Divyanshu67/squad_v2 huggingface dataset:
On_the_Origin_of_Species

Chapter VI begins by saying the next three chapters will address possible objections to the theory, the first being that often no intermediate forms between closely related species are found, though the theory implies such forms must have existed. As Darwin noted, "Firstly, why, if species have descended from other species by insensibly fine gradations, do we not everywhere see innumerable transitional forms? Why is not all nature in confusion, instead of the species being, as we see them, well defined?" Darwin attributed this to the competition between different forms, combined with the small number of individuals of intermediate forms, often leading to extinction of such forms. This difficulty can be referred to as the absence or rarity of transitional varieties in habitat space.

Question: What is one possible objection to the theory of integrated variation?
Answer: often no intermediate forms between closely related species are found

Question: Why did Darwin wonder why all of nature isn't chaotic and random?
Answer: why, if species have descended from other species by insensibly fine gradations, do we not everywhere see innumerable transitional forms?

Question: What did Darwin ultimately decide was the reason that nature is not a chaos of variation?
Answer: the competition between different forms, combined with the small number of individuals of intermediate forms, often leading to extinction of such forms.
On_the_Origin_of_Species

His answer was that in many cases animals exist with intermediate structures that are functional. He presented flying squirrels, and flying lemurs as examples of how bats might have evolved from non-flying ancestors. He discussed various simple eyes found in invertebrates, starting with nothing more than an optic nerve coated with pigment, as examples of how the vertebrate eye could have evolved. Darwin concludes: "If it could be demonstrated that any complex organ existed, which could not possibly have been formed by numerous, successive, slight modifications, my theory would absolutely break down. But I can find out no such case."

Question: What are some flying animals that Darwin thought might have evolved from bats?
Answer: flying squirrels, and flying lemurs

Question: What example did Darwin give of eyes evolving?
Answer: simple eyes found in invertebrates, starting with nothing more than an optic nerve coated with pigment

Question: How did Darwin justify his theory not breaking down?
Answer: any complex organ existed, which could not possibly have been formed by numerous, successive, slight modifications, my theory would absolutely break down.
On_the_Origin_of_Species

Chapter VII (of the first edition) addresses the evolution of instincts. His examples included two he had investigated experimentally: slave-making ants and the construction of hexagonal cells by honey bees. Darwin noted that some species of slave-making ants were more dependent on slaves than others, and he observed that many ant species will collect and store the pupae of other species as food. He thought it reasonable that species with an extreme dependency on slave workers had evolved in incremental steps. He suggested that bees that make hexagonal cells evolved in steps from bees that made round cells, under pressure from natural selection to economise wax. Darwin concluded:

Question: How does Darwin theorize that instincts have evolved in slave-making ants?
Answer: He thought it reasonable that species with an extreme dependency on slave workers had evolved in incremental steps.

Question: How does Darwin theorize that instincts have evolved in bees?
Answer: He suggested that bees that make hexagonal cells evolved in steps from bees that made round cells, under pressure from natural selection to economise wax

Question: What did Darwin notice specifically about slave-making ants?
Answer: some species of slave-making ants were more dependent on slaves than others
On_the_Origin_of_Species

Chapter VIII addresses the idea that species had special characteristics that prevented hybrids from being fertile in order to preserve separately created species. Darwin said that, far from being constant, the difficulty in producing hybrids of related species, and the viability and fertility of the hybrids, varied greatly, especially among plants. Sometimes what were widely considered to be separate species produced fertile hybrid offspring freely, and in other cases what were considered to be mere varieties of the same species could only be crossed with difficulty. Darwin concluded: "Finally, then, the facts briefly given in this chapter do not seem to me opposed to, but even rather to support the view, that there is no fundamental distinction between species and varieties."

Question: Why would hybrids have characteristics that keep them from being fertile?
Answer: in order to preserve separately created species

Question: What are Darwin's thoughts on producing hybrids of related species?
Answer: the viability and fertility of the hybrids, varied greatly, especially among plants

Question: What conclusion did Darwin come to after realizing that some diverse species were able to create variations easily, while other species thought to be closely related had difficulty?
Answer: support the view, that there is no fundamental distinction between species and varieties
On_the_Origin_of_Species

In the sixth edition Darwin inserted a new chapter VII (renumbering the subsequent chapters) to respond to criticisms of earlier editions, including the objection that many features of organisms were not adaptive and could not have been produced by natural selection. He said some such features could have been by-products of adaptive changes to other features, and that often features seemed non-adaptive because their function was unknown, as shown by his book on Fertilisation of Orchids that explained how their elaborate structures facilitated pollination by insects. Much of the chapter responds to George Jackson Mivart's criticisms, including his claim that features such as baleen filters in whales, flatfish with both eyes on one side and the camouflage of stick insects could not have evolved through natural selection because intermediate stages would not have been adaptive. Darwin proposed scenarios for the incremental evolution of each feature.

Question: Why did Darwin introduce a new chapter in On the Origin of Species in the sixth edition?
Answer: to respond to criticisms of earlier editions

Question: What was one of the objections that Darwin addressed in his new chapter in On the Origin of Species?
Answer: that many features of organisms were not adaptive and could not have been produced by natural selection

Question: Which of Darwin's books featured a plant whose elaborate structure aided with fertilization by insects?
Answer: Fertilisation of Orchids

Question: Which scientist was addressed the most often in the new chapter of On the Origin of Species?
Answer: George Jackson Mivart

Question: What was Darwin's response to the claims that certain animals could not have evolved through natural selection?
Answer: Darwin proposed scenarios for the incremental evolution of each feature.
On_the_Origin_of_Species

Chapter IX deals with the fact that the geologic record appears to show forms of life suddenly arising, without the innumerable transitional fossils expected from gradual changes. Darwin borrowed Charles Lyell's argument in Principles of Geology that the record is extremely imperfect as fossilisation is a very rare occurrence, spread over vast periods of time; since few areas had been geologically explored, there could only be fragmentary knowledge of geological formations, and fossil collections were very poor. Evolved local varieties which migrated into a wider area would seem to be the sudden appearance of a new species. Darwin did not expect to be able to reconstruct evolutionary history, but continuing discoveries gave him well founded hope that new finds would occasionally reveal transitional forms. To show that there had been enough time for natural selection to work slowly, he again cited Principles of Geology and other observations based on sedimentation and erosion, including an estimate that erosion of The Weald had taken 300 million years. The initial appearance of entire groups of well developed organisms in the oldest fossil-bearing layers, now known as the Cambrian explosion, posed a problem. Darwin had no doubt that earlier seas had swarmed with living creatures, but stated that he had no satisfactory explanation for the lack of fossils. Fossil evidence of pre-Cambrian life has since been found, extending the history of life back for billions of years.

Question: Whose argument did Darwin borrow that geological record is very imperfect, because fossilization is rare?
Answer: Charles Lyell

Question: Which book written by Charles Lyell contains the argument that fossils are too rare to be used as proof of life suddenly arising?
Answer: Principles of Geology

Question: What did Darwin hope to find as he continued to explore new geologic discoveries?
Answer: that new finds would occasionally reveal transitional forms

Question: How long did Darwin estimate the erosion of the Weald to be?
Answer: 300 million years

Question: What is the name of the group of well-developed organisms that were discovered within fossil-bearing layers?
Answer: the Cambrian explosion
On_the_Origin_of_Species

Chapter X examines whether patterns in the fossil record are better explained by common descent and branching evolution through natural selection, than by the individual creation of fixed species. Darwin expected species to change slowly, but not at the same rate – some organisms such as Lingula were unchanged since the earliest fossils. The pace of natural selection would depend on variability and change in the environment. This distanced his theory from Lamarckian laws of inevitable progress. It has been argued that this anticipated the punctuated equilibrium hypothesis, but other scholars have preferred to emphasise Darwin's commitment to gradualism. He cited Richard Owen's findings that the earliest members of a class were a few simple and generalised species with characteristics intermediate between modern forms, and were followed by increasingly diverse and specialised forms, matching the branching of common descent from an ancestor. Patterns of extinction matched his theory, with related groups of species having a continued existence until extinction, then not reappearing. Recently extinct species were more similar to living species than those from earlier eras, and as he had seen in South America, and William Clift had shown in Australia, fossils from recent geological periods resembled species still living in the same area.

Question: How did Darwin expect species to change and evolve?
Answer: slowly, but not at the same rate

Question: What did Darwin believe were the key things needed for variation of species to form?
Answer: variability and change in the environment

Question: Which scientist theorized that the earliest members of a class in a species were simple and generalized?
Answer: Richard Owen

Question: What did Darwin discover about more recently extinct species?
Answer: Recently extinct species were more similar to living species than those from earlier eras
On_the_Origin_of_Species

Chapter XI deals with evidence from biogeography, starting with the observation that differences in flora and fauna from separate regions cannot be explained by environmental differences alone; South America, Africa, and Australia all have regions with similar climates at similar latitudes, but those regions have very different plants and animals. The species found in one area of a continent are more closely allied with species found in other regions of that same continent than to species found on other continents. Darwin noted that barriers to migration played an important role in the differences between the species of different regions. The coastal sea life of the Atlantic and Pacific sides of Central America had almost no species in common even though the Isthmus of Panama was only a few miles wide. His explanation was a combination of migration and descent with modification. He went on to say: "On this principle of inheritance with modification, we can understand how it is that sections of genera, whole genera, and even families are confined to the same areas, as is so commonly and notoriously the case." Darwin explained how a volcanic island formed a few hundred miles from a continent might be colonised by a few species from that continent. These species would become modified over time, but would still be related to species found on the continent, and Darwin observed that this was a common pattern. Darwin discussed ways that species could be dispersed across oceans to colonise islands, many of which he had investigated experimentally.

Question: Why couldn't differences in flora and fauna be explained by differences in regions alone?
Answer: South America, Africa, and Australia all have regions with similar climates at similar latitudes, but those regions have very different plants and animals

Question: What did Darwin consider that could explain why different regions could have such different species when they are close together?
Answer: barriers to migration played an important role in the differences between the species of different regions.

Question: What was the combination of effects that Darwin considered the most important in determining the differences in species that evolved separately in similar environments?
Answer: His explanation was a combination of migration and descent with modification.
On_the_Origin_of_Species

Darwin discusses morphology, including the importance of homologous structures. He says, "What can be more curious than that the hand of a man, formed for grasping, that of a mole for digging, the leg of the horse, the paddle of the porpoise, and the wing of the bat, should all be constructed on the same pattern, and should include the same bones, in the same relative positions?" He notes that animals of the same class often have extremely similar embryos. Darwin discusses rudimentary organs, such as the wings of flightless birds and the rudiments of pelvis and leg bones found in some snakes. He remarks that some rudimentary organs, such as teeth in baleen whales, are found only in embryonic stages.

Question: What theory does Darwin discuss that is related to the importance of homologous structures?
Answer: morphology

Question: What are some examples that Darwin gives of species whose basic form of limbs is similar, but who have vastly different uses for them?
Answer: the hand of a man, formed for grasping, that of a mole for digging, the leg of the horse, the paddle of the porpoise, and the wing of the bat

Question: What does Darwin note about the embryos of many different species in the same class?
Answer: animals of the same class often have extremely similar embryos

Question: What are some examples of rudimentary organs that Darwin discusses in the chapter?
Answer: e wings of flightless birds and the rudiments of pelvis and leg bones found in some snakes
On_the_Origin_of_Species

The final chapter reviews points from earlier chapters, and Darwin concludes by hoping that his theory might produce revolutionary changes in many fields of natural history. Although he avoids the controversial topic of human origins in the rest of the book so as not to prejudice readers against his theory, here he ventures a cautious hint that psychology would be put on a new foundation and that "Light will be thrown on the origin of man". Darwin ends with a passage that became well known and much quoted:

Question: What hopes does Darwin have for his theory in the natural history fields?
Answer: that his theory might produce revolutionary changes

Question: Why did Darwin avoid the topic of the origins of humans in most of his book?
Answer: so as not to prejudice readers against his theory

Question: What does Darwin allude to hoping in the final chapter of On the Origin of Species about humans?
Answer: that psychology would be put on a new foundation and that "Light will be thrown on the origin of man"
On_the_Origin_of_Species

Darwin's aims were twofold: to show that species had not been separately created, and to show that natural selection had been the chief agent of change. He knew that his readers were already familiar with the concept of transmutation of species from Vestiges, and his introduction ridicules that work as failing to provide a viable mechanism. Therefore, the first four chapters lay out his case that selection in nature, caused by the struggle for existence, is analogous to the selection of variations under domestication, and that the accumulation of adaptive variations provides a scientifically testable mechanism for evolutionary speciation.

Question: What were Darwin's two important aims about evolution?
Answer: to show that species had not been separately created, and to show that natural selection had been the chief agent of change

Question: What did heknow his readers were already familiar with from Vestiges?
Answer: the concept of transmutation of species

Question: How did Darwin view Vestiges in the introduction to On the Origin of Species?
Answer: his introduction ridicules that work as failing to provide a viable mechanism.

Question: What is Darwin's belief about the accumulation of adaptive variations?
Answer: the accumulation of adaptive variations provides a scientifically testable mechanism for evolutionary speciation.
On_the_Origin_of_Species

Later chapters provide evidence that evolution has occurred, supporting the idea of branching, adaptive evolution without directly proving that selection is the mechanism. Darwin presents supporting facts drawn from many disciplines, showing that his theory could explain a myriad of observations from many fields of natural history that were inexplicable under the alternate concept that species had been individually created. The structure of Darwin's argument showed the influence of John Herschel, whose philosophy of science maintained that a mechanism could be called a vera causa (true cause) if three things could be demonstrated: its existence in nature, its ability to produce the effects of interest, and its ability to explain a wide range of observations.

Question: What does Darwin do to show that his theory can support many theories that could not be explained by individual creation of species?
Answer: Darwin presents supporting facts drawn from many disciplines

Question: Whose scientific philosophy argued that a mechanism could be called a vera causa if three things could be shown as true?
Answer: John Herschel

Question: What are the three things John Herschel maintains need to be shown to allow for a mechanism be called a true cause?
Answer: its existence in nature, its ability to produce the effects of interest, and its ability to explain a wide range of observations
On_the_Origin_of_Species

While the book was readable enough to sell, its dryness ensured that it was seen as aimed at specialist scientists and could not be dismissed as mere journalism or imaginative fiction. Unlike the still-popular Vestiges, it avoided the narrative style of the historical novel and cosmological speculation, though the closing sentence clearly hinted at cosmic progression. Darwin had long been immersed in the literary forms and practices of specialist science, and made effective use of his skills in structuring arguments. David Quammen has described the book as written in everyday language for a wide audience, but noted that Darwin's literary style was uneven: in some places he used convoluted sentences that are difficult to read, while in other places his writing was beautiful. Quammen advised that later editions were weakened by Darwin making concessions and adding details to address his critics, and recommended the first edition. James T. Costa said that because the book was an abstract produced in haste in response to Wallace's essay, it was more approachable than the big book on natural selection Darwin had been working on, which would have been encumbered by scholarly footnotes and much more technical detail. He added that some parts of Origin are dense, but other parts are almost lyrical, and the case studies and observations are presented in a narrative style unusual in serious scientific books, which broadened its audience.

Question: What element of On the Origin of Species ensured that the book would be taken seriously by scientists?
Answer: its dryness ensured that it was seen as aimed at specialist scientists and could not be dismissed as mere journalism or imaginative fiction.

Question: What did On Origin of Species avoid in order to raise its chance of being taken seriously?
Answer: it avoided the narrative style of the historical novel and cosmological speculation

Question: What reason did David Quammen believe that On the Origin of Species was weakened in later editions?
Answer: Darwin making concessions and adding details to address his critics

Question: Why did James T. Costa think that On the Origin of Species was more likely to draw interest than a larger book that Darwin had been working on?
Answer: because the book was an abstract produced in haste in response to Wallace's essay

Question: Why did James T. Costa think the larger, abandoned book would not have been as successful?
Answer: would have been encumbered by scholarly footnotes and much more technical detail
On_the_Origin_of_Species

Scientific readers were already aware of arguments that species changed through processes that were subject to laws of nature, but the transmutational ideas of Lamarck and the vague "law of development" of Vestiges had not found scientific favour. Darwin presented natural selection as a scientifically testable mechanism while accepting that other mechanisms such as inheritance of acquired characters were possible. His strategy established that evolution through natural laws was worthy of scientific study, and by 1875, most scientists accepted that evolution occurred but few thought natural selection was significant. Darwin's scientific method was also disputed, with his proponents favouring the empiricism of John Stuart Mill's A System of Logic, while opponents held to the idealist school of William Whewell's Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences, in which investigation could begin with the intuitive truth that species were fixed objects created by design. Early support for Darwin's ideas came from the findings of field naturalists studying biogeography and ecology, including Joseph Dalton Hooker in 1860, and Asa Gray in 1862. Henry Walter Bates presented research in 1861 that explained insect mimicry using natural selection. Alfred Russel Wallace discussed evidence from his Malay archipelago research, including an 1864 paper with an evolutionary explanation for the Wallace line.

Question: What was the general response from scientific readers to Lamarck's written work?
Answer: the transmutational ideas of Lamarck and the vague "law of development" of Vestiges had not found scientific favour

Question: What was the likely reason that Darwin's ideas were accepted more readily than Lamarck's?
Answer: natural selection as a scientifically testable mechanism while accepting that other mechanisms such as inheritance of acquired characters were possible.

Question: Which school did opponents to Darwin's method support?
Answer: the idealist school of William Whewell's Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences

Question: Where did early support for Darwin's findings come from?
Answer: the findings of field naturalists studying biogeography and ecology, including Joseph Dalton Hooker in 1860, and Asa Gray in 1862

Question: Who authored research supporting insect mimicry  using natural selection?
Answer: Henry Walter Bates
On_the_Origin_of_Species

Evolution had less obvious applications to anatomy and morphology, and at first had little impact on the research of the anatomist Thomas Henry Huxley. Despite this, Huxley strongly supported Darwin on evolution; though he called for experiments to show whether natural selection could form new species, and questioned if Darwin's gradualism was sufficient without sudden leaps to cause speciation. Huxley wanted science to be secular, without religious interference, and his article in the April 1860 Westminster Review promoted scientific naturalism over natural theology, praising Darwin for "extending the domination of Science over regions of thought into which she has, as yet, hardly penetrated" and coining the term "Darwinism" as part of his efforts to secularise and professionalise science. Huxley gained influence, and initiated the X Club, which used the journal Nature to promote evolution and naturalism, shaping much of late Victorian science. Later, the German morphologist Ernst Haeckel would convince Huxley that comparative anatomy and palaeontology could be used to reconstruct evolutionary genealogies.

Question: Who supported Darwin's theories on evolution despite it having little impact on his own research?
Answer: Thomas Henry Huxley

Question: What did Huxley's 1860 article in the Westminster Review promote?
Answer: scientific naturalism over natural theology

Question: Why did Huxley coin the name "Darwinism?"
Answer: as part of his efforts to secularise and professionalise science

Question: What did the morphologist Ernst Haeckel convince Huxley of about comparative anatomy and paleontology?
Answer: that comparative anatomy and palaeontology could be used to reconstruct evolutionary genealogies
On_the_Origin_of_Species

The leading naturalist in Britain was the anatomist Richard Owen, an idealist who had shifted to the view in the 1850s that the history of life was the gradual unfolding of a divine plan. Owen's review of the Origin in the April 1860 Edinburgh Review bitterly attacked Huxley, Hooker and Darwin, but also signalled acceptance of a kind of evolution as a teleological plan in a continuous "ordained becoming", with new species appearing by natural birth. Others that rejected natural selection, but supported "creation by birth", included the Duke of Argyll who explained beauty in plumage by design. Since 1858, Huxley had emphasised anatomical similarities between apes and humans, contesting Owen's view that humans were a separate sub-class. Their disagreement over human origins came to the fore at the British Association for the Advancement of Science meeting featuring the legendary 1860 Oxford evolution debate. In two years of acrimonious public dispute that Charles Kingsley satirised as the "Great Hippocampus Question" and parodied in The Water-Babies as the "great hippopotamus test", Huxley showed that Owen was incorrect in asserting that ape brains lacked a structure present in human brains. Others, including Charles Lyell and Alfred Russel Wallace, thought that humans shared a common ancestor with apes, but higher mental faculties could not have evolved through a purely material process. Darwin published his own explanation in the Descent of Man (1871).

Question: Who was the leading naturalist in Britain?
Answer: Richard Owen,

Question: How did Owen respond to On the Origin of Species with his review?
Answer: bitterly attacked Huxley, Hooker and Darwin, but also signalled acceptance of a kind of evolution as a teleological plan in a continuous "ordained becoming"

Question: What was the debate between Huxley and Owen concerning humans and apes?
Answer: Huxley had emphasised anatomical similarities between apes and humans, contesting Owen's view that humans were a separate sub-class

Question: What was the primary debate at the British Association for the Advancement of Science meeting of 1860?
Answer: legendary 1860 Oxford evolution debate

Question: When did Darwin publish his own explanation of the question of the evolution of man and ape?
Answer: Darwin published his own explanation in the Descent of Man (1871)
On_the_Origin_of_Species

Evolutionary ideas, although not natural selection, were accepted by German biologists accustomed to ideas of homology in morphology from Goethe's Metamorphosis of Plants and from their long tradition of comparative anatomy. Bronn's alterations in his German translation added to the misgivings of conservatives, but enthused political radicals. Ernst Haeckel was particularly ardent, aiming to synthesise Darwin's ideas with those of Lamarck and Goethe while still reflecting the spirit of Naturphilosophie. Their ambitious programme to reconstruct the evolutionary history of life was joined by Huxley and supported by discoveries in palaeontology. Haeckel used embryology extensively in his recapitulation theory, which embodied a progressive, almost linear model of evolution. Darwin was cautious about such histories, and had already noted that von Baer's laws of embryology supported his idea of complex branching.

Question: While evolutionary ideas were accepted by German biologists, what was not?
Answer: natural selection

Question: What led to more misgivings of conservative scientists when Bronn's German translation of On the Origin of Species was published?
Answer: Bronn's alterations in his German translation added to the misgivings of conservatives

Question: Which group of people was excited by the German translation of On the Origin of Species?
Answer: political radicals

Question: Why were political radicals such as Ernst Haekel so interested in On the Origin of Species?
Answer: aiming to synthesise Darwin's ideas with those of Lamarck and Goethe while still reflecting the spirit of Naturphilosophie
On_the_Origin_of_Species

French-speaking naturalists in several countries showed appreciation of the much modified French translation by Clémence Royer, but Darwin's ideas had little impact in France, where any scientists supporting evolutionary ideas opted for a form of Lamarckism. The intelligentsia in Russia had accepted the general phenomenon of evolution for several years before Darwin had published his theory, and scientists were quick to take it into account, although the Malthusian aspects were felt to be relatively unimportant. The political economy of struggle was criticised as a British stereotype by Karl Marx and by Leo Tolstoy, who had the character Levin in his novel Anna Karenina voice sharp criticism of the morality of Darwin's views.

Question: What was the general feeling toward Darwin's ideas in France?
Answer: Darwin's ideas had little impact in France, where any scientists supporting evolutionary ideas opted for a form of Lamarckism

Question: What people in what country had embraced the idea of evolution for many years before Darwin published his theory?
Answer: The intelligentsia in Russia

Question: Which aspects of evolution theory were thought to be unimportant by many who read Darwin's work?
Answer: the Malthusian aspects

Question: Which author voiced his displeasure of the morality of Darwin's views in a novel?
Answer: Leo Tolstoy
On_the_Origin_of_Species

There were serious scientific objections to the process of natural selection as the key mechanism of evolution, including Karl von Nägeli's insistence that a trivial characteristic with no adaptive advantage could not be developed by selection. Darwin conceded that these could be linked to adaptive characteristics. His estimate that the age of the Earth allowed gradual evolution was disputed by William Thomson (later awarded the title Lord Kelvin), who calculated that it had cooled in less than 100 million years. Darwin accepted blending inheritance, but Fleeming Jenkin calculated that as it mixed traits, natural selection could not accumulate useful traits. Darwin tried to meet these objections in the 5th edition. Mivart supported directed evolution, and compiled scientific and religious objections to natural selection. In response, Darwin made considerable changes to the sixth edition. The problems of the age of the Earth and heredity were only resolved in the 20th century.

Question: What justification for his objections to the process of natural selection did Karl von Nägel give?
Answer: insistence that a trivial characteristic with no adaptive advantage could not be developed by selection

Question: What was Darwin's concession to Karl von Nägel's objections?
Answer: Darwin conceded that these could be linked to adaptive characteristics

Question: Who disputed Darwin's estimate that the age of the earth allowed gradual evolution of species?
Answer: William Thomson

Question: What were William Thomson's reasons for disputing Darwin's estimate?
Answer: calculated that it had cooled in less than 100 million years

Question: When were the problems of the earth and heredity resolved?
Answer: in the 20th century
On_the_Origin_of_Species

By the mid-1870s, most scientists accepted evolution, but relegated natural selection to a minor role as they believed evolution was purposeful and progressive. The range of evolutionary theories during "the eclipse of Darwinism" included forms of "saltationism" in which new species were thought to arise through "jumps" rather than gradual adaptation, forms of orthogenesis claiming that species had an inherent tendency to change in a particular direction, and forms of neo-Lamarckism in which inheritance of acquired characteristics led to progress. The minority view of August Weismann, that natural selection was the only mechanism, was called neo-Darwinism. It was thought that the rediscovery of Mendelian inheritance invalidated Darwin's views.

Question: Why did most scientists accept the validity of evolution by the 1870s, but considered natural selection a minor part of it?
Answer: they believed evolution was purposeful and progressive.

Question: What was meant by the term saltationism?
Answer: new species were thought to arise through "jumps" rather than gradual adaptation

Question: What is the term for the belief that species have a tendency to change and adapt in a certain direction?
Answer: orthogenesis

Question: What was the minority view on evolution that was believed by August Weismann?
Answer: neo-Darwinism

Question: What rediscovered inheritance was thought to invalidate Darwin's views on evolution?
Answer: Mendelian inheritance
On_the_Origin_of_Species

While some, like Spencer, used analogy from natural selection as an argument against government intervention in the economy to benefit the poor, others, including Alfred Russel Wallace, argued that action was needed to correct social and economic inequities to level the playing field before natural selection could improve humanity further. Some political commentaries, including Walter Bagehot's Physics and Politics (1872), attempted to extend the idea of natural selection to competition between nations and between human races. Such ideas were incorporated into what was already an ongoing effort by some working in anthropology to provide scientific evidence for the superiority of Caucasians over non white races and justify European imperialism. Historians write that most such political and economic commentators had only a superficial understanding of Darwin's scientific theory, and were as strongly influenced by other concepts about social progress and evolution, such as the Lamarckian ideas of Spencer and Haeckel, as they were by Darwin's work. Darwin objected to his ideas being used to justify military aggression and unethical business practices as he believed morality was part of fitness in humans, and he opposed polygenism, the idea that human races were fundamentally distinct and did not share a recent common ancestry.

Question: Who believed that action needed to be taken to level out the social and economic playing field before natural selection could occur to improve humanity?
Answer: Alfred Russel Wallace

Question: Which political commentary attempted to widen the idea of natural selection to include competition between different races of people and countries?
Answer: Walter Bagehot's Physics and Politics (1872)

Question: Why were some political commentaries attempting to attach natural selection to human races?
Answer: to provide scientific evidence for the superiority of Caucasians over non white races and justify European imperialism

Question: What uses of his ideology did Darwin object to being used?
Answer: to justify military aggression and unethical business practices

Question: What theory about humanity did Darwin oppose?
Answer: he opposed polygenism, the idea that human races were fundamentally distinct and did not share a recent common ancestry.
On_the_Origin_of_Species

Natural theology was not a unified doctrine, and while some such as Louis Agassiz were strongly opposed to the ideas in the book, others sought a reconciliation in which evolution was seen as purposeful. In the Church of England, some liberal clergymen interpreted natural selection as an instrument of God's design, with the cleric Charles Kingsley seeing it as "just as noble a conception of Deity". In the second edition of January 1860, Darwin quoted Kingsley as "a celebrated cleric", and added the phrase "by the Creator" to the closing sentence, which from then on read "life, with its several powers, having been originally breathed by the Creator into a few forms or into one". While some commentators have taken this as a concession to religion that Darwin later regretted, Darwin's view at the time was of God creating life through the laws of nature, and even in the first edition there are several references to "creation".

Question: What view did Louis Agassiz have of On the Origin of Species?
Answer: strongly opposed to the ideas in the book

Question: What view did some clergymen in the Church of England take of the theory of natural selection?
Answer: interpreted natural selection as an instrument of God's design

Question: What did Darwin do to show that he admired the cleric Charles Kingsley? 
Answer: Darwin quoted Kingsley as "a celebrated cleric", and added the phrase "by the Creator" to the closing sentence,

Question: What did some commentators think about Darwin changing the phrasing in his book?
Answer: some commentators have taken this as a concession to religion that Darwin later regretted

Question: What were Darwin's views on the part of God in his theory?
Answer: Darwin's view at the time was of God creating life through the laws of nature
On_the_Origin_of_Species

Baden Powell praised "Mr Darwin's masterly volume [supporting] the grand principle of the self-evolving powers of nature". In America, Asa Gray argued that evolution is the secondary effect, or modus operandi, of the first cause, design, and published a pamphlet defending the book in terms of theistic evolution, Natural Selection is not inconsistent with Natural Theology. Theistic evolution became a popular compromise, and St. George Jackson Mivart was among those accepting evolution but attacking Darwin's naturalistic mechanism. Eventually it was realised that supernatural intervention could not be a scientific explanation, and naturalistic mechanisms such as neo-Lamarckism were favoured over natural selection as being more compatible with purpose.

Question: What was Baden Powell's opinion of On the Origin of Species?
Answer: Baden Powell praised "Mr Darwin's masterly volume [supporting] the grand principle of the self-evolving powers of nature"

Question: What did the pamphlet that Asa Gray published defend?
Answer: defending the book in terms of theistic evolution, Natural Selection is not inconsistent with Natural Theology.

Question: What was a way that theologians compromised with the information in Darwin's book?
Answer: Theistic evolution became a popular compromise

Question: What was later realized that caused naturalistic mechanisms such as neo-Lamarckism to be embraced?
Answer: supernatural intervention could not be a scientific explanation
On_the_Origin_of_Species

Even though the book had barely hinted at human evolution, it quickly became central to the debate as mental and moral qualities were seen as spiritual aspects of the immaterial soul, and it was believed that animals did not have spiritual qualities. This conflict could be reconciled by supposing there was some supernatural intervention on the path leading to humans, or viewing evolution as a purposeful and progressive ascent to mankind's position at the head of nature. While many conservative theologians accepted evolution, Charles Hodge argued in his 1874 critique "What is Darwinism?" that "Darwinism", defined narrowly as including rejection of design, was atheism though he accepted that Asa Gray did not reject design. Asa Gray responded that this charge misrepresented Darwin's text. By the early 20th century, four noted authors of The Fundamentals were explicitly open to the possibility that God created through evolution, but fundamentalism inspired the American creation–evolution controversy that began in the 1920s. Some conservative Roman Catholic writers and influential Jesuits opposed evolution in the late 19th and early 20th century, but other Catholic writers, starting with Mivart, pointed out that early Church Fathers had not interpreted Genesis literally in this area. The Vatican stated its official position in a 1950 papal encyclical, which held that evolution was not inconsistent with Catholic teaching.

Question: How did people attempt to rationalize or reconcile the concept of natural selection?
Answer: by supposing there was some supernatural intervention on the path leading to humans

Question: Which scientist argued that Darwinism was atheism?
Answer: Charles Hodge

Question: What controversy around Darwin's book began in the 1920s?
Answer: the American creation–evolution controversy

Question: What official position did the Vatican take on the subject of evolution in 1950?
Answer: The Vatican stated its official position in a 1950 papal encyclical, which held that evolution was not inconsistent with Catholic teaching.
On_the_Origin_of_Species

Modern evolutionary theory continues to develop. Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection, with its tree-like model of branching common descent, has become the unifying theory of the life sciences. The theory explains the diversity of living organisms and their adaptation to the environment. It makes sense of the geologic record, biogeography, parallels in embryonic development, biological homologies, vestigiality, cladistics, phylogenetics and other fields, with unrivalled explanatory power; it has also become essential to applied sciences such as medicine and agriculture. Despite the scientific consensus, a religion-based political controversy has developed over how evolution is taught in schools, especially in the United States.

Question: What branching common descent theory has become the most unifying one of the life sciences?
Answer: Darwin's theory of evolution

Question: What does the theory of evolution explain about living organisms?
Answer: The theory explains the diversity of living organisms and their adaptation to the environment.

Question: In what fields has Darwin's theory of evolution become particularly essential?
Answer: medicine and agriculture

Question: What kind of controversy has begun within school systems about Darwin's theory?
Answer: a religion-based political controversy
On_the_Origin_of_Species

Interest in Darwin's writings continues, and scholars have generated an extensive literature, the Darwin Industry, about his life and work. The text of Origin itself has been subject to much analysis including a variorum, detailing the changes made in every edition, first published in 1959, and a concordance, an exhaustive external index published in 1981. Worldwide commemorations of the 150th anniversary of the publication of On the Origin of Species and the bicentenary of Darwin's birth were scheduled for 2009. They celebrated the ideas which "over the last 150 years have revolutionised our understanding of nature and our place within it".

Question: What kinds of things have been done by scholars interested in Darwin's work?
Answer: scholars have generated an extensive literature, the Darwin Industry, about his life and work.

Question: What has been created in 1959 and filled with information about changes in every edition of On the Origin of Species?
Answer: a variorum

Question: What was done on the 150th anniversary of the publication of On the Origin of Species?
Answer: Worldwide commemorations

Question: What were the celebrants honoring with their commemorations?
Answer: They celebrated the ideas which "over the last 150 years have revolutionised our understanding of nature and our place within it".
Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union

The dissolution of the Soviet Union was formally enacted on December 26, 1991, as a result of the declaration no. 142-Н of the Soviet of the Republics of the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union. The declaration acknowledged the independence of the former Soviet republics and created the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS), although five of the signatories ratified it much later or not at all. On the previous day, Soviet President Mikhail Gorbachev, the eighth and last leader of the Soviet Union, resigned, declared his office extinct, and handed over its powers – including control of the Soviet nuclear missile launching codes – to Russian President Boris Yeltsin. That evening at 7:32 p.m., the Soviet flag was lowered from the Kremlin for the last time and replaced with the pre-revolutionary Russian flag.

Question: On what date did the Soviet Union dissolve?
Answer: December 26, 1991

Question: What entity was created in place of the Soviet Union?
Answer: Commonwealth of Independent States

Question: Who was president of the Soviet Union when it came to an end?
Answer: Mikhail Gorbachev,

Question: Who became president of Russia after Gorbachev left office?
Answer: Boris Yeltsin

Question: Which flag replaced the Soviet flag at the Kremlin?
Answer: pre-revolutionary Russian flag.
Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union

Mikhail Gorbachev was elected General Secretary by the Politburo on March 11, 1985, three hours after predecessor Konstantin Chernenko's death at age 73. Gorbachev, aged 54, was the youngest member of the Politburo. His initial goal as general secretary was to revive the Soviet economy, and he realized that doing so would require reforming underlying political and social structures. The reforms began with personnel changes of senior Brezhnev-era officials who would impede political and economic change. On April 23, 1985, Gorbachev brought two protégés, Yegor Ligachev and Nikolai Ryzhkov, into the Politburo as full members. He kept the "power" ministries happy by promoting KGB Head Viktor Chebrikov from candidate to full member and appointing Minister of Defence Marshal Sergei Sokolov as a Politburo candidate.

Question: Who was General Secretary prior to Mikhail Gorbachev?
Answer: Konstantin Chernenko

Question: What caused Chernenko to leave office?
Answer: death

Question: How old was Gorbachev when he was elected as the General Secretary? 
Answer: 54

Question: What entity was responsible for Gorbachev's being elected?
Answer: Politburo

Question: To which two people did Gorbachev grant membership into the Politburo for his own reasons? 
Answer: Yegor Ligachev and Nikolai Ryzhkov,
Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union

This liberalization, however, fostered nationalist movements and ethnic disputes within the Soviet Union. It also led indirectly to the revolutions of 1989, in which Soviet-imposed communist regimes of the Warsaw Pact were peacefully toppled (Romania excepted), which in turn increased pressure on Gorbachev to introduce greater democracy and autonomy for the Soviet Union's constituent republics. Under Gorbachev's leadership, the Communist Party of the Soviet Union in 1989 introduced limited competitive elections to a new central legislature, the Congress of People's Deputies (although the ban on other political parties was not lifted until 1990).

Question: What were some of the downsides of the more liberal Soviet Union?
Answer: nationalist movements and ethnic disputes

Question: In which country did Warsaw Pact regime remain in place?
Answer: Romania

Question: What party did Gorbachev belong to?
Answer: Communist Party

Question: What was the name of the legislative body that was brought into existance in 1989?
Answer: Congress of People's Deputies

Question: When were opposition parties first allowed in the Soviet Union?
Answer: 1990