Divyanshu67/squad_v2 huggingface dataset:
Macintosh

In 1998, Apple introduced its new iMac which, like the original 128K Mac, was an all-in-one computer. Its translucent plastic case, originally Bondi blue and later various additional colors, is considered an industrial design landmark of the late 1990s. The iMac did away with most of Apple's standard (and usually proprietary) connections, such as SCSI and ADB, in favor of two USB ports. It replaced a floppy disk drive with a CD-ROM drive for installing software, but was incapable of writing to CDs or other media without external third-party hardware. The iMac proved to be phenomenally successful, with 800,000 units sold in 139 days. It made the company an annual profit of US$309 million, Apple's first profitable year since Michael Spindler took over as CEO in 1995. This aesthetic was applied to the Power Macintosh and later the iBook, Apple's first consumer-level laptop computer, filling the missing quadrant of Apple's "four-square product matrix" (desktop and portable products for both consumers and professionals). More than 140,000 pre-orders were placed before it started shipping in September, and by October proved to be a large success.

Question: What color was Apples new iMac, which was introduced in 1998?
Answer: Bondi blue

Question: What did the iMac replace most of Apple's standard connections with?
Answer: two USB ports

Question: What did the iMac replace the floppy disk drive with?
Answer: a CD-ROM drive

Question: What did the iMac need to use in order to write CDs or other media?
Answer: external third-party hardware

Question: How many iMac units sold in the first 139 days?
Answer: 800,000

Question: What color was Apples new iMac, which was introduced in 1999?

Question: What did the iMac replace most of Microsoft's standard connections with?

Question: What did the iMac replace the hard disk drive with?

Question: What did the iMac need to use in order to read CDs or other media?

Question: How many iMac units sold in the first 193 days?
Macintosh

Apple discontinued the use of PowerPC microprocessors in 2006. At WWDC 2005, Steve Jobs announced this transition, revealing that Mac OS X was always developed to run on both the Intel and PowerPC architectures. All new Macs now use x86 processors made by Intel, and some were renamed as a result. Intel-based Macs running OS X 10.6 and below (support has been discontinued since 10.7) can run pre-existing software developed for PowerPC using an emulator called Rosetta, although at noticeably slower speeds than native programs. However, the Classic environment is unavailable on the Intel architecture. Intel chips introduced the potential to run the Microsoft Windows operating system natively on Apple hardware, without emulation software such as Virtual PC. In March 2006, a group of hackers announced that they were able to run Windows XP on an Intel-based Mac. The group released their software as open source and has posted it for download on their website. On April 5, 2006, Apple announced the availability of the public beta of Boot Camp, software that allows owners of Intel-based Macs to install Windows XP on their machines; later versions added support for Windows Vista and Windows 7. Classic was discontinued in Mac OS X 10.5, and Boot Camp became a standard feature on Intel-based Macs.

Question: When did Apple discontinue the use of PowerPC microprocessors?
Answer: 2006

Question: Who announced the capability to run Windows XP on an Intel-based Mac in 2006?
Answer: a group of hackers

Question: How did hackers release their software for running Windows on Macs?
Answer: for download on their website

Question: When did Apple announce software that would allow Windows XP to be run on Intel-based Macs?
Answer: April 5, 2006

Question: What is the name of the software that Apple introduced for running Windows XP?
Answer: Boot Camp

Question: When did Microsoft discontinue the use of PowerPC microprocessors?

Question: Who announced the capability to run Windows XP on an Intel-based Mac in 2007?

Question: How did hackers release their software for running MacOS on Macs?

Question: When did Apple announce software that would allow Windows Vista to be run on Intel-based Macs?

Question: What is the name of the software that Apple introduced for running Windows 98?
Macintosh

Apple was initially reluctant to embrace mice with multiple buttons and scroll wheels. Macs did not natively support pointing devices that featured multiple buttons, even from third parties, until Mac OS X arrived in 2001. Apple continued to offer only single button mice, in both wired and Bluetooth wireless versions, until August 2005, when it introduced the Mighty Mouse. While it looked like a traditional one-button mouse, it actually had four buttons and a scroll ball, capable of independent x- and y-axis movement. A Bluetooth version followed in July 2006. In October 2009, Apple introduced the Magic Mouse, which uses multi-touch gesture recognition (similar to that of the iPhone) instead of a physical scroll wheel or ball. It is available only in a wireless configuration, but the wired Mighty Mouse (re-branded as "Apple Mouse") is still available as an alternative. Since 2010, Apple has also offered the Magic Trackpad as a means to control Macintosh desktop computers in a way similar to laptops.

Question: Who was initially reluctant to embrace mice with multiple buttons and scroll wheels?
Answer: Apple

Question: What was the name of the 1st multiple button mouse introduced by Apple?
Answer: Mighty Mouse

Question: How many buttons did the Mighty Mouse have?
Answer: four

Question: What did Apple introduce to take the place of a physical scroll wheel in 2009?
Answer: multi-touch gesture recognition

Question: What Apple mouse 1st used multi-touch gesture recognition?
Answer: Magic Mouse

Question: Who was initially reluctant to embrace keyboards with multiple buttons and scroll wheels?

Question: What was the name of the last multiple button mouse introduced by Apple?

Question: How many trackballs did the Mighty Mouse have?

Question: What did Apple introduce to take the place of a physical scroll wheel in 2008?

Question: What Apple mouse 1st used single-touch gesture recognition?
Macintosh

Following the release of Intel-based Macs, third-party platform virtualization software such as Parallels Desktop, VMware Fusion, and VirtualBox began to emerge. These programs allow users to run Microsoft Windows or previously Windows-only software on Macs at near native speed. Apple also released Boot Camp and Mac-specific Windows drivers that help users to install Windows XP or Vista and natively dual boot between Mac OS X and Windows. Though not condoned by Apple, it is possible to run the Linux operating system using Boot camp or other virtualization workarounds. Unlike most PCs, however, Macs are unable to run many legacy PC operating systems. In particular, Intel-based macs lack the A20 gate.

Question: What type of software began to emerge following the release of Intel-based Macs?
Answer: third-party platform virtualization

Question: At what speed do programs such as VirtualBox allow Microsoft Windows to run on Macs?
Answer: at near native speed

Question: What is possible to run by using Boot camp, even though it is not condoned by Apple?
Answer: the Linux operating system

Question: What do Macs lack that makes them unable to run many legacy PC operating systems?
Answer: the A20 gate

Question: What type of hardware began to emerge following the release of Intel-based Macs?

Question: At what speed do programs such as VirtualBox allow Microsoft DOS to run on Macs?

Question: What is possible to run by using Boot camp, even though it is not condoned by Microsoft?

Question: What do Macs lack that makes them able to run many legacy PC operating systems?

Question: What do Macs have that makes them unable to run many legacy PC operating systems?
Macintosh

Although the PC market declined, Apple still managed to ship 2.8 million MacBooks in Q2 2012 (the majority of which are the MacBook Air) compared to 500,000 total Ultrabooks, although there were dozens of Ultrabooks from various manufacturers on the market while Apple only offered 11-inch and 13-inch models of the MacBook Air. The Air has been the best-selling ultra-portable in certain countries over Windows Ultrabooks, particularly the United States. While several Ultrabooks were able to claim individual distinctions such as being the lightest or thinnest, the Air was regarded by reviewers as the best all-around subnotebook/ultraportable in regard to "OS X experience, full keyboard, superior trackpad, Thunderbolt connector and the higher-quality, all-aluminum unibody construction". The Air was among the first to receive Intel's latest CPUs before other PC manufacturers, and OS X has gained market share on Windows in recent years. Through July 1, 2013, the MacBook Air took in 56 percent of all Ultrabook sales in the United States, although being one of the higher-priced competitors, though several Ultrabooks with better features were often more expensive than the MacBook Air. The competitive pricing of MacBooks was particularly effective when rivals charged more for seemingly equivalent Ultrabooks, as this contradicted the established "elitist aura" perception that Apple products cost more but were higher quality, which made these most expensive Ultrabooks seem exorbitant no matter how valid their higher prices were.

Question: What has been the best-selling ultra-portable over Windows Ultrabooks in the U.S.?
Answer: MacBook Air

Question: What earned the title as best all-around subnotebook/ultraportable?
Answer: MacBook Air

Question: What did the Air receive before other PC manufacturers?
Answer: Intel's latest CPUs

Question: Through 7/1/13, what percentage of all Ultrabook sales in the U.S. were MacBook Airs?
Answer: 56

Question: When was the competetive pricing of MacBooks especially effective?
Answer: when rivals charged more for seemingly equivalent Ultrabooks

Question: What has been the best-selling ultra-portable over Windows Ultrabooks in the U.K.?

Question: What earned the title as worst all-around subnotebook/ultraportable?

Question: What did the Air receive before other Mac manufacturers?

Question: Through 7/1/14, what percentage of all Ultrabook sales in the U.S. were MacBook Airs?

Question: When was the competetive pricing of MacBooks especially ineffective?
Anti-aircraft_warfare

Anti-aircraft warfare or counter-air defence is defined by NATO as "all measures designed to nullify or reduce the effectiveness of hostile air action." They include ground-and air-based weapon systems, associated sensor systems, command and control arrangements and passive measures (e.g. barrage balloons). It may be used to protect naval, ground, and air forces in any location. However, for most countries the main effort has tended to be 'homeland defence'. NATO refers to airborne air defence as counter-air and naval air defence as anti-aircraft warfare. Missile defence is an extension of air defence as are initiatives to adapt air defence to the task of intercepting any projectile in flight.

Question: What is another term for anti-aircraft warfare?
Answer: counter-air defence

Question: NATO defines anti-aircraft warfare as measures to reduce what?
Answer: the effectiveness of hostile air action

Question: Barrage balloons are an example of what type of weapons system?
Answer: passive measures

Question: What is the primary effort been for most countries when it comes to anti-aircraft warfare?
Answer: homeland defence

Question: What does NATO ascribe naval air defence as?
Answer: anti-aircraft warfare
Anti-aircraft_warfare

Non-English terms for air defence include the German Flak (Fliegerabwehrkanone, "aircraft defence cannon", also cited as Flugabwehrkanone), whence English flak, and the Russian term Protivovozdushnaya oborona (Cyrillic: Противовозду́шная оборо́на), a literal translation of "anti-air defence", abbreviated as PVO. In Russian the AA systems are called zenitnye (i.e. "pointing to zenith") systems (guns, missiles etc.). In French, air defence is called DCA (Défense contre les aéronefs, "aéronef" being the generic term for all kind of airborne device (airplane, airship, balloon, missile, rocket, etc.)).

Question: What is the Russian term for air defence?
Answer: Protivovozdushnaya oborona

Question: How is the Russian term for air defence abbreviated?
Answer: PVO

Question: What are the AA systems called in Russian?
Answer: zenitnye

Question: What is air defence called in French?
Answer: DCA

Question: What is the generic term for an airplane or rocket in French?
Answer: aéronef
Anti-aircraft_warfare

Initially sensors were optical and acoustic devices developed during the First World War and continued into the 1930s, but were quickly superseded by radar, which in turn was supplemented by optronics in the 1980s. Command and control remained primitive until the late 1930s, when Britain created an integrated system for ADGB that linked the ground-based air defence of the army's AA Command, although field-deployed air defence relied on less sophisticated arrangements. NATO later called these arrangements an "air defence ground environment", defined as "the network of ground radar sites and command and control centres within a specific theatre of operations which are used for the tactical control of air defence operations".

Question: When were sensors initially developed?
Answer: during the First World War

Question: Radar was supplemented by what in the 1980s?
Answer: optronics

Question: What country created an integrated system for ADGB?
Answer: Britain

Question: What did the integrated system for ADGB link?
Answer: the ground-based air defence of the army's AA Command

Question: What agency stated that the arrangements were an air defence ground environment?
Answer: NATO
Anti-aircraft_warfare

The most extreme case was the Soviet Union, and this model may still be followed in some countries: it was a separate service, on a par with the navy or ground force. In the Soviet Union this was called Voyska PVO, and had both fighter aircraft and ground-based systems. This was divided into two arms, PVO Strany, the Strategic Air defence Service responsible for Air Defence of the Homeland, created in 1941 and becoming an independent service in 1954, and PVO SV, Air Defence of the Ground Forces. Subsequently these became part of the air force and ground forces respectively

Question: Which country had the most severe case?
Answer: Soviet Union

Question: This separate service  was known as what in the Soviet Union?
Answer: Voyska PVO

Question: What two systems did Voyska PVO have?
Answer: fighter aircraft and ground-based systems

Question: What year did the PVO Strany become independent?
Answer: 1954

Question: What was the arm that was the Air Defence of the Ground Forces?
Answer: PVO SV
Anti-aircraft_warfare

On 30 September 1915, troops of the Serbian Army observed three enemy aircraft approaching Kragujevac. Soldiers shot at them with shotguns and machine-guns but failed to prevent them from dropping 45 bombs over the city, hitting military installations, the railway station and many other, mostly civilian, targets in the city. During the bombing raid, private Radoje Ljutovac fired his cannon at the enemy aircraft and successfully shot one down. It crashed in the city and both pilots died from their injuries. The cannon Ljutovac used was not designed as an anti-aircraft gun, it was a slightly modified Turkish cannon captured during the First Balkan War in 1912. This was the first occasion in military history that a military aircraft was shot down with ground-to-air fire.

Question: When did Serbian troops notice enemy aircraft approaching Kragujevac? 
Answer: 30 September 1915

Question: How many bombs did the three aircraft drop on the city?
Answer: 45

Question: Which private shot down one aircraft with a cannon?
Answer: Radoje Ljutovac

Question: What happened to the pilots that were in the aircraft shot down?
Answer: both pilots died

Question: Which war was the cannon used in prior to this event?
Answer: First Balkan War in 1912
Anti-aircraft_warfare

AA gunnery was a difficult business. The problem was of successfully aiming a shell to burst close to its target's future position, with various factors affecting the shells' predicted trajectory. This was called deflection gun-laying, 'off-set' angles for range and elevation were set on the gunsight and updated as their target moved. In this method when the sights were on the target, the barrel was pointed at the target's future position. Range and height of the target determined fuse length. The difficulties increased as aircraft performance improved.

Question: What was the problem with AA gunnery?
Answer: successfully aiming a shell to burst close to its target's future position

Question: Different things could affect what with the shell?
Answer: predicted trajectory

Question: What was updated on the gunsight as a target moved?
Answer: 'off-set' angles for range and elevation

Question: Where was the barrel pointed when the sights were on a target?
Answer: the target's future position

Question: What two things figured the fuse length?
Answer: Range and height of the target
Anti-aircraft_warfare

World War I demonstrated that aircraft could be an important part of the battlefield, but in some nations it was the prospect of strategic air attack that was the main issue, presenting both a threat and an opportunity. The experience of four years of air attacks on London by Zeppelins and Gotha G.V bombers had particularly influenced the British and was one of if not the main driver for forming an independent air force. As the capabilities of aircraft and their engines improved it was clear that their role in future war would be even more critical as their range and weapon load grew. However, in the years immediately after World War I the prospect of another major war seemed remote, particularly in Europe where the most militarily capable nations were, and little financing was available.

Question: What showed that aircraft could be a significant contribution to the battlefield?
Answer: World War I

Question: In addition to Zeppelins, what attacked London for four years with air attacks?
Answer: Gotha G.V bombers

Question: The four year air attack was instrumental in Britain forming what?
Answer: an independent air force

Question: The future of aircraft in war situations was important because of the growth in what two areas?
Answer: their range and weapon load

Question: Where were most of the nations who had the strongest military after World War I?
Answer: Europe
Anti-aircraft_warfare

From the early 1930s eight countries developed radar, these developments were sufficiently advanced by the late 1930s for development work on sound locating acoustic devices to be generally halted, although equipment was retained. Furthermore, in Britain the volunteer Observer Corps formed in 1925 provided a network of observation posts to report hostile aircraft flying over Britain. Initially radar was used for airspace surveillance to detect approaching hostile aircraft. However, the German Würzburg radar was capable of providing data suitable for controlling AA guns and the British AA No 1 Mk 1 GL radar was designed to be used on AA gun positions.

Question: How many different countries developed radar starting in the 1930s?
Answer: eight

Question: Where was the Observer Corps based?
Answer: Britain

Question: When was the Observer Corps formed?
Answer: 1925

Question: What did the Observer Corps observe and report on?
Answer: hostile aircraft flying over Britain

Question: What was originally used to see hostile aircraft approaching?
Answer: radar
Anti-aircraft_warfare

Until this time the British, at RAF insistence, continued their World War I use of machine guns, and introduced twin MG mountings for AAAD. The army was forbidden from considering anything larger than .50-inch. However, in 1935 their trials showed that the minimum effective round was an impact fused 2 lb HE shell. The following year they decided to adopt the Bofors 40 mm and a twin barrel Vickers 2-pdr (40 mm) on a modified naval mount. The air-cooled Bofors was vastly superior for land use, being much lighter than the water-cooled pom-pom, and UK production of the Bofors 40 mm was licensed. The Predictor AA No 3, as the Kerrison Predictor was officially known, was introduced with it.

Question: Who wanted the British to keep using machine guns in World War I?
Answer: RAF

Question: The military was not allowed to use anything that was bigger than what?
Answer: .50-inch

Question: What was determined to be the smallest effective round in 1935?
Answer: an impact fused 2 lb HE shell

Question: What was lighter than the water-cooled pom-pom?
Answer: The air-cooled Bofors

Question: What is the Kerrison Predictor's official name?
Answer: The Predictor AA No 3
Anti-aircraft_warfare

During the 1930s solid fuel rockets were under development in the Soviet Union and Britain. In Britain the interest was for anti-aircraft fire, it quickly became clear that guidance would be required for precision. However, rockets, or 'unrotated projectiles' as they were called could the used for anti-aircraft barrages. A 2-inch rocket using HE or wire obstacle warheads was introduced first to deal with low-level or dive bombing attacks on smaller targets such as airfields. The 3-inch was in development at the end of the inter-war period.

Question: What was under development in both the Soviet Union and Britain in the 1930s?
Answer: solid fuel rockets

Question: Why was Britain mainly interested in solid fuel rockets?
Answer: for anti-aircraft fire

Question: What were rockets called at this time?
Answer: unrotated projectiles

Question: How big was the rocket that was introduced to handle dive bombing attacks?
Answer: 2-inch

Question: What size rocket was being developed at the end of the war?
Answer: 3-inch
Anti-aircraft_warfare

The British had already arranged licence building of the Bofors 40 mm, and introduced these into service. These had the power to knock down aircraft of any size, yet were light enough to be mobile and easily swung. The gun became so important to the British war effort that they even produced a movie, The Gun, that encouraged workers on the assembly line to work harder. The Imperial measurement production drawings the British had developed were supplied to the Americans who produced their own (unlicensed) copy of the 40 mm at the start of the war, moving to licensed production in mid-1941.

Question: What did the British get a license to build?
Answer: the Bofors 40 mm

Question: While light, the Bofors 40mm were powerful enough to take down what size aircraft?
Answer: aircraft of any size

Question: What was produced to inspire people on the assembly line to work harder?
Answer: a movie

Question: What was the movie made to inspire assembly line workers called?
Answer: The Gun

Question: Who started making an unlicensed version of the 40mm at the beginning of the war?
Answer: Americans
Anti-aircraft_warfare

The interceptor aircraft (or simply interceptor) is a type of fighter aircraft designed specifically to intercept and destroy enemy aircraft, particularly bombers, usually relying on high speed and altitude capabilities. A number of jet interceptors such as the F-102 Delta Dagger, the F-106 Delta Dart, and the MiG-25 were built in the period starting after the end of World War II and ending in the late 1960s, when they became less important due to the shifting of the strategic bombing role to ICBMs. Invariably the type is differentiated from other fighter aircraft designs by higher speeds and shorter operating ranges, as well as much reduced ordnance payloads.

Question: What kind of aircraft is used to intercept and destroy other aircraft?
Answer: The interceptor aircraft

Question: What particular aircraft did the interceptor target most?
Answer: bombers

Question: When were interceptors like the F-102 Delta Dagger first built?
Answer: after the end of World War II

Question: When were interceptors like the F-106 Delta Dart not being built anymore?
Answer: the late 1960s

Question: The interceptors were no longer built because of the shift of the bombing role to what?
Answer: ICBMs
Anti-aircraft_warfare

Another potential weapon system for anti-aircraft use is the laser. Although air planners have imagined lasers in combat since the late 1960s, only the most modern laser systems are currently reaching what could be considered "experimental usefulness". In particular the Tactical High Energy Laser can be used in the anti-aircraft and anti-missile role. If current developments continue, some[who?] believe it is reasonable to suggest that lasers will play a major role in air defence starting in the next ten years.

Question: What is another possible weapon for anti-aircraft use?
Answer: the laser

Question: When did personnel first start thinking about using lasers in combat?
Answer: the late 1960s

Question: What laser can currently be used in the type of role that was first thought of in the late 1960s?
Answer: Tactical High Energy Laser

Question: The use of lasers in anti-aircraft warfare is currently considered what?
Answer: experimental usefulness

Question: When do some people believe that lasers can play a more prominent role in air defence?
Answer: in the next ten years
Anti-aircraft_warfare

Area air defence, the air defence of a specific area or location, (as opposed to point defence), have historically been operated by both armies (Anti-Aircraft Command in the British Army, for instance) and Air Forces (the United States Air Force's CIM-10 Bomarc). Area defence systems have medium to long range and can be made up of various other systems and networked into an area defence system (in which case it may be made up of several short range systems combined to effectively cover an area). An example of area defence is the defence of Saudi Arabia and Israel by MIM-104 Patriot missile batteries during the first Gulf War, where the objective was to cover populated areas.

Question: What is the air defence of a certain area called?
Answer: Area air defence

Question: Armies as well as what group have operated area air defences?
Answer: Air Forces

Question: What U.S. Air Forces operated area air defence?
Answer: CIM-10 Bomarc

Question: What range do area defence systems have?
Answer: medium to long range

Question: What was the objective of the MIM-104 Patriot Missile batteries during the first Gulf War?
Answer: to cover populated areas
Anti-aircraft_warfare

The term air defence was probably first used by Britain when Air Defence of Great Britain (ADGB) was created as a Royal Air Force command in 1925. However, arrangements in the UK were also called 'anti-aircraft', abbreviated as AA, a term that remained in general use into the 1950s. After the First World War it was sometimes prefixed by 'Light' or 'Heavy' (LAA or HAA) to classify a type of gun or unit. Nicknames for anti-aircraft guns include AA, AAA or triple-A, an abbreviation of anti-aircraft artillery; "ack-ack" (from the spelling alphabet used by the British for voice transmission of "AA"); and archie (a World War I British term probably coined by Amyas Borton and believed to derive via the Royal Flying Corps from the music-hall comedian George Robey's line "Archibald, certainly not!").

Question: Which country probably coined the term air defence?
Answer: Britain

Question: What does ADGB stand for?
Answer: Air Defence of Great Britain

Question: What year was the ADGB created?
Answer: 1925

Question: Who is probably the one who coined the term archie for anti-aircraft guns?
Answer: Amyas Borton

Question: What George Robey line is believed to have started the archie nickname?
Answer: "Archibald, certainly not!"
Anti-aircraft_warfare

The essence of air defence is to detect hostile aircraft and destroy them. The critical issue is to hit a target moving in three-dimensional space; an attack must not only match these three coordinates, but must do so at the time the target is at that position. This means that projectiles either have to be guided to hit the target, or aimed at the predicted position of the target at the time the projectile reaches it, taking into account speed and direction of both the target and the projectile.

Question: What is the first purpose of air defence?
Answer: detect hostile aircraft

Question: What is the second purpose of air defence?
Answer: destroy them

Question: What is the critical issue in air defence?
Answer: to hit a target moving in three-dimensional space

Question: Projectiles must either be guided to the target or aimed where?
Answer: at the predicted position of the target at the time the projectile reaches it

Question: What two things must be considered in regards to the projectile and target?
Answer: speed and direction
Anti-aircraft_warfare

Passive air defence is defined by NATO as "Passive measures taken for the physical defence and protection of personnel, essential installations and equipment in order to minimize the effectiveness of air and/or missile attack". It remains a vital activity by ground forces and includes camouflage and concealment to avoid detection by reconnaissance and attacking aircraft. Measures such as camouflaging important buildings were common in the Second World War. During the Cold War the runways and taxiways of some airfields were painted green.

Question: What does NATO define as passive measures to protect people, buildings and equipment from air or missile attacks?
Answer: Passive air defence

Question: Which group is heavily responsible for passive air defence?
Answer: ground forces

Question: Passive air defence includes camouflage and what?
Answer: concealment

Question: What was camouflaged during World War II?
Answer: important buildings

Question: Some airfield runways were painted green during what war?
Answer: the Cold War
Anti-aircraft_warfare

The basic air defence unit is typically a battery with 2 to 12 guns or missile launchers and fire control elements. These batteries, particularly with guns, usually deploy in a small area, although batteries may be split; this is usual for some missile systems. SHORAD missile batteries often deploy across an area with individual launchers several kilometres apart. When MANPADS is operated by specialists, batteries may have several dozen teams deploying separately in small sections; self-propelled air defence guns may deploy in pairs.

Question: How many guns or missile launchers are typically in a battery?
Answer: 2 to 12

Question: In addition to guns or missile launchers, what else comprises the battery?
Answer: fire control elements

Question: Where do batteries typically get deployed?
Answer: in a small area

Question: Which missile batteries often have individual launchers several kilometres from one another?
Answer: SHORAD

Question: Several dozen teams can deploy individually in small sections when what is handled by a specialist?
Answer: MANPADS
Anti-aircraft_warfare

The first issue was ammunition. Before the war it was recognised that ammunition needed to explode in the air. Both high explosive (HE) and shrapnel were used, mostly the former. Airburst fuses were either igniferious (based on a burning fuse) or mechanical (clockwork). Igniferious fuses were not well suited for anti-aircraft use. The fuse length was determined by time of flight, but the burning rate of the gunpowder was affected by altitude. The British pom-poms had only contact-fused ammunition. Zeppelins, being hydrogen filled balloons, were targets for incendiary shells and the British introduced these with airburst fuses, both shrapnel type-forward projection of incendiary 'pot' and base ejection of an incendiary stream. The British also fitted tracers to their shells for use at night. Smoke shells were also available for some AA guns, these bursts were used as targets during training.

Question: It was understood that ammunition needed to explode where?
Answer: in the air

Question: In addition to high explosive, what else was used?
Answer: shrapnel

Question: Airburst fuses could be which two things?
Answer: igniferious (based on a burning fuse) or mechanical (clockwork)

Question: What were hydrogen filled balloons called?
Answer: Zeppelins

Question: What was used as targets in training practices?
Answer: Smoke shells
Anti-aircraft_warfare

Two assumptions underpinned the British approach to HAA fire; first, aimed fire was the primary method and this was enabled by predicting gun data from visually tracking the target and having its height. Second, that the target would maintain a steady course, speed and height. This HAA was to engage targets up to 24,000 feet. Mechanical, as opposed to igniferous, time fuses were required because the speed of powder burning varied with height so fuse length was not a simple function of time of flight. Automated fire ensured a constant rate of fire that made it easier to predict where each shell should be individually aimed.

Question: What was the primary method for HAA fire?
Answer: aimed fire

Question: Along with predicting the gun data from tracking the target, what else needed to be known about the target to enable the aimed fire?
Answer: its height

Question: Another assumption was that the target would maintain a steady course along with what other two factors?
Answer: speed and height

Question: Targets could be how many feet for the HAA to engage them?
Answer: 24,000 feet

Question: What kind of fuses were needed?
Answer: Mechanical
Anti-aircraft_warfare

The US ended World War I with two 3-inch AA guns and improvements were developed throughout the inter-war period. However, in 1924 work started on a new 105 mm static mounting AA gun, but only a few were produced by the mid-1930s because by this time work had started on the 90 mm AA gun, with mobile carriages and static mountings able to engage air, sea and ground targets. The M1 version was approved in 1940. During the 1920s there was some work on a 4.7-inch which lapsed, but revived in 1937, leading to a new gun in 1944.

Question: What kind of guns did the United States end WW I with?
Answer: two 3-inch AA guns

Question: When were improvements developed for these guns?
Answer: throughout the inter-war period

Question: When did work begin on the 105 mm static mounting AA gun?
Answer: 1924

Question: Only a few of the 105 mm static mounting AA guns were produced because work had started on which other gun?
Answer: 90 mm AA gun

Question: What year was the M1 version approved?
Answer: 1940
Anti-aircraft_warfare

In some countries, such as Britain and Germany during the Second World War, the Soviet Union and NATO's Allied Command Europe, ground based air defence and air defence aircraft have been under integrated command and control. However, while overall air defence may be for homeland defence including military facilities, forces in the field, wherever they are, invariably deploy their own air defence capability if there is an air threat. A surface-based air defence capability can also be deployed offensively to deny the use of airspace to an opponent.

Question: Which country's air defence and aircraft has been under integrated command and control?
Answer: Soviet Union

Question: What other group has also been under this integrated command and control?
Answer: NATO's Allied Command Europe

Question: Who will deploy their own air defence if their is an air threat?
Answer: forces in the field

Question: What can be deployed as an offensive measure to refuse airspace use to an opponent?
Answer: A surface-based air defence capability
Anti-aircraft_warfare

After World War I the US Army started developing a dual-role (AA/ground) automatic 37 mm cannon, designed by John M. Browning. It was standardised in 1927 as the T9 AA cannon, but trials quickly revealed that it was worthless in the ground role. However, while the shell was a bit light (well under 2 lbs) it had a good effective ceiling and fired 125 rounds per minute; an AA carriage was developed and it entered service in 1939. The Browning 37mm proved prone to jamming, and was eventually replaced in AA units by the Bofors 40 mm. The Bofors had attracted attention from the US Navy, but none were acquired before 1939. Also, in 1931 the US Army worked on a mobile anti-aircraft machine mount on the back of a heavy truck having four .30 caliber water-cooled machine guns and an optical director. It proved unsuccessful and was abandoned.

Question: What did the United States Army begin to develop after the first World War?
Answer: a dual-role (AA/ground) automatic 37 mm cannon

Question: Who designed this cannon?
Answer: John M. Browning

Question: How many rounds did this cannon fire per second?
Answer: 125

Question: What replaced the Browning 37nn because of jamming issues?
Answer: Bofors 40 mm

Question: What other US group was interested in the Bofors?
Answer: US Navy
Anti-aircraft_warfare

Germany's high-altitude needs were originally going to be filled by a 75 mm gun from Krupp, designed in collaboration with their Swedish counterpart Bofors, but the specifications were later amended to require much higher performance. In response Krupp's engineers presented a new 88 mm design, the FlaK 36. First used in Spain during the Spanish Civil War, the gun proved to be one of the best anti-aircraft guns in the world, as well as particularly deadly against light, medium, and even early heavy tanks.

Question: High altitude needs in Germany were going to be handled by what?
Answer: a 75 mm gun from Krupp

Question: Who also collaborated in the design of the 75 mm gun?
Answer: Bofors

Question: Because higher performance was needed, Krupp's workers designed what?
Answer: a new 88 mm design, the FlaK 36

Question: Where was the first place the FlaK 36 was used?
Answer: Spain

Question: What war was the FlaK first used in?
Answer: Spanish Civil War
Anti-aircraft_warfare

A plethora of anti-aircraft gun systems of smaller calibre were available to the German Wehrmacht combined forces, and among them the 1940-origin Flakvierling quadruple-20 mm-gun antiaircraft weapon system was one of the most often-seen weapons, seeing service on both land and sea. The similar Allied smaller-calibre air-defence weapons systems of the American forces were also quite capable, although they receive little attention. Their needs could cogently be met with smaller-calibre ordnance beyond using the usual singly-mounted M2 .50 caliber machine gun atop a tank's turret, as four of the ground-used "heavy barrel" (M2HB) guns were mounted together on the American Maxson firm's M45 Quadmount weapons system (as a direct answer to the Flakvierling),which were often mounted on the back of a half-track to form the Half Track, M16 GMC, Anti-Aircraft. Although of less power than Germany's 20 mm systems, the typical 4 or 5 combat batteries of an Army AAA battalion were often spread many kilometers apart from each other, rapidly attaching and detaching to larger ground combat units to provide welcome defence from enemy aircraft.

Question: What was one of the most often seen weapons that was used both on land and sea?
Answer: 1940-origin Flakvierling quadruple-20 mm-gun antiaircraft weapon system

Question: What weapons system did American troops use but received minute attention?
Answer: Allied smaller-calibre air-defence weapons systems

Question: How many of the M2HB guns were mounted together on the M45 Quadmount weapons system?
Answer: four

Question: This system was a direct answer to what?
Answer: the Flakvierling

Question: The combat batteries of an Army AAA battalion were often spread how far apart from each other?
Answer: many kilometers
Anti-aircraft_warfare

Another aspect of anti-aircraft defence was the use of barrage balloons to act as physical obstacle initially to bomber aircraft over cities and later for ground attack aircraft over the Normandy invasion fleets. The balloon, a simple blimp tethered to the ground, worked in two ways. Firstly, it and the steel cable were a danger to any aircraft that tried to fly among them. Secondly, to avoid the balloons, bombers had to fly at a higher altitude, which was more favorable for the guns. Barrage balloons were limited in application, and had minimal success at bringing down aircraft, being largely immobile and passive defences.

Question: What acted as a physical obstacle to anti-aircraft defence?
Answer: barrage balloons

Question: What were barrage balloons initially used as an obstacle to?
Answer: bomber aircraft over cities

Question: How was a barrage balloon tethered to the ground?
Answer: steel cable

Question: What did pilots have to do to avoid the barrage balloons?
Answer: fly at a higher altitude

Question: What kind of success did barrage balloons have as far as bringing down aircraft?
Answer: minimal
Anti-aircraft_warfare

The maximum distance at which a gun or missile can engage an aircraft is an important figure. However, many different definitions are used but unless the same definition is used, performance of different guns or missiles cannot be compared. For AA guns only the ascending part of the trajectory can be usefully used. One term is 'ceiling', maximum ceiling being the height a projectile would reach if fired vertically, not practically useful in itself as few AA guns are able to fire vertically, and maximum fuse duration may be too short, but potentially useful as a standard to compare different weapons.

Question: What is an important number when it comes to guns engaging an aircraft?
Answer: The maximum distance

Question: What can be used to determine the maximum distance for an AA gun?
Answer: only the ascending part of the trajectory

Question: What is the term used to describe the height that a projectile would go to if it was fired vertically?
Answer: maximum ceiling

Question: Few AA guns are able to fire which way?
Answer: vertically
Anti-aircraft_warfare

As this process continued, the missile found itself being used for more and more of the roles formerly filled by guns. First to go were the large weapons, replaced by equally large missile systems of much higher performance. Smaller missiles soon followed, eventually becoming small enough to be mounted on armored cars and tank chassis. These started replacing, or at least supplanting, similar gun-based SPAAG systems in the 1960s, and by the 1990s had replaced almost all such systems in modern armies. Man-portable missiles, MANPADs as they are known today, were introduced in the 1960s and have supplanted or even replaced even the smallest guns in most advanced armies.

Question: The missile started being used more often instead of what weapon?
Answer: guns

Question: Small missiles were designed that could be mounted on what?
Answer: armored cars and tank chassis

Question: When did these missiles start to supplant gun-based SPAAG systems?
Answer: in the 1960s

Question: What are man-portable missiles better known as?
Answer: MANPADs

Question: When were MANPADs introduced?
Answer: the 1960s
Anti-aircraft_warfare

Unlike the heavier guns, these smaller weapons are in widespread use due to their low cost and ability to quickly follow the target. Classic examples of autocannons and large caliber guns are the 40 mm autocannon and the 8.8 cm FlaK 18, 36 gun, both designed by Bofors of Sweden. Artillery weapons of this sort have for the most part been superseded by the effective surface-to-air missile systems that were introduced in the 1950s, although they were still retained by many nations. The development of surface-to-air missiles began in Nazi Germany during the late World War II with missiles such as the Wasserfall, though no working system was deployed before the war's end, and represented new attempts to increase effectiveness of the anti-aircraft systems faced with growing threat from [bomber]s. Land-based SAMs can be deployed from fixed installations or mobile launchers, either wheeled or tracked. The tracked vehicles are usually armoured vehicles specifically designed to carry SAMs.

Question: Smaller weapons are able to be used because of their low cost as well as what other factor?
Answer: ability to quickly follow the target

Question: Who designed the 40 mm autocannon?
Answer: Bofors of Sweden

Question: When were the surface-to-air missile systems introduced?
Answer: 1950s

Question: Where were surface-to-air missiles first developed?
Answer: in Nazi Germany

Question: How can land-based SAMs be deployed?
Answer: from fixed installations or mobile launchers
Anti-aircraft_warfare

Smaller boats and ships typically have machine-guns or fast cannons, which can often be deadly to low-flying aircraft if linked to a radar-directed fire-control system radar-controlled cannon for point defence. Some vessels like Aegis cruisers are as much a threat to aircraft as any land-based air defence system. In general, naval vessels should be treated with respect by aircraft, however the reverse is equally true. Carrier battle groups are especially well defended, as not only do they typically consist of many vessels with heavy air defence armament but they are also able to launch fighter jets for combat air patrol overhead to intercept incoming airborne threats.

Question: What kind of weapons can usually be found on smaller boats and ships?
Answer: machine-guns or fast cannons

Question: These weapons can be deadly to aircraft that is low if it is linked to what?
Answer: a radar-directed fire-control system radar-controlled cannon for point defence

Question: What type of ships are particularly well defended?
Answer: Carrier battle groups

Question: Carrier battle groups can launch what to intercept incoming threats?
Answer: fighter jets
Anti-aircraft_warfare

Rocket-propelled grenades can be—and often are—used against hovering helicopters (e.g., by Somali militiamen during the Battle of Mogadishu (1993)). Firing an RPG at steep angles poses a danger to the user, because the backblast from firing reflects off the ground. In Somalia, militia members sometimes welded a steel plate in the exhaust end of an RPG's tube to deflect pressure away from the shooter when shooting up at US helicopters. RPGs are used in this role only when more effective weapons are not available.

Question: What type of weapon can be used against hovering helicopters?
Answer: Rocket-propelled grenades

Question: When an RPG is fired at a steep angle, who is in danger?
Answer: the user

Question: An RPG fired at a steep angle has what reflecting off the ground?
Answer: the backblast

Question: What did some militia members in Somalia weld in the exhaust of the RPG tube to protect the shooter?
Answer: a steel plate

Question: What were the Somalian militia members firing RPGs at?
Answer: US helicopters
Anti-aircraft_warfare

The British adopted "effective ceiling", meaning the altitude at which a gun could deliver a series of shells against a moving target; this could be constrained by maximum fuse running time as well as the gun's capability. By the late 1930s the British definition was "that height at which a directly approaching target at 400 mph (=643.6 km/h) can be engaged for 20 seconds before the gun reaches 70 degrees elevation". However, effective ceiling for heavy AA guns was affected by non-ballistic factors:

Question: What term is used to describe the altitude for a gun to shoot shells against a target that is moving?
Answer: "effective ceiling"

Question: Who adopted the use of the term, effective ceiling?
Answer: The British

Question: Along with other factors, how long must a target be engaged to have effective ceiling?
Answer: for 20 seconds

Question: What affected the effective ceiling for heavy AA guns?
Answer: non-ballistic factors