of universal encyclopedias?
Answer: to record all human knowledge in a comprehensive reference work

Question: Which universal encyclopedia began publication in 1751 and was composed of 35 volumes and over 71,000 seperate entries?
Answer: Encyclopédie, ou dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers

Question: In what work is the goal to record the extent of human knowledge in the arts and sciences outlined?
Answer: Preliminary Discourse to the Encyclopedia of Diderot

Question: Who wrote the Preliminary Discourse to the Encyclopedia of Diderot?
Answer: d'Alembert's
Age_of_Enlightenment

Broadly speaking, Enlightenment science greatly valued empiricism and rational thought, and was embedded with the Enlightenment ideal of advancement and progress. The study of science, under the heading of natural philosophy, was divided into physics and a conglomerate grouping of chemistry and natural history, which included anatomy, biology, geology, mineralogy, and zoology. As with most Enlightenment views, the benefits of science were not seen universally; Rousseau criticized the sciences for distancing man from nature and not operating to make people happier. Science during the Enlightenment was dominated by scientific societies and academies, which had largely replaced universities as centres of scientific research and development. Societies and academies were also the backbone of the maturation of the scientific profession. Another important development was the popularization of science among an increasingly literate population. Philosophes introduced the public to many scientific theories, most notably through the Encyclopédie and the popularization of Newtonianism by Voltaire and Émilie du Châtelet. Some historians have marked the 18th century as a drab period in the history of science; however, the century saw significant advancements in the practice of medicine, mathematics, and physics; the development of biological taxonomy; a new understanding of magnetism and electricity; and the maturation of chemistry as a discipline, which established the foundations of modern chemistry.

Question: Anatomy, biology, geology, mineralogy, and zoology are all studies of which subject?
Answer: natural history

Question: Who criticized the sciences for distancing man from nature and not operating to make people happier?
Answer: Rousseau

Question: Who replaced universities as centres of scientific research and development during the Enlightenment?
Answer: scientific societies and academies

Question: Which century is considered by some as a "drab" period, however saw significant advancements in the practice of medicine, mathematics, and physics, the development of biological taxonomy, a new understanding of magnetism, and the maturation of chemistry as a discipline?
Answer: the 18th century

Question: Voltaire and Emilie du Chatelet populatized which scientific philosophy?
Answer: Newtonianism
Age_of_Enlightenment

Science came to play a leading role in Enlightenment discourse and thought. Many Enlightenment writers and thinkers had backgrounds in the sciences and associated scientific advancement with the overthrow of religion and traditional authority in favour of the development of free speech and thought. Scientific progress during the Enlightenment included the discovery of carbon dioxide (fixed air) by the chemist Joseph Black, the argument for deep time by the geologist James Hutton, and the invention of the steam engine by James Watt. The experiments of Lavoisier were used to create the first modern chemical plants in Paris, and the experiments of the Montgolfier Brothers enabled them to launch the first manned flight in a hot-air balloon on 21 November 1783, from the Château de la Muette, near the Bois de Boulogne.

Question: Many Enlightenment writers and thinkers had backgrounds in the sciences and associated scientific advancement with overthrow of religion and traditional authority in favor of what?
Answer: the development of free speech and thought

Question: Who discovered carbon dioxide or fixed air?
Answer: chemist Joseph Black

Question: Who created the argument for deep time?
Answer: geologist James Hutton

Question: Who invented the steam engine?
Answer: James Watt

Question: Who launched the first manned flight in a hot-air balloon in November 1783?
Answer: the Montgolfier Brothers
Age_of_Enlightenment

Cesare Beccaria, a jurist and one of the great Enlightenment writers, became famous for his masterpiece Of Crimes and Punishments (1764), which was later translated into 22 languages. Another prominent intellectual was Francesco Mario Pagano, who wrote important studies such as Saggi Politici (Political Essays, 1783), one of the major works of the Enlightenment in Naples, and Considerazioni sul processo criminale (Considerations on the criminal trial, 1787), which established him as an international authority on criminal law.

Question: For which masterpiece did Cesare Beccaria become famous?
Answer: Crimes and Punishments (1764)

Question: Into how many languages was Cesare Beccaria's Crimes and Punishments (1764) translated?
Answer: 22

Question: Which work established Francesco Mario Pagano as an international authority on criminal law?
Answer: Considerazioni sul processo criminale (Considerations on the criminal trial, 1787)

Question: In what year did Francesco Mario Pagano publish Saggi Politici?
Answer: 1783
Age_of_Enlightenment

Scientific academies and societies grew out of the Scientific Revolution as the creators of scientific knowledge in contrast to the scholasticism of the university. During the Enlightenment, some societies created or retained links to universities. However, contemporary sources distinguished universities from scientific societies by claiming that the university's utility was in the transmission of knowledge, while societies functioned to create knowledge. As the role of universities in institutionalized science began to diminish, learned societies became the cornerstone of organized science. Official scientific societies were chartered by the state in order to provide technical expertise. Most societies were granted permission to oversee their own publications, control the election of new members, and the administration of the society. After 1700, a tremendous number of official academies and societies were founded in Europe, and by 1789 there were over seventy official scientific societies. In reference to this growth, Bernard de Fontenelle coined the term "the Age of Academies" to describe the 18th century.

Question: What did contemporary sources claim was the purpose of the universiity in contrast to the societies?
Answer: transmission of knowledge

Question: Contemporary sources considered societies functioned for what purpose in contrast to universities?
Answer: to create knowledge

Question: By what year were there over seventy official scientific societies?
Answer: 1789

Question: Who coined the term "the Age of Academies" to describe the 18th century?
Answer: Bernard de Fontenelle
Age_of_Enlightenment

The Enlightenment has been frequently linked to the French Revolution of 1789. One view of the political changes that occurred during the Enlightenment is that the "consent of the governed" philosophy as delineated by Locke in Two Treatises of Government (1689) represented a paradigm shift from the old governance paradigm under feudalism known as the "divine right of kings". In this view, the revolutions of the late 1700s and early 1800s were caused by the fact that this governance paradigm shift often could not be resolved peacefully, and therefore violent revolution was the result. Clearly a governance philosophy where the king was never wrong was in direct conflict with one whereby citizens by natural law had to consent to the acts and rulings of their government.

Question: The Enlightenment is frequently linked to the French Revolution of what year?
Answer: 1789

Question: Who delineated the "consent of the governed" in Two Treatises of Government (1689)?
Answer: Locke

Question: The "divine right of kings" was in direct conflict with which of Locke's philosophies?
Answer: "consent of the governed"

Question: According to Locke, the revolutions of the late 1700s and early 1800s were caused when what could not be resolved peacefully?
Answer: governance paradigm shift
Age_of_Enlightenment

Though much of Enlightenment political thought was dominated by social contract theorists, both David Hume and Adam Ferguson criticized this camp. Hume's essay Of the Original Contract argues that governments derived from consent are rarely seen, and civil government is grounded in a ruler's habitual authority and force. It is precisely because of the ruler's authority over-and-against the subject, that the subject tacitly consents; Hume says that the subjects would "never imagine that their consent made him sovereign", rather the authority did so. Similarly, Ferguson did not believe citizens built the state, rather polities grew out of social development. In his 1767 An Essay on the History of Civil Society, Ferguson uses the four stages of progress, a theory that was very popular in Scotland at the time, to explain how humans advance from a hunting and gathering society to a commercial and civil society without "signing" a social contract.

Question: In what work did Ferguson explain how humans advanced from a hunting and gathering society to a commercial and civil society without "signing" a social contract?
Answer: An Essay on the History of Civil Society

Question: In what year did Ferguson publish An Essay on the History of Civil Society?
Answer: 1767

Question: How many stages of progress did Ferguson theorize?
Answer: four

Question: Who, along with Adam Ferguson, criticized the idea of social contract theorists?
Answer: David Hume
Age_of_Enlightenment

Bertrand Russell saw the Enlightenment as a phase in a progressive development, which began in antiquity, and that reason and challenges to the established order were constant ideals throughout that time. Russell said that the Enlightenment was ultimately born out of the Protestant reaction against the Catholic counter-reformation, and that philosophical views such as affinity for democracy against monarchy originated among 16th-century Protestants to justify their desire to break away from the Catholic Church. Though many of these philosophical ideals were picked up by Catholics, Russell argues, by the 18th century the Enlightenment was the principal manifestation of the schism that began with Martin Luther.

Question: Which philosopher believed that the Enlightenment was ultimately born out of Protestant reaction against the Catholic counter-reformation?
Answer: Bertrand Russell

Question: Where did Betrand Russell believe views such as affinity for democracy against monarachy originated from?
Answer: 16th-century Protestants

Question: Who does Betrand Russell started the schism that lead to the Enlightenment?
Answer: Martin Luther
Age_of_Enlightenment

Alexis de Tocqueville described the French Revolution as the inevitable result of the radical opposition created in the 18th century between the monarchy and the men of letters of the Enlightenment. These men of letters constituted a sort of "substitute aristocracy that was both all-powerful and without real power". This illusory power came from the rise of "public opinion", born when absolutist centralization removed the nobility and the bourgeoisie from the political sphere. The "literary politics" that resulted promoted a discourse of equality and was hence in fundamental opposition to the monarchical regime. De Tocqueville "clearly designates ... the cultural effects of transformation in the forms of the exercise of power". Nevertheless, it took another century before cultural approach became central to the historiography, as typified by Robert Darnton, The Business of Enlightenment: A Publishing History of the Encyclopédie, 1775–1800 (1979).

Question: How did Alexis de Tocqueville describe the French Revolution?
Answer: the inevitable result of the radical opposition created in the 18th century between the monarchy and the men of letters of the Enlightenment

Question: Which group was considered "a substitute aristocracy that was both all-powerful and without real power" according to Tocqueville?
Answer: men of letters

Question: From where did Tocqueville believe the illusory power of the men of letters came from?
Answer: the rise of "public opinion"
Age_of_Enlightenment

Enlightenment historiography began in the period itself, from what Enlightenment figures said about their work. A dominant element was the intellectual angle they took. D'Alembert's Preliminary Discourse of l'Encyclopédie provides a history of the Enlightenment which comprises a chronological list of developments in the realm of knowledge – of which the Encyclopédie forms the pinnacle. In 1783, Jewish philosopher Moses Mendelssohn referred to Enlightenment as a process by which man was educated in the use of reason. Immanuel Kant called Enlightenment "man's release from his self-incurred tutelage", tutelage being "man's inability to make use of his understanding without direction from another". "For Kant, Enlightenment was mankind's final coming of age, the emancipation of the human consciousness from an immature state of ignorance." The German scholar Ernst Cassirer called the Enlightenment "a part and a special phase of that whole intellectual development through which modern philosophic thought gained its characteristic self-confidence and self-consciousness". According to historian Roy Porter, the liberation of the human mind from a dogmatic state of ignorance is the epitome of what the Age of Enlightenment was trying to capture.

Question: Which Jewish philosopher referred to Enlightenment as a process by which man was educated in the use of reason?
Answer: Moses Mendelssohn

Question: How did Immanuel Kant describe the Enlightenment?
Answer: "man's release from his self-incurred tutelage"

Question: For whom was Enlightenment mankind's final coming of age, the emancipation of the human consciousness from an immature state of ignorance?"
Answer: Immanuel Kant

Question: According to historian Roy Porter, what was the Age of Enlightenment trying to capture?
Answer: the liberation of the human mind from a dogmatic state of ignorance
Age_of_Enlightenment

These views on religious tolerance and the importance of individual conscience, along with the social contract, became particularly influential in the American colonies and the drafting of the United States Constitution. Thomas Jefferson called for a "wall of separation between church and state" at the federal level. He previously had supported successful efforts to disestablish the Church of England in Virginia, and authored the Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom. Jefferson's political ideals were greatly influenced by the writings of John Locke, Francis Bacon, and Isaac Newton whom he considered the three greatest men that ever lived.

Question: John Locke, Francis Bacon, and Isaac Newton where considered the the greatest men who ever lived by which American colonist?
Answer: Thomas Jefferson

Question: Religious tolerance and the importance of individual conscience was particularly influential in the drafting of which American document?
Answer: the United States Constitution

Question: Whom, along with Francis Bacon and John Locke, did Thomas Jefferson consider to be one of the three greatest men that ever lived?
Answer: Isaac Newton
Age_of_Enlightenment

In addition to debates on religion, societies discussed issues such as politics and the role of women. It is important to note, however, that the critical subject matter of these debates did not necessarily translate into opposition to the government. In other words, the results of the debate quite frequently upheld the status quo. From a historical standpoint, one of the most important features of the debating society was their openness to the public; women attended and even participated in almost every debating society, which were likewise open to all classes providing they could pay the entrance fee. Once inside, spectators were able to participate in a largely egalitarian form of sociability that helped spread Enlightenment ideas.

Question: From a historical standpoint, what was one of the most important features of the debating society?
Answer: openness to the public

Question: Were debates only open to certain economic classes, or could all attend?
Answer: all classes providing they could pay the entrance fee

Question: What were some of the issues discussed in addition to debates on religion?
Answer: politics and the role of women
Age_of_Enlightenment

Intellectuals such as Robert Darnton and Jürgen Habermas have focused on the social conditions of the Enlightenment. Habermas described the creation of the "bourgeois public sphere" in 18th-century Europe, containing the new venues and modes of communication allowing for rational exchange. Habermas said that the public sphere was bourgeois, egalitarian, rational, and independent from the state, making it the ideal venue for intellectuals to critically examine contemporary politics and society, away from the interference of established authority. While the public sphere is generally an integral component of the social study of the Enlightenment, other historians have questioned whether the public sphere had these characteristics.

Question: What aspect of the Enlightenment did Robert Darnton and Jurgen Habermas focus on within the Enlightenment?
Answer: social conditions

Question: How did Habermas describe the public sphere?
Answer: bourgeois, egalitarian, rational, and independent from the state

Question: The new venues and modes of communication allowing for rational exchange were given what term by Habermas in 18th century Europe?
Answer: the "bourgeois public sphere"
Age_of_Enlightenment

One of the primary elements of the culture of the Enlightenment was the rise of the public sphere, a "realm of communication marked by new arenas of debate, more open and accessible forms of urban public space and sociability, and an explosion of print culture," in the late 17th century and 18th century. Elements of the public sphere included: it was egalitarian, it discussed the domain of "common concern," and argument was founded on reason. Habermas uses the term "common concern" to describe those areas of political/social knowledge and discussion that were previously the exclusive territory of the state and religious authorities, now open to critical examination by the public sphere. The values of this bourgeois public sphere included holding reason to be supreme, considering everything to be open to criticism (the public sphere is critical), and the opposition of secrecy of all sorts.

Question: How was the public sphere defined?
Answer: realm of communication marked by new arenas of debate, more open and accessible forms of urban public space and sociability, and an explosion of print culture

Question: During what centuries was the rise of the public sphere?
Answer: late 17th century and 18th century

Question: The argument of the public sphere was founded on what?
Answer: reason

Question: What term did Habermas give to describe the areas of political/social knowledge and discussion that were previously exlusive territory of the state and religious authorities?
Answer: common concern

Question: The values of the bourgeois public sphere included holding reason to the supreme, considering everything open to criticism, and the opposition of what?
Answer: secrecy of all sorts
Age_of_Enlightenment

Across continental Europe, but in France especially, booksellers and publishers had to negotiate censorship laws of varying strictness. The Encyclopédie, for example, narrowly escaped seizure and had to be saved by Malesherbes, the man in charge of the French censure. Indeed, many publishing companies were conveniently located outside France so as to avoid overzealous French censors. They would smuggle their merchandise across the border, where it would then be transported to clandestine booksellers or small-time peddlers. The records of clandestine booksellers may give a better representation of what literate Frenchmen might have truly read, since their clandestine nature provided a less restrictive product choice. In one case, political books were the most popular category, primarily libels and pamphlets. Readers were more interested in sensationalist stories about criminals and political corruption than they were in political theory itself. The second most popular category, "general works" (those books "that did not have a dominant motif and that contained something to offend almost everyone in authority") demonstrated a high demand for generally low-brow subversive literature. However, these works never became part of literary canon, and are largely forgotten today as a result.

Question: Book sellers and publishers had to negotiate censorship laws of varying strictness in what country, especially?
Answer: France

Question: Which work narrowly escaped seizure and had to be saved by Malesherbes?
Answer: The Encyclopédie

Question: Many publishing companies were located outside of which country to avoid overzealous censors?
Answer: France

Question: Readers were more interested in sensationalist stories about what topics than they were in political theory itself?
Answer: criminals and political corruption

Question: What was the term given to books that did not have a dominant motif and contained something to offend almost everyone in authority?
Answer: general works
Age_of_Enlightenment

A healthy, and legal, publishing industry existed throughout Europe, although established publishers and book sellers occasionally ran afoul of the law. The Encyclopédie, for example, condemned not only by the King but also by Clement XII, nevertheless found its way into print with the help of the aforementioned Malesherbes and creative use of French censorship law. But many works were sold without running into any legal trouble at all. Borrowing records from libraries in England, Germany and North America indicate that more than 70 percent of books borrowed were novels. Less than 1 percent of the books were of a religious nature, indicating the general trend of declining religiosity.

Question: Who helped The Encyclopedie find its way into print using the French censorship law creatively?
Answer: Malesherbes

Question: The King and Clement XII condemned which literary work?
Answer: The Encyclopédie

Question: What percentage of books borrowed in England, Germany, and Norath America were novels?
Answer: 70

Question: What percentage of books borrowed were of a religious nature in England, Germany, and North America?
Answer: 1
Age_of_Enlightenment

The Republic of Letters was the sum of a number of Enlightenment ideals: an egalitarian realm governed by knowledge that could act across political boundaries and rival state power. It was a forum that supported "free public examination of questions regarding religion or legislation". Immanuel Kant considered written communication essential to his conception of the public sphere; once everyone was a part of the "reading public", then society could be said to be enlightened. The people who participated in the Republic of Letters, such as Diderot and Voltaire, are frequently known today as important Enlightenment figures. Indeed, the men who wrote Diderot's Encyclopédie arguably formed a microcosm of the larger "republic".

Question: What did the Republic of Letters support?
Answer: free public examination of questions regarding religion or legislation

Question: Once everyone was a part of what group did Kant believe all of society would be enlightened?
Answer: the "reading public"

Question: Who were two of the figures that participated in the Republic of Letters?
Answer: Diderot and Voltaire

Question: What did Immanuel Kant consider essential to his conception of the public sphere?
Answer: written communication
Age_of_Enlightenment

Jonathan Israel called the journals the most influential cultural innovation of European intellectual culture. They shifted the attention of the "cultivated public" away from established authorities to novelty and innovation, and promoted the "enlightened" ideals of toleration and intellectual objectivity. Being a source of knowledge derived from science and reason, they were an implicit critique of existing notions of universal truth monopolized by monarchies, parliaments, and religious authorities. They also advanced Christian enlightenment that upheld "the legitimacy of God-ordained authority"—the Bible—in which there had to be agreement between the biblical and natural theories.

Question: Who called the journals the most influential cultural innovation of European intellectual culture?
Answer: Jonathan Israel

Question: To what did the journals shift attention of the cultivated public away from and towards novelty and innovation?
Answer: established authorities

Question: What enlightened ideas were promoted by the journals?
Answer: toleration and intellectual objectivity

Question: The journals were a source of knowledge derived from what topics?
Answer: science and reason
Age_of_Enlightenment

Although the existence of dictionaries and encyclopedias spanned into ancient times, the texts changed from simply defining words in a long running list to far more detailed discussions of those words in 18th-century encyclopedic dictionaries. The works were part of an Enlightenment movement to systematize knowledge and provide education to a wider audience than the elite. As the 18th century progressed, the content of encyclopedias also changed according to readers' tastes. Volumes tended to focus more strongly on secular affairs, particularly science and technology, rather than matters of theology.

Question: How did dictionaries and encyclopedias change in the 18th century?
Answer: from simply defining words in a long running list to far more detailed discussions of those words

Question: What movement were dictionaries and encyclopedias trying to promote?
Answer: to systematize knowledge and provide education to a wider audience than the elite

Question: How did the content of encyclopedias change in the 18th century?
Answer: tended to focus more strongly on secular affairs, particularly science and technology, rather than matters of theology

Question: Encyclopedias in the 18th century tended to focus more strongly on what topics, rather than theology?
Answer: secular affairs, particularly science and technology
Age_of_Enlightenment

The massive work was arranged according to a "tree of knowledge." The tree reflected the marked division between the arts and sciences, which was largely a result of the rise of empiricism. Both areas of knowledge were united by philosophy, or the trunk of the tree of knowledge. The Enlightenment's desacrilization of religion was pronounced in the tree's design, particularly where theology accounted for a peripheral branch, with black magic as a close neighbour. As the Encyclopédie gained popularity, it was published in quarto and octavo editions after 1777. The quarto and octavo editions were much less expensive than previous editions, making the Encyclopédie more accessible to the non-elite. Robert Darnton estimates that there were approximately 25 000 copies of the Encyclopédie in circulation throughout France and Europe before the French Revolution. The extensive, yet affordable encyclopedia came to represent the transmission of Enlightenment and scientific education to an expanding audience.

Question: How was the Encyclopedie arranged?
Answer: according to a "tree of knowledge."

Question: The rise of empiricism caused a division between which two subjects?
Answer: the arts and sciences

Question: What was considered the trunk of the tree of knowledge?
Answer: philosophy

Question: Which editions of the Encyclopedie were less expensive and more accessible to the non-elite?
Answer: quarto and octavo

Question: How many copies of the Encyclopedie were estimated to be in circulation throughout France and Europe before the French Revolution?
Answer: 25 000
Age_of_Enlightenment

In England, the Royal Society of London also played a significant role in the public sphere and the spread of Enlightenment ideas. It was founded by a group of independent scientists and given a royal charter in 1662. The Society played a large role in spreading Robert Boyle's experimental philosophy around Europe, and acted as a clearinghouse for intellectual correspondence and exchange. Boyle was "a founder of the experimental world in which scientists now live and operate," and his method based knowledge on experimentation, which had to be witnessed to provide proper empirical legitimacy. This is where the Royal Society came into play: witnessing had to be a "collective act", and the Royal Society's assembly rooms were ideal locations for relatively public demonstrations. However, not just any witness was considered to be credible; "Oxford professors were accounted more reliable witnesses than Oxfordshire peasants." Two factors were taken into account: a witness's knowledge in the area; and a witness's "moral constitution". In other words, only civil society were considered for Boyle's public.

Question: Which society in England also played a significant role in the public sphere and spread of Enlightenment ideas?
Answer: Royal Society of London

Question: In what year was the Royal Society of London given a royal charter?
Answer: 1662

Question: Whose method based knowledge on experiementation, which had to be witnessed?
Answer: Robert Boyle

Question: Who were considered more reliable witnesses than the Oxfordshire peasants?
Answer: Oxford professors

Question: What two factors were taken into account in credibility in the Royal Society?
Answer: a witness's knowledge in the area; and a witness's "moral constitution"
Age_of_Enlightenment

The debating societies discussed an extremely wide range of topics. Before the Enlightenment, most intellectual debates revolved around "confessional" – that is, Catholic, Lutheran, Reformed (Calvinist), or Anglican issues, and the main aim of these debates was to establish which bloc of faith ought to have the "monopoly of truth and a God-given title to authority". After this date everything thus previously rooted in tradition was questioned and often replaced by new concepts in the light of philosophical reason. After the second half of the 17th century and during the 18th century, a "general process of rationalization and secularization set in," and confessional disputes were reduced to a secondary status in favor of the "escalating contest between faith and incredulity".

Question: Before the Enlightenment, most intellectual debates revoled around what subject?
Answer: "confessional"

Question: Catholic, Lutheran, Reformed (Calvinist), or Anglican issues were called what?
Answer: "confessional"

Question: During what time period did a "general process of rationalization and secularization set in"?
Answer: second half of the 17th century and during the 18th century

Question: The aim of confessional debates was to establish which bloc of faith should have what?
Answer: the "monopoly of truth and a God-given title to authority"
Age_of_Enlightenment

German historian Reinhart Koselleck claimed that "On the Continent there were two social structures that left a decisive imprint on the Age of Enlightenment: the Republic of Letters and the Masonic lodges." Scottish professor Thomas Munck argues that "although the Masons did promote international and cross-social contacts which were essentially non-religious and broadly in agreement with enlightened values, they can hardly be described as a major radical or reformist network in their own right." Many of the Masons values seemed to greatly appeal to Enlightenment values and thinkers. Diderot discusses the link between Freemason ideals and the enlightenment in D'Alembert's Dream, exploring masonry as a way of spreading enlightenment beliefs. Historian Margaret Jacob stresses the importance of the Masons in indirectly inspiring enlightened political thought. On the negative side, Daniel Roche contests claims that Masonry promoted egalitarianism. He argues that the lodges only attracted men of similar social backgrounds. The presence of noble women in the French "lodges of adoption" that formed in the 1780s was largely due to the close ties shared between these lodges and aristocratic society.

Question: According to German historian Reinhart Koselleck, which two social structures left a decisive imprint on the Age of Enlightenment?
Answer: the Republic of Letters and the Masonic lodges

Question: Which Scottish professor believes that Masons were not a major radical or reformist network in their own right?
Answer: Thomas Munck

Question: Historian Margaret Jacob stresses the importance of the Masons in indirectly inspriting what type of thinking?
Answer: political thought

Question: Daniel Roche claims that Masonry promoted what idea by only attracting men of similar social background?
Answer: egalitarianism

Question: The presence of whom in the French "lodges of adoption" formed in the 1780s was die to the close ties shared with aristocratic society?
Answer: noble women
Age_of_Enlightenment

Along with secular matters, readers also favoured an alphabetical ordering scheme over cumbersome works arranged along thematic lines. The historian Charles Porset, commenting on alphabetization, has said that "as the zero degree of taxonomy, alphabetical order authorizes all reading strategies; in this respect it could be considered an emblem of the Enlightenment." For Porset, the avoidance of thematic and hierarchical systems thus allows free interpretation of the works and becomes an example of egalitarianism. Encyclopedias and dictionaries also became more popular during the Age of Reason as the number of educated consumers who could afford such texts began to multiply. In the later half of the 18th century, the number of dictionaries and encyclopedias published by decade increased from 63 between 1760 and 1769 to approximately 148 in the decade proceeding the French Revolution (1780–1789). Along with growth in numbers, dictionaries and encyclopedias also grew in length, often having multiple print runs that sometimes included in supplemented editions.

Question: What ordering scheme did readers prefer?
Answer: alphabetical

Question: Who believed the avoidance of thematic and heirarhical systems allowed free interpretation of the works and caused them to beomce an example of eglitarianism?
Answer: Charles Porset

Question: Why did Encyclopedias and dictionaries become more popular during the Age of Reason?
Answer: the number of educated consumers who could afford such texts began to multiply

Question: How many dictionaries and encyclopedias were published between 1760 and 1769?
Answer: 63

Question: How many dictionaries and encyclopedias were published in the decade preceding the French Revolution?
Answer: 148
Age_of_Enlightenment

One of the most important developments that the Enlightenment era brought to the discipline of science was its popularization. An increasingly literate population seeking knowledge and education in both the arts and the sciences drove the expansion of print culture and the dissemination of scientific learning. The new literate population was due to a high rise in the availability of food. This enabled many people to rise out of poverty, and instead of paying more for food, they had money for education. Popularization was generally part of an overarching Enlightenment ideal that endeavoured "to make information available to the greatest number of people." As public interest in natural philosophy grew during the 18th century, public lecture courses and the publication of popular texts opened up new roads to money and fame for amateurs and scientists who remained on the periphery of universities and academies. More formal works included explanations of scientific theories for individuals lacking the educational background to comprehend the original scientific text. Sir Isaac Newton's celebrated Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica was published in Latin and remained inaccessible to readers without education in the classics until Enlightenment writers began to translate and analyze the text in the vernacular.

Question: What caused an increasingly literate population to develop in the Enlightenment era?
Answer: a high rise in the availability of food

Question: Instead of paying more for food, on what did people spend their money?
Answer: education

Question: Which ideal endeavoured to make information available to the greatest number of people?
Answer: Popularization

Question: Who wrote the celebrated Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica?
Answer: Sir Isaac Newton

Question: Which work of Isaac Newton was published in Latin and remained inaccessible to readers without education until Enlightenment writers began to translate and analyze it in the vernacular?
Answer: Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica
Nintendo_Entertainment_System

The game pad controllers were more-or-less copied directly from the Game & Watch machines, although the Famicom design team originally wanted to use arcade-style joysticks, even taking apart ones from American game consoles to see how they worked. However, it was eventually decided that children might step on joysticks left on the floor and their durability was also questioned. Katsuyah Nakawaka attached a Game & Watch D-pad to the Famicom prototype and found that it was easy to use and had no discomfort. Ultimately though, they did install a 15-pin expansion port on the front of the console so that an arcade-style joystick could be used optionally. The controllers were hard-wired to the console with no connectors for cost reasons.

Question: Who attached a Game & Watch D-pad to the Famicom prototype?
Answer: Katsuyah Nakawaka

Question: What was installed on the front of the console so the joystick could be used?
Answer: 15-pin expansion port

Question: Why were the controllers hard-wired to the console with no connectors?
Answer: cost reasons

Question: Where were the game pad controllers copied from?
Answer: Game & Watch machines

Question:  Who attached a Game & Watch C-pad to the Famicom prototype?

Question: What was installed on the front of the console so the joystick couldn't be used?

Question: Why were the controllers hard-wired to the console with multiple connectors?

Question:  Where were the game pad controllers not copied from?
Nintendo_Entertainment_System

At June 1985's Consumer Electronics Show (CES), Nintendo unveiled the American version of its Famicom. This is the system which would eventually be officially deployed as the Nintendo Entertainment System, or the colloquial "NES". Nintendo seeded these first systems to limited American test markets starting in New York City on October 18, 1985, following up with a full-fledged North American release of the console in February of the following year. Nintendo released 17 launch titles: 10-Yard Fight, Baseball, Clu Clu Land, Duck Hunt, Excitebike, Golf, Gyromite, Hogan’s Alley, Ice Climber, Kung Fu, Pinball, Soccer, Stack-Up, Tennis, Wild Gunman, Wrecking Crew, and Super Mario Bros.h[›] Some varieties of these launch games contained Famicom chips with an adapter inside the cartridge so they would play on North American consoles, which is why the title screen of Gyromite has the Famicom title "Robot Gyro" and the title screen of Stack-Up has the Famicom title "Robot Block".

Question: What was the abbreviation for Nintendo Entertainment System?
Answer: NES

Question: What day did Nintendo unveil the new systems?
Answer: October 18, 1985

Question: Where did Nintendo start unveiling the new systems?
Answer: New York City

Question: What was the name of the convention where Nintendo unveiled its American version of the Famicom?
Answer: Consumer Electronics Show

Question: What was the abbreviation for Nintendo NonEntertainment System?

Question:  What day did Nintendo not unveil the new systems?

Question:  Where did Nintendo stop unveiling the new systems?

Question: What was the name of the convention where Nintendo unveiled its American version of the Pamicom?