Divyanshu67/squad_v2 huggingface dataset:
Federalism

The post-Imperial nature of Russian subdivision of government changed towards a generally autonomous model which began with the establishment of the USSR (of which Russia was governed as part). It was liberalized in the aftermath of the Soviet Union, with the reforms under Boris Yeltsin preserving much of the Soviet structure while applying increasingly liberal reforms to the governance of the constituent republics and subjects (while also coming into conflict with Chechen secessionist rebels during the Chechen War). Some of the reforms under Yeltsin were scaled back by Vladimir Putin.

Question: What happened to Russia's subdivision of government? 
Answer: changed towards a generally autonomous model

Question: When was Russia's subdivision liberalized?
Answer: in the aftermath of the Soviet Union

Question: Who was in charge when the reforms was going on? 
Answer: Boris Yeltsin

Question: Who scaled back some reforms from Yeltsin? 
Answer: Vladimir Putin

Question: What happened to Prussia's subdivision of government?

Question: When wasn't Russia's subdivision liberalized?

Question: Who wasn't in charge when the reform was going on?

Question: Who was in charge when the reforms was scrapped?

Question: Who escalted some reforms from Yeltsin?
Federalism

Federalism in the United States is the evolving relationship between state governments and the federal government of the United States. American government has evolved from a system of dual federalism to one of associative federalism. In "Federalist No. 46," James Madison asserted that the states and national government "are in fact but different agents and trustees of the people, constituted with different powers." Alexander Hamilton, writing in "Federalist No. 28," suggested that both levels of government would exercise authority to the citizens' benefit: "If their [the peoples'] rights are invaded by either, they can make use of the other as the instrument of redress." (1)

Question: What is federalism in the United States?
Answer: ederalism in the United States is the evolving relationship between state governments and the federal government of the United States

Question: How has the American government evolved?
Answer: American government has evolved from a system of dual federalism to one of associative federalism.

Question: What happened in Federalist No.46?
Answer: James Madison asserted that the states and national government

Question: What happened in Federalist No. 28
Answer: "Federalist No. 28," suggested that both levels of government would exercise authority to the citizens' benefit

Question: What is federalism out the United States?

Question: How has the American government devolved?

Question: What happened in Federalist No.64?

Question: What never happened in Federalist No.46?

Question: What happened in Federalist No. 82
Federalism

Because the states were preexisting political entities, the U.S. Constitution did not need to define or explain federalism in any one section but it often mentions the rights and responsibilities of state governments and state officials in relation to the federal government. The federal government has certain express powers (also called enumerated powers) which are powers spelled out in the Constitution, including the right to levy taxes, declare war, and regulate interstate and foreign commerce. In addition, the Necessary and Proper Clause gives the federal government the implied power to pass any law "necessary and proper" for the execution of its express powers. Other powers—the reserved powers—are reserved to the people or the states. The power delegated to the federal government was significantly expanded by the Supreme Court decision in McCulloch v. Maryland (1819), amendments to the Constitution following the Civil War, and by some later amendments—as well as the overall claim of the Civil War, that the states were legally subject to the final dictates of the federal government.

Question: Why did the constitution didn't have to explain federalism? 
Answer: Because the states were preexisting political entities

Question: What is another word for express powers? 
Answer: enumerated powers

Question: Where can we find express powers?
Answer: in the Constitution

Question: What are the expressed powers? 
Answer: the right to levy taxes, declare war, and regulate interstate and foreign commerce.

Question: What does the Necessary and Proper Clause do? 
Answer: gives the federal government the implied power to pass any law "necessary and proper" for the execution of its express powers

Question: Why did the constitution have to explain federalism?

Question: What is another word for suppress powers?

Question: Where can we find suppress powers?

Question: What are the suppressed powers?

Question: What does the Unnecessary and Proper Clause do?
Federalism

The Federalist Party of the United States was opposed by the Democratic-Republicans, including powerful figures such as Thomas Jefferson. The Democratic-Republicans mainly believed that: the Legislature had too much power (mainly because of the Necessary and Proper Clause) and that they were unchecked; the Executive had too much power, and that there was no check on the executive; a dictator would arise; and that a bill of rights should be coupled with the constitution to prevent a dictator (then believed to eventually be the president) from exploiting or tyrannizing citizens. The federalists, on the other hand, argued that it was impossible to list all the rights, and those that were not listed could be easily overlooked because they were not in the official bill of rights. Rather, rights in specific cases were to be decided by the judicial system of courts.

Question: What was the federalist party of the United States opposed to?
Answer: Democratic-Republicans

Question: What did the democratic-republican party believe in?
Answer: the Legislature had too much power (mainly because of the Necessary and Proper Clause) and that they were unchecked

Question: Who decided the rights in specific cases?
Answer: the judicial system of courts

Question: What was the federalist party of the United States in support of?

Question: What was the federalist party of the United Nations opposed to?

Question: What did the democratic-republican party not believe in?

Question: What did the democratic-republican party oppose?

Question: Who decided the rights in all cases?
Federalism

The meaning of federalism, as a political movement, and of what constitutes a 'federalist', varies with country and historical context.[citation needed] Movements associated with the establishment or development of federations can exhibit either centralising or decentralising trends.[citation needed] For example, at the time those nations were being established, factions known as "federalists" in the United States and Australia advocated the formation of strong central government. Similarly, in European Union politics, federalists mostly seek greater EU integration. In contrast, in Spain and in post-war Germany, federal movements have sought decentralisation: the transfer of power from central authorities to local units. In Canada, where Quebec separatism has been a political force for several decades, the "federalist" impulse aims to keep Quebec inside Canada.

Question: What is the meaning of federalism?
Answer: as a political movement, and of what constitutes a 'federalist', varies with country and historical context

Question: What types of movements are associated with federalism?
Answer: Movements associated with the establishment or development of federations can exhibit either centralising or decentralising trends.

Question: What countries advocate for a strong central government?
Answer: United States and Australia

Question: What isn't the meaning of federalism?

Question: What is the meaning of anti-federalism?

Question: What types of movements aren't associated with federalism?

Question: What types of non-movements are associated with federalism?

Question: What countries are against a strong central government?
Federalism

From 1938 until 1995, the U.S. Supreme Court did not invalidate any federal statute as exceeding Congress' power under the Commerce Clause. Most actions by the federal government can find some legal support among the express powers, such as the Commerce Clause, whose applicability has been narrowed by the Supreme Court in recent years. In 1995 the Supreme Court rejected the Gun-Free School Zones Act in the Lopez decision, and also rejected the civil remedy portion of the Violence Against Women Act of 1994 in the United States v. Morrison decision. Recently, the Commerce Clause was interpreted to include marijuana laws in the Gonzales v. Raich decision.

Question: What happened between 1938 to 1995?
Answer: the U.S. Supreme Court did not invalidate any federal statute as exceeding Congress' power under the Commerce Clause.

Question: What are most actions in the federal government known as?
Answer: Commerce Clause

Question: What did the court reject in 1995?
Answer: the Supreme Court rejected the Gun-Free School Zones Act in the Lopez decision

Question: What did the court reject in 1994?
Answer: rejected the civil remedy portion of the Violence Against Women Act

Question: What does the commerce clause include?
Answer: include marijuana laws in the Gonzales v. Raich decision

Question: What happened between 1983 to 1995?

Question: What happened between 1938 to 1959?

Question: What are no actions in the federal government known as?

Question: What did the court accept in 1995?

Question: What did the court reject in 1949?
Federalism

On one hand, this means that the Belgian political landscape, generally speaking, consists of only two components: the Dutch-speaking population represented by Dutch-language political parties, and the majority populations of Wallonia and Brussels, represented by their French-speaking parties. The Brussels region emerges as a third component. This specific dual form of federalism, with the special position of Brussels, consequently has a number of political issues—even minor ones—that are being fought out over the Dutch/French-language political division. With such issues, a final decision is possible only in the form of a compromise. This tendency gives this dual federalism model a number of traits that generally are ascribed to confederalism, and makes the future of Belgian federalism contentious.

Question: How many components does the Belgian political landscape include?
Answer: two components

Question: What are the two components in the Belgian political landscape?
Answer: the Dutch-speaking population represented by Dutch-language political parties, and the majority populations of Wallonia and Brussels

Question: What component is the Brussel Region?
Answer: third component

Question: What happens with the Brussels special position?
Answer: consequently has a number of political issues

Question: How many components does the Belgian political landscape exclude?

Question: How many components doesn't the Belgian political landscape include?

Question: What are the three components in the Belgian political landscape?

Question: What component isn't the Brussel Region?

Question: What happens without the Brussels special position?
Federalism

Some federal constitutions also provide that certain constitutional amendments cannot occur without the unanimous consent of all states or of a particular state. The US constitution provides that no state may be deprived of equal representation in the senate without its consent. In Australia, if a proposed amendment will specifically impact one or more states, then it must be endorsed in the referendum held in each of those states. Any amendment to the Canadian constitution that would modify the role of the monarchy would require unanimous consent of the provinces. The German Basic Law provides that no amendment is admissible at all that would abolish the federal system.

Question: The US Constitution says what to amendments? 
Answer: provides that no state may be deprived of equal representation in the senate without its consent

Question: What happens when certain constitutional amendments cannot occur?
Answer: cannot occur without the unanimous consent of all states or of a particular state

Question: Any amendment in the Canadian constitution that needs to be modified, needs to do what first?
Answer: would require unanimous consent of the provinces.

Question: What is the German basic law?
Answer: provides that no amendment is admissible at all that would abolish the federal system.

Question: The UN Constitution says what to amendments?

Question: The US Constitution doesn't say what to amendments?

Question: Any amendment in the Canadian constitution that needs to be modified, needs to do what last?

Question: What happens when certain constitutional amendments can occur?

Question: What is the German advanced law?
Federalism

Where every component state of a federation possesses the same powers, we are said to find 'symmetric federalism'. Asymmetric federalism exists where states are granted different powers, or some possess greater autonomy than others do. This is often done in recognition of the existence of a distinct culture in a particular region or regions. In Spain, the Basques and Catalans, as well as the Galicians, spearheaded a historic movement to have their national specificity recognized, crystallizing in the "historical communities" such as Navarre, Galicia, Catalonia, and the Basque Country. They have more powers than the later expanded arrangement for other Spanish regions, or the Spain of the autonomous communities (called also the "coffee for everyone" arrangement), partly to deal with their separate identity and to appease peripheral nationalist leanings, partly out of respect to specific rights they had held earlier in history. However, strictly speaking Spain is not a federalism, but a decentralized administrative organization of the state.

Question: What does every component state of federation possess?
Answer: the same powers

Question: Asymmetric federalism exist when?
Answer: where states are granted different powers, or some possess greater autonomy than others do

Question: What cities in Spain are in the historic movement?
Answer: Basques and Catalans, as well as the Galicians

Question: Is Spain apart of federalism?
Answer: Spain is not a federalism, but a decentralized administrative organization of the state.

Question: What does no components state of federation possess?

Question: What does every component state of federation not possess?

Question: Symmetric federalism exist when?

Question: Why is Spain a part of federalism?
Federalism

Federations often have special procedures for amendment of the federal constitution. As well as reflecting the federal structure of the state this may guarantee that the self-governing status of the component states cannot be abolished without their consent. An amendment to the constitution of the United States must be ratified by three-quarters of either the state legislatures, or of constitutional conventions specially elected in each of the states, before it can come into effect. In referendums to amend the constitutions of Australia and Switzerland it is required that a proposal be endorsed not just by an overall majority of the electorate in the nation as a whole, but also by separate majorities in each of a majority of the states or cantons. In Australia, this latter requirement is known as a double majority.

Question: What does federations have for amendments of the constitution? 
Answer: special procedures

Question: What may guarantee the self-governing status of the competent states?
Answer: federal structure

Question: What needs to be done in order to amend the Australia and Switzerland Constitution?
Answer: required that a proposal be endorsed not just by an overall majority of the electorate in the nation as a whole

Question: What doesn't federations have for amendments of the constitution?

Question: What does federations have for amendments of the conservation?

Question: What may guarantee the self-governing status of the incompetent states?

Question: What will not guarantee the self-governing status of the competent states?

Question: What doesn't need to be done in order to amend the Australia and Switzerland Constitution?
Federalism

The structures of most federal governments incorporate mechanisms to protect the rights of component states. One method, known as 'intrastate federalism', is to directly represent the governments of component states in federal political institutions. Where a federation has a bicameral legislature the upper house is often used to represent the component states while the lower house represents the people of the nation as a whole. A federal upper house may be based on a special scheme of apportionment, as is the case in the senates of the United States and Australia, where each state is represented by an equal number of senators irrespective of the size of its population.

Question: What does the structures of the federal government incorporate?
Answer: mechanisms to protect the rights of component states

Question: What is one method to protect the rights of the component states?
Answer: intrastate federalism

Question: What is intrastate federalism?
Answer: is to directly represent the governments of component states in federal political institutions

Question: What is a bicameral legislature?
Answer: the upper house is often used to represent the component states while the lower house represents the people of the nation as a whole

Question: What does the structures of the federal government ignore?

Question: What does the structures of the local government incorporate?

Question: What is one method to strike the rights of the component states?

Question: What isn't intrastate federalism?

Question: What is a tricameral legislature?
Federalism

Federations often employ the paradox of being a union of states, while still being states (or having aspects of statehood) in themselves. For example, James Madison (author of the US Constitution) wrote in Federalist Paper No. 39 that the US Constitution "is in strictness neither a national nor a federal constitution; but a composition of both. In its foundation, it is federal, not national; in the sources from which the ordinary powers of the Government are drawn, it is partly federal, and partly national..." This stems from the fact that states in the US maintain all sovereignty that they do not yield to the federation by their own consent. This was reaffirmed by the Tenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, which reserves all powers and rights that are not delegated to the Federal Government as left to the States and to the people.

Question: What does federations often employ?
Answer: union of states

Question: What is federalist paper no. 39?
Answer: that the US Constitution "is in strictness neither a national nor a federal constitution; but a composition of both

Question: What is the foundation for federalist paper no. 39?
Answer: it is federal, not national; in the sources from which the ordinary powers of the Government are drawn, it is partly federal, and partly national..

Question: What is the 10th Amendment in the United States?
Answer: which reserves all powers and rights that are not delegated to the Federal Government as left to the States and to the people.

Question: What does federations never employ?

Question: What does federalist paper no. 93 contain?

Question: What doesn't federalist paper no. 93 contain?

Question: What is the foundation for federalist paper no. 93?

Question: What is the 10th Amendment in the United Nations?
Federalism

Usually, a federation is formed at two levels: the central government and the regions (states, provinces, territories), and little to nothing is said about second or third level administrative political entities. Brazil is an exception, because the 1988 Constitution included the municipalities as autonomous political entities making the federation tripartite, encompassing the Union, the States, and the municipalities. Each state is divided into municipalities (municípios) with their own legislative council (câmara de vereadores) and a mayor (prefeito), which are partly autonomous from both Federal and State Government. Each municipality has a "little constitution", called "organic law" (lei orgânica). Mexico is an intermediate case, in that municipalities are granted full-autonomy by the federal constitution and their existence as autonomous entities (municipio libre, "free municipality") is established by the federal government and cannot be revoked by the states' constitutions. Moreover, the federal constitution determines which powers and competencies belong exclusively to the municipalities and not to the constituent states. However, municipalities do not have an elected legislative assembly.

Question: When is a federation formed?
Answer: two levels

Question: What two levels equal a federation?
Answer: the central government and the regions

Question: Why is Brazil an exception?
Answer: because the 1988 Constitution included the municipalities as autonomous political entities making the federation tripartite

Question: What is each state divided into?
Answer: municipalities

Question: What does each state have their own of?
Answer: with their own legislative council (câmara de vereadores) and a mayor (prefeito

Question: When is a federation dissolved?

Question: What two levels don't equal a federation?

Question: Why is Brazil not an exception?

Question: What is each city divided into?

Question: What doesn't each state have their own of?
Federalism

China is the largest unitary state in the world by both population and land area. Although China has had long periods of central rule for centuries, it is often argued that the unitary structure of the Chinese government is far too unwieldy to effectively and equitably manage the country's affairs. On the other hand, Chinese nationalists are suspicious of decentralization as a form of secessionism and a backdoor for national disunity; still others argue that the degree of autonomy given to provincial-level officials in the People's Republic of China amounts to a de facto federalism.

Question: China is the largest what?
Answer: China is the largest unitary state in the world by both population and land area

Question: What are Chinese nationalist suspicious of?
Answer: decentralization

Question: Why is China's government similar to unity structure?
Answer: Chinese government is far too unwieldy to effectively and equitably manage the country's affairs

Question: How long has China been with centralized power?
Answer: centuries

Question: China is the smallest what?

Question: What are Chinese nationalist in favor of?

Question: What are Chinese socialists suspicious of?

Question: Why is China's government not similar to unity structure?

Question: How long has China been without centralized power?
Federalism

The Philippines is a unitary state with some powers devolved to Local Government Units (LGUs) under the terms of the Local Government Code. There is also one autonomous region, the Autonomous Region of Muslim Mindanao. Over the years various modifications have been proposed to the Constitution of the Philippines, including possible transition to a federal system as part of a shift to a parliamentary system. In 2004, Philippine President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo established the Consultative Commission which suggested such a Charter Change but no action was taken by the Philippine Congress to amend the 1987 Constitution.

Question: What type of state is the Philippines?
Answer: unitary state

Question: What types of powers does the Philippines have?
Answer: some powers devolved to Local Government Units (LGUs) under the terms of the Local Government Code

Question: What type of modifications been added to the Philippines Constitution? 
Answer: possible transition to a federal system as part of a shift to a parliamentary system.

Question: What did President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo establish?
Answer: the Consultative Commission

Question: What type of state isn't the Philippines?

Question: What types of powers does the Philippines give up?

Question: What type of modifications have been removed from the Philippines Constitution?

Question: What type of songs have been added to the Philippines Constitution?

Question: What did President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo desolve?
Federalism

Spain is a unitary state with a high level of decentralisation, often regarded as a federal system in all but name or a "federation without federalism". The country has been quoted as being "an extraordinarily decentralized country", with the central government accounting for just 18% of public spending, 38% for the regional governments, 13% for the local councils, and the remaining 31% for the social security system. The current Spanish constitution has been implemented in such a way that, in many respects, Spain can be compared to countries which are undeniably federal.

Question: What type of state is Spain?
Answer: unitary state

Question: What type of federalism system does Spain have?
Answer: unitary state with a high level of decentralisation, often regarded as a federal system in all but name or a "federation without federalism"

Question: What type of government does Spain have?
Answer: central government

Question: What does Spain's government accounts for?
Answer: 8% of public spending, 38% for the regional governments, 13% for the local councils, and the remaining 31% for the social security system

Question: What type of state isn't Spain?

Question: What type of federalism system does Spain reject?

Question: What type of communism system does Spain have?

Question: What type of government doesn't Spain have?

Question: What does Spain's government not account for?
Federalism

The United Kingdom has traditionally been governed as a unitary state by the Westminster Parliament in London. Instead of adopting a federal model, the UK has relied on gradual devolution to decentralise political power. Devolution in the UK began with the Government of Ireland Act 1914 which granted home rule to Ireland as a constituent country of the former United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Following the partition of Ireland in 1921 which saw the creation of the sovereign Irish Free State (which eventually evolved into the modern day Republic of Ireland), Northern Ireland retained its devolved government through the Parliament of Northern Ireland, the only part of the UK to have such a body at this time. This body was suspended in 1972 and Northern Ireland was governed by direct rule during the period of conflict known as The Troubles.

Question: How has United Kingdom been governed?
Answer: unitary state

Question: Instead of the UK adopting the federalist model, what did they do?
Answer: UK has relied on gradual devolution to decentralise political power

Question: When did devolution in the UK begin?
Answer: 1914

Question: What is Ireland Act 1914?
Answer: which granted home rule to Ireland as a constituent country of the former United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland

Question: What is Irish Free State?
Answer: eventually evolved into the modern day Republic of Ireland

Question: How has United Kingdom not been governed?

Question: Instead of the UK adopting the federalist model, what didn't they do?

Question: When did revolution in the UK begin?

Question: What isn't Ireland Act 1914?

Question: What is Irish Cost State?
Federalism

In modern times, a process of devolution in the United Kingdom has decentralised power once again. Since the 1997 referendums in Scotland and Wales and the Good Friday Agreement in Northern Ireland, three of the four constituent countries of the UK now have some level of autonomy. Government has been devolved to the Scottish Parliament, the National Assembly for Wales and the Northern Ireland Assembly. England does not have its own parliament and English affairs continue to be decided by the Westminster Parliament. In 1998 a set of eight unelected Regional assemblies, or chambers, was created to support the English Regional Development Agencies, but these were abolished between 2008 and 2010. The Regions of England continue to be used in certain governmental administrative functions.

Question: What has the process of devolution in the UK did?
Answer: decentralised power once again

Question: What happened since 1997?
Answer: referendums in Scotland and Wales and the Good Friday Agreement in Northern Ireland

Question: Does England have its own Parliament?
Answer: England does not have its own parliament and English affairs continue to be decided by the Westminster Parliament

Question: What does the region of England continue to use?
Answer: certain governmental administrative functions

Question: What has the process of revolution in the UK did?

Question: What has the process of devolution in the US did?

Question: What happened since 1979?

Question: Why does England have its own Parliament?

Question: What doesn't the region of England continue to use?
Federalism

Federalism also finds expression in ecclesiology (the doctrine of the church). For example, presbyterian church governance resembles parliamentary republicanism (a form of political federalism) to a large extent. In Presbyterian denominations, the local church is ruled by elected elders, some of which are ministerial. Each church then sends representatives or commissioners to presbyteries and further to a general assembly. Each greater level of assembly has ruling authority over its constituent members. In this governmental structure, each component has some level of sovereignty over itself. As in political federalism, in presbyterian ecclesiology there is shared sovereignty.

Question: What is ecclesiology?
Answer: the doctrine of the church

Question: What happens in Presbyterian denominations?
Answer: the local church is ruled by elected elders, some of which are ministerial.

Question: In political federalism what does Presbyterian ecclesiology do?
Answer: shared sovereignty

Question: What does each greater level of assembly have?
Answer: authority over its constituent members

Question: What isn't ecclesiology?

Question: What doesn't happen in Presbyterian denominations?

Question: In political federalism what does Presbyterian ecclesiology not do?

Question: In political communism what does Presbyterian ecclesiology do?

Question: What does each lesser level of assembly have?
Federalism

Some Christians argue that the earliest source of political federalism (or federalism in human institutions; in contrast to theological federalism) is the ecclesiastical federalism found in the Bible. They point to the structure of the early Christian Church as described (and prescribed, as believed by many) in the New Testament. In their arguments, this is particularly demonstrated in the Council of Jerusalem, described in Acts chapter 15, where the Apostles and elders gathered together to govern the Church; the Apostles being representatives of the universal Church, and elders being such for the local church. To this day, elements of federalism can be found in almost every Christian denomination, some more than others.

Question: When was the earliest source of political federalism according to Christians?
Answer: is the ecclesiastical federalism found in the Bible.

Question: What was the structure that the early Christian church described?
Answer: in the New Testament

Question: What happens in the council of Jerusalem?
Answer: the Apostles and elders gathered together to govern the Church

Question: Where can the elements of federalism can be found?
Answer: can be found in almost every Christian denomination, some more than others.

Question: When was the latest source of political federalism according to Christians?

Question: When was the earliest source of political federalism according to Muslims?

Question: Where was the structure that the late Christian church described?

Question: What never happens in the council of Jerusalem?

Question: Where can't the elements of federalism can be found?
Federalism

In almost all federations the central government enjoys the powers of foreign policy and national defense as exclusive federal powers. Were this not the case a federation would not be a single sovereign state, per the UN definition. Notably, the states of Germany retain the right to act on their own behalf at an international level, a condition originally granted in exchange for the Kingdom of Bavaria's agreement to join the German Empire in 1871. Beyond this the precise division of power varies from one nation to another. The constitutions of Germany and the United States provide that all powers not specifically granted to the federal government are retained by the states. The Constitution of some countries like Canada and India, on the other hand, state that powers not explicitly granted to the provincial governments are retained by the federal government. Much like the US system, the Australian Constitution allocates to the Federal government (the Commonwealth of Australia) the power to make laws about certain specified matters which were considered too difficult for the States to manage, so that the States retain all other areas of responsibility. Under the division of powers of the European Union in the Lisbon Treaty, powers which are not either exclusively of European competence or shared between EU and state as concurrent powers are retained by the constituent states.

Question: In nearly all federalism countries, central powers enjoy what?
Answer: the powers of foreign policy and national defense as exclusive federal powers

Question: Per the UN definition, what is federalism?
Answer: federation would not be a single sovereign state

Question: What is the German Empire?
Answer: Germany retain the right to act on their own behalf at an international level,

Question: What is the libson treaty?
Answer: powers which are not either exclusively of European competence or shared between EU and state as concurrent powers are retained by the constituent states.

Question: In nearly all federalism countries, decentralized powers enjoy what?

Question: In nearly no federalism countries, central powers enjoy what?

Question: Per the US definition, what is federalism?

Question: What isn't the German Empire?

Question: What isn't the Libson treaty?
Annelid

The annelids are bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic, coelomate, invertebrate organisms. They also have parapodia for locomotion. Most textbooks still use the traditional division into polychaetes (almost all marine), oligochaetes (which include earthworms) and leech-like species. Cladistic research since 1997 has radically changed this scheme, viewing leeches as a sub-group of oligochaetes and oligochaetes as a sub-group of polychaetes. In addition, the Pogonophora, Echiura and Sipuncula, previously regarded as separate phyla, are now regarded as sub-groups of polychaetes. Annelids are considered members of the Lophotrochozoa, a "super-phylum" of protostomes that also includes molluscs, brachiopods, flatworms and nemerteans.

Question: What kind of symmetry do annelids have?
Answer: bilateral

Question: What do annelids use to move?
Answer: parapodia

Question: Which subtype of annelids includes most marine worms?
Answer: polychaetes

Question: Which subtype of annelids includes earthworms?
Answer: oligochaetes

Question: Since 1997, what are leeches seen as a subgroup of?
Answer: oligochaetes

Question: What kind of symmetry do annelids lack?

Question: What do annelids use to fly?

Question: Which subtype of annelids includes most space worms?

Question: Which subtype of annelids includes marsworms?

Question: What are leeches seen as a subgroup of since 1897?
Annelid

The basic annelid form consists of multiple segments. Each segment has the same sets of organs and, in most polychaetes, has a pair of parapodia that many species use for locomotion. Septa separate the segments of many species, but are poorly defined or absent in others, and Echiura and Sipuncula show no obvious signs of segmentation. In species with well-developed septa, the blood circulates entirely within blood vessels, and the vessels in segments near the front ends of these species are often built up with muscles that act as hearts. The septa of such species also enable them to change the shapes of individual segments, which facilitates movement by peristalsis ("ripples" that pass along the body) or by undulations that improve the effectiveness of the parapodia. In species with incomplete septa or none, the blood circulates through the main body cavity without any kind of pump, and there is a wide range of locomotory techniques – some burrowing species turn their pharynges inside out to drag themselves through the sediment.

Question: What separates many annelids' segments?
Answer: Septa

Question: Which annelids show no segmentation?
Answer: Echiura and Sipuncula

Question: What end of annelids with well-developed segmentation has muscles that act like hearts?
Answer: front

Question: What is movement by ripples called?
Answer: peristalsis

Question: What movement method do some burrowing annelids use?
Answer: turn their pharynges inside out to drag themselves

Question: What integrates many annelids' segments?

Question: Which annelids show only segmentation?

Question: What end of annelids with well-developed segmentation have muscles that act like brains?

Question: What is movement by ripples no longer called?

Question: What movement method do some extinct annelids use?
Annelid

Although many species can reproduce asexually and use similar mechanisms to regenerate after severe injuries, sexual reproduction is the normal method in species whose reproduction has been studied. The minority of living polychaetes whose reproduction and lifecycles are known produce trochophore larvae, that live as plankton and then sink and metamorphose into miniature adults. Oligochaetes are full hermaphrodites and produce a ring-like cocoon around their bodies, in which the eggs and hatchlings are nourished until they are ready to emerge.

Question: How do annelids normally reproduce?
Answer: sexual reproduction

Question: What can asexual reproduction techniques help annelids do?
Answer: regenerate after severe injuries

Question: What larvae live like plankton?
Answer: trochophore

Question: What annelids are hermaphrodites?
Answer: Oligochaetes

Question: What annelids make a cocoon in a ring around themselves?
Answer: Oligochaetes

Question: How do annelids never reproduce?

Question: What can asexual reproduction techniques prevent annelids from doing?

Question: What larvae live like whales?

Question: What annelids dislike hermaphrodites?

Question: What annelids make a cocoon in a pyramid around themselves?
Annelid

Earthworms are Oligochaetes that support terrestrial food chains both as prey and in some regions are important in aeration and enriching of soil. The burrowing of marine polychaetes, which may constitute up to a third of all species in near-shore environments, encourages the development of ecosystems by enabling water and oxygen to penetrate the sea floor. In addition to improving soil fertility, annelids serve humans as food and as bait. Scientists observe annelids to monitor the quality of marine and fresh water. Although blood-letting is no longer in favor with doctors, some leech species are regarded as endangered species because they have been over-harvested for this purpose in the last few centuries. Ragworms' jaws are now being studied by engineers as they offer an exceptional combination of lightness and strength.

Question: How do earthworms help the soil they live in?
Answer: aeration and enriching

Question: How much of near-shore marine annelids are burrowing?
Answer: up to a third

Question: How do burrowing marine annelids help ocean ecosystems?
Answer: enabling water and oxygen to penetrate the sea floor

Question: What annelids' jaws are being studied by engineers?
Answer: Ragworms

Question: Why are some leeches endangered?
Answer: they have been over-harvested

Question: How do earthworms ruin the soil they live in?

Question: How much of near-shore aerial annelids are burrowing?

Question: How do burrowing marine annelids remove ocean ecosystems?

Question: What annelids' ears are being studied by engineers?

Question: Why are no leeches endangered?
Annelid

Since annelids are soft-bodied, their fossils are rare – mostly jaws and the mineralized tubes that some of the species secreted. Although some late Ediacaran fossils may represent annelids, the oldest known fossil that is identified with confidence comes from about 518 million years ago in the early Cambrian period. Fossils of most modern mobile polychaete groups appeared by the end of the Carboniferous, about 299 million years ago. Palaeontologists disagree about whether some body fossils from the mid Ordovician, about 472 to 461 million years ago, are the remains of oligochaetes, and the earliest indisputable fossils of the group appear in the Tertiary period, which began 65 million years ago.

Question: Why are annelid fossils rare?
Answer: annelids are soft-bodied

Question: What fossil signs of annelids are found?
Answer: jaws and the mineralized tubes that some of the species secreted

Question: How old is the earliest annelid fossil?
Answer: 518 million years ago

Question: What types of annelids appeared 299 million years ago?
Answer: modern mobile polychaete groups

Question: What period started around 472 million years ago?
Answer: the mid Ordovician

Question: Why are annelid fossils common?

Question: What fossil signs of annelids can no longer be found?

Question: How old is the oldest living annelid?

Question: What types of annelids disappeared 299 million years ago?

Question: What period started around 372 million years ago?
Annelid

No single feature distinguishes Annelids from other invertebrate phyla, but they have a distinctive combination of features. Their bodies are long, with segments that are divided externally by shallow ring-like constrictions called annuli and internally by septa ("partitions") at the same points, although in some species the septa are incomplete and in a few cases missing. Most of the segments contain the same sets of organs, although sharing a common gut, circulatory system and nervous system makes them inter-dependent. Their bodies are covered by a cuticle (outer covering) that does not contain cells but is secreted by cells in the skin underneath, is made of tough but flexible collagen and does not molt – on the other hand arthropods' cuticles are made of the more rigid α-chitin, and molt until the arthropods reach their full size. Most annelids have closed circulatory systems, where the blood makes its entire circuit via blood vessels.

Question: What externally divides annelids' segments?
Answer: shallow ring-like constrictions called annuli

Question: What divides annelids' segments internally?
Answer: septa ("partitions")

Question: What do the segments of an annelid share?
Answer: a common gut, circulatory system and nervous system

Question: What covers an annelid's exterior?
Answer: a cuticle

Question: What is an annelid's cuticle made of?
Answer: collagen

Question: What externally combines annelids' segments?

Question: What combines annelids' segments internally?

Question: What do the segments of an annelid lack?

Question: What conceals an annelid's exterior?

Question: What is an annelid's cuticle made into?
Annelid

Most of an annelid's body consists of segments that are practically identical, having the same sets of internal organs and external chaetae (Greek χαιτη, meaning "hair") and, in some species, appendages. However, the frontmost and rearmost sections are not regarded as true segments as they do not contain the standard sets of organs and do not develop in the same way as the true segments. The frontmost section, called the prostomium (Greek προ- meaning "in front of" and στομα meaning "mouth") contains the brain and sense organs, while the rearmost, called the pygidium (Greek πυγιδιον, meaning "little tail") or periproct contains the anus, generally on the underside. The first section behind the prostomium, called the peristomium (Greek περι- meaning "around" and στομα meaning "mouth"), is regarded by some zoologists as not a true segment, but in some polychaetes the peristomium has chetae and appendages like those of other segments.

Question: What language does the term 'chaetae' come from?
Answer: Greek

Question: What does 'chaetae' mean?
Answer: hair

Question: Which parts of annelids are different from true segments?
Answer: the frontmost and rearmost sections

Question: What language does 'prostomium' come from?
Answer: Greek

Question: What does 'pygidium' mean?
Answer: little tail

Question: What language is the term 'chaetae' banned in?

Question: What does 'chaetae' no longer mean?

Question: Which parts of annelids are different from fake segments?

Question: What kind of annelid has four true segments?
Annelid

Annelids' cuticles are made of collagen fibers, usually in layers that spiral in alternating directions so that the fibers cross each other. These are secreted by the one-cell deep epidermis (outermost skin layer). A few marine annelids that live in tubes lack cuticles, but their tubes have a similar structure, and mucus-secreting glands in the epidermis protect their skins. Under the epidermis is the dermis, which is made of connective tissue, in other words a combination of cells and non-cellular materials such as collagen. Below this are two layers of muscles, which develop from the lining of the coelom (body cavity): circular muscles make a segment longer and slimmer when they contract, while under them are longitudinal muscles, usually four distinct strips, whose contractions make the segment shorter and fatter. Some annelids also have oblique internal muscles that connect the underside of the body to each side.

Question: How are the layers arranged in annelids' cuticles?
Answer: spiral in alternating directions

Question: What are annelids' cuticles made out of?
Answer: collagen fibers

Question: What do non-cuticle annelids use to protect their skin?
Answer: mucus-secreting glands in the epidermis

Question: What layer is under the epidermis?
Answer: the dermis

Question: What does 'coelom' mean?
Answer: (body cavity

Question: How are the eyes arranged in annelids' cuticles?

Question: What are annelids' brain made out of?

Question: What do non-cuticle annelids use to protect their offspring?

Question: What annelid is under the epidermis?
Annelid

The setae ("hairs") of annelids project out from the epidermis to provide traction and other capabilities. The simplest are unjointed and form paired bundles near the top and bottom of each side of each segment. The parapodia ("limbs") of annelids that have them often bear more complex chetae at their tips – for example jointed, comb-like or hooked. Chetae are made of moderately flexible β-chitin and are formed by follicles, each of which has a chetoblast ("hair-forming") cell at the bottom and muscles that can extend or retract the cheta. The chetoblasts produce chetae by forming microvilli, fine hair-like extensions that increase the area available for secreting the cheta. When the cheta is complete, the microvilli withdraw into the chetoblast, leaving parallel tunnels that run almost the full length of the cheta. Hence annelids' chetae are structurally different from the setae ("bristles") of arthropods, which are made of the more rigid α-chitin, have a single internal cavity, and are mounted on flexible joints in shallow pits in the cuticle.

Question: What do chetoblast cells do?
Answer: hair-forming

Question: What hair-like extensions do chetoblasts make?
Answer: microvilli

Question: What are setae?
Answer: bristles

Question: What are parapodia against?

Question: What do chetoblast cells destroy?

Question: What hair-like extensions do chetoblasts eat?

Question: What are setae never considered?