Divyanshu67/squad_v2 huggingface dataset:
Idealism

Subjective Idealism (immaterialism or phenomenalism) describes a relationship between experience and the world in which objects are no more than collections or "bundles" of sense data in the perceiver. Proponents include Berkeley, Bishop of Cloyne, an Anglo-Irish philosopher who advanced a theory he called immaterialism, later referred to as "subjective idealism", contending that individuals can only know sensations and ideas of objects directly, not abstractions such as "matter", and that ideas also depend upon being perceived for their very existence - esse est percipi; "to be is to be perceived".

Question: Along with phenomenalism, what is another term for subjective idealism?
Answer: immaterialism

Question: Of what see was Berkeley bishop?
Answer: Cloyne

Question: What was Berkeley's ethnicity?
Answer: Anglo-Irish

Question: What does esse est percipi mean?
Answer: to be is to be perceived

Question: What did Berkeley consider things like matter to be?
Answer: abstractions

Question: Who coined the term subjective idealism?

Question: What philosophies run counter to subjective idealism?

Question: What is another word for sense data?

Question: What is the Latin phrase meaning subjective idealism?

Question: What do not need to be perceived to exist?
Idealism

Arthur Collier published similar assertions though there seems to have been no influence between the two contemporary writers. The only knowable reality is the represented image of an external object. Matter as a cause of that image, is unthinkable and therefore nothing to us. An external world as absolute matter unrelated to an observer does not exist as far as we are concerned. The universe cannot exist as it appears if there is no perceiving mind. Collier was influenced by An Essay Towards the Theory of the Ideal or Intelligible World by "Cambridge Platonist" John Norris (1701).

Question: Who was known as the "Cambridge Platonist"?
Answer: John Norris

Question: Who was notably influenced by John Norris?
Answer: Arthur Collier

Question: When was An Essay Towards the Theory of the Ideal or Intelligible World written?
Answer: 1701

Question: What sort of reality did Collier believe was knowable?
Answer: represented image of an external object

Question: What did Collier write?

Question: When did Collier publish his ideas?

Question: What was Collier's nickname?

Question: Who did Collier influence?

Question: How many contemporary writers did Collier have?
Idealism

and proliferation of hyphenated entities such as "thing-in-itself" (Immanuel Kant), "things-as-interacted-by-us" (Arthur Fine), "table-of-commonsense" and "table-of-physics" (Sir Arthur Eddington) which are "warning signs" for conceptual idealism according to Musgrave because they allegedly do not exist but only highlight the numerous ways in which people come to know the world. This argument does not take into account the issues pertaining to hermeneutics, especially at the backdrop of analytic philosophy. Musgrave criticized Richard Rorty and Postmodernist philosophy in general for confusion of use and mention.

Question: Who coined the term "thing-in-itself"?
Answer: Immanuel Kant

Question: Who invented the idea of a "table-of-commonsense"?
Answer: Sir Arthur Eddington

Question: Who came up with the idea of "things-as-interacted-by-us"?
Answer: Arthur Fine

Question: Who spoke of the "warning signs" of idealism?
Answer: Musgrave

Question: What sort of philosopher was Richard Rorty?
Answer: Postmodernist

Question: Who did Richard Rorty criticize?

Question: What hyphenated term did Musgrave coin?

Question: What did Immanuel Kant call warning signs?

Question: Who argued against issues of hermeneutics?

Question: What kind of philosopher was Musgrave?
Idealism

A. A. Luce and John Foster are other subjectivists. Luce, in Sense without Matter (1954), attempts to bring Berkeley up to date by modernizing his vocabulary and putting the issues he faced in modern terms, and treats the Biblical account of matter and the psychology of perception and nature. Foster's The Case for Idealism argues that the physical world is the logical creation of natural, non-logical constraints on human sense-experience. Foster's latest defense of his views is in his book A World for Us: The Case for Phenomenalistic Idealism.

Question: What sort of thinkers were Foster and Luce?
Answer: subjectivists

Question: What book was written by A.A. Luce?
Answer: Sense without Matter

Question: What year saw the publication of Sense without Matter?
Answer: 1954

Question: Who wrote A World for Us: The Case for Phenomenalistic Idealism?
Answer: Foster

Question: Whose work is Sense without Matter regarded as updating?
Answer: Berkeley

Question: When was The Case for Idealism published?

Question: What did Berkeley write in 1954?

Question: What aspect of Berkeley's writing did Foster modernize?

Question: What did Foster publish after A World For Us?

Question: Whose work does Foster update?
Idealism

The 2nd edition (1787) contained a Refutation of Idealism to distinguish his transcendental idealism from Descartes's Sceptical Idealism and Berkeley's anti-realist strain of Subjective Idealism. The section Paralogisms of Pure Reason is an implicit critique of Descartes' idealism. Kant says that it is not possible to infer the 'I' as an object (Descartes' cogito ergo sum) purely from "the spontaneity of thought". Kant focused on ideas drawn from British philosophers such as Locke, Berkeley and Hume but distinguished his transcendental or critical idealism from previous varieties;

Question: What school of thought did Berkeley belong to?
Answer: Subjective Idealism

Question: What sort of idealist was Descartes?
Answer: Sceptical

Question: In what section was Descartes criticized?
Answer: Paralogisms of Pure Reason

Question: In what edition was there a Refutation of Idealism?
Answer: 2nd

Question: When was the second edition published?
Answer: 1787

Question: What does Descartes say is impossible?

Question: What Latin phrase did Kant coin?

Question: When did Locke publish his ideas?

Question: The 2nd edition merged its ideas with which two forms of thought?

Question: What was Descartes' nationality?
Idealism

In the first volume of his Parerga and Paralipomena, Schopenhauer wrote his "Sketch of a History of the Doctrine of the Ideal and the Real". He defined the ideal as being mental pictures that constitute subjective knowledge. The ideal, for him, is what can be attributed to our own minds. The images in our head are what comprise the ideal. Schopenhauer emphasized that we are restricted to our own consciousness. The world that appears is only a representation or mental picture of objects. We directly and immediately know only representations. All objects that are external to the mind are known indirectly through the mediation of our mind. He offered a history of the concept of the "ideal" as "ideational" or "existing in the mind as an image".

Question: Who wrote Parerga and Paralipomena?
Answer: Schopenhauer

Question: According to Schopenhauer, to what can the ideal be attributed?
Answer: our own minds

Question: What did Schopenhauer believe we were restricted to?
Answer: our own consciousness

Question: What did Schopenhauer believe were the only things we could know?
Answer: representations

Question: What type of knowledge did Schopenhauer believe the ideal to be?
Answer: subjective

Question: What essay is in Schopenhauer's second volume?

Question: What are we unrestricted by?

Question: How are external objects known directly?

Question: What constitutes mental pictures?

Question: Schopenhauer said the ideal was not what type of knowledge?
Idealism

Friedrich Nietzsche argued that Kant commits an agnostic tautology and does not offer a satisfactory answer as to the source of a philosophical right to such-or-other metaphysical claims; he ridicules his pride in tackling "the most difficult thing that could ever be undertaken on behalf of metaphysics." The famous "thing-in-itself" was called a product of philosophical habit, which seeks to introduce a grammatical subject: because wherever there is cognition, there must be a thing that is cognized and allegedly it must be added to ontology as a being (whereas, to Nietzsche, only the world as ever changing appearances can be assumed). Yet he attacks the idealism of Schopenhauer and Descartes with an argument similar to Kant's critique of the latter (see above).

Question: Who censured Kant for his agnostic tautology?
Answer: Friedrich Nietzsche

Question: Along with Schopenhauer, whose idealism did Nietzsche attack?
Answer: Descartes

Question: Nietzsche's attack on Schopenhauer used an argument similar to Kant's attack on who?
Answer: Descartes

Question: What kind of error did Kant say Nietzsche's argument had?

Question: Which two philosophers did Nietzsche agree with?

Question: Who argued that Nietzsche's theory of the world was wrong?

Question: What did Kant ridicule Nietzsche for?

Question: Who did Kant agree with?
Idealism

Absolute idealism is G. W. F. Hegel's account of how existence is comprehensible as an all-inclusive whole. Hegel called his philosophy "absolute" idealism in contrast to the "subjective idealism" of Berkeley and the "transcendental idealism" of Kant and Fichte, which were not based on a critique of the finite and a dialectical philosophy of history as Hegel's idealism was. The exercise of reason and intellect enables the philosopher to know ultimate historical reality, the phenomenological constitution of self-determination, the dialectical development of self-awareness and personality in the realm of History.

Question: According to Hegel, what sort of idealist was Fichte?
Answer: transcendental

Question: Who did Hegel see as a subjective idealist?
Answer: Berkeley

Question: What sort of idealist did Hegel define himself as?
Answer: Absolute

Question: How did Hegel believe historical reality to be knowable to a philosopher?
Answer: exercise of reason and intellect

Question: Which two philosophers held to subjective idealism?

Question: Kant and Fichte critiqued what?

Question: How did Berkeley comprehend existence?

Question: What prevents a philosopher from knowing reality?

Question: How did Berkeley label his own idealism?
Idealism

In his Science of Logic (1812–1814) Hegel argues that finite qualities are not fully "real" because they depend on other finite qualities to determine them. Qualitative infinity, on the other hand, would be more self-determining and hence more fully real. Similarly finite natural things are less "real"—because they are less self-determining—than spiritual things like morally responsible people, ethical communities and God. So any doctrine, such as materialism, that asserts that finite qualities or natural objects are fully real is mistaken.

Question: When was Science of Logic written?
Answer: 1812–1814

Question: Who was the author of Science of Logic?
Answer: Hegel

Question: Why did Hegel believe natural things are less real than spiritual things?
Answer: less self-determining

Question: Along with God and morally responsible people, what is an example of a spiritual thing to Hegel?
Answer: ethical communities

Question: What is an example of a school of thought Hegel believed to be wrong?
Answer: materialism

Question: Why did Hegel argue that finite qualities were real?

Question: When was Hegel born?

Question: When did Hegel die?

Question: Which doctrine did Hegel support?

Question: What are examples of natural things?
Idealism

Hegel certainly intends to preserve what he takes to be true of German idealism, in particular Kant's insistence that ethical reason can and does go beyond finite inclinations. For Hegel there must be some identity of thought and being for the "subject" (any human observer)) to be able to know any observed "object" (any external entity, possibly even another human) at all. Under Hegel's concept of "subject-object identity," subject and object both have Spirit (Hegel's ersatz, redefined, nonsupernatural "God") as their conceptual (not metaphysical) inner reality—and in that sense are identical. But until Spirit's "self-realization" occurs and Spirit graduates from Spirit to Absolute Spirit status, subject (a human mind) mistakenly thinks every "object" it observes is something "alien," meaning something separate or apart from "subject." In Hegel's words, "The object is revealed to it [to "subject"] by [as] something alien, and it does not recognize itself." Self-realization occurs when Hegel (part of Spirit's nonsupernatural Mind, which is the collective mind of all humans) arrives on the scene and realizes that every "object" is himself, because both subject and object are essentially Spirit. When self-realization occurs and Spirit becomes Absolute Spirit, the "finite" (man, human) becomes the "infinite" ("God," divine), replacing the imaginary or "picture-thinking" supernatural God of theism: man becomes God. Tucker puts it this way: "Hegelianism . . . is a religion of self-worship whose fundamental theme is given in Hegel's image of the man who aspires to be God himself, who demands 'something more, namely infinity.'" The picture Hegel presents is "a picture of a self-glorifying humanity striving compulsively, and at the end successfully, to rise to divinity."

Question: In Hegel's thought, what inner reality is possessed by both subject and object?
Answer: Spirit

Question: What is another term for Hegel's "subject"?
Answer: any human observer

Question: What does Hegel mean by "object"?
Answer: any external entity

Question: What does Spirit turn into when a person arrives at self-realization?
Answer: Absolute Spirit

Question: Who did Tucker argue that Hegel's philosophy involved the worship of?
Answer: self

Question: Which of Kant's ideas did Hegel reject?

Question: What did Kant believe was necessary to know an object?

Question: Who believed a metaphysical inner reality was necessary?

Question: An Absolute Spirit graduates to what status?

Question: What did Tucker try to preserve?
Idealism

Kierkegaard criticised Hegel's idealist philosophy in several of his works, particularly his claim to a comprehensive system that could explain the whole of reality. Where Hegel argues that an ultimate understanding of the logical structure of the world is an understanding of the logical structure of God's mind, Kierkegaard asserting that for God reality can be a system but it cannot be so for any human individual because both reality and humans are incomplete and all philosophical systems imply completeness. A logical system is possible but an existential system is not. "What is rational is actual; and what is actual is rational". Hegel's absolute idealism blurs the distinction between existence and thought: our mortal nature places limits on our understanding of reality;

Question: Who was a notable critic of Hegel?
Answer: Kierkegaard

Question: For whom did Kierkegaard argue reality cannot be a system?
Answer: human

Question: According to Kierkegaard, why can't reality be a system for human beings?
Answer: humans are incomplete

Question: Even though Kierkegaard does not believe in the possibility of an existential system of reality, what sort of system can exist?
Answer: logical

Question: Whose work did Hegel criticize?

Question: What does Kierkegaard blur the lines between?

Question: Why did Kierkegaard believe humans could have a system for reality?

Question: Kierkegaard said a logical system and what other system was possible?

Question: What did Kierkegaard say could explain all of reality?
Idealism

A major concern of Hegel's Phenomenology of Spirit (1807) and of the philosophy of Spirit that he lays out in his Encyclopedia of the Philosophical Sciences (1817–1830) is the interrelation between individual humans, which he conceives in terms of "mutual recognition." However, what Climacus means by the aforementioned statement, is that Hegel, in the Philosophy of Right, believed the best solution was to surrender one's individuality to the customs of the State, identifying right and wrong in view of the prevailing bourgeois morality. Individual human will ought, at the State's highest level of development, to properly coincide with the will of the State. Climacus rejects Hegel's suppression of individuality by pointing out it is impossible to create a valid set of rules or system in any society which can adequately describe existence for any one individual. Submitting one's will to the State denies personal freedom, choice, and responsibility.

Question: Who wrote Encyclopedia of the Philosophical Sciences?
Answer: Hegel

Question: When was Phenomenology of Spirit published?
Answer: 1807

Question: What trait did Climacus believe that Hegel suppressed?
Answer: individuality

Question: Whose will did Hegel believe should prevail over that of the individual?
Answer: State

Question: What conception of right and wrong did Climacus believe Hegel endorsed?
Answer: bourgeois

Question: When was Philosophy of Right published?

Question: What did Climacus write?

Question: What term did Hegel coin?

Question: Which of Hegel's ideas did Climacus accept?

Question: When was Climacus's criticism of Hegel published?
Idealism

In addition, Hegel does believe we can know the structure of God's mind, or ultimate reality. Hegel agrees with Kierkegaard that both reality and humans are incomplete, inasmuch as we are in time, and reality develops through time. But the relation between time and eternity is outside time and this is the "logical structure" that Hegel thinks we can know. Kierkegaard disputes this assertion, because it eliminates the clear distinction between ontology and epistemology. Existence and thought are not identical and one cannot possibly think existence. Thought is always a form of abstraction, and thus not only is pure existence impossible to think, but all forms in existence are unthinkable; thought depends on language, which merely abstracts from experience, thus separating us from lived experience and the living essence of all beings. In addition, because we are finite beings, we cannot possibly know or understand anything that is universal or infinite such as God, so we cannot know God exists, since that which transcends time simultaneously transcends human understanding.

Question: What sort of reality did Hegel perceive God's mind to be?
Answer: ultimate

Question: Along with Hegel, who also argued for human incompleteness?
Answer: Kierkegaard

Question: According to Hegel, what form does thought necessarily take?
Answer: abstraction

Question: Why does Hegel believe we cannot know God?
Answer: we are finite beings

Question: If something transcends time, what does it, according to Hegel, also transcend?
Answer: human understanding

Question: Hegel believes we cannot know what structure?

Question: Who argued against Hegel's assertion for human incompleteness?

Question: Kierkegaard eliminated the distinction between what two studies?

Question: What is always a form of thought?

Question: What does not transcend human understanding according to Hegel?
Idealism

Bradley was the apparent target of G. E. Moore's radical rejection of idealism. Moore claimed that Bradley did not understand the statement that something is real. We know for certain, through common sense and prephilosophical beliefs, that some things are real, whether they are objects of thought or not, according to Moore. The 1903 article The Refutation of Idealism is one of the first demonstrations of Moore's commitment to analysis. He examines each of the three terms in the Berkeleian aphorism esse est percipi, "to be is to be perceived", finding that it must mean that the object and the subject are necessarily connected so that "yellow" and "the sensation of yellow" are identical - "to be yellow" is "to be experienced as yellow". But it also seems there is a difference between "yellow" and "the sensation of yellow" and "that esse is held to be percipi, solely because what is experienced is held to be identical with the experience of it". Though far from a complete refutation, this was the first strong statement by analytic philosophy against its idealist predecessors, or at any rate against the type of idealism represented by Berkeley. This argument did not show that the GEM (in post–Stove vernacular, see below) is logically invalid.

Question: Who wrote The Refutation of Idealism?
Answer: Moore

Question: In his rejection of idealism, whose thought did Moore attack?
Answer: Bradley

Question: Who originated the saying 'esse est percipi'?
Answer: Berkeley

Question: What did Bradley write?

Question: What did Bradley say Moore did not understand?

Question: What Latin phrase did Moore coin?

Question: What argument did Moore validate?

Question: Who did Bradley target?
Idealism

Pluralistic idealism such as that of Gottfried Leibniz takes the view that there are many individual minds that together underlie the existence of the observed world and make possible the existence of the physical universe. Unlike absolute idealism, pluralistic idealism does not assume the existence of a single ultimate mental reality or "Absolute". Leibniz' form of idealism, known as Panpsychism, views "monads" as the true atoms of the universe and as entities having perception. The monads are "substantial forms of being",elemental, individual, subject to their own laws, non-interacting, each reflecting the entire universe. Monads are centers of force, which is substance while space, matter and motion are phenomenal and their form and existence is dependent on the simple and immaterial monads. There is a pre-established harmony established by God, the central monad, between the world in the minds of the monads and the external world of objects. Leibniz's cosmology embraced traditional Christian Theism. The English psychologist and philosopher James Ward inspired by Leibniz had also defended a form of pluralistic idealism. According to Ward the universe is composed of "psychic monads" of different levels, interacting for mutual self- betterment.

Question: Who is a notable exponent of pluralistic idealism?
Answer: Gottfried Leibniz

Question: What is the term for the type of idealism preached by Leibniz?
Answer: Panpsychism

Question: What did Leibniz believe the universe is fundamentally composed of?
Answer: monads

Question: Who was a notable disciple of Leibniz?
Answer: James Ward

Question: What does Ward see as the purpose of interaction between monads?
Answer: self- betterment

Question: What form of thought rejected Leibniz's cosmology?

Question: What was Leibniz's nationality?

Question: Who did James Ward inspire?

Question: What form of idealism did Ward create?

Question: Pluralistic idealism assumes the absolute in the same way what other form of idealism does?
Idealism

Howison's personal idealism  was also called "California Personalism" by others to distinguish it from the "Boston Personalism" which was of Bowne. Howison maintained that both impersonal, monistic idealism and materialism run contrary to the experience of moral freedom. To deny freedom to pursue truth, beauty, and "benignant love" is to undermine every profound human venture, including science, morality, and philosophy. Personalistic idealists Borden Parker Bowne and Edgar S. Brightman and realistic personal theist Saint Thomas Aquinas address a core issue, namely that of dependence upon an infinite personal God.

Question: Who was an exponent of so-called "Boston Personalism"?
Answer: Bowne

Question: What was the term given to the personal idealism of Howison?
Answer: California Personalism

Question: Who is a notable realistic personal theist?
Answer: Saint Thomas Aquinas

Question: What issue do both Aquinas and Brightman discuss?
Answer: dependence upon an infinite personal God

Question: What sort of freedom did Howison believe was incompatible with materialism?
Answer: moral

Question: California Personalism is the same as what personalism by Bowne?

Question: What two idealists took a realistic perspective?

Question: What theist did Howison agree with?

Question: What did Bowne believe was contrary to moral freedom?

Question: Howison said materialism was compatible with moral what?
Idealism

J. M. E. McTaggart of Cambridge University, argued that minds alone exist and only relate to each other through love. Space, time and material objects are unreal. In The Unreality of Time he argued that time is an illusion because it is impossible to produce a coherent account of a sequence of events. The Nature of Existence (1927) contained his arguments that space, time, and matter cannot possibly be real. In his Studies in Hegelian Cosmology (Cambridge, 1901, p196) he declared that metaphysics are not relevant to social and political action. McTaggart "thought that Hegel was wrong in supposing that metaphysics could show that the state is more than a means to the good of the individuals who compose it". For McTaggart "philosophy can give us very little, if any, guidance in action... Why should a Hegelian citizen be surprised that his belief as to the organic nature of the Absolute does not help him in deciding how to vote? Would a Hegelian engineer be reasonable in expecting that his belief that all matter is spirit should help him in planning a bridge?

Question: With what university is J.M.E. McTaggart affiliated?
Answer: Cambridge

Question: In what year was The Nature of Existence published?
Answer: 1927

Question: According to McTaggart, what are the only things that have real existence?
Answer: minds

Question: How does McTaggart believe minds relate to one another?
Answer: love

Question: What does McTaggart believe space and time to be?
Answer: unreal

Question: When was The Unreality of Time published?

Question: In what publication did McTaggart argue space, time, and matter were real?

Question: Who said minds can only relate through time?

Question: What did McTaggart say metaphysics was relevant for?

Question: Who did McTaggart say was best prepared to use their philosophy to decide how to vote?
Idealism

Thomas Davidson taught a philosophy called "apeirotheism", a "form of pluralistic idealism...coupled with a stern ethical rigorism" which he defined as "a theory of Gods infinite in number." The theory was indebted to Aristotle's pluralism and his concepts of Soul, the rational, living aspect of a living substance which cannot exist apart from the body because it is not a substance but an essence, and nous, rational thought, reflection and understanding. Although a perennial source of controversy, Aristotle arguably views the latter as both eternal and immaterial in nature, as exemplified in his theology of unmoved movers. Identifying Aristotle's God with rational thought, Davidson argued, contrary to Aristotle, that just as the soul cannot exist apart from the body, God cannot exist apart from the world.

Question: What was the name of the philosophy preached by Thomas Davidson?
Answer: apeirotheism

Question: What type of idealism was Thomas Davidson's philosophy?
Answer: pluralistic

Question: According to Davidson, how many gods are there?
Answer: infinite

Question: By whose philosophy was Davidson influenced?
Answer: Aristotle

Question: What did Davidson believe the God of Aristotle is synonymous with?
Answer: rational thought

Question: What was Aristotle's pluralism based on?

Question: How many Souls did Aristotle say there were?

Question: Davidson's argument that God cannot exist apart from the world matched whose argument?

Question: Apeirotheism was pluralistic idealism without what?

Question: What did Davidson say God was antonymous to in Aristotle's works?
Idealism

Idealist notions took a strong hold among physicists of the early 20th century confronted with the paradoxes of quantum physics and the theory of relativity. In The Grammar of Science, Preface to the 2nd Edition, 1900, Karl Pearson wrote, "There are many signs that a sound idealism is surely replacing, as a basis for natural philosophy, the crude materialism of the older physicists." This book influenced Einstein's regard for the importance of the observer in scientific measurements[citation needed]. In § 5 of that book, Pearson asserted that "...science is in reality a classification and analysis of the contents of the mind...." Also, "...the field of science is much more consciousness than an external world."

Question: Among what twentieth century scientists was idealism popular?
Answer: physicists

Question: Along with quantum physics generally, what scientific doctrine caused some physicists to embrace idealism?
Answer: relativity

Question: In what year was the second edition of The Grammar of Science published?
Answer: 1900

Question: What did Pearson claim that science classifies?
Answer: contents of the mind

Question: Who is claimed to have been influenced by The Grammar of Science?
Answer: Einstein

Question: When did idealism fall out of practice?

Question: What did the theory of relativity first appear in?

Question: When did Einstein publish The Grammar of Science?

Question: Who was influenced by Einstein?

Question: What did Einstein say science is?
Idealism

"The mind-stuff of the world is, of course, something more general than our individual conscious minds.... The mind-stuff is not spread in space and time; these are part of the cyclic scheme ultimately derived out of it.... It is necessary to keep reminding ourselves that all knowledge of our environment from which the world of physics is constructed, has entered in the form of messages transmitted along the nerves to the seat of consciousness.... Consciousness is not sharply defined, but fades into subconsciousness; and beyond that we must postulate something indefinite but yet continuous with our mental nature.... It is difficult for the matter-of-fact physicist to accept the view that the substratum of everything is of mental character. But no one can deny that mind is the first and most direct thing in our experience, and all else is remote inference."

Question: How do receive information from the physical world?
Answer: messages transmitted along the nerves to the seat of consciousness

Question: What type of consciousness is similar but not identical to consciousness itself?
Answer: subconsciousness

Question: What is the nature of the fundamental character of reality?
Answer: mental

Question: According to the author, who would have particular trouble in accepting that reality is fundamentally mental?
Answer: physicist

Question: What is the main thing that we experience?
Answer: mind

Question: What is more general that mind-stuff of the world?

Question: How is mind-stuff spread?

Question: What is sharply defined?

Question: What does the matter-of-fact physicist easily accept?

Question: What is the cyclic scheme transmitted by?
Czech_language

Czech (/ˈtʃɛk/; čeština Czech pronunciation: [ˈt͡ʃɛʃcɪna]), formerly known as Bohemian (/boʊˈhiːmiən, bə-/; lingua Bohemica in Latin), is a West Slavic language strongly influenced by Latin and German language, spoken by over 10 million people and it is the official language of the Czech Republic. Czech's closest relative is Slovak, with which it is mutually intelligible. It is closely related to other West Slavic languages, such as Silesian and Polish. Although most Czech vocabulary is based on shared roots with Slavic, Romance, and Germanic languages, many loanwords (most associated with high culture) have been adopted in recent years.

Question: What was Czech formerly known as?
Answer: Bohemian

Question: What languages strongly influenced Czech?
Answer: Latin and German

Question: Over how many million people speak Czech?
Answer: 10

Question: What vocabulary associated with higher classed culture have been adopted over the years?
Answer: loanwords

Question: What is Polish formerly known as?

Question: How many people speak Polish?

Question: What language is closest to Latin?

Question: What has Latin adopted in recent years?

Question: What are two other languages that are closely related to Latin?
Czech_language

The languages have not undergone the deliberate highlighting of minor linguistic differences in the name of nationalism as has occurred in the Bosnian, Serbian and Croatian standards of Serbo-Croatian. However, most Slavic languages (including Czech) have been distanced in this way from Russian influences because of widespread public resentment against the former Soviet Union (which occupied Czechoslovakia in 1968). Czech and Slovak form a dialect continuum, with great similarity between neighboring Czech and Slovak dialects. (See "Dialects" below.)

Question: What deliberate action has been done to some languages in the name of nationalism?
Answer: highlighting of minor linguistic differences

Question: What language family is Czech?
Answer: Slavic

Question: Why did many Slavic languages distance themselves from Russian influences?
Answer: resentment against the former Soviet Union

Question: When did the Soviet Union occupy Czechoslovakia?
Answer: 1968

Question: What language does Czech form a dialect continuum with?
Answer: Slovak

Question: In what year did Croatia occupy Bosnia?

Question: Why has the Bosnian language wanted to separate itself from Croatia?

Question: What do most Russian dialects have in common?

Question: What has happened to languages in Russia?

Question: What kind of continuum is formed between Russian dialects?
Czech_language

One study showed that Czech and Slovak lexicons differed by 80 percent, but this high percentage was found to stem primarily from differing orthographies and slight inconsistencies in morphological formation; Slovak morphology is more regular (when changing from the nominative to the locative case, Praha becomes Praze in Czech and Prahe in Slovak). The two lexicons are generally considered similar, with most differences in colloquial vocabulary and some scientific terminology. Slovak has slightly more borrowed words than Czech.

Question: How much do the lexicons of Czech and Slovak differ, according to on study?
Answer: by 80 percent

Question: What was the high percentage of differing lexicons found to derive from?
Answer: differing orthographies and slight inconsistencies in morphological formation

Question: When is Slovak morphology more regular than Czech?
Answer: when changing from the nominative to the locative case

Question: The most differences between Czech and Slovak can be found in colloquial vocabulary as well as what?
Answer: some scientific terminology

Question: What does Slovak have slightly more of than Czech?
Answer: borrowed words

Question: What  does Praha have more of than Prahe?

Question: How many people speak Czech in Russia?

Question: Why do 80% of people in Russia speak Czech?

Question: Where can the most differences in Praha be found besides vocabulary?

Question: When is Praha morphology more regular than scientific terminology?
Czech_language

The similarities between Czech and Slovak led to the languages being considered a single language by a group of 19th-century scholars who called themselves "Czechoslavs" (Čechoslováci), believing that the peoples were connected in a way which excluded German Bohemians and (to a lesser extent) Hungarians and other Slavs. During the First Czechoslovak Republic (1918–1938), although "Czechoslovak" was designated as the republic's official language both Czech and Slovak written standards were used. Standard written Slovak was partially modeled on literary Czech, and Czech was preferred for some official functions in the Slovak half of the republic. Czech influence on Slovak was protested by Slovak scholars, and when Slovakia broke off from Czechoslovakia in 1938 as the Slovak State (which then aligned with Nazi Germany in World War II) literary Slovak was deliberately distanced from Czech. When the Axis powers lost the war and Czechoslovakia reformed, Slovak developed somewhat on its own (with Czech influence); during the Prague Spring of 1968, Slovak gained independence from (and equality with) Czech. Since then, "Czechoslovak" refers to improvised pidgins of the languages which have arisen from the decrease in mutual intelligibility.

Question: Who called themselves "Czechoslavs"?
Answer: a group of 19th-century scholars

Question: Why did the Czechoslavs consider Czech and Slovak to be a single language?
Answer: The similarities

Question: When was the first Czechoslovak Republic?
Answer: 1918–1938

Question: What was standard written Slovak partially modeled on?
Answer: literary Czech

Question: When was the Prague Spring?
Answer: 1968

Question: What did 19th century German Bohemians call themselves?

Question: What languages were only used by Hungarians from 1918-1938?

Question: What did Hungarians consider Czech and Slovak to be?

Question: When did Prague align itself with Nazi Germany?

Question: In what year did Hungary gain independence?
Czech_language

Around the sixth century AD, a tribe of Slavs arrived in a portion of Central Europe. According to legend they were led by a hero named Čech, from whom the word "Czech" derives. The ninth century brought the state of Great Moravia, whose first ruler (Rastislav of Moravia) invited Byzantine ruler Michael III to send missionaries in an attempt to reduce the influence of East Francia on religious and political life in his country. These missionaries, Constantine and Methodius, helped to convert the Czechs from traditional Slavic paganism to Christianity and established a church system. They also brought the Glagolitic alphabet to the West Slavs, whose language was previously unwritten. This language, later known as Proto-Czech, was beginning to separate from its fellow West Slavic hatchlings Proto-Slovak, Proto-Polish and Proto-Sorbian. Among other features, Proto-Czech was marked by its ephemeral use of the voiced velar fricative consonant (/ɣ/) and consistent stress on the first syllable.

Question: When did a tribe of Slavs arrive in Central Europe?
Answer: sixth century AD

Question: Who was the hero who led the Slavs to their new home, according to legend?
Answer: Čech

Question: What did the ninth century bring?
Answer: state of Great Moravia

Question: Whose influence was Rastislav eager to reduce, when he invited  Michael III to send missionaries? 
Answer: East Francia

Question: What alphabet did the missionaries bring to the West Slavs?
Answer: Glagolitic

Question: When did Rastislav of Moravia arrive in Glagolitic?

Question: Who did Constantine and Methodius lead to Central Europe?

Question: Why did Cech send out missionaries?

Question: What area did Cech think East Francia had too much influence on?

Question: What kind of system was established by Cech?
Czech_language

The Czechs' language separated from other Slavic tongues into what would later be called Old Czech by the thirteenth century, a classification extending through the sixteenth century. Its use of cases differed from the modern language; although Old Czech did not yet have a vocative case or an animacy distinction, declension for its six cases and three genders rapidly became complicated (partially to differentiate homophones) and its declension patterns resembled those of Lithuanian (its Balto-Slavic cousin).

Question: By the thirteenth century, what had the Czech language separated from?
Answer: other Slavic tongues

Question: How long was the precursor to Czech classified as Old Czech?
Answer: through the sixteenth century

Question: How did Old Czech's use of cases differ from modern usage?
Answer: did not yet have a vocative case or an animacy distinction

Question: How many cases did Old Czech have?
Answer: six

Question: What other language did Old Czech's declension patterns resemble?
Answer: Lithuanian

Question: What other languages did Lithuanian separate from?

Question: What was Lithuanian called by the thirteenth century?

Question: How many cases did Lithuanian have?

Question: How many genders were used in Lithuanian in the past?

Question: How long was Lithuanian considered Old Czech?
Czech_language

While Old Czech had a basic alphabet from which a general set of orthographical correspondences was drawn, it did not have a standard orthography. It also contained a number of sound clusters which no longer exist; allowing ě (/jɛ/) after soft consonants, which has since shifted to e (/ɛ/), and allowing complex consonant clusters to be pronounced all at once rather than syllabically. A phonological phenomenon, Havlik's law (which began in Proto-Slavic and took various forms in other Slavic languages), appeared in Old Czech; counting backwards from the end of a clause, every odd-numbered yer was vocalized as a vowel, while the other yers disappeared.

Question: What type of orthography did Old Czech lack?
Answer: standard

Question: Why aren't some sound clusters used in modern Czech?
Answer: no longer exist

Question: How did old Czech allow some complex consonant clusters to be pronounced?
Answer: all at once

Question: What type of phenomenon is Havlik's law?
Answer: phonological

Question: Which "yer"s were vocalized as vowels?
Answer: every odd-numbered

Question: What law began in Old Czech?

Question: What kind of alphabet was in Proto-Slavic?

Question: What did Proto-Slavic have that no longer exists?

Question: How did Proto-Slavic let complex consonant clusters to be pronounced?

Question: What kind of orthography was missing from Proto-Slavic?
Czech_language

Bohemia (as Czech civilization was known by then) increased in power over the centuries, as its language did in regional importance. This growth was expedited during the fourteenth century by Holy Roman Emperor Charles IV, who founded Charles University in Prague in 1348. Here, early Czech literature (a biblical translation, hymns and hagiography) flourished. Old Czech texts, including poetry and cookbooks, were produced outside the university as well. Later in the century Jan Hus contributed significantly to the standardization of Czech orthography, advocated for widespread literacy among Czech commoners (particularly in religion) and made early efforts to model written Czech after the spoken language.

Question: What was Czech civilization called back in the day?
Answer: Bohemia

Question: What Holy Roman Emperor expedited the growth of Bohemia in the 14th century?
Answer: Charles IV

Question: When was Charles University founded in Prague?
Answer: 1348

Question: Who contributed heavily to the effort to standardize Czech orthography?
Answer: Jan Hus

Question: What did Jan Hus advocate for among the Czech commoners?
Answer: widespread literacy

Question: What university was founded by Jan Hus?

Question: In what city did Jan Hus found Charles University?

Question: In what year did Jan Hus found Charles University?

Question: What works were written by Jan Hus?

Question: What type of literature was written by Czech commoners in 1348?
Czech_language

Czech continued to evolve and gain in regional importance for hundreds of years, and has been a literary language in the Slovak lands since the early fifteenth century. A biblical translation, the Kralice Bible, was published during the late sixteenth century (around the time of the King James and Luther versions) which was more linguistically conservative than either. The publication of the Kralice Bible spawned widespread nationalism, and in 1615 the government of Bohemia ruled that only Czech-speaking residents would be allowed to become full citizens or inherit goods or land. This, and the conversion of the Czech upper classes from the Habsburg Empire's Catholicism to Protestantism, angered the Habsburgs and helped trigger the Thirty Years' War (where the Czechs were defeated at the Battle of White Mountain). The Czechs became serfs; Bohemia's printing industry (and its linguistic and political rights) were dismembered, removing official regulation and support from its language. German quickly became the dominant language in Bohemia.

Question: How many years as Czech continued to evolve and gain in regional importance?
Answer: hundreds

Question: When was the Kralice Bible published?
Answer: late sixteenth century

Question: What did the publication of the Kralice Bible spawn?
Answer: widespread nationalism

Question: In what war were the Czechs defeated at the Battle of White Mountain?
Answer: Thirty Years' War

Question: What language became dominant in Bohemia after the Czech's defeat?
Answer: German

Question: At what battle were the Germans defeated?

Question: What war was Germany involved in the longest?

Question: What change did the publishing of the King James Bible cause?

Question: In what year did Germans become serfs?

Question: What did the government of Bohemia only allow Germans do do?
Czech_language

The consensus among linguists is that modern, standard Czech originated during the eighteenth century. By then the language had developed a literary tradition, and since then it has changed little; journals from that period have no substantial differences from modern standard Czech, and contemporary Czechs can understand them with little difficulty. Changes include the morphological shift of í to ej and é to í (although é survives for some uses) and the merging of í and the former ejí. Sometime before the eighteenth century, the Czech language abandoned a distinction between phonemic /l/ and /ʎ/ which survives in Slovak.

Question: When do linguists agree modern Czech originated?
Answer: the eighteenth century

Question: What had Czech developed by the 18th century?
Answer: literary tradition

Question: Journals from the 18th century have no substantial differences from what?
Answer: modern standard Czech

Question: How much difficulty do contemporary Czechs have in understanding material from the 18th century?
Answer: little

Question: What did the Czech language abandon which survives in Slovak?
Answer: a distinction between phonemic /l/ and /ʎ/

Question: At what time did modern Slovak originate?

Question: What had Slovak developed?

Question: How much has Slovak changed from the past until now?

Question: What kind of differences do writings from the past have from modern Slovak?

Question: What group believes modern Slovak originated during the eighteenth century?
Czech_language

The Czech people gained widespread national pride during the mid-eighteenth century, inspired by the Age of Enlightenment a half-century earlier. Czech historians began to emphasize their people's accomplishments from the fifteenth through the seventeenth centuries, rebelling against the Counter-Reformation (which had denigrated Czech and other non-Latin languages). Czech philologists studied sixteenth-century texts, advocating the return of the language to high culture. This period is known as the Czech National Revival (or Renascence).

Question: What did the Czechs as a people gain during the mid-18th century?
Answer: widespread national pride

Question: What inspired the Czech's national pride?
Answer: Age of Enlightenment a half-century earlier

Question: What did Czech historians emphasize about their countrymen?
Answer: accomplishments

Question: What did Czech philologists advocate?
Answer: the return of the language to high culture

Question: What is the period during the mid-eighteenth century also remembered as?
Answer: Czech National Revival

Question: What emotion did the Counter-Reformation support during the mid-eighteenth century?

Question: What time period inspired the Counter-Reformation?

Question: When did the Counter-Reformation emphasize people's accomplishments?

Question: What had been denigrated by the Age of Enlightenment?

Question: What did the Counter-Reformation advocate for the language to return to?