Divyanshu67/squad_v2 huggingface dataset:
Ottoman_Empire

Because of a low literacy rate among the public (about 2–3% until the early 19th century and just about 15% at the end of 19th century),[citation needed] ordinary people had to hire scribes as "special request-writers" (arzuhâlcis) to be able to communicate with the government. The ethnic groups continued to speak within their families and neighborhoods (mahalles) with their own languages (e.g., Jews, Greeks, Armenians, etc.). In villages where two or more populations lived together, the inhabitants would often speak each other's language. In cosmopolitan cities, people often spoke their family languages; many of those who were not ethnic Turks spoke Turkish as a second language.

Question: What was the public's literacy rate in leading up to the early 19th century in the empire?
Answer: about 2–3%

Question: At the end of the 19th century what was the literacy rate for the public in the Empire believed to be?
Answer: 15%

Question: What did people resort to when they needed to communicate with the government?
Answer: people had to hire scribes

Question: What were hired scribes known as?
Answer: "special request-writers" (arzuhâlcis)

Question: What was the second language of those that weren't ethnically Turkish?
Answer: Turkish
Ottoman_Empire

Muslim sects regarded as heretical, such as the Druze, Ismailis, Alevis, and Alawites, ranked below Jews and Christians. In 1514, Sultan Selim I, nicknamed "the Grim" because of his cruelty, ordered the massacre of 40,000 Anatolian Alevis (Qizilbash), whom he considered heretics, reportedly proclaiming that "the killing of one Alevi had as much otherworldly reward as killing 70 Christians."[page needed] Selim was also responsible for an unprecedented and rapid expansion of the Ottoman Empire into the Middle East, especially through his conquest of the entire Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt, which included much of the region. With these conquests, Selim further solidified the Ottoman claim for being an Islamic caliphate, although Ottoman sultans had been claiming the title of caliph since the 14th century starting with Murad I (reigned 1362 to 1389). The caliphate would remain held by Ottoman sultans for the rest of the office's duration, which ended with its abolition on 3 March 1924 by the Grand National Assembly of Turkey and the exile of the last caliph, Abdülmecid II, to France.

Question: The Muslim sect known as the Druze is considered what?
Answer: heretical

Question: What was Sultan Selim I's nickname?
Answer: the Grim

Question: In what year did Sultan Selim I order the massacre of 40,000 people whom he considered heretics?
Answer: 1514

Question: What group did Sultan Selim I consider heretics and subsequently slaughter?
Answer: Anatolian Alevis (Qizilbash)

Question: Under Sultan Selim I the empire swallowed what sultanate in Egypt?
Answer: Mamluk Sultanate
Ottoman_Empire

Under the millet system, non-Muslim people were considered subjects of the Empire, but were not subject to the Muslim faith or Muslim law. The Orthodox millet, for instance, was still officially legally subject to Justinian's Code, which had been in effect in the Byzantine Empire for 900 years. Also, as the largest group of non-Muslim subjects (or zimmi) of the Islamic Ottoman state, the Orthodox millet was granted a number of special privileges in the fields of politics and commerce, and had to pay higher taxes than Muslim subjects.

Question: What system deemed non-Muslims subjects of the empire but unbound by Muslim law?
Answer: the millet system

Question: What code had been active for 900 years in the Byzantine empire?
Answer: Justinian's Code

Question: What were non-Muslims also known as in the Islamic Ottoman State?
Answer: zimmi

Question: Being a non-muslim in the Empire resulted in what as it related to taxes?
Answer: higher taxes

Question: What millet was subject to Justinian's Code?
Answer: The Orthodox millet
Ottoman_Empire

The Ottomans absorbed some of the traditions, art and institutions of cultures in the regions they conquered, and added new dimensions to them. Numerous traditions and cultural traits of previous empires (in fields such as architecture, cuisine, music, leisure and government) were adopted by the Ottoman Turks, who elaborated them into new forms, which resulted in a new and distinctively Ottoman cultural identity. Despite newer added amalgamations, the Ottoman dynasty, like their predecessors in the Sultanate of Rum and the Seljuk Empire, were thoroughly Persianised in their culture, language, habits and customs, and therefore, the empire has been described as a Persianate empire. Intercultural marriages also played their part in creating the characteristic Ottoman elite culture. When compared to the Turkish folk culture, the influence of these new cultures in creating the culture of the Ottoman elite was clear.

Question: The Ottoman dynasty was preceded by what sultanate?
Answer: Sultanate of Rum

Question: What is one way that the Empire was described as it related to culture?
Answer: Persianate empire

Question: When the Ottoman empire conquered a region what also became a part of the empire?
Answer: some of the traditions, art and institutions of cultures

Question: The Seljuk Empire was influenced by the cultures of others resulting in it being referred to as what?
Answer: Persianised
Ottoman_Empire

Ottoman Divan poetry was a highly ritualized and symbolic art form. From the Persian poetry that largely inspired it, it inherited a wealth of symbols whose meanings and interrelationships—both of similitude (مراعات نظير mura'ât-i nazîr / تناسب tenâsüb) and opposition (تضاد tezâd) were more or less prescribed. Divan poetry was composed through the constant juxtaposition of many such images within a strict metrical framework, thus allowing numerous potential meanings to emerge. The vast majority of Divan poetry was lyric in nature: either gazels (which make up the greatest part of the repertoire of the tradition), or kasîdes. There were, however, other common genres, most particularly the mesnevî, a kind of verse romance and thus a variety of narrative poetry; the two most notable examples of this form are the Leyli and Majnun of Fuzûlî and the Hüsn ü Aşk of Şeyh Gâlib.

Question: What type of Ottoman poetry is ritualized?
Answer: Divan poetry

Question: What kind of poetry inspired Ottoman Divan Poetry?
Answer: Persian poetry

Question: What type of framework was Divan poetry based on?
Answer: a strict metrical framework

Question: What was the romance genre of Divan poetry known as?
Answer: mesnevî

Question: What make up the largest portion of Divan poetry?
Answer: gazels (which make up the greatest part of the repertoire of the tradition), or kasîdes.
Ottoman_Empire

Until the 19th century, Ottoman prose did not develop to the extent that contemporary Divan poetry did. A large part of the reason for this was that much prose was expected to adhere to the rules of sec (سجع, also transliterated as seci), or rhymed prose, a type of writing descended from the Arabic saj' and which prescribed that between each adjective and noun in a string of words, such as a sentence, there must be a rhyme. Nevertheless, there was a tradition of prose in the literature of the time, though exclusively non-fictional in nature. One apparent exception was Muhayyelât ("Fancies") by Giritli Ali Aziz Efendi, a collection of stories of the fantastic written in 1796, though not published until 1867. The first novel published in the Ottoman Empire was by an Armenian named Vartan Pasha. Published in 1851, the novel was entitled The Story of Akabi (Turkish: Akabi Hikyayesi) and was written in Turkish but with Armenian script.

Question: Prose in the Ottoman empire did not develop to a higher level until which century?
Answer: the 19th century

Question: What rules did Ottoman prose have to follow?
Answer: the rules of sec (سجع, also transliterated as seci), or rhymed prose

Question: What did the rules of sec require?
Answer: between each adjective and noun in a string of words, such as a sentence, there must be a rhyme

Question: Who wrote Muhayyelât?
Answer: Giritli Ali Aziz Efendi

Question: When was Muhayyelât written?
Answer: 1796
Ottoman_Empire

Due to historically close ties with France, French literature came to constitute the major Western influence on Ottoman literature throughout the latter half of the 19th century. As a result, many of the same movements prevalent in France during this period also had their Ottoman equivalents: in the developing Ottoman prose tradition, for instance, the influence of Romanticism can be seen during the Tanzimat period, and that of the Realist and Naturalist movements in subsequent periods; in the poetic tradition, on the other hand, it was the influence of the Symbolist and Parnassian movements that became paramount.

Question: What was the biggest influence from the west on Ottoman literature?
Answer: French literature

Question: During what time period was Ottoman literate most influenced by the west?
Answer: the latter half of the 19th century

Question: During the Tanzimat what western influence could be seen?
Answer: the influence of Romanticism

Question: The poetic tradition had its biggest influence on what Ottoman literary movements?
Answer: the Symbolist and Parnassian movements

Question: Romanticism, and Realism were two movements from the west that influenced the Ottoman literary scene, what was the third?
Answer: Naturalist
Ottoman_Empire

Many of the writers in the Tanzimat period wrote in several different genres simultaneously: for instance, the poet Namik Kemal also wrote the important 1876 novel İntibâh ("Awakening"), while the journalist İbrahim Şinasi is noted for writing, in 1860, the first modern Turkish play, the one-act comedy "Şair Evlenmesi" ("The Poet's Marriage"). An earlier play, a farce entitled "Vakâyi'-i 'Acibe ve Havâdis-i Garibe-yi Kefşger Ahmed" ("The Strange Events and Bizarre Occurrences of the Cobbler Ahmed"), dates from the beginning of the 19th century, but there remains some doubt about its authenticity. In a similar vein, the novelist Ahmed Midhat Efendi wrote important novels in each of the major movements: Romanticism (Hasan Mellâh yâhud Sırr İçinde Esrâr, 1873; "Hasan the Sailor, or The Mystery Within the Mystery"), Realism (Henüz On Yedi Yaşında, 1881; "Just Seventeen Years Old"), and Naturalism (Müşâhedât, 1891; "Observations"). This diversity was, in part, due to the Tanzimat writers' wish to disseminate as much of the new literature as possible, in the hopes that it would contribute to a revitalization of Ottoman social structures.

Question: What 1876 Novel did Namik Kemal write?
Answer: İntibâh ("Awakening")

Question: What did İbrahim Şinasi write in 1860?
Answer: the one-act comedy "Şair Evlenmesi" ("The Poet's Marriage").

Question: Who wrote Hasan Mellâh yâhud Sırr İçinde Esrâr?
Answer: Ahmed Midhat Efendi

Question: What Realist novel did Ahmed Midhat Efendi write in 1881?
Answer: Henüz On Yedi Yaşında

Question: What did writers of the Tanzimat period hope to accomplish with their publications?
Answer: contribute to a revitalization of Ottoman social structures
Ottoman_Empire

Examples of Ottoman architecture of the classical period, besides Istanbul and Edirne, can also be seen in Egypt, Eritrea, Tunisia, Algiers, the Balkans and Romania, where mosques, bridges, fountains and schools were built. The art of Ottoman decoration developed with a multitude of influences due to the wide ethnic range of the Ottoman Empire. The greatest of the court artists enriched the Ottoman Empire with many pluralistic artistic influences: such as mixing traditional Byzantine art with elements of Chinese art.

Question: Ottoman artists mixed Chinese art with the art of what else?
Answer: traditional Byzantine art

Question: The ottoman empire built structures in Romania that included Mosques, and Bridges, what else was built?
Answer: fountains and schools

Question: Why did the art of the Ottoman empire develop the way it did?
Answer: the wide ethnic range of the Ottoman Empire

Question: Beside Edirne, Istanbul, and Egypt what other locations can one find the influence of the Ottoman classical period?
Answer: Eritrea, Tunisia, Algiers, the Balkans and Romania
Ottoman_Empire

Ottoman illumination covers non-figurative painted or drawn decorative art in books or on sheets in muraqqa or albums, as opposed to the figurative images of the Ottoman miniature. It was a part of the Ottoman Book Arts together with the Ottoman miniature (taswir), calligraphy (hat), Islamic calligraphy, bookbinding (cilt) and paper marbling (ebru). In the Ottoman Empire, illuminated and illustrated manuscripts were commissioned by the Sultan or the administrators of the court. In Topkapi Palace, these manuscripts were created by the artists working in Nakkashane, the atelier of the miniature and illumination artists. Both religious and non-religious books could be illuminated. Also sheets for albums levha consisted of illuminated calligraphy (hat) of tughra, religious texts, verses from poems or proverbs, and purely decorative drawings.

Question: Were would one find the sheets where Ottoman's created illuminated decorations?
Answer: muraqqa

Question: What is another name for an Ottoman miniature?
Answer: taswir

Question: Ottoman calligraphy can also be referred to as what?
Answer: hat

Question: Who commissioned illustrated manuscripts in the Ottoman empire?
Answer: the Sultan or the administrators of the court

Question: What palace was the place of creation for illustrated manuscripts?
Answer: Topkapi Palace
Ottoman_Empire

The art of carpet weaving was particularly significant in the Ottoman Empire, carpets having an immense importance both as decorative furnishings, rich in religious and other symbolism, and as a practical consideration, as it was customary to remove one's shoes in living quarters. The weaving of such carpets originated in the nomadic cultures of central Asia (carpets being an easily transportable form of furnishing), and was eventually spread to the settled societies of Anatolia. Turks used carpets, rugs and kilims not just on the floors of a room, but also as a hanging on walls and doorways, where they provided additional insulation. They were also commonly donated to mosques, which often amassed large collections of them.

Question: Which art was important in religious symbolism and as a decoration in the Ottoman empire?
Answer: carpet weaving

Question: What was the custom for those wearing shoes indoors in the Ottoman empire?
Answer: it was customary to remove one's shoes

Question: Where did carpet weaving in the Empire originate?
Answer: the nomadic cultures of central Asia

Question: Where did carpet weaving initially spread to inside of the Empire?
Answer: Anatolia

Question: Kilims were used by Turks to provide insulation where?
Answer: walls and doorways
Ottoman_Empire

Ottoman classical music was an important part of the education of the Ottoman elite, a number of the Ottoman sultans were accomplished musicians and composers themselves, such as Selim III, whose compositions are often still performed today. Ottoman classical music arose largely from a confluence of Byzantine music, Armenian music, Arabic music, and Persian music. Compositionally, it is organised around rhythmic units called usul, which are somewhat similar to meter in Western music, and melodic units called makam, which bear some resemblance to Western musical modes.

Question: The elites of the Ottoman empire found what type of music important?
Answer: Ottoman classical music

Question: Many of the Sultans of the Ottoman empire were accomplished at being what?
Answer: musicians and composers

Question: The sultan known by what name has compositions which are still performed today?
Answer: Selim III

Question: What rhythmic units does Ottoman classical music use?
Answer: units called usul

Question: What are the melodic units used by Ottoman classical music?
Answer: makam
Ottoman_Empire

The instruments used are a mixture of Anatolian and Central Asian instruments (the saz, the bağlama, the kemence), other Middle Eastern instruments (the ud, the tanbur, the kanun, the ney), and—later in the tradition—Western instruments (the violin and the piano). Because of a geographic and cultural divide between the capital and other areas, two broadly distinct styles of music arose in the Ottoman Empire: Ottoman classical music, and folk music. In the provinces, several different kinds of folk music were created. The most dominant regions with their distinguished musical styles are: Balkan-Thracian Türküs, North-Eastern (Laz) Türküs, Aegean Türküs, Central Anatolian Türküs, Eastern Anatolian Türküs, and Caucasian Türküs. Some of the distinctive styles were: Janissary Music, Roma music, Belly dance, Turkish folk music.

Question: What are the three most used Anatolian and central asian instruments in Ottoman Classical music?
Answer: the saz, the bağlama, the kemence

Question: Which Middle Eastern instruments can be heard in Ottoman classical music?
Answer: the ud, the tanbur, the kanun, the ney

Question: In late Ottoman classical music one can find Western instruments, what were they?
Answer: the violin and the piano

Question: There were two main style of music in the Ottoman empire, what were they?
Answer: classical music, and folk music

Question: What were the most distinctive style of music in the Ottoman provinces?
Answer: Janissary Music, Roma music, Belly dance, Turkish folk music
Ottoman_Empire

Ottoman cuisine refers to the cuisine of the capital, Istanbul, and the regional capital cities, where the melting pot of cultures created a common cuisine that most of the population regardless of ethnicity shared. This diverse cuisine was honed in the Imperial Palace's kitchens by chefs brought from certain parts of the Empire to create and experiment with different ingredients. The creations of the Ottoman Palace's kitchens filtered to the population, for instance through Ramadan events, and through the cooking at the Yalıs of the Pashas, and from there on spread to the rest of the population.

Question: The cuisine known as Ottoman cuisine is in reference to the food eaten where?
Answer: the capital, Istanbul, and the regional capital cities

Question: In what kitchen's was Ottoman cuisine perfected?
Answer: the Imperial Palace's kitchens

Question: What is one type of religious event that the general public may come to experience the creations of the Imperial Palace?
Answer: Ramadan

Question: Preparing food at the Yalıs of the Pashas was one way Ottoman Cuisine might spread to whom?
Answer: the population

Question: What did the chefs ingredients in the Imperial Palace's kitchens?
Answer: create and experiment
Ottoman_Empire

Much of the cuisine of former Ottoman territories today is descended from a shared Ottoman cuisine, especially Turkish cuisine, and including Greek cuisine, Balkan cuisine, Armenian cuisine, and Middle Eastern cuisine. Many common dishes in the region, descendants of the once-common Ottoman cuisine, include yogurt, döner kebab/gyro/shawarma, cacık/tzatziki, ayran, pita bread, feta cheese, baklava, lahmacun, moussaka, yuvarlak, köfte/keftés/kofta, börek/boureki, rakı/rakia/tsipouro/tsikoudia, meze, dolma, sarma, rice pilaf, Turkish coffee, sujuk, kashk, keşkek, manti, lavash, kanafeh, and more.

Question: Turkish cuisine originates from what source?
Answer: a shared Ottoman cuisine

Question: The cuisine of what territories are descended from Ottoman cuisine?
Answer: former Ottoman territories

Question: Turkish and Greek cuisine are descended from Ottoman Cuisine, along with the food of what other regions?
Answer: Balkan cuisine, Armenian cuisine, and Middle Eastern cuisine

Question: Turkish coffee is descended from what?
Answer: Ottoman cuisine

Question: Pita bread descends from what type of cuisine?
Answer: Ottoman cuisine
Ottoman_Empire

Over the course of Ottoman history, the Ottomans managed to build a large collection of libraries complete with translations of books from other cultures, as well as original manuscripts. A great part of this desire for local and foreign manuscripts arose in the 15th Century. Sultan Mehmet II ordered Georgios Amiroutzes, a Greek scholar from Trabzon, to translate and make available to Ottoman educational institutions the geography book of Ptolemy. Another example is Ali Qushji -an astronomer, mathematician and physicist originally from Samarkand- who became a professor in two madrasas, and influenced Ottoman circles as a result of his writings and the activities of his students, even though he only spent two or three years before his death in Istanbul.

Question: In what century did the Ottoman's start to desire foreign manuscripts?
Answer: 15th Century

Question: Which sultan ordered a Greek scholar to do translations of work by Ptolemy?
Answer: Sultan Mehmet II

Question: Who did an Ottoman sultan order to translate work by Ptolemy?
Answer: Georgios Amiroutzes

Question: How many years did Ali Qushji spend in Istanbul?
Answer: two or three years

Question: Where was Ali Qushji from?
Answer: originally from Samarkand
Ottoman_Empire

The main sports Ottomans were engaged in were Turkish Wrestling, hunting, Turkish archery, horseback riding, Equestrian javelin throw, arm wrestling, and swimming. European model sports clubs were formed with the spreading popularity of football matches in 19th century Constantinople. The leading clubs, according to timeline, were Beşiktaş Gymnastics Club (1903), Galatasaray Sports Club (1905) and Fenerbahçe Sports Club (1907) in Istanbul. Football clubs were formed in other provinces too, such as Karşıyaka Sports Club (1912), Altay Sports Club (1914) and Turkish Fatherland Football Club (later Ülküspor) (1914) of İzmir.

Question: When did European sport clubs begin to form in the Ottoman empire?
Answer: 19th century

Question: Where did football matches become to be popular in the Ottoman empire?
Answer: Constantinople

Question: What was the leading sport club in 1905?
Answer: Galatasaray Sports Club

Question: In what year did the Altay Sports Club form?
Answer: 1914

Question: What was the football club known as Ülküspor formerly known as?
Answer: Turkish Fatherland Football Club
Philosophy_of_space_and_time

Philosophy of space and time is the branch of philosophy concerned with the issues surrounding the ontology, epistemology, and character of space and time. While such ideas have been central to philosophy from its inception, the philosophy of space and time was both an inspiration for and a central aspect of early analytic philosophy. The subject focuses on a number of basic issues, including whether or not time and space exist independently of the mind, whether they exist independently of one another, what accounts for time's apparently unidirectional flow, whether times other than the present moment exist, and questions about the nature of identity (particularly the nature of identity over time).

Question: Which philosophy branch is concerned with issues surrounding ontology?
Answer: Philosophy of space and time

Question: The philosophy of space and time was inspired by what kind of philosophy?
Answer: early analytic philosophy

Question: The  philosophy of space and time focuses on whether or not time and space exist independently of what?
Answer: the mind

Question: The  philosophy of space and time focuses what kind of flow within time? 
Answer: unidirectional

Question: What philosophy does ontology concern?

Question: What was the study of space and time inspired by?

Question: What does not change over time?

Question: The flow within what is multidirectional?
Philosophy_of_space_and_time

The earliest recorded Western philosophy of time was expounded by the ancient Egyptian thinker Ptahhotep (c. 2650–2600 BC), who said, "Do not lessen the time of following desire, for the wasting of time is an abomination to the spirit." The Vedas, the earliest texts on Indian philosophy and Hindu philosophy, dating back to the late 2nd millennium BC, describe ancient Hindu cosmology, in which the universe goes through repeated cycles of creation, destruction, and rebirth, with each cycle lasting 4,320,000 years. Ancient Greek philosophers, including Parmenides and Heraclitus, wrote essays on the nature of time.

Question: Who expounded the earliest recorded Western philosophy of time?
Answer: Ptahhotep

Question: When do the Vedas date back to?
Answer: late 2nd millennium BC

Question: Which philosophies are the Vedas oriented with?
Answer: Indian philosophy and Hindu philosophy

Question: What do the Vedas describe?
Answer: ancient Hindu cosmology

Question: How long is the cycle of rebirth discussed in the Vedas?
Answer: 4,320,000 years

Question: What was first recorded in the 26th century BC.

Question: Who warned people not to increase the time o following desire?

Question: What is the name of the earliest Egyptian texts?

Question: What texts date to 2000 BC?

Question: How long did the Greeksd think a cyle of time was?
Philosophy_of_space_and_time

In Book 11 of St. Augustine's Confessions, he ruminates on the nature of time, asking, "What then is time? If no one asks me, I know: if I wish to explain it to one that asketh, I know not." He goes on to comment on the difficulty of thinking about time, pointing out the inaccuracy of common speech: "For but few things are there of which we speak properly; of most things we speak improperly, still the things intended are understood."  But Augustine presented the first philosophical argument for the reality of Creation (against Aristotle) in the context of his discussion of time, saying that knowledge of time depends on the knowledge of the movement of things, and therefore time cannot be where there are no creatures to measure its passing (Confessions Book XI ¶30; City of God Book XI ch.6).

Question: Which christian philosopher ruminated on time?
Answer: St. Augustine

Question: What did St. Augustine comment on in Book 11, regarding thinking about time?
Answer: the difficulty

Question: Who presented the first philosophical argument for the reality of Creation? 
Answer: Augustine

Question: What did Augustine say that the knowledge of time depended on?
Answer: the knowledge of the movement of things

Question: Where did Augustine say time could not appear?
Answer: where there are no creatures to measure its passing

Question: Who deiscusses the nature of time in his first book?

Question: What does St Augustine think common speech adiquetly describes?

Question: What did Aristotle present the first philisophical argument for?

Question: Who said time exists everywhere?
Philosophy_of_space_and_time

In the early 11th century, the Muslim physicist Ibn al-Haytham (Alhacen or Alhazen) discussed space perception and its epistemological implications in his Book of Optics (1021), he also rejected Aristotle's definition of topos (Physics IV) by way of geometric demonstrations and defined place as a mathematical spatial extension. His experimental proof of the intromission model of vision led to changes in the understanding of the visual perception of space, contrary to the previous emission theory of vision supported by Euclid and Ptolemy. In "tying the visual perception of space to prior bodily experience, Alhacen unequivocally rejected the intuitiveness of spatial perception and, therefore, the autonomy of vision. Without tangible notions of distance and size for correlation, sight can tell us next to nothing about such things."

Question: Which 11th century Muslim physicist discussed space perception and its epistemological implications? 
Answer: al-Haytham

Question: Which 11th century book discussed space perception and its epistemological implications?
Answer: Book of Optics

Question: Whose definition of topos did Alhazen reject?
Answer: Aristotle's

Question: Alhazen's  experimental proof of the intromission model of vision led to the change of understanding of what?
Answer: Without tangible notions of distance and size for correlation, sight can tell us next to nothing about such things

Question: Alhazen stated that without tangible notions of distance and size for correlation, sight can tell us what about spatial perception?
Answer: next to nothing

Question: Who discussed space perceptions in the 1100's?

Question: What book was written in the the 11th century about time?

Question: Who disputed al-Haytham's definition of topos?

Question: What did Euclid and Ptolemy tie the visual perception of space to?

Question: Who said vision is autonomious?
Philosophy_of_space_and_time

In 1781, Immanuel Kant published the Critique of Pure Reason, one of the most influential works in the history of the philosophy of space and time. He describes time as an a priori notion that, together with other a priori notions such as space, allows us to comprehend sense experience. Kant denies that either space or time are substance, entities in themselves, or learned by experience; he holds, rather, that both are elements of a systematic framework we use to structure our experience. Spatial measurements are used to quantify how far apart objects are, and temporal measurements are used to quantitatively compare the interval between (or duration of) events. Although space and time are held to be transcendentally ideal in this sense, they are also empirically real—that is, not mere illusions.

Question: When did Kant publish one of the most influential works in the history of the philosophy of space and time.
Answer: 1781

Question: What was Kant's influential work on the history of the philosophy of space and time titled?
Answer: Critique of Pure Reason

Question: What did Kant describe time as?
Answer: a priori notion

Question: What did Kant say was similar notion to time?
Answer: space

Question: What did Kant say time and space allow one to do?
Answer: sense experience

Question: Who published Critique of Pure Reason in the 17th century?

Question: Who said priori notions allow us to comprehend time?

Question: What does Kant claim time and space are?

Question: What does Kant say we use as a framework to stucture time?

Question: According mto can't what is an illusion?
Philosophy_of_space_and_time

Arguing against the absolutist position, Leibniz offers a number of thought experiments with the purpose of showing that there is contradiction in assuming the existence of facts such as absolute location and velocity. These arguments trade heavily on two principles central to his philosophy: the principle of sufficient reason and the identity of indiscernibles. The principle of sufficient reason holds that for every fact, there is a reason that is sufficient to explain what and why it is the way it is and not otherwise. The identity of indiscernibles states that if there is no way of telling two entities apart, then they are one and the same thing.

Question: What did Leibniz argue against?
Answer: the absolutist position

Question: Which principles did Leibniz's arguments trade heavily upon?
Answer: the principle of sufficient reason and the identity of indiscernibles

Question: Leibnitz held that there is a reason that is sufficient to explain what and why it is the way it is and not otherwise for every what?
Answer: fact

Question: What states that if there is no way of telling two entities apart, then they are one and the same thing?
Answer: identity of indiscernibles

Question: Who's position does Leibniz support?

Question: What two principles did Leibniz argue against?

Question: What states that two things are not necessarily the same just because no difference can be identified?
Philosophy_of_space_and_time

The example Leibniz uses involves two proposed universes situated in absolute space. The only discernible difference between them is that the latter is positioned five feet to the left of the first. The example is only possible if such a thing as absolute space exists. Such a situation, however, is not possible, according to Leibniz, for if it were, a universe's position in absolute space would have no sufficient reason, as it might very well have been anywhere else. Therefore, it contradicts the principle of sufficient reason, and there could exist two distinct universes that were in all ways indiscernible, thus contradicting the identity of indiscernibles.

Question: Leibniz's example involves how many universes?
Answer: two

Question: Where are Leibniz's universes situated?
Answer: absolute space

Question: How far are Leibniz's universes situated apart?
Answer: five feet

Question: What is the only way Leibniz's example would be possible?
Answer: absolute space exists

Question: Who's example involves one universe in two places?

Question: What does Leibniz place at two points in deep space?

Question: What proves the existence of absolute space?
Philosophy_of_space_and_time

Standing out in Clarke's (and Newton's) response to Leibniz's arguments is the bucket argument: Water in a bucket, hung from a rope and set to spin, will start with a flat surface. As the water begins to spin in the bucket, the surface of the water will become concave. If the bucket is stopped, the water will continue to spin, and while the spin continues, the surface will remain concave. The concave surface is apparently not the result of the interaction of the bucket and the water, since the surface is flat when the bucket first starts to spin, it becomes concave as the water starts to spin, and it remains concave as the bucket stops.

Question: What stood out in Clark's response to Leibniz?
Answer: the bucket argument

Question: According to Clark's argument, water in a bucket, hung from a rope and spun, will begin with kind of surface?
Answer: flat

Question: As the buck spins, what happens to the water?
Answer: the water will become concave

Question: If the buck stops, the water will do what?
Answer: continue to spin

Question: What is the surface of the water apparently not caused by?
Answer: the interaction of the bucket and the water

Question: Who makes the bucket argument in response to Clarke and Newton?

Question: What becomes flat as the bucket spins?

Question: What does the bucket interact with to create the water surface?

Question: What becomes flat when the bucket stops spinning?
Philosophy_of_space_and_time

Leibniz describes a space that exists only as a relation between objects, and which has no existence apart from the existence of those objects. Motion exists only as a relation between those objects. Newtonian space provided the absolute frame of reference within which objects can have motion. In Newton's system, the frame of reference exists independently of the objects contained within it. These objects can be described as moving in relation to space itself. For many centuries, the evidence of a concave water surface held authority.

Question: Leibniz describes space as existing only as a relation between what?
Answer: objects

Question: According to Leibniz, what has no existence apart from the existence of objections?
Answer: space

Question: What provides the absolute frame of reference within which objects can have motion?
Answer: Newtonian space

Question: In Newton's system, how does the frame of reference exist between objects within it?
Answer: independently

Question: For how long did the evidence of a concave water surface hold authority in reference to space?
Answer: many centuries

Question: What does space exist independently from?

Question: What exists as a relationship between space and objects?

Question: What provides the absolute frame of refrence for space?

Question: What is dependent on the frame of refrence in Newtonian space?

Question: What evidence still holds authority?
Philosophy_of_space_and_time

Mach suggested that thought experiments like the bucket argument are problematic. If we were to imagine a universe that only contains a bucket, on Newton's account, this bucket could be set to spin relative to absolute space, and the water it contained would form the characteristic concave surface. But in the absence of anything else in the universe, it would be difficult to confirm that the bucket was indeed spinning. It seems equally possible that the surface of the water in the bucket would remain flat.

Question: How did Mach describe thought experiments like the bucket argument?
Answer: problematic

Question: What is difficult to confirm about the bucket in the absence of anything else in the universe?
Answer: that the bucket was indeed spinning

Question: What was equally possible about the surface of the water in the bucket?
Answer: would remain flat.

Question: Who expanded on thought experiments?

Question: What can be confirmed about the bucket independent of other objects in the universe?

Question: What could not remain flat in absolute space?
Philosophy_of_space_and_time

Mach argued that, in effect, the water experiment in an otherwise empty universe would remain flat. But if another object were introduced into this universe, perhaps a distant star, there would now be something relative to which the bucket could be seen as rotating. The water inside the bucket could possibly have a slight curve. To account for the curve that we observe, an increase in the number of objects in the universe also increases the curvature in the water. Mach argued that the momentum of an object, whether angular or linear, exists as a result of the sum of the effects of other objects in the universe (Mach's Principle).

Question: What did Mach argue about the water experiment in an otherwise empty universe?
Answer: would remain flat

Question: What did Mach argue would happen if another object were introduce in the bucket's universe?
Answer: the bucket could be seen as rotating

Question: What does the increase in the number of objects in the universe do to the curvature of the water?
Answer: increases the curvature

Question: The Mach argument is called what?
Answer: Mach's Principle

Question: Mach argued that the momentum of an object exists as a result of the sum of the effects of what?
Answer: effects of other objects in the universe

Question: Who argued that the water experiment in an empty univers would never be flat?

Question: What would need to be removed from the universe to prove that the bucket was moving?

Question: What decreases as objects are added to the universe?

Question: What principle argues that the momentum of an object is independent of other objects in the universe?
Philosophy_of_space_and_time

Albert Einstein proposed that the laws of physics should be based on the principle of relativity. This principle holds that the rules of physics must be the same for all observers, regardless of the frame of reference that is used, and that light propagates at the same speed in all reference frames. This theory was motivated by Maxwell's equations, which show that electromagnetic waves propagate in a vacuum at the speed of light. However, Maxwell's equations give no indication of what this speed is relative to. Prior to Einstein, it was thought that this speed was relative to a fixed medium, called the luminiferous ether. In contrast, the theory of special relativity postulates that light propagates at the speed of light in all inertial frames, and examines the implications of this postulate.

Question: lbert Einstein proposed that the laws of physics should be based on what principle?
Answer: relativity

Question: The principle of relativity holds that the rules of physics must be the same for who?
Answer: all observers

Question: In all reference frames, how is the the speed of light?
Answer: the same

Question: Einstein's theory was motivated by who?
Answer: Maxwell

Question: Before Einstein, speed was though to be relative to what?
Answer: the luminiferous ether

Question: Who proposed  that the laws of physics where not dependent on relativity?

Question: What did Einstein agrue was dependent on the observers frame of refrence?

Question: Whatprinciples that light moves at different speeds depending on the refrence point?

Question: What equation was motivated by Einstein's theory?
Philosophy_of_space_and_time

In classical physics, an inertial reference frame is one in which an object that experiences no forces does not accelerate. In general relativity, an inertial frame of reference is one that is following a geodesic of space-time. An object that moves against a geodesic experiences a force. An object in free fall does not experience a force, because it is following a geodesic. An object standing on the earth, however, will experience a force, as it is being held against the geodesic by the surface of the planet. In light of this, the bucket of water rotating in empty space will experience a force because it rotates with respect to the geodesic. The water will become concave, not because it is rotating with respect to the distant stars, but because it is rotating with respect to the geodesic.

Question: In classical physics, an inertial reference frame is one in which an object without force does what?
Answer: does not accelerate

Question: What follows a geodesic of space-time?
Answer: an inertial frame of reference

Question: An object in free fall does not experience what?
Answer: force

Question: What holds an object standing on earth against the geodesic?
Answer: the surface of the planet

Question: Why will water become concave, according to the relativity theory?
Answer: it is rotating with respect to the geodesic.

Question: What kind of frame includes objects that do not accelerate when force in applied to them?

Question: What does an external frame of refrence follow?

Question: What is not experienced by objects moving against a geodesic?

Question: What is an object in free fall moving against?

Question: What is experienced by objects in free-fall?
Philosophy_of_space_and_time

Einstein partially advocates Mach's principle in that distant stars explain inertia because they provide the gravitational field against which acceleration and inertia occur. But contrary to Leibniz's account, this warped space-time is as integral a part of an object as are its other defining characteristics, such as volume and mass. If one holds, contrary to idealist beliefs, that objects exist independently of the mind, it seems that relativistics commits them to also hold that space and temporality have exactly the same type of independent existence.

Question: How does Einstein advocate Mach's principle?
Answer: partially

Question: How Einstein's theory compared to Leibniz's?
Answer: contrary

Question: What is considered contrary to idealist beliefs in regards to space?
Answer: objects exist independently of the mind

Question: Who advocates Einstein's theory?

Question: Who's theory compliments Leibniz?

Question: What do idealist believe can not exist independent of the mind?

Question: Space and what have a dependent existence?
Philosophy_of_space_and_time

Coordinative definition has two major features. The first has to do with coordinating units of length with certain physical objects. This is motivated by the fact that we can never directly apprehend length. Instead we must choose some physical object, say the Standard Metre at the Bureau International des Poids et Mesures (International Bureau of Weights and Measures), or the wavelength of cadmium to stand in as our unit of length. The second feature deals with separated objects. Although we can, presumably, directly test the equality of length of two measuring rods when they are next to one another, we can not find out as much for two rods distant from one another. Even supposing that two rods, whenever brought near to one another are seen to be equal in length, we are not justified in stating that they are always equal in length. This impossibility undermines our ability to decide the equality of length of two distant objects. Sameness of length, to the contrary, must be set by definition.

Question: Coordinative definition has how many major features?
Answer: two

Question: The first feature of Coordinative definition involves what?
Answer: coordinating units of length with certain physical objects

Question: What is the first feature motivated by?
Answer: we can never directly apprehend length

Question: The second feature of Coordinative definition involves what?
Answer: separated objects

Question: Sameness of length must be set how?
Answer: by definition

Question: What definition states that units of length can not be coodinated with physical objects?

Question: What measurment can be made independently?

Question: What can be determined about two objects regardless of their distance from each other?

Question: What is always equal rerdless of position?

Question: How must diffrence of l;ength be set?
Philosophy_of_space_and_time

In the classical case, the invariance, or symmetry, group and the covariance group coincide, but, interestingly enough, they part ways in relativistic physics. The symmetry group of the general theory of relativity includes all differentiable transformations, i.e., all properties of an object are dynamical, in other words there are no absolute objects. The formulations of the general theory of relativity, unlike those of classical mechanics, do not share a standard, i.e., there is no single formulation paired with transformations. As such the covariance group of the general theory of relativity is just the covariance group of every theory.

Question: The symmetry group of the general theory of relativity includes what?
Answer: all differentiable transformations

Question: What else besides  invariance, or symmetry and group part ways in relativistic physics?
Answer: the covariance group

Question: Which theory does the relativity depart from?
Answer: classical mechanics

Question: What are not pair with transformations in the theory of relativity?
Answer: single formulation

Question:  The covariance group of the general theory of relativity is the covariance group of how many theories?
Answer: every

Question: What groups do do not coincide in the classical case?

Question: What groups coincide in relative physics?

Question: What is absolute according to the theory of relativity?

Question: What theory does relativity coincide with?
Philosophy_of_space_and_time

The problem of the direction of time arises directly from two contradictory facts. Firstly, the fundamental physical laws are time-reversal invariant; if a cinematographic film were taken of any process describable by means of the aforementioned laws and then played backwards, it would still portray a physically possible process. Secondly, our experience of time, at the macroscopic level, is not time-reversal invariant. Glasses can fall and break, but shards of glass cannot reassemble and fly up onto tables. We have memories of the past, and none of the future. We feel we can't change the past but can influence the future.

Question: How many contradictory facts does the problem of the direction of time arise from?
Answer: two

Question: What kind of physical laws are time-reversal invariant?
Answer: fundamental

Question: If if a cinematographic film were taken by means of physical  laws and then played backwards, it would still portray what?
Answer: physically possible process

Question: How is our experience of time at the macro level?
Answer: not time-reversal invariant

Question: What do we not have memories of?
Answer: the future

Question: What laws are time-reversal variant?

Question: What do we experience as time-reversal invariant?

Question: What can we influence besides the future?