Divyanshu67/squad_v2 huggingface dataset:
Empiricism

In the late renaissance various writers began to question the medieval and classical understanding of knowledge acquisition in a more fundamental way. In political and historical writing Niccolò Machiavelli and his friend Francesco Guicciardini initiated a new realistic style of writing. Machiavelli in particular was scornful of writers on politics who judged everything in comparison to mental ideals and demanded that people should study the "effectual truth" instead. Their contemporary, Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519) said, "If you find from your own experience that something is a fact and it contradicts what some authority has written down, then you must abandon the authority and base your reasoning on your own findings."

Question: When was da Vinci born?
Answer: 1452

Question: When did da Vinci die?
Answer: 1519

Question: What did renaissance writers question?
Answer: the medieval and classical understanding of knowledge acquisition

Question: Who did Machiavelli disdain?
Answer: writers on politics who judged everything in comparison to mental ideals

Question: What did da Vinci advise when your experience contradicted authority?
Answer: abandon the authority and base your reasoning on your own findings

Question: When did Niccolo Machiavelli live?

Question: Who judged everything according to mental ideals?

Question: What was Leonardo da Vinci most famous for?

Question: Who said you must base your reasoning on authority rather than your own findings?

Question: When was Francesco Guicciardini born?
Empiricism

The decidedly anti-Aristotelian and anti-clerical music theorist Vincenzo Galilei (ca. 1520–1591), father of Galileo and the inventor of monody, made use of the method in successfully solving musical problems, firstly, of tuning such as the relationship of pitch to string tension and mass in stringed instruments, and to volume of air in wind instruments; and secondly to composition, by his various suggestions to composers in his Dialogo della musica antica e moderna (Florence, 1581). The Italian word he used for "experiment" was esperienza. It is known that he was the essential pedagogical influence upon the young Galileo, his eldest son (cf. Coelho, ed. Music and Science in the Age of Galileo Galilei), arguably one of the most influential empiricists in history. Vincenzo, through his tuning research, found the underlying truth at the heart of the misunderstood myth of 'Pythagoras' hammers' (the square of the numbers concerned yielded those musical intervals, not the actual numbers, as believed), and through this and other discoveries that demonstrated the fallibility of traditional authorities, a radically empirical attitude developed, passed on to Galileo, which regarded "experience and demonstration" as the sine qua non of valid rational enquiry.

Question: When was Vincenzo Galilei born?
Answer: ca. 1520

Question: When did Vincenzo Galilei die?
Answer: 1591

Question: Who was Vincenzo Galilei's oldest son?
Answer: Galileo

Question: What does 'esperienza' mean?
Answer: experiment

Question: When was Galileo born?

Question: When did Galileo die?

Question: Who wrote Music and Science in the age of Galileo?

Question: When did Vincenzo discover the meaning of Pythagoras' hammers'?

Question: Where was Galileo born?
Empiricism

British empiricism, though it was not a term used at the time, derives from the 17th century period of early modern philosophy and modern science. The term became useful in order to describe differences perceived between two of its founders Francis Bacon, described as empiricist, and René Descartes, who is described as a rationalist. Thomas Hobbes and Baruch Spinoza, in the next generation, are often also described as an empiricist and a rationalist respectively. John Locke, George Berkeley, and David Hume were the primary exponents of empiricism in the 18th century Enlightenment, with Locke being the person who is normally known as the founder of empiricism as such.

Question: When was the British empiricism period?
Answer: 17th century

Question: What type of philosopher was Francis Bacon?
Answer: empiricist

Question: What type of philosopher was Descartes?
Answer: rationalist

Question: What type of philosopher was Hobbes?
Answer: empiricist

Question: What type of philosopher was Spinoza?
Answer: rationalist

Question: What did George Berkeley found?

Question: Who was the exponent of rationalism in the Enlightenment?

Question: What was British empiricism originally called?

Question: What was Baruch Spinoza's nationality?

Question: Who was the founder of rationalism?
Empiricism

In response to the early-to-mid-17th century "continental rationalism" John Locke (1632–1704) proposed in An Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1689) a very influential view wherein the only knowledge humans can have is a posteriori, i.e., based upon experience. Locke is famously attributed with holding the proposition that the human mind is a tabula rasa, a "blank tablet", in Locke's words "white paper", on which the experiences derived from sense impressions as a person's life proceeds are written. There are two sources of our ideas: sensation and reflection. In both cases, a distinction is made between simple and complex ideas. The former are unanalysable, and are broken down into primary and secondary qualities. Primary qualities are essential for the object in question to be what it is. Without specific primary qualities, an object would not be what it is. For example, an apple is an apple because of the arrangement of its atomic structure. If an apple was structured differently, it would cease to be an apple. Secondary qualities are the sensory information we can perceive from its primary qualities. For example, an apple can be perceived in various colours, sizes, and textures but it is still identified as an apple. Therefore, its primary qualities dictate what the object essentially is, while its secondary qualities define its attributes. Complex ideas combine simple ones, and divide into substances, modes, and relations. According to Locke, our knowledge of things is a perception of ideas that are in accordance or discordance with each other, which is very different from the quest for certainty of Descartes.

Question: When was 'An Essay Concerning Human Understanding' published?
Answer: 1689

Question: Who wrote 'An Essay Concerning Human Understanding'?
Answer: John Locke

Question: What does 'tabula rasa' mean?
Answer: blank tablet

Question: What did Locke say 'tabula rasa' meant?
Answer: white paper

Question: What did Locke's 'tabula rasa' concept say happens to the mind?
Answer: on which the experiences derived from sense impressions as a person's life proceeds are written

Question: What did Descarte call our knowledge of things?

Question: What did Descarte publish in 1689?

Question: When was Descartes born?

Question: Who founded continental rationalism?

Question: Why are primary qualities non-essential?
Empiricism

A generation later, the Irish Anglican bishop, George Berkeley (1685–1753), determined that Locke's view immediately opened a door that would lead to eventual atheism. In response to Locke, he put forth in his Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge (1710) an important challenge to empiricism in which things only exist either as a result of their being perceived, or by virtue of the fact that they are an entity doing the perceiving. (For Berkeley, God fills in for humans by doing the perceiving whenever humans are not around to do it.) In his text Alciphron, Berkeley maintained that any order humans may see in nature is the language or handwriting of God. Berkeley's approach to empiricism would later come to be called subjective idealism.

Question: Who wrote 'Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge'?
Answer: George Berkeley

Question: When was 'Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge' published?
Answer: 1710

Question: What religion was George Berkeley?
Answer: Anglican

Question: What nationality was George Berkeley?
Answer: Irish

Question: Who wrote 'Alciphron'?
Answer: George Berkeley

Question: When was Alciphron published?

Question: What was Locke's religion?

Question: Who responded to George Berkeley?

Question: Whom did Locke claim created order?
Empiricism

The Scottish philosopher David Hume (1711–1776) responded to Berkeley's criticisms of Locke, as well as other differences between early modern philosophers, and moved empiricism to a new level of skepticism. Hume argued in keeping with the empiricist view that all knowledge derives from sense experience, but he accepted that this has implications not normally acceptable to philosophers. He wrote for example, "Locke divides all arguments into demonstrative and probable. On this view, we must say that it is only probable that all men must die or that the sun will rise to-morrow, because neither of these can be demonstrated. But to conform our language more to common use, we ought to divide arguments into demonstrations, proofs, and probabilities—by ‘proofs’ meaning arguments from experience that leave no room for doubt or opposition." And,

Question: What did Hume bring to empiricism?
Answer: a new level of skepticism

Question: What was Hume's nationality?
Answer: Scottish

Question: What two types of arguments did Locke say there are?
Answer: demonstrative and probable

Question: When was Hume born?
Answer: 1711

Question: When did Hume die?
Answer: 1776

Question: Who argued that skepticism was a form of empiricism?

Question: When did David Hume respond to Berkeley?

Question: How many arguments did Berkeley say there were?

Question: What was Locke's nationality?

Question: Who was Locke's contemporary?
Empiricism

Hume divided all of human knowledge into two categories: relations of ideas and matters of fact (see also Kant's analytic-synthetic distinction). Mathematical and logical propositions (e.g. "that the square of the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares of the two sides") are examples of the first, while propositions involving some contingent observation of the world (e.g. "the sun rises in the East") are examples of the second. All of people's "ideas", in turn, are derived from their "impressions". For Hume, an "impression" corresponds roughly with what we call a sensation. To remember or to imagine such impressions is to have an "idea". Ideas are therefore the faint copies of sensations.

Question: What types of human knowledge did Hume say there are?
Answer: relations of ideas and matters of fact

Question: What type of human knowledge is math?
Answer: relations of ideas

Question: What type of human knowledge is observing the world?
Answer: matters of fact

Question: What type of human knowledge is "the sun rises in the East"?
Answer: matters of fact

Question: Where did Hume say people's ideas come from?
Answer: their "impressions"

Question: How many categories did Kant divide the world into?

Question: What would the incorrect phrase "the sun rises in the west" be?

Question: Why are sensations considered copies of ideas?

Question: What was the analytic-synthetic distinction?
Empiricism

Hume maintained that all knowledge, even the most basic beliefs about the natural world, cannot be conclusively established by reason. Rather, he maintained, our beliefs are more a result of accumulated habits, developed in response to accumulated sense experiences. Among his many arguments Hume also added another important slant to the debate about scientific method — that of the problem of induction. Hume argued that it requires inductive reasoning to arrive at the premises for the principle of inductive reasoning, and therefore the justification for inductive reasoning is a circular argument. Among Hume's conclusions regarding the problem of induction is that there is no certainty that the future will resemble the past. Thus, as a simple instance posed by Hume, we cannot know with certainty by inductive reasoning that the sun will continue to rise in the East, but instead come to expect it to do so because it has repeatedly done so in the past.

Question: What did Hume think our beliefs are?
Answer: a result of accumulated habits, developed in response to accumulated sense experiences

Question: What did Hume think our beliefs can't be established solely by?
Answer: reason

Question: What did Hume think is a circular argument?
Answer: the justification for inductive reasoning

Question: What did Hume say we can't know by inductive reasoning?
Answer: that the sun will continue to rise in the East

Question: Why did Hume say we expect the sun to rise?
Answer: because it has repeatedly done so in the past

Question: Who invented the circular argument?

Question: Why does Hume say we can know the sun will rise in the east?

Question: What did problem of the scientific method did Hume solve?

Question: Where does Hume say the sun sets?

Question: Humes argues there is no way to know the past will be like what?
Empiricism

Most of Hume's followers have disagreed with his conclusion that belief in an external world is rationally unjustifiable, contending that Hume's own principles implicitly contained the rational justification for such a belief, that is, beyond being content to let the issue rest on human instinct, custom and habit. According to an extreme empiricist theory known as phenomenalism, anticipated by the arguments of both Hume and George Berkeley, a physical object is a kind of construction out of our experiences. Phenomenalism is the view that physical objects, properties, events (whatever is physical) are reducible to mental objects, properties, events. Ultimately, only mental objects, properties, events, exist — hence the closely related term subjective idealism. By the phenomenalistic line of thinking, to have a visual experience of a real physical thing is to have an experience of a certain kind of group of experiences. This type of set of experiences possesses a constancy and coherence that is lacking in the set of experiences of which hallucinations, for example, are a part. As John Stuart Mill put it in the mid-19th century, matter is the "permanent possibility of sensation". Mill's empiricism went a significant step beyond Hume in still another respect: in maintaining that induction is necessary for all meaningful knowledge including mathematics. As summarized by D.W. Hamlin:

Question: What conclusion do most of Hume's followers disagree with?
Answer: that belief in an external world is rationally unjustifiable

Question: What did Hume say can't be rationally justified?
Answer: belief in an external world

Question: What is phenomenalism?
Answer: physical objects, properties, events (whatever is physical) are reducible to mental objects, properties, events

Question: What is subjective idealism closely related to?
Answer: Phenomenalism

Question: What did John Stuart Mill say matter is?
Answer: the "permanent possibility of sensation"

Question: Who founded the phenomenalism philosophy?

Question: When did DW Hamlin publish his essays?

Question: Why did John Stuart Mill disagree with Hume?

Question: When did Phenomenalism begin?

Question: Who argued for subjective idealism?
Empiricism

Mill's empiricism thus held that knowledge of any kind is not from direct experience but an inductive inference from direct experience. The problems other philosophers have had with Mill's position center around the following issues: Firstly, Mill's formulation encounters difficulty when it describes what direct experience is by differentiating only between actual and possible sensations. This misses some key discussion concerning conditions under which such "groups of permanent possibilities of sensation" might exist in the first place. Berkeley put God in that gap; the phenomenalists, including Mill, essentially left the question unanswered. In the end, lacking an acknowledgement of an aspect of "reality" that goes beyond mere "possibilities of sensation", such a position leads to a version of subjective idealism. Questions of how floor beams continue to support a floor while unobserved, how trees continue to grow while unobserved and untouched by human hands, etc., remain unanswered, and perhaps unanswerable in these terms. Secondly, Mill's formulation leaves open the unsettling possibility that the "gap-filling entities are purely possibilities and not actualities at all". Thirdly, Mill's position, by calling mathematics merely another species of inductive inference, misapprehends mathematics. It fails to fully consider the structure and method of mathematical science, the products of which are arrived at through an internally consistent deductive set of procedures which do not, either today or at the time Mill wrote, fall under the agreed meaning of induction.

Question: What did Mill say knowledge comes from?
Answer: an inductive inference from direct experience

Question: What sensations did Mill differentiate?
Answer: actual and possible sensations

Question: When Mill left a question of sensations unanswered, how did Berkeley answer it?
Answer: God

Question: What did Mill say might not actually exist?
Answer: gap-filling entities

Question: What did Mill misrepresent about math?
Answer: the structure and method of mathematical science, the products of which are arrived at through an internally consistent deductive set of procedures

Question: What did Mill put in the gap?

Question: What do indirect experiences produce?

Question: Who disagreed that "gap-filling entities are purely possibilities and not actualities at all"?

Question: what did Mill realize about mathematics?

Question: What does subjective idealism lead to?
Empiricism

The phenomenalist phase of post-Humean empiricism ended by the 1940s, for by that time it had become obvious that statements about physical things could not be translated into statements about actual and possible sense data. If a physical object statement is to be translatable into a sense-data statement, the former must be at least deducible from the latter. But it came to be realized that there is no finite set of statements about actual and possible sense-data from which we can deduce even a single physical-object statement. Remember that the translating or paraphrasing statement must be couched in terms of normal observers in normal conditions of observation. There is, however, no finite set of statements that are couched in purely sensory terms and can express the satisfaction of the condition of the presence of a normal observer. According to phenomenalism, to say that a normal observer is present is to make the hypothetical statement that were a doctor to inspect the observer, the observer would appear to the doctor to be normal. But, of course, the doctor himself must be a normal observer. If we are to specify this doctor's normality in sensory terms, we must make reference to a second doctor who, when inspecting the sense organs of the first doctor, would himself have to have the sense data a normal observer has when inspecting the sense organs of a subject who is a normal observer. And if we are to specify in sensory terms that the second doctor is a normal observer, we must refer to a third doctor, and so on (also see the third man).

Question: What phase of empiricism ended in the 1940s?
Answer: phenomenalist

Question: How can't a finite set of statements be described?
Answer: in purely sensory terms

Question: What is necessary to explain a doctor's normality in sensory terms?
Answer: a second doctor

Question: When did the phenomenalist phase begin?

Question: When was the problem of the third man published?

Question: How must a finite set of statements be described?

Question: How many doctors do you need to satisfy the hypothetical problem?

Question: How did it become possible for physical object statements to translate into sense-data statements?
Empiricism

Logical empiricism (also logical positivism or neopositivism) was an early 20th-century attempt to synthesize the essential ideas of British empiricism (e.g. a strong emphasis on sensory experience as the basis for knowledge) with certain insights from mathematical logic that had been developed by Gottlob Frege and Ludwig Wittgenstein. Some of the key figures in this movement were Otto Neurath, Moritz Schlick and the rest of the Vienna Circle, along with A.J. Ayer, Rudolf Carnap and Hans Reichenbach.

Question: What are other terms for logical empiricism?
Answer: logical positivism or neopositivism

Question: When was logical empricism formulated?
Answer: early 20th-century

Question: What did logical empiricism try to combine with mathematical logic?
Answer: British empiricism

Question: What was Otto Neurath an important member of?
Answer: Logical empiricism

Question: What was AJ Ayer an important member of?
Answer: Logical empiricism

Question: When were Gottlob Frege's mathematical insights published?

Question: Who named neopositivism?

Question: What was Ludwig Wittgenstein part of?

Question: What was Ludwig Wittgenstein's nationality?

Question: Who founded the Vienna Circle?
Empiricism

The neopositivists subscribed to a notion of philosophy as the conceptual clarification of the methods, insights and discoveries of the sciences. They saw in the logical symbolism elaborated by Frege (1848–1925) and Bertrand Russell (1872–1970) a powerful instrument that could rationally reconstruct all scientific discourse into an ideal, logically perfect, language that would be free of the ambiguities and deformations of natural language. This gave rise to what they saw as metaphysical pseudoproblems and other conceptual confusions. By combining Frege's thesis that all mathematical truths are logical with the early Wittgenstein's idea that all logical truths are mere linguistic tautologies, they arrived at a twofold classification of all propositions: the analytic (a priori) and the synthetic (a posteriori). On this basis, they formulated a strong principle of demarcation between sentences that have sense and those that do not: the so-called verification principle. Any sentence that is not purely logical, or is unverifiable is devoid of meaning. As a result, most metaphysical, ethical, aesthetic and other traditional philosophical problems came to be considered pseudoproblems.

Question: When was Bertrand Russell born?
Answer: 1872

Question: When did Bertrand Russell die?
Answer: 1970

Question: What did Frege say about math?
Answer: all mathematical truths are logical

Question: What did Wittgenstein say about logic?
Answer: all logical truths are mere linguistic tautologies

Question: What are pseudoproblems?
Answer: most metaphysical, ethical, aesthetic and other traditional philosophical problems

Question: When was Frege's thesis published?

Question: When was Wittgenstein born?

Question: When did Wittgenstein die?

Question: Who was a neopositivist?

Question: What gave a sentence meaning?
Empiricism

In the extreme empiricism of the neopositivists—at least before the 1930s—any genuinely synthetic assertion must be reducible to an ultimate assertion (or set of ultimate assertions) that expresses direct observations or perceptions. In later years, Carnap and Neurath abandoned this sort of phenomenalism in favor of a rational reconstruction of knowledge into the language of an objective spatio-temporal physics. That is, instead of translating sentences about physical objects into sense-data, such sentences were to be translated into so-called protocol sentences, for example, "X at location Y and at time T observes such and such." The central theses of logical positivism (verificationism, the analytic-synthetic distinction, reductionism, etc.) came under sharp attack after World War II by thinkers such as Nelson Goodman, W.V. Quine, Hilary Putnam, Karl Popper, and Richard Rorty. By the late 1960s, it had become evident to most philosophers that the movement had pretty much run its course, though its influence is still significant among contemporary analytic philosophers such as Michael Dummett and other anti-realists.

Question: Who were extreme empiricists?
Answer: neopositivists

Question: Who attacked logical positivism?
Answer: Nelson Goodman, W.V. Quine, Hilary Putnam, Karl Popper, and Richard Rorty

Question: What position does Dummett take?
Answer: anti-realists

Question: Who abandoned phenomenalism?
Answer: Carnap and Neurath

Question: When did Carnap and Neurath leave phenomenalism?

Question: When did Michael Dummett begin championing neopositivism?

Question: When was logical positivism at its most popular?

Question: What war led to the abandonment of phenomenalism?

Question: What position did Hilary Putnam favour?
Empiricism

In the late 19th and early 20th century several forms of pragmatic philosophy arose. The ideas of pragmatism, in its various forms, developed mainly from discussions between Charles Sanders Peirce and William James when both men were at Harvard in the 1870s. James popularized the term "pragmatism", giving Peirce full credit for its patrimony, but Peirce later demurred from the tangents that the movement was taking, and redubbed what he regarded as the original idea with the name of "pragmaticism". Along with its pragmatic theory of truth, this perspective integrates the basic insights of empirical (experience-based) and rational (concept-based) thinking.

Question: When did pragmatism arise?
Answer: In the late 19th and early 20th century

Question: Who developed pragmatism?
Answer: Charles Sanders Peirce and William James

Question: Where did Peirce and James meet?
Answer: Harvard

Question: When did Peirce and James meet?
Answer: in the 1870s

Question: What did Peirce later call his ideas instead of pragmatism?
Answer: pragmaticism

Question: What year did Charles Sanders Peirce graduate from harvard?

Question: What did James rename pragmaticism as?

Question: When did James and Pierce split ways?

Question: When did pragmatic philosophy die out?

Question: What was the tangent of pragmatism that Peirce didn't like?
Empiricism

Charles Peirce (1839–1914) was highly influential in laying the groundwork for today's empirical scientific method.[citation needed] Although Peirce severely criticized many elements of Descartes' peculiar brand of rationalism, he did not reject rationalism outright. Indeed, he concurred with the main ideas of rationalism, most importantly the idea that rational concepts can be meaningful and the idea that rational concepts necessarily go beyond the data given by empirical observation. In later years he even emphasized the concept-driven side of the then ongoing debate between strict empiricism and strict rationalism, in part to counterbalance the excesses to which some of his cohorts had taken pragmatism under the "data-driven" strict-empiricist view.

Question: When was Peirce born?
Answer: 1839

Question: When did Peirce die?
Answer: 1914

Question: What view did Peirce think had been driven to excess?
Answer: the "data-driven" strict-empiricist view

Question: Who formed the basis for modern scientific method?
Answer: Charles Peirce

Question: Whose rationalism did Peirce criticize?
Answer: Descartes

Question: When did Pierce begin to take excesses with data-driven empiricism?

Question: Why did Pierce reject rationalism?

Question: Which philosopher did Pierce agree with the most?

Question: When was the strict-empiricist view started?

Question: Why did Pierce prefer the data-driven empiricist view?
Empiricism

Among Peirce's major contributions was to place inductive reasoning and deductive reasoning in a complementary rather than competitive mode, the latter of which had been the primary trend among the educated since David Hume wrote a century before. To this, Peirce added the concept of abductive reasoning. The combined three forms of reasoning serve as a primary conceptual foundation for the empirically based scientific method today. Peirce's approach "presupposes that (1) the objects of knowledge are real things, (2) the characters (properties) of real things do not depend on our perceptions of them, and (3) everyone who has sufficient experience of real things will agree on the truth about them. According to Peirce's doctrine of fallibilism, the conclusions of science are always tentative. The rationality of the scientific method does not depend on the certainty of its conclusions, but on its self-corrective character: by continued application of the method science can detect and correct its own mistakes, and thus eventually lead to the discovery of truth".

Question: How long before Peirce did Hume write?
Answer: a century

Question: How did Peirce view inductive vs deductive reasoning?
Answer: complementary

Question: How did Hume view inductive vs deductive reasoning?
Answer: competitive

Question: What did fallibilism say?
Answer: the conclusions of science are always tentative

Question: What does the scientific method's rationality depend on?
Answer: its self-corrective character

Question: When was abductive reasoning added?

Question: When was the doctrine of fallibilism published?

Question: Who said the doctrines of science are always definitive?

Question: Why does the scientific method rely on its certainty?
Empiricism

In his Harvard "Lectures on Pragmatism" (1903), Peirce enumerated what he called the "three cotary propositions of pragmatism" (L: cos, cotis whetstone), saying that they "put the edge on the maxim of pragmatism". First among these he listed the peripatetic-thomist observation mentioned above, but he further observed that this link between sensory perception and intellectual conception is a two-way street. That is, it can be taken to say that whatever we find in the intellect is also incipiently in the senses. Hence, if theories are theory-laden then so are the senses, and perception itself can be seen as a species of abductive inference, its difference being that it is beyond control and hence beyond critique – in a word, incorrigible. This in no way conflicts with the fallibility and revisability of scientific concepts, since it is only the immediate percept in its unique individuality or "thisness" – what the Scholastics called its haecceity – that stands beyond control and correction. Scientific concepts, on the other hand, are general in nature, and transient sensations do in another sense find correction within them. This notion of perception as abduction has received periodic revivals in artificial intelligence and cognitive science research, most recently for instance with the work of Irvin Rock on indirect perception.

Question: Who wrote 'Lectures on Pragmatism'?
Answer: Peirce

Question: When was 'Lectures on Pragmatism' published?
Answer: 1903

Question: What is 'haecceity'?
Answer: unique individuality or "thisness"

Question: What did Irvin Rock write about?
Answer: indirect perception

Question: Where has 'perception as abduction' come up repeatedly?
Answer: in artificial intelligence and cognitive science research

Question: In what essay was haecceity defined?

Question: When did Irvin Rock publish his essay?

Question: What school did Irvin Rock attend?

Question: What is the inverse relation between theories and senses?

Question: Who subverted the peripatetic-thomist observation?
Empiricism

Around the beginning of the 20th century, William James (1842–1910) coined the term "radical empiricism" to describe an offshoot of his form of pragmatism, which he argued could be dealt with separately from his pragmatism – though in fact the two concepts are intertwined in James's published lectures. James maintained that the empirically observed "directly apprehended universe needs ... no extraneous trans-empirical connective support", by which he meant to rule out the perception that there can be any value added by seeking supernatural explanations for natural phenomena. James's "radical empiricism" is thus not radical in the context of the term "empiricism", but is instead fairly consistent with the modern use of the term "empirical". (His method of argument in arriving at this view, however, still readily encounters debate within philosophy even today.)

Question: Who came up with 'radical empiricism'?
Answer: William James

Question: Where were James's pragmatism and radical empiricism intertwined?
Answer: in James's published lectures

Question: When was William James born?
Answer: 1842

Question: When did William James die?
Answer: 1910

Question: When did James come up with 'radical empiricism'?
Answer: Around the beginning of the 20th century

Question: Why is James' method considered radical?

Question: What methodology by James is roundly accepted today?

Question: Where did James prove pragmatism and radical empiricism could be dealt with separately?

Question: How did James argue for the importance of the supernatural?
Empiricism

John Dewey (1859–1952) modified James' pragmatism to form a theory known as instrumentalism. The role of sense experience in Dewey's theory is crucial, in that he saw experience as unified totality of things through which everything else is interrelated. Dewey's basic thought, in accordance with empiricism was that reality is determined by past experience. Therefore, humans adapt their past experiences of things to perform experiments upon and test the pragmatic values of such experience. The value of such experience is measured experientially and scientifically, and the results of such tests generate ideas that serve as instruments for future experimentation, in physical sciences as in ethics. Thus, ideas in Dewey's system retain their empiricist flavour in that they are only known a posteriori.

Question: Who came up with 'instrumentalism'?
Answer: John Dewey

Question: What did Dewey think about reality?
Answer: reality is determined by past experience

Question: When was Dewey born?
Answer: 1859

Question: When did Dewey die?
Answer: 1952

Question: What was instrumentalism a modification of?
Answer: James' pragmatism

Question: How did James define reality?

Question: Why is Dewey's system considered a priori?

Question: Who changed Dewey's solution?

Question: Why is basic thought crucial to Dewey's theory?

Question: Who claimed that humans create experiments based on the perceived future?
Idealism

In philosophy, idealism is the group of philosophies which assert that reality, or reality as we can know it, is fundamentally mental, mentally constructed, or otherwise immaterial. Epistemologically, idealism manifests as a skepticism about the possibility of knowing any mind-independent thing. In a sociological sense, idealism emphasizes how human ideas—especially beliefs and values—shape society. As an ontological doctrine, idealism goes further, asserting that all entities are composed of mind or spirit. Idealism thus rejects physicalist and dualist theories that fail to ascribe priority to the mind.

Question: What do idealist philosophies say is constructed in our minds?
Answer: reality

Question: What types of things are idealist philosophies skeptical about?
Answer: mind-independent

Question: Along with physicalist theories, what theories is idealism in conflict with?
Answer: dualist

Question: In sociology, what sorts of ideas does idealism focus on?
Answer: beliefs and values

Question: What processes do idealists say are constructed by reality?

Question: Mind-independent things are taken for granted in what philosophy?

Question: What theories does idealism crossover with?

Question: What is dualism skeptical about?

Question: Which type of human ideas is idealism uninterested in?
Idealism

The earliest extant arguments that the world of experience is grounded in the mental derive from India and Greece. The Hindu idealists in India and the Greek Neoplatonists gave panentheistic arguments for an all-pervading consciousness as the ground or true nature of reality. In contrast, the Yogācāra school, which arose within Mahayana Buddhism in India in the 4th century CE, based its "mind-only" idealism to a greater extent on phenomenological analyses of personal experience. This turn toward the subjective anticipated empiricists such as George Berkeley, who revived idealism in 18th-century Europe by employing skeptical arguments against materialism.

Question: What Indian thinkers were early idealists?
Answer: Hindu

Question: What Greek philosophers had idealistic views?
Answer: Neoplatonists

Question: With what sect of Buddhism was the Yogācāra school affiliated?
Answer: Mahayana

Question: In what century did the Yogācāra school arise?
Answer: 4th

Question: What century did George Berkeley live in?
Answer: 18th

Question: When did Neoplatonists arise?

Question: Who started the Yogacara school?

Question: When did the Yogacara school end?

Question: What type of Buddhism was common in Greece?

Question: What practice where Neoplatonists arguing against?
Idealism

Beginning with Immanuel Kant, German idealists such as G. W. F. Hegel, Johann Gottlieb Fichte, Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling, and Arthur Schopenhauer dominated 19th-century philosophy. This tradition, which emphasized the mental or "ideal" character of all phenomena, gave birth to idealistic and subjectivist schools ranging from British idealism to phenomenalism to existentialism. The historical influence of this branch of idealism remains central even to the schools that rejected its metaphysical assumptions, such as Marxism, pragmatism and positivism.

Question: What was the ethnicity of Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling?
Answer: German

Question: In what century did Hegel write?
Answer: 19th

Question: Along with British idealism and existentialism, what philosophy was influenced by the German idealistic tradition?
Answer: phenomenalism

Question: Along with positivism and pragmatism, what philosophy rejected idealism's metaphysical views but what nevertheless influenced by it?
Answer: Marxism

Question: Whose philosophy did Immanuel Kant write against?

Question: What schools of thought were contrary to British idealism?

Question: What was the name of the first British idealist?

Question: Hegel wrote about what philosophy that rejected metaphysical assumptions?

Question: When did Marxism dominate philosophy?
Idealism

Idealism is a term with several related meanings. It comes via idea from the Greek idein (ἰδεῖν), meaning "to see". The term entered the English language by 1743. In ordinary use, as when speaking of Woodrow Wilson's political idealism, it generally suggests the priority of ideals, principles, values, and goals over concrete realities. Idealists are understood to represent the world as it might or should be, unlike pragmatists, who focus on the world as it presently is. In the arts, similarly, idealism affirms imagination and attempts to realize a mental conception of beauty, a standard of perfection, juxtaposed to aesthetic naturalism and realism.

Question: What does ἰδεῖν mean in English?
Answer: to see

Question: By what year was "idealism" a word in English?
Answer: 1743

Question: Whose worldview contrasts with that of idealists in the ordinary sense of the word?
Answer: pragmatists

Question: What language is ἰδεῖν?
Answer: Greek

Question: When did the Greek word idein mean to see?

Question: Who was president in 1793?

Question: What does the English word idein mean?

Question: Idealists see the world the same way as what other philosophers?

Question: How do pragmatists view the arts?
Idealism

Any philosophy that assigns crucial importance to the ideal or spiritual realm in its account of human existence may be termed "idealist". Metaphysical idealism is an ontological doctrine that holds that reality itself is incorporeal or experiential at its core. Beyond this, idealists disagree on which aspects of the mental are more basic. Platonic idealism affirms that abstractions are more basic to reality than the things we perceive, while subjective idealists and phenomenalists tend to privilege sensory experience over abstract reasoning. Epistemological idealism is the view that reality can only be known through ideas, that only psychological experience can be apprehended by the mind.

Question: What is the term used for philosophies that consider the spiritual to be of paramount importance?
Answer: idealist

Question: What branch of idealism believes that reality is fundamentally nonphysical?
Answer: Metaphysical

Question: What branch of idealism sees abstracts as more real than perceived objects?
Answer: Platonic

Question: Along with phenomenalists, what idealists believe the senses are more important than reason?
Answer: subjective

Question: What branch of idealism believes that we can only know the real world via ideas?
Answer: Epistemological

Question: Philosophies that regard the spiritual realm highly cannot be called what?

Question: What type of doctrine says reality is corporeal?

Question: What aspects of the mental do idealists agree on?

Question: Platonic idealism's understanding of abstractions is similar to what view?

Question: What view believes ideas are irrelevant to the real world?
Idealism

Subjective idealists like George Berkeley are anti-realists in terms of a mind-independent world, whereas transcendental idealists like Immanuel Kant are strong skeptics of such a world, affirming epistemological and not metaphysical idealism. Thus Kant defines idealism as "the assertion that we can never be certain whether all of our putative outer experience is not mere imagining". He claimed that, according to idealism, "the reality of external objects does not admit of strict proof. On the contrary, however, the reality of the object of our internal sense (of myself and state) is clear immediately through consciousness."  However, not all idealists restrict the real or the knowable to our immediate subjective experience. Objective idealists make claims about a transempirical world, but simply deny that this world is essentially divorced from or ontologically prior to the mental. Thus Plato and Gottfried Leibniz affirm an objective and knowable reality transcending our subjective awareness—a rejection of epistemological idealism—but propose that this reality is grounded in ideal entities, a form of metaphysical idealism. Nor do all metaphysical idealists agree on the nature of the ideal; for Plato, the fundamental entities were non-mental abstract forms, while for Leibniz they were proto-mental and concrete monads.

Question: Who is a notable subjective idealist?
Answer: George Berkeley

Question: What famous philosopher was a transcendental idealist?
Answer: Immanuel Kant

Question: Who are subjective idealists opposed to?
Answer: realists

Question: Along with Plato, what notable philosopher rejected epistemological idealism?
Answer: Gottfried Leibniz

Question: Who believed the essence of reality to be composed of monads?
Answer: Leibniz

Question: What idealist is George Berkeley most similar to?

Question: Berkeley defines idealism by saying we can never be sure of what?

Question: What did Kant say reality needed to admit?

Question: Who are subjective idealists in agreement with?

Question: Who disagreed with Plato's rejection of epistemological idealism?
Idealism

Christian theologians have held idealist views, often based on Neoplatonism, despite the influence of Aristotelian scholasticism from the 12th century onward. Later western theistic idealism such as that of Hermann Lotze offers a theory of the "world ground" in which all things find their unity: it has been widely accepted by Protestant theologians. Several modern religious movements, for example the organizations within the New Thought Movement and the Unity Church, may be said to have a particularly idealist orientation. The theology of Christian Science includes a form of idealism: it teaches that all that truly exists is God and God's ideas; that the world as it appears to the senses is a distortion of the underlying spiritual reality, a distortion that may be corrected (both conceptually and in terms of human experience) through a reorientation (spiritualization) of thought.

Question: In what philosophy was Christian idealism often rooted?
Answer: Neoplatonism

Question: What philosophy influential in the medieval church was opposed to Christian idealism?
Answer: Aristotelian scholasticism

Question: In what century did Christian thought begin to be influenced by the scholasticism of Aristotle?
Answer: 12th

Question: Along with the Unity Church, what contemporary religious movement may be regarded as idealist?
Answer: New Thought

Question: What notable idealist was responsible for a "world ground" theory?
Answer: Hermann Lotze

Question: When did Hermann Lotz offer his theories?

Question: Aristotelian scholasticism often formed the basis of what kind of theologian?

Question: Who founded New Thought Movement?

Question: What form of idealism does the Unity church teach about reality?

Question: What theory was rejected by Protestants?
Idealism

Plato's theory of forms or "ideas" describes ideal forms (for example the platonic solids in geometry or abstracts like Goodness and Justice), as universals existing independently of any particular instance. Arne Grøn calls this doctrine "the classic example of a metaphysical idealism as a transcendent idealism", while Simone Klein calls Plato "the earliest representative of metaphysical objective idealism". Nevertheless, Plato holds that matter is real, though transitory and imperfect, and is perceived by our body and its senses and given existence by the eternal ideas that are perceived directly by our rational soul. Plato was therefore a metaphysical and epistemological dualist, an outlook that modern idealism has striven to avoid: Plato's thought cannot therefore be counted as idealist in the modern sense, although quantum physics' assertion that man's consciousness is an immutable and primary requisite for not merely perceiving but shaping matter, and thus his reality, would give more credence to Plato's dualist position.[citation needed]

Question: What was another term for forms in Plato's theory of forms?
Answer: ideas

Question: Who regarded Plato as the oldest exponent of metaphysical objective idealism?
Answer: Simone Klein

Question: What sort of dualist is Plato regarded as?
Answer: metaphysical and epistemological

Question: What branch of physics might support a worldview similar to Platonic dualism?
Answer: quantum

Question: What does Plato say are dependent?

Question: How does Arne Gron's theory of forms say ideal forms exist?

Question: Modern idealism believes in what two kinds of dualism?

Question: What type of physics did Simone Klein study?

Question: Quantum physics disagrees with what philosopher?
Idealism

With the neoplatonist Plotinus, wrote Nathaniel Alfred Boll; "there even appears, probably for the first time in Western philosophy, idealism that had long been current in the East even at that time, for it taught... that the soul has made the world by stepping from eternity into time...". Similarly, in regard to passages from the Enneads, "The only space or place of the world is the soul" and "Time must not be assumed to exist outside the soul", Ludwig Noiré wrote: "For the first time in Western philosophy we find idealism proper in Plotinus, However, Plotinus does not address whether we know external objects, unlike Schopenhauer and other modern philosophers.

Question: What sort of philosopher was Plotinus?
Answer: neoplatonist

Question: According to Noiré, who was the first true Western idealist?
Answer: Plotinus

Question: What issue did Schopenhauer discuss that Plotinus did not?
Answer: whether we know external objects

Question: What did the Enneads believe might not have existence outside of the soul?
Answer: Time

Question: What type of philosopher was Nathaniel Alfred Boll?

Question: Who was one of the Enneads?

Question: What modern philosopher as Plotinus similar to?

Question: Who said time existed outside of the soul?

Question: Boll taught that the soul made the world by doing what?