Divyanshu67/squad_v2 huggingface dataset:
Phonology

Phonology is often distinguished from phonetics. While phonetics concerns the physical production, acoustic transmission and perception of the sounds of speech, phonology describes the way sounds function within a given language or across languages to encode meaning. For many linguists, phonetics belongs to descriptive linguistics, and phonology to theoretical linguistics, although establishing the phonological system of a language is necessarily an application of theoretical principles to analysis of phonetic evidence. Note that this distinction was not always made, particularly before the development of the modern concept of the phoneme in the mid 20th century. Some subfields of modern phonology have a crossover with phonetics in descriptive disciplines such as psycholinguistics and speech perception, resulting in specific areas like articulatory phonology or laboratory phonology.

Question: What branch of linguistics is phonology distinguished from?
Answer: phonetics

Question: What kind of linguistics is phonetics considered to be a part of?
Answer: descriptive

Question: Phonology is generally considered a part of the theoretical side of what discipline?
Answer: linguistics

Question: When was the phonome's modern concept developed?
Answer: mid 20th century

Question: What subfield of modern phonology other than phsycholinguistics crosses over with phonetics? 
Answer: speech perception

Question: What branch of linguistics is laboratory distinguished from?

Question: What kind of linguistics is laboratory considered to be a part of?

Question: Laboratory is generally considered a part of the theoretical side of what discipline?

Question: When was the laboratory's modern concept developed?

Question: What subfield of modern phonology other than phsycholinguistics crosses over with laboratory?
Phonology

The word phonology comes from the Greek φωνή, phōnḗ, "voice, sound," and the suffix -logy (which is from Greek λόγος, lógos, "word, speech, subject of discussion"). Definitions of the term vary. Nikolai Trubetzkoy in Grundzüge der Phonologie (1939) defines phonology as "the study of sound pertaining to the system of language," as opposed to phonetics, which is "the study of sound pertaining to the act of speech" (the distinction between language and speech being basically Saussure's distinction between langue and parole). More recently, Lass (1998) writes that phonology refers broadly to the subdiscipline of linguistics concerned with the sounds of language, while in more narrow terms, "phonology proper is concerned with the function, behavior and organization of sounds as linguistic items." According to Clark et al. (2007), it means the systematic use of sound to encode meaning in any spoken human language, or the field of linguistics studying this use.

Question: What language does phonology as a word come from?
Answer: Greek

Question: What Greek word is -logy derived from?
Answer: lógos

Question: Who in 1939 defined phonology?
Answer: Nikolai Trubetzkoy

Question: A distinction was drawn between language and what?
Answer: speech

Question: When did Lass write about phonology?
Answer: 1998

Question: What language does speech as a word come from?

Question: What Greek word is speech derived from?

Question: Who in 1939 defined speech?

Question: A distinction was drawn between phonology and what?

Question: When did Lass write about speech?
Phonology

The history of phonology may be traced back to the Ashtadhyayi, the Sanskrit grammar composed by Pāṇini in the 4th century BC. In particular the Shiva Sutras, an auxiliary text to the Ashtadhyayi, introduces what can be considered a list of the phonemes of the Sanskrit language, with a notational system for them that is used throughout the main text, which deals with matters of morphology, syntax and semantics.

Question: What type of grammar was phonology first a part of?
Answer: Sanskrit

Question: What is the name of ancient Sanskrit grammar?
Answer: Ashtadhyayi

Question: Who first composed the Ashtadhyayi?
Answer: Pāṇini

Question: During what time period did Panini do his work?
Answer: 4th century BC

Question: What other text was related to the Ashtadhyayi?
Answer: the Shiva Sutras

Question: What type of grammar were phenomes first a part of?

Question: What is the name of ancient phenome grammar?

Question: Who first composed the Sanskrit language?

Question: During what time period did the Sanskrit language begin?

Question: What other text was related to morphology?
Phonology

The Polish scholar Jan Baudouin de Courtenay (together with his former student Mikołaj Kruszewski) introduced the concept of the phoneme in 1876, and his work, though often unacknowledged, is considered to be the starting point of modern phonology. He also worked on the theory of phonetic alternations (what is now called allophony and morphophonology), and had a significant influence on the work of Ferdinand de Saussure.

Question: When was the phoneme as a concept introduced?
Answer: 1876

Question: Who was Jan Baudouin de Courtenay's student?
Answer: Mikołaj Kruszewski

Question: What nationality was de Courtenay?
Answer: Polish

Question: What was de Courtenay's profession?
Answer: scholar

Question: Who was influenced by  Jan Baudouin de Courtenay?
Answer: Ferdinand de Saussure

Question: When was allophony as a concept introduced?

Question: Who was Jan Baudouin de Courtenay's father?

Question: What nationality was Kruszewski?

Question: What was Kruszewski's profession?

Question: Who was influenced by Mikolaj Kruszewski?
Phonology

An influential school of phonology in the interwar period was the Prague school. One of its leading members was Prince Nikolai Trubetzkoy, whose Grundzüge der Phonologie (Principles of Phonology), published posthumously in 1939, is among the most important works in the field from this period. Directly influenced by Baudouin de Courtenay, Trubetzkoy is considered the founder of morphophonology, although this concept had also been recognized by de Courtenay. Trubetzkoy also developed the concept of the archiphoneme. Another important figure in the Prague school was Roman Jakobson, who was one of the most prominent linguists of the 20th century.

Question: What was Nikolai Trubetzkoy's publication?
Answer: Principles of Phonology

Question: When was Principles of Phonology published?
Answer: 1939

Question: What is Trubetzkoy considered to have founded?
Answer: morphophonology

Question: What school was Trubetzkoy a member of?
Answer: the Prague school.

Question: What was Trubetzkoy's title?
Answer: Prince

Question: What was Baudouin de Courtenay's publication?

Question: When was Principles of Phonology made into a movie?

Question: What is de Courtenay considered to have founded?

Question: What school was de Courtenay a member of?

Question: What was de Courtenay's title?
Phonology

In 1968 Noam Chomsky and Morris Halle published The Sound Pattern of English (SPE), the basis for generative phonology. In this view, phonological representations are sequences of segments made up of distinctive features. These features were an expansion of earlier work by Roman Jakobson, Gunnar Fant, and Morris Halle. The features describe aspects of articulation and perception, are from a universally fixed set, and have the binary values + or −. There are at least two levels of representation: underlying representation and surface phonetic representation. Ordered phonological rules govern how underlying representation is transformed into the actual pronunciation (the so-called surface form). An important consequence of the influence SPE had on phonological theory was the downplaying of the syllable and the emphasis on segments. Furthermore, the generativists folded morphophonology into phonology, which both solved and created problems.

Question: When was The Sound Pattern of English published?
Answer: 1968

Question: Other than Chomsky who else published The Sound Pattern of English?
Answer: Morris Halle

Question: Besides the syllable what was downplayed as a result of SPE's influence on phonological theory?
Answer: emphasis on segments

Question: What other discipline was combined with phonology by the generativists?
Answer: morphophonology

Question: When were expansion rules published?

Question: Other than Chornsky who else published expansion rules?

Question: Besides the syllable what was downplayed as a result of SPE's influence on expansion rules?

Question: What other discipline was combined with expansion by the generativists?

Question: What are from a universally important syllable?
Phonology

Natural phonology is a theory based on the publications of its proponent David Stampe in 1969 and (more explicitly) in 1979. In this view, phonology is based on a set of universal phonological processes that interact with one another; which ones are active and which are suppressed is language-specific. Rather than acting on segments, phonological processes act on distinctive features within prosodic groups. Prosodic groups can be as small as a part of a syllable or as large as an entire utterance. Phonological processes are unordered with respect to each other and apply simultaneously (though the output of one process may be the input to another). The second most prominent natural phonologist is Patricia Donegan (Stampe's wife); there are many natural phonologists in Europe, and a few in the U.S., such as Geoffrey Nathan. The principles of natural phonology were extended to morphology by Wolfgang U. Dressler, who founded natural morphology.

Question: Whose publications started the theory of Natural phonology?
Answer: David Stampe

Question: According to Stampe what is phonology based on?
Answer: a set of universal phonological processes

Question: Aside from being active what other condition can the universal phonological processes exist in?
Answer: suppressed

Question: Who is the number two natural phonologist?  
Answer: Patricia Donegan

Question: Who was the founder of natural morphology?
Answer: Wolfgang U. Dressler

Question: Whose publications started the theory of universal input?

Question: According to Stampe what is universal input based on?

Question: Aside from being active what other condition can the natural morphology exist in?

Question: Who is the number two universal processor?

Question: Who was the founder of active utterance?
Phonology

In 1976 John Goldsmith introduced autosegmental phonology. Phonological phenomena are no longer seen as operating on one linear sequence of segments, called phonemes or feature combinations, but rather as involving some parallel sequences of features which reside on multiple tiers. Autosegmental phonology later evolved into feature geometry, which became the standard theory of representation for theories of the organization of phonology as different as lexical phonology and optimality theory.

Question: Who founded autosegmental phonology?
Answer: John Goldsmith

Question: When did John Goldsmith share his work?
Answer: 1976

Question: What did Autosegmental phonology morph into?
Answer: feature geometry

Question: Who founded operating tiers?

Question: When did John Goldsmith publish his work?

Question: What did operating tiers morph into?

Question: What are no longer seen as operating on lexical phonology?

Question: What became the standard theory of phenomes?
Phonology

Government phonology, which originated in the early 1980s as an attempt to unify theoretical notions of syntactic and phonological structures, is based on the notion that all languages necessarily follow a small set of principles and vary according to their selection of certain binary parameters. That is, all languages' phonological structures are essentially the same, but there is restricted variation that accounts for differences in surface realizations. Principles are held to be inviolable, though parameters may sometimes come into conflict. Prominent figures in this field include Jonathan Kaye, Jean Lowenstamm, Jean-Roger Vergnaud, Monik Charette, and John Harris.

Question: When was Government phonology first seen?
Answer: the early 1980s

Question: Jonathan Kaye is an important person in what form of phonology?
Answer: Government

Question: What is responsible for differences in surface realizations according to Government phonology?
Answer: restricted variation

Question: When were government principles first seen?

Question: Jonathan Kaye is an important person in what form of conflict?

Question: What is responsible for differences in surface realizations according to government conflict?

Question: What vary according to their selection of government?

Question: What is true of all languages' field parameters?
Phonology

In a course at the LSA summer institute in 1991, Alan Prince and Paul Smolensky developed optimality theory—an overall architecture for phonology according to which languages choose a pronunciation of a word that best satisfies a list of constraints ordered by importance; a lower-ranked constraint can be violated when the violation is necessary in order to obey a higher-ranked constraint. The approach was soon extended to morphology by John McCarthy and Alan Prince, and has become a dominant trend in phonology. The appeal to phonetic grounding of constraints and representational elements (e.g. features) in various approaches has been criticized by proponents of 'substance-free phonology', especially Mark Hale and Charles Reiss.

Question: When did Prince and Smolensky develop their theory?
Answer: 1991

Question: Where was optimality theory created?
Answer: LSA summer institute

Question: Aside from Alan Prince who brought optimality theory to morphology?
Answer: John McCarthy

Question: Who were prominent critics of optimality theory?
Answer: Mark Hale and Charles Reiss

Question: When did Prince and Smolensky develop pronunciation?

Question: Where was dominant theory created?

Question: Aside from Alan Prince who brought dominant theory to morphology?

Question: Who were prominent critics of dominant theory?

Question: Who are proponents of dominant phonology?
Phonology

Broadly speaking, government phonology (or its descendant, strict-CV phonology) has a greater following in the United Kingdom, whereas optimality theory is predominant in the United States.[citation needed]

Question: What followed government phonology?
Answer: strict-CV phonology

Question: Where is government phonology popular?
Answer: the United Kingdom,

Question: What theory is seen more in the US?
Answer: optimality theory

Question: What followed government optimality?

Question: Where is descendant phonology popular?

Question: What government idea is seen more in the UK?

Question: What has a greater following in France?

Question: What began in the United States?
Phonology

An integrated approach to phonological theory that combines synchronic and diachronic accounts to sound patterns was initiated with Evolutionary Phonology in recent years.

Question: What is Evolutionary Phonology an integrated approach to?
Answer: phonological theory

Question: What is combined to sound patterns by Evolutionary Phonology?
Answer: synchronic and diachronic accounts

Question: When did Evolutionary Phonology come into being?
Answer: recent years.

Question: What sort of approach did Evolutionary Phonology take?
Answer: integrated

Question: What is recent diachronic an integrated approach to?

Question: What is combined to sound patterns by recent patterns?

Question: When did  diachronic come into being?

Question: What sort of approach did recent diachronic take?

Question: What was initiated with sound accounts?
Phonology

An important part of traditional, pre-generative schools of phonology is studying which sounds can be grouped into distinctive units within a language; these units are known as phonemes. For example, in English, the "p" sound in pot is aspirated (pronounced [pʰ]) while that in spot is not aspirated (pronounced [p]). However, English speakers intuitively treat both sounds as variations (allophones) of the same phonological category, that is of the phoneme /p/. (Traditionally, it would be argued that if an aspirated [pʰ] were interchanged with the unaspirated [p] in spot, native speakers of English would still hear the same words; that is, the two sounds are perceived as "the same" /p/.) In some other languages, however, these two sounds are perceived as different, and they are consequently assigned to different phonemes. For example, in Thai, Hindi, and Quechua, there are minimal pairs of words for which aspiration is the only contrasting feature (two words can have different meanings but with the only difference in pronunciation being that one has an aspirated sound where the other has an unaspirated one).

Question: What are the units called that traditional phonology studies?
Answer: phonemes

Question: What is another word for variations?
Answer: allophones

Question: What is the opposite of aspirated?
Answer: unaspirated

Question: What are the minimal pairs called that minimal phonology studies?

Question: What is another word for phoneme?

Question: What is the opposite of phoneme?

Question: In what languages are there minimal pairs of words for which allophones are the only contrasting feature?

Question: Which speakers treat both sounds as aspirations?
Phonology

Part of the phonological study of a language therefore involves looking at data (phonetic transcriptions of the speech of native speakers) and trying to deduce what the underlying phonemes are and what the sound inventory of the language is. The presence or absence of minimal pairs, as mentioned above, is a frequently used criterion for deciding whether two sounds should be assigned to the same phoneme. However, other considerations often need to be taken into account as well.

Question: What type of language study involves trying to deduce underlying phonomes?
Answer: phonological

Question: Aside from finding out what underlying phonemes are there what does the phonological study of a language try to find out about the language?
Answer: sound inventory

Question: What kind of speaker data does studying a language phonologically involve examining? 
Answer: native

Question: What type of language study involves trying to deduce transcriptions?

Question: Aside from finding out what underlying phonemes are there what does the phnological study of a language tray to find out about minimal pairs?

Question: What kind of transcription data does studying a language phonologically involve examining?

Question: What is a frequently used criterion for deciding whether two languages should be assigned to the same phoneme?

Question: What does part of the assigned transcription of a language involve?
Phonology

The particular contrasts which are phonemic in a language can change over time. At one time, [f] and [v], two sounds that have the same place and manner of articulation and differ in voicing only, were allophones of the same phoneme in English, but later came to belong to separate phonemes. This is one of the main factors of historical change of languages as described in historical linguistics.

Question: What kind of linguistics describes how factors of languages change in history?
Answer: historical

Question: With the passage of time what particular things phonemic in a language are known to change?
Answer: contrasts

Question: In the past sounds that now belong to separate phonemes were allophones of what kind of phoneme in English?
Answer: the same phoneme

Question: What kind of linguistics describes how factors of phenomes change in history?

Question: With the passage of phenomes what particular things phonemic in a language are known to change?

Question: In the past sounds that now belong to separate phenomes were allophones of what kind  of change in English?

Question: What cannot change over time?

Question: Where is historical change of time described?
Phonology

The findings and insights of speech perception and articulation research complicate the traditional and somewhat intuitive idea of interchangeable allophones being perceived as the same phoneme. First, interchanged allophones of the same phoneme can result in unrecognizable words. Second, actual speech, even at a word level, is highly co-articulated, so it is problematic to expect to be able to splice words into simple segments without affecting speech perception.

Question: How do speech perception and articulation findings and insights affect previous and more traditional ideas?
Answer: complicate

Question: How does interchanging allophones of the same pheneme render words?
Answer: unrecognizable

Question: What does splicing words affect?
Answer: speech perception

Question: How do speech perception and articulation findings and insights affect previous and more traditional spliced words?

Question: How does interchanging phenomes of the same allophone render words?

Question: What does splicing phenomes affect?

Question: What can result in recognizable words?

Question: What complicates the traditional ideas of phonemes being perceived as the same allophones?
Phonology

Different linguists therefore take different approaches to the problem of assigning sounds to phonemes. For example, they differ in the extent to which they require allophones to be phonetically similar. There are also differing ideas as to whether this grouping of sounds is purely a tool for linguistic analysis, or reflects an actual process in the way the human brain processes a language.

Question: What are assigned to phonemes by different linguists?
Answer: sounds

Question: What part of a human does language processing?
Answer: brain

Question: The phonetical similarity of what thing causes disagreements between linguists?
Answer: allophones

Question: What are assigned to phonemes by different languages?

Question: What part of a human does allophone processing?

Question: The phonetical similarity of what thing causes disagreements between phenomes?

Question: Who takes different approaches to the problem of assigning sounds to allophones?

Question: Who differs in the extent to which they requires phonemes to be phonetically similar?
Phonology

Since the early 1960s, theoretical linguists have moved away from the traditional concept of a phoneme, preferring to consider basic units at a more abstract level, as a component of morphemes; these units can be called morphophonemes, and analysis using this approach is called morphophonology.

Question: When did theoretical linguists turn away traditional phoneme concepts?
Answer: early 1960s

Question: On what level do theoretical linguists consider basic units?
Answer: abstract

Question: What is a name for the basic morpheme unit?
Answer: morphophonemes

Question: What is the act of analyzing morphophones called?
Answer: morphophonology

Question: What kind of linguists are leaving the old methods behind?
Answer: theoretical

Question: When did theoretical linguists turn away traditioinal analysis concepts?

Question: On what level do theoretical linguists consider basic approaches?

Question: What is a name for the basic phoneme unit?

Question: What kind of linguists are leaving the old phonemes behind?

Question: When did theoretical linguists move away from the traditional concept of a morpheme?
Phonology

In addition to the minimal units that can serve the purpose of differentiating meaning (the phonemes), phonology studies how sounds alternate, i.e. replace one another in different forms of the same morpheme (allomorphs), as well as, for example, syllable structure, stress, feature geometry, accent, and intonation.

Question: What do phonemes differentiate? 
Answer: meaning

Question: Aside from phonemes what is studied by phonology?
Answer: how sounds alternate

Question: The study of syllable structure is part of what discipline?
Answer: phonology

Question: What do allomorphs differentiate?

Question: Aside from phonemes what is studies by geometry?

Question: The study of accent structure is part of what discipline?

Question: What studies how geometry alternates?

Question: What is another name for syllable?
Phonology

Phonology also includes topics such as phonotactics (the phonological constraints on what sounds can appear in what positions in a given language) and phonological alternation (how the pronunciation of a sound changes through the application of phonological rules, sometimes in a given order which can be feeding or bleeding,) as well as prosody, the study of suprasegmentals and topics such as stress and intonation.

Question: Under what topic is suprasegmentals studied?
Answer: prosody

Question: Aside from bleeding what is an order of rules that define how pronunciation of a sound changes?
Answer: feeding

Question: Phonotactics, phonological alternation and prosody are topics contained in what discipline?
Answer: Phonology

Question: Stress and intonation are studied under what topic?
Answer: prosody

Question: Under what topic is phonological alternation studied?

Question: Aside from bleeding what is an order of rules that define how suprasegmentals change?

Question: Phonotactics, phonological alternation and stress are topics contained in what discipline?

Question: Stress and rules are studied under what topic?

Question: What includes topics such as sound rules?
Phonology

The principles of phonological analysis can be applied independently of modality because they are designed to serve as general analytical tools, not language-specific ones. The same principles have been applied to the analysis of sign languages (see Phonemes in sign languages), even though the sub-lexical units are not instantiated as speech sounds.

Question: Instead of being language-specific what kind of tools are the principles of phonological analysis designed to be?
Answer: general analytical tools

Question: What other types of language have the phonological analysis principles been applied to?
Answer: sign languages

Question: What are the principles of phonological analysis able to be applied separately from?
Answer: modality

Question: In sign languages what are not represented as instances of speech sounds?
Answer: sub-lexical units

Question: Instead of being language specific what kind of tool is sign language designed to be?

Question: What other types of language have the speech sound principles been applied to

Question: What are the principles of sign language able to be applied separately from?

Question: In sign laguages what are not represented as instances of analytical tools?

Question: What can be applied depending on modality?
Computer

The Antikythera mechanism is believed to be the earliest mechanical analog "computer", according to Derek J. de Solla Price. It was designed to calculate astronomical positions. It was discovered in 1901 in the Antikythera wreck off the Greek island of Antikythera, between Kythera and Crete, and has been dated to circa 100 BC. Devices of a level of complexity comparable to that of the Antikythera mechanism would not reappear until a thousand years later.

Question: What is thought to be the first mechanical analog computer?
Answer: The Antikythera mechanism

Question: The Antikythera mechanism was thought to be the first computer according to whom?
Answer: Derek J. de Solla Price.

Question: When was the Antikythera mechanism discovered?
Answer: 1901

Question: Where was the Antikythera mechanism found in 1901?
Answer: Antikythera wreck off the Greek island of Antikythera

Question: Where is the Greek Island of Antikythera located between?
Answer: Kythera and Crete
Black_people

Black people is a term used in certain countries, often in socially based systems of racial classification or of ethnicity, to describe persons who are perceived to be dark-skinned compared to other given populations. As such, the meaning of the expression varies widely both between and within societies, and depends significantly on context. For many other individuals, communities and countries, "black" is also perceived as a derogatory, outdated, reductive or otherwise unrepresentative label, and as a result is neither used nor defined.

Question: Do some countries have negative feelings towards the word "black"?
Answer: communities and countries, "black" is also perceived as a derogatory,

Question: What is "black people" a term for?
Answer: racial classification or of ethnicity

Question: Do all regions perceive that term "black people" the same?
Answer: the meaning of the expression varies widely both between and within societies

Question: Do some cultures not use the term "Black people"?
Answer: , "black" is also perceived as a derogatory, outdated, reductive or otherwise unrepresentative label,

Question: Can the term "black people" have different meanings?
Answer: the meaning of the expression varies widely both between and within societies, and depends significantly on context.
Black_people

Different societies apply differing criteria regarding who is classified as "black", and these social constructs have also changed over time. In a number of countries, societal variables affect classification as much as skin color, and the social criteria for "blackness" vary. For example, in North America the term black people is not necessarily an indicator of skin color or majority ethnic ancestry, but it is instead a socially based racial classification related to being African American, with a family history associated with institutionalized slavery. In South Africa and Latin America, for instance, mixed-race people are generally not classified as "black." In South Pacific regions such as Australia and Melanesia, European colonists applied the term "black" or it was used by populations with different histories and ethnic origin.

Question: Do all societies use the term "black" the same?
Answer: Different societies apply differing criteria regarding who is classified as "black"

Question: What factors can affect the classification of "blackness"?
Answer: societal variables

Question: Are mixed race people classified as black?
Answer: mixed-race people are generally not classified as "black."

Question: How is the term "black" defined in the United States?
Answer: it is instead a socially based racial classification related to being African American, with a family history associated with institutionalized slavery.

Question: How did European Colonists use the term "Black"?
Answer: European colonists applied the term "black" or it was used by populations with different histories and ethnic origin.
Black_people

The Romans interacted with and later conquered parts of Mauretania, an early state that covered modern Morocco, western Algeria, and the Spanish cities Ceuta and Melilla during the classical period. The people of the region were noted in Classical literature as Mauri, which was subsequently rendered as Moors in English.

Question: What made up Mauretania?
Answer: Morocco, western Algeria, and the Spanish cities Ceuta and Melilla

Question: Who conquered parts of Mauretania?
Answer: The Romans

Question: During what period did Mauretania exist? 
Answer: the classical period.

Question: Where were the people of the region noted? 
Answer: in Classical literature

Question: What is Mauri in English? 
Answer: Moors
Black_people

Numerous communities of dark-skinned peoples are present in North Africa, some dating from prehistoric communities. Others are descendants of the historical Trans-Saharan trade in peoples and/or, and after the Arab invasions of North Africa in the 7th century, descendants of slaves from the Arab Slave Trade in North Africa.

Question: Where was the Arab Slave Trade?
Answer: North Africa

Question: When were the Arab Invasions?
Answer: the 7th century

Question: Where were numerous dark-skinned communities? 
Answer: North Africa

Question: When did these communities begin?
Answer: some dating from prehistoric communities.

Question: Who are they descendants of?
Answer: Trans-Saharan trade in peoples
Black_people

In the 18th century, the Moroccan Sultan Moulay Ismail "the Bloodthirsty" (1672–1727) raised a corps of 150,000 black slaves, called his Black Guard, who coerced the country into submission.

Question: When did Moroccan Sultan Moulay Ismail live?
Answer: (1672–1727)

Question: How many black slaves did he own?
Answer: 150,000

Question: What did he call his slave army?
Answer: Black Guard

Question: What did the Black Guard do?
Answer: coerced the country into submission.

Question: When did the Black Guard exist?
Answer: In the 18th century
Black_people

According to Dr. Carlos Moore, resident scholar at Brazil's University of the State of Bahia, in the 21st century Afro-multiracials in the Arab world, including Arabs in North Africa, self-identify in ways that resemble multi-racials in Latin America. He claims that black-looking Arabs, much like black-looking Latin Americans, consider themselves white because they have some distant white ancestry.

Question: Why would a black-looking Arab consider himself white?
Answer: because they have some distant white ancestry.

Question: Where does Dr. Carlos Moore work?
Answer: Brazil's University of the State of Bahia

Question: How do Afro-multiracials identify in the 21st century?
Answer: in ways that resemble multi-racials
Black_people

Egyptian President Anwar Sadat had a mother who was a dark-skinned Nubian Sudanese woman and a father who was a lighter-skinned Egyptian. In response to an advertisement for an acting position, as a young man he said, "I am not white but I am not exactly black either. My blackness is tending to reddish".

Question: Who was the Egyptian President?
Answer: Anwar Sadat

Question: What ethnicity was his father?
Answer: Egyptian

Question: What color did he refer to himself as?
Answer: reddish
Black_people

Due to the patriarchal nature of Arab society, Arab men, including during the slave trade in North Africa, enslaved more black women than men. They used more black female slaves in domestic service and agriculture than males. The men interpreted the Qur'an to permit sexual relations between a male master and his female slave outside of marriage (see Ma malakat aymanukum and sex), leading to many mixed-race children. When an enslaved woman became pregnant with her Arab master's child, she was considered as umm walad or "mother of a child", a status that granted her privileged rights. The child was given rights of inheritance to the father's property, so mixed-race children could share in any wealth of the father. Because the society was patrilineal, the children took their fathers' social status at birth and were born free.

Question: Who was enslaved more often?
Answer: black women

Question: What were female slaves used for?
Answer: domestic service and agriculture

Question: What did the Qur'an permit?
Answer: sexual relations between a male master and his female slave

Question: What is the term for a pregnant slave?
Answer: umm walad

Question: What does umm walad mean?
Answer: "mother of a child"
Black_people

Some succeeded their fathers as rulers, such as Sultan Ahmad al-Mansur, who ruled Morocco from 1578 to 1608. He was not technically considered as a mixed-race child of a slave; his mother was Fulani and a concubine of his father. Such tolerance for black persons, even when technically "free", was not so common in Morocco. The long association of sub-Saharan peoples as slaves is shown in the term abd (Arabic: عبد‎,) (meaning "slave"); it is still frequently used in the Arabic-speaking world as a term for black people.

Question: Who was the ruler in Morocco?
Answer: Sultan Ahmad al-Mansur

Question: When did Sultan Ahmad al-Mansur rule?
Answer: from 1578 to 1608

Question: What ethnicity was his mother?
Answer: Fulani

Question: What Arabic term is still used for black people?
Answer: (Arabic: عبد‎,) (meaning "slave")

Question: Who still had the term "slave" used in reference to them?
Answer: sub-Saharan peoples
Black_people

In early 1991, non-Arabs of the Zaghawa tribe of Sudan attested that they were victims of an intensifying Arab apartheid campaign, segregating Arabs and non-Arabs (specifically people of sub-Saharan African descent). Sudanese Arabs, who controlled the government, were widely referred to as practicing apartheid against Sudan's non-Arab citizens. The government was accused of "deftly manipulat(ing) Arab solidarity" to carry out policies of apartheid and ethnic cleansing.

Question: When did the Arab apartheid intensify? 
Answer: early 1991

Question: Who felt persecuted due to the apartheid?
Answer: non-Arabs of the Zaghawa tribe

Question: Where did these people live?
Answer: Sudan

Question: Who controlled the government?
Answer: Sudanese Arabs

Question: What was the government being accused of?
Answer: deftly manipulat(ing) Arab solidarity" to carry out policies of apartheid and ethnic cleansing.
Black_people

American University economist George Ayittey accused the Arab government of Sudan of practicing acts of racism against black citizens. According to Ayittey, "In Sudan... the Arabs monopolized power and excluded blacks – Arab apartheid." Many African commentators joined Ayittey in accusing Sudan of practising Arab apartheid.

Question: Who accused the Arab government of practicing acts of racism?
Answer: George Ayittey

Question: Who executed the apartheid?
Answer: the Arab government

Question: Who was excluded?
Answer: blacks

Question: Where were they?
Answer: Sudan

Question: What is George Ayittey's profession? 
Answer: economist
Black_people

Alan Dershowitz described Sudan as an example of a government that "actually deserve(s)" the appellation "apartheid." Former Canadian Minister of Justice Irwin Cotler echoed the accusation.

Question: Who was the Canadian Minister of Justice?
Answer: Irwin Cotler

Question: How did Alan Dershozitz describe the Sudan?
Answer: an example of a government that "actually deserve(s)" the appellation "apartheid."

Question: Who argeed with Dershowitz?
Answer: Irwin Cotler

Question: Where did Irwin Cotler live?
Answer: Canadian
Black_people

In South Africa, the period of colonization resulted in many unions and marriages between European men and African women from various tribes, resulting in mixed-race children. As the Europeans acquired territory and imposed rule over the Africans, they generally pushed mixed-race and Africans into second-class status. During the first half of the 20th century, the Afrikaaner-dominated government classified the population according to four main racial groups: Black, White, Asian (mostly Indian), and Coloured. The Coloured group included people of mixed Bantu, Khoisan, and European descent (with some Malay ancestry, especially in the Western Cape). The Coloured definition occupied an intermediary political position between the Black and White definitions in South Africa. It imposed a system of legal racial segregation, a complex of laws known as apartheid.

Question: What did the colonization of South Africa result in?
Answer: many unions and marriages between European men and African women from various tribes

Question: What was a result of these marriages?
Answer: mixed-race children

Question: What class were Africans and Mixed Race children considered?
Answer: second-class

Question: Who was included in the Coloured group?
Answer: Bantu, Khoisan, and European descent

Question: What does apartheid mean?
Answer: a system of legal racial segregation
Black_people

The apartheid bureaucracy devised complex (and often arbitrary) criteria in the Population Registration Act of 1945 to determine who belonged in which group. Minor officials administered tests to enforce the classifications. When it was unclear from a person's physical appearance whether the individual should be considered Coloured or Black, the "pencil test" was used. A pencil was inserted into a person's hair to determine if the hair was kinky enough to hold the pencil, rather than having it pass through, as it would with smoother hair. If so, the person was classified as Black. Such classifications sometimes divided families.

Question: What act determined what class a citizen belonged to?
Answer: the Population Registration Act of 1945

Question: What test was used to determine if someone was coloured or black?
Answer: pencil test

Question: How did the pencil test work?
Answer: A pencil was inserted into a person's hair to determine if the hair was kinky enough to hold the pencil

Question: Who administered the "Pencil Test"?
Answer: Minor officials
Black_people

Sandra Laing is a South African woman who was classified as Coloured by authorities during the apartheid era, due to her skin colour and hair texture, although her parents could prove at least three generations of European ancestors. At age 10, she was expelled from her all-white school. The officials' decisions based on her anomalous appearance disrupted her family and adult life. She was the subject of the 2008 biographical dramatic film Skin, which won numerous awards.

Question: Who was featured in the movie "Skin"?
Answer: Sandra Laing

Question: What year was the movie "Skin" made?
Answer: 2008

Question: At was age was Sandra Laing expelled from school?
Answer: age 10

Question: What is Sandra Laing's ethnicity? 
Answer: South African

Question: How many generations of European Ancestors does Sandra Laing have?
Answer: three
Black_people

During the apartheid era, those classed as "Coloured" were oppressed and discriminated against. But, they had limited rights and overall had slightly better socioeconomic conditions than those classed as "Black". The government required that Blacks and Coloureds live in areas separate from Whites, creating large townships located away from the cities as areas for Blacks.

Question: Who was oppressed and discriminated against?
Answer: those classed as "Coloured"

Question: What era did this discrimination take place?
Answer: During the apartheid era

Question: Who were "Coloured" people above in the class system?
Answer: those classed as "Black"

Question: Where were the "black" areas?
Answer: large townships located away from the cities
Black_people

In the post-apartheid era, the Constitution of South Africa has declared the country to be a "Non-racial democracy". In an effort to redress past injustices, the ANC government has introduced laws in support of affirmative action policies for Blacks; under these they define "Black" people to include "Africans", "Coloureds" and "Asians". Some affirmative action policies favor "Africans" over "Coloureds" in terms of qualifying for certain benefits. Some South Africans categorized as "African Black" say that "Coloureds" did not suffer as much as they did during apartheid. "Coloured" South Africans are known to discuss their dilemma by saying, "we were not white enough under apartheid, and we are not black enough under the ANC (African National Congress)".[citation needed]

Question: What did South Africa's Constitution Declare to be?
Answer: a "Non-racial democracy"

Question: What laws did they introduce to support blacks?
Answer: affirmative action policies

Question: Who does the term "black" people include?
Answer: "Africans", "Coloureds" and "Asians"

Question: Who makes the "Coloured" people feel "Not black enough"?
Answer: ANC (African National Congress)

Question: Who is favored more under the affirmative action policies? 
Answer: "Africans
Black_people

In 2008, the High Court in South Africa ruled that Chinese South Africans who were residents during the apartheid era (and their descendants) are to be reclassified as "Black people," solely for the purposes of accessing affirmative action benefits, because they were also "disadvantaged" by racial discrimination. Chinese people who arrived in the country after the end of apartheid do not qualify for such benefits.

Question: Who declared Chinese South Africans as "Black People"?
Answer: the High Court in South Africa

Question: What year did this ruling happen?
Answer: 2008

Question: Why was this classification made?
Answer: solely for the purposes of accessing affirmative action benefits

Question: What Chinese people did not qualify for benefits?
Answer: Chinese people who arrived in the country after the end of apartheid

Question: Why did some Chinese citizens qualify for benefits? 
Answer: they were also "disadvantaged" by racial discrimination.
Black_people

Other than by appearance, "Coloureds" can usually be distinguished from "Blacks" by language. Most speak Afrikaans or English as a first language, as opposed to Bantu languages such as Zulu or Xhosa. They also tend to have more European-sounding names than Bantu names.

Question: What is another way "Coloureds" can be distinguished from "Blacks"?
Answer: language

Question: What languages are most common?
Answer: Afrikaans or English

Question: What are less common languages spoken?
Answer: Zulu or Xhosa

Question: What types of names do "coloureds" have?
Answer: European-sounding names

Question: What type of names do "blacks" have?
Answer: Bantu names
Black_people

Historians estimate that between the advent of Islam in 650CE and the abolition of slavery in the Arabian Peninsula in the mid-20th century, 10 to 18 million sub-Saharan Black Africans were enslaved by Arab slave traders and transported to the Arabian Peninsula and neighboring countries. This number far exceeded the number of slaves who were taken to the Americas. Several factors affected the visibility of descendants of this diaspora in 21st-century Arab societies: The traders shipped more female slaves than males, as there was a demand for them to serve as concubines in harems in the Arabian Peninsula and neighboring countries. Male slaves were castrated in order to serve as harem guards. The death toll of Black African slaves from forced labor was high. The mixed-race children of female slaves and Arab owners were assimilated into the Arab owners' families under the patrilineal kinship system. As a result, few distinctive Afro-Arab black communities have survived in the Arabian Peninsula and neighboring countries.

Question: How many sub-Saharan Black Africans were enslaved?
Answer: 10 to 18 million

Question: In what time frame were these people enslaved?
Answer: between the advent of Islam in 650CE and the abolition of slavery in the Arabian Peninsula in the mid-20th century

Question: Who enslaved these people?
Answer: Arab slave traders

Question: Why were women slaves more popular?
Answer: for them to serve as concubines

Question: Who was assimilated into the Arab slave owner families?
Answer: The mixed-race children of female slaves and Arab owners
Black_people

Genetic studies have found significant African female-mediated gene flow in Arab communities in the Arabian Peninsula and neighboring countries, with an average of 38% of maternal lineages in Yemen are of direct African descent, 16% in Oman-Qatar, and 10% in Saudi Arabia-United Arab Emirates.

Question: How many people in Yemen have African lineage? 
Answer: average of 38%

Question: How many people in Oman-Qatar have African lineage?
Answer: 16%

Question: How many people in Saudi Arabia-United Arab Emirates have African lineage?
Answer: 10%

Question: Genetic studies have found which gene in Arab communities?
Answer: African female-mediated gene
Black_people

Distinctive and self-identified black communities have been reported in countries such as Iraq, with a reported 1.2 million black people, and they attest to a history of discrimination. African-Iraquis have sought minority status from the government, which would reserve some seats in Parliament for representatives of their population. According to Alamin M. Mazrui et al., generally in the Arabian Peninsula and neighboring countries, most of those of visible African descent are still classified and identify as Arab, not black.

Question: Who is seeking minority status from the government?
Answer: African-Iraquis

Question: Where would they be represented if minority status is granted?
Answer: Parliament

Question: How are Africans classified in the Arabian Peninsula?
Answer: as Arab

Question: What types of communities have been reported in Iraq?
Answer: Distinctive and self-identified black communities

Question: Who gave information on how blacks were classified in the Arabian Peninsula?
Answer: Alamin M. Mazrui et al.