Divyanshu67/squad_v2 huggingface dataset:
States_of_Germany

The municipalities have two major policy responsibilities. First, they administer programs authorized by the federal or state government. Such programs typically relate to youth, schools, public health, and social assistance. Second, Article 28(2) of the Basic Law guarantees the municipalities "the right to regulate on their own responsibility all the affairs of the local community within the limits set by law." Under this broad statement of competence, local governments can justify a wide range of activities. For instance, many municipalities develop and expand the economic infrastructure of their communities through the development of industrial trading estates.

Question: Municipalities have how many major policy responsibilities?
Answer: local governments can justify

Question: What article grants the municipalities "the right to regulate on their own responsibility all the affairs of the local community within the limits set by law.
Answer: Article 28(2)

Question: Under Article 28(2) local governments can justify what?
Answer: a wide range of activities

Question: What is one way municipalities develop the economic infrastructure?
Answer: development

Question: Who have three major policy responsibilities?

Question: What is federal government responsible for administering?

Question: Programs run by the state or federal government typically relate to what?

Question: Local governments are limited by which article?

Question: What guarantees state and federal governments their rights?
States_of_Germany

In southwestern Germany, territorial revision seemed to be a top priority since the border between the French and American occupation zones was set along the Autobahn Karlsruhe-Stuttgart-Ulm (today the A8). Article 118 stated "The division of the territory comprising Baden, Württemberg-Baden and Württemberg-Hohenzollern into Länder may be revised, without regard to the provisions of Article 29, by agreement between the Länder concerned. If no agreement is reached, the revision shall be effected by a federal law, which shall provide for an advisory referendum." Since no agreement was reached, a referendum was held on 9 December 1951 in four different voting districts, three of which approved the merger (South Baden refused but was overruled as the result of total votes was decisive). On 25 April 1952, the three former states merged to form Baden-Württemberg.

Question: What was territorial revision considered in southeastern Germany?

Question: What road is the border between the French and American zones?

Question: Which article did not allow the division of territory comprising Baden?

Question: What goes into effect if an agreement under article 29 is reached?

Question: Which state did not agree, so was not included in the December 1951 referendum?
Glass

Many applications of silicate glasses derive from their optical transparency, which gives rise to one of silicate glasses' primary uses as window panes. Glass will transmit, reflect and refract light; these qualities can be enhanced by cutting and polishing to make optical lenses, prisms, fine glassware, and optical fibers for high speed data transmission by light. Glass can be colored by adding metallic salts, and can also be painted and printed with vitreous enamels. These qualities have led to the extensive use of glass in the manufacture of art objects and in particular, stained glass windows. Although brittle, silicate glass is extremely durable, and many examples of glass fragments exist from early glass-making cultures. Because glass can be formed or molded into any shape, and also because it is a sterile product, it has been traditionally used for vessels: bowls, vases, bottles, jars and drinking glasses. In its most solid forms it has also been used for paperweights, marbles, and beads. When extruded as glass fiber and matted as glass wool in a way to trap air, it becomes a thermal insulating material, and when these glass fibers are embedded into an organic polymer plastic, they are a key structural reinforcement part of the composite material fiberglass. Some objects historically were so commonly made of silicate glass that they are simply called by the name of the material, such as drinking glasses and reading glasses.

Question: What ingredient makes glass colorful?
Answer: metallic salts

Question: What in combination with glass fibers is used to make fiberglass?
Answer: organic polymer plastic

Question: What quality of silicate glass allows it to be used for windows?
Answer: transparency

Question: What type of glass products can be used for sending information?
Answer: optical fibers

Question: In what product are glass fibers used to hold dead air?
Answer: thermal insulating material

Question: What ingredient makes glass durable?

Question: What in combination with glass fibers is used to make glass wool?

Question: What quality of silicate glass allows it to be used for insulating?

Question: What type of glass products can be used for reinforcement?

Question: In what product are glass fibers used to hold composite material?
Glass

Most common glass contains other ingredients to change its properties. Lead glass or flint glass is more 'brilliant' because the increased refractive index causes noticeably more specular reflection and increased optical dispersion. Adding barium also increases the refractive index. Thorium oxide gives glass a high refractive index and low dispersion and was formerly used in producing high-quality lenses, but due to its radioactivity has been replaced by lanthanum oxide in modern eyeglasses.[citation needed] Iron can be incorporated into glass to absorb infrared energy, for example in heat absorbing filters for movie projectors, while cerium(IV) oxide can be used for glass that absorbs UV wavelengths.

Question: What element is used in glass to keep it from becoming too hot?
Answer: Iron

Question: How does barium affect glass?
Answer: increases the refractive index

Question: What property of thorium oxide has caused it to no longer be used in eyeglasses?
Answer: radioactivity

Question: What is another name for lead glass?
Answer: flint glass

Question: What is the benefit of thorium oxide in addition to its refractive index?
Answer: low dispersion

Question: What element is used in glass to help it from becoming more reflective?

Question: How does barium affect movie filters?

Question: What property of thorium oxide has caused it to no longer be used in projectors?

Question: What is another name for cerium oxide?

Question: What is the benefit of heat absorbing filters in addition to its refractive index?
Glass

Fused quartz is a glass made from chemically-pure SiO2 (silica). It has excellent thermal shock characteristics, being able to survive immersion in water while red hot. However, its high melting-temperature (1723 °C) and viscosity make it difficult to work with. Normally, other substances are added to simplify processing. One is sodium carbonate (Na2CO3, "soda"), which lowers the glass transition temperature. The soda makes the glass water-soluble, which is usually undesirable, so lime (calcium oxide [CaO], generally obtained from limestone), some magnesium oxide (MgO) and aluminium oxide (Al2O3) are added to provide for a better chemical durability. The resulting glass contains about 70 to 74% silica by weight and is called a soda-lime glass. Soda-lime glasses account for about 90% of manufactured glass.

Question: What causes glass to dissolve in water?
Answer: soda

Question: Why is lime often added to glass?
Answer: better chemical durability

Question: What percentage of soda-lime glass is silica?
Answer: 70 to 74

Question: What is a benefit of fused quartz?
Answer: excellent thermal shock characteristics

Question: What besides viscosity is a drawback of fused quartz?
Answer: high melting-temperature

Question: What causes glass to dissolve in Na2CO3?

Question: Why is lime often added to magnesium?

Question: What percentage of soda-lime glass is obtained from limestone?

Question: What is a benefit of chemical durability?

Question: What besides viscosity is a drawback of soda-lime glasses?
Glass

Following the glass batch preparation and mixing, the raw materials are transported to the furnace. Soda-lime glass for mass production is melted in gas fired units. Smaller scale furnaces for specialty glasses include electric melters, pot furnaces, and day tanks. After melting, homogenization and refining (removal of bubbles), the glass is formed. Flat glass for windows and similar applications is formed by the float glass process, developed between 1953 and 1957 by Sir Alastair Pilkington and Kenneth Bickerstaff of the UK's Pilkington Brothers, who created a continuous ribbon of glass using a molten tin bath on which the molten glass flows unhindered under the influence of gravity. The top surface of the glass is subjected to nitrogen under pressure to obtain a polished finish. Container glass for common bottles and jars is formed by blowing and pressing methods. This glass is often slightly modified chemically (with more alumina and calcium oxide) for greater water resistance. Further glass forming techniques are summarized in the table Glass forming techniques.

Question: What happens during refining?
Answer: removal of bubbles

Question: What method is used for making windows?
Answer: float glass process

Question: What is used on the surface of window glass to make it smooth?
Answer: nitrogen

Question: What is added to the glass of jars to improve water resistance?
Answer: alumina and calcium oxide

Question: Who were the inventors of the float glass process?
Answer: Alastair Pilkington and Kenneth Bickerstaff

Question: What happens during forming techniques?

Question: What method is used for making raw materials?

Question: What is used on the surface of jar glasses to make them smooth?

Question: What is added to the glass of windows to improve water resistance?

Question: Who were the inventors of molten glass flows?
Glass

Glass has the ability to refract, reflect, and transmit light following geometrical optics, without scattering it. It is used in the manufacture of lenses and windows. Common glass has a refraction index around 1.5. This may be modified by adding low-density materials such as boron, which lowers the index of refraction (see crown glass), or increased (to as much as 1.8) with high-density materials such as (classically) lead oxide (see flint glass and lead glass), or in modern uses, less toxic oxides of zirconium, titanium, or barium. These high-index glasses (inaccurately known as "crystal" when used in glass vessels) cause more chromatic dispersion of light, and are prized for their diamond-like optical properties.

Question: What can be used to make glass less refractive?
Answer: boron

Question: What is the refraction index of typical glass?
Answer: 1.5

Question: What is a toxic additive that increases refraction?
Answer: lead oxide

Question: What are high-index glasses erroneously called?
Answer: crystal

Question: Why are high-index glasses valued?
Answer: for their diamond-like optical properties

Question: What can be used to make glass less dense?

Question: What is the refraction index of diamond?

Question: What is a toxic additive that increases optics?

Question: What is another name for chromatic dispersions?

Question: Why are high-index glasses modified?
Glass

The most familiar, and historically the oldest, types of glass are "silicate glasses" based on the chemical compound silica (silicon dioxide, or quartz), the primary constituent of sand. The term glass, in popular usage, is often used to refer only to this type of material, which is familiar from use as window glass and in glass bottles. Of the many silica-based glasses that exist, ordinary glazing and container glass is formed from a specific type called soda-lime glass, composed of approximately 75% silicon dioxide (SiO2), sodium oxide (Na2O) from sodium carbonate (Na2CO3), calcium oxide, also called lime (CaO), and several minor additives. A very clear and durable quartz glass can be made from pure silica, but the high melting point and very narrow glass transition of quartz make glassblowing and hot working difficult. In glasses like soda lime, the compounds added to quartz are used to lower the melting temperature and improve workability, at a cost in the toughness, thermal stability, and optical transmittance.

Question: Which kinds of glass existed the furthest in the past?
Answer: silicate glasses

Question: What kind of glass are containers made from?
Answer: soda-lime glass

Question: What is sand mostly made of?
Answer: silica

Question: What can a very strong and transparent glass be made from?
Answer: pure silica

Question: What types of glass is the word commonly used to mean?
Answer: silicate glasses

Question: Which kinds of containers existed furthest in the past?

Question: What kind of glass are windows made from?

Question: What is calcium oxide mostly made of?

Question: What can a very strong and transparent transmittance be made from?

Question: What types of workability is the word commonly used to mean?
Glass

Glass is in widespread use largely due to the production of glass compositions that are transparent to visible light. In contrast, polycrystalline materials do not generally transmit visible light. The individual crystallites may be transparent, but their facets (grain boundaries) reflect or scatter light resulting in diffuse reflection. Glass does not contain the internal subdivisions associated with grain boundaries in polycrystals and hence does not scatter light in the same manner as a polycrystalline material. The surface of a glass is often smooth since during glass formation the molecules of the supercooled liquid are not forced to dispose in rigid crystal geometries and can follow surface tension, which imposes a microscopically smooth surface. These properties, which give glass its clearness, can be retained even if glass is partially light-absorbing—i.e., colored.

Question: What does glass lack, allowing it to be transparent?
Answer: internal subdivisions

Question: What force gives glass its surface texture?
Answer: surface tension

Question: What, in contrast to glass, doesn't let light pass through?
Answer: polycrystalline materials

Question: What type of glass absorbs some light?
Answer: colored

Question: What does glass lack, allowing it to be polycrystalline?

Question: What force gives glass its rigid crystal geometries?

Question: What, in contrast to glass, doesn't absorb light?

Question: What type of glass absorbs molecules of supercooled liquid?

Question: What do individual crystallites not contain?
Glass

Naturally occurring glass, especially the volcanic glass obsidian, has been used by many Stone Age societies across the globe for the production of sharp cutting tools and, due to its limited source areas, was extensively traded. But in general, archaeological evidence suggests that the first true glass was made in coastal north Syria, Mesopotamia or ancient Egypt. The earliest known glass objects, of the mid third millennium BCE, were beads, perhaps initially created as accidental by-products of metal-working (slags) or during the production of faience, a pre-glass vitreous material made by a process similar to glazing.

Question: What kind of glass exists in nature?
Answer: obsidian

Question: Obsidian is what type of glass?
Answer: volcanic

Question: What was obsidian used to make in prehistoric times?
Answer: cutting tools

Question: When are the oldest beads thought to have been made?
Answer: mid third millennium BCE

Question: What glass-like material is made with a method related to glazing?
Answer: faience

Question: What kind of glass exists in Egypt?

Question: Obsidian is what type of slag?

Question: What was obsidian used to make in falence processes?

Question: What glass-like material is made with a method related to sharp cutting?

Question: What suggests that the first true glass was accidental?
Glass

Color in glass may be obtained by addition of electrically charged ions (or color centers) that are homogeneously distributed, and by precipitation of finely dispersed particles (such as in photochromic glasses). Ordinary soda-lime glass appears colorless to the naked eye when it is thin, although iron(II) oxide (FeO) impurities of up to 0.1 wt% produce a green tint, which can be viewed in thick pieces or with the aid of scientific instruments. Further FeO and Cr2O3 additions may be used for the production of green bottles. Sulfur, together with carbon and iron salts, is used to form iron polysulfides and produce amber glass ranging from yellowish to almost black. A glass melt can also acquire an amber color from a reducing combustion atmosphere. Manganese dioxide can be added in small amounts to remove the green tint given by iron(II) oxide. When used in art glass or studio glass is colored using closely guarded recipes that involve specific combinations of metal oxides, melting temperatures and 'cook' times. Most colored glass used in the art market is manufactured in volume by vendors who serve this market although there are some glassmakers with the ability to make their own color from raw materials.

Question: What can give glass a faint green tinge?
Answer: iron(II) oxide

Question: What can prevent a green color in glass?
Answer: Manganese dioxide

Question: What other than additives can give glass a yellow color?
Answer: reducing combustion atmosphere

Question: What chemical compounds can make glass nearly black?
Answer: iron polysulfides

Question: Charged ions can be used to produce what in glass?
Answer: Color

Question: What can give glass a metal?

Question: What can prevent an amber color in glass?

Question: What other additives can give glass a sulfur tint?

Question: What chemical compounds can make glass thin?

Question: Charged ions can be used to produce what in precipitates?
Glass

Glass remained a luxury material, and the disasters that overtook Late Bronze Age civilizations seem to have brought glass-making to a halt. Indigenous development of glass technology in South Asia may have begun in 1730 BCE. In ancient China, though, glassmaking seems to have a late start, compared to ceramics and metal work. The term glass developed in the late Roman Empire. It was in the Roman glassmaking center at Trier, now in modern Germany, that the late-Latin term glesum originated, probably from a Germanic word for a transparent, lustrous substance. Glass objects have been recovered across the Roman empire in domestic, industrial and funerary contexts.[citation needed]

Question: What word does "glass" come from?
Answer: glesum

Question: Where did glasswork begin relatively late?
Answer: China

Question: In what year did glassmaking begin in Asia?
Answer: 1730 BCE

Question: What city was a center of glass production for the Romans?
Answer: Trier

Question: In what current country is Trier located?
Answer: Germany

Question: What word does "domestic" come from?

Question: Where did ceramics begin in Asia?

Question: In what year did glassmaking begin in Germany?

Question: What city was a center of metal work for the Romans?

Question: In what current country were Late Bronze Age civilizations located?
Glass

Glass was used extensively during the Middle Ages. Anglo-Saxon glass has been found across England during archaeological excavations of both settlement and cemetery sites. Glass in the Anglo-Saxon period was used in the manufacture of a range of objects including vessels, beads, windows and was also used in jewelry. From the 10th-century onwards, glass was employed in stained glass windows of churches and cathedrals, with famous examples at Chartres Cathedral and the Basilica of Saint Denis. By the 14th-century, architects were designing buildings with walls of stained glass such as Sainte-Chapelle, Paris, (1203–1248) and the East end of Gloucester Cathedral. Stained glass had a major revival with Gothic Revival architecture in the 19th-century. With the Renaissance, and a change in architectural style, the use of large stained glass windows became less prevalent. The use of domestic stained glass increased until most substantial houses had glass windows. These were initially small panes leaded together, but with the changes in technology, glass could be manufactured relatively cheaply in increasingly larger sheets. This led to larger window panes, and, in the 20th-century, to much larger windows in ordinary domestic and commercial buildings.

Question: When did stained glass make a big comeback?
Answer: 19th-century

Question: When did stained glass begin to be used for places of worship?
Answer: 10th-century

Question: When did big windows of stained glass become less common?
Answer: the Renaissance

Question: What 13th-century building is an example of stained glass walls?
Answer: Sainte-Chapelle

Question: What did technological changes allow regular homes to have?
Answer: larger windows

Question: When did larger sheets make a big comeback?

Question: When did stained glass begin to be used for vessels?

Question: When did big windows of stained glass become ordinary?

Question: What 20th-century building is an example of stained glass walls?

Question: What did archaeological excavations allow regular homes to have?
Glass

In the 20th century, new types of glass such as laminated glass, reinforced glass and glass bricks have increased the use of glass as a building material and resulted in new applications of glass. Multi-storey buildings are frequently constructed with curtain walls made almost entirely of glass. Similarly, laminated glass has been widely applied to vehicles for windscreens. While glass containers have always been used for storage and are valued for their hygienic properties, glass has been utilized increasingly in industry. Optical glass for spectacles has been used since the late Middle Ages. The production of lenses has become increasingly proficient, aiding astronomers as well as having other application in medicine and science. Glass is also employed as the aperture cover in many solar energy systems.

Question: What type of glass is used in cars?
Answer: laminated

Question: When did eyeglasses originate?
Answer: late Middle Ages

Question: The walls of skyscrapers are often made of what material?
Answer: glass

Question: What type of power systems use glass?
Answer: solar

Question: What type of scientists rely on glass for distant observations?
Answer: astronomers

Question: What type of glass is used in aperture covers?

Question: When did multi-storey buildings originate?

Question: Walls used for storage are often made of what material?

Question: What type of power systems use curtains?

Question: What type of scientists rely on windscreens for distant observations?
Glass

From the 19th century, there was a revival in many ancient glass-making techniques including cameo glass, achieved for the first time since the Roman Empire and initially mostly used for pieces in a neo-classical style. The Art Nouveau movement made great use of glass, with René Lalique, Émile Gallé, and Daum of Nancy producing colored vases and similar pieces, often in cameo glass, and also using luster techniques. Louis Comfort Tiffany in America specialized in stained glass, both secular and religious, and his famous lamps. The early 20th-century saw the large-scale factory production of glass art by firms such as Waterford and Lalique. From about 1960 onwards there have been an increasing number of small studios hand-producing glass artworks, and glass artists began to class themselves as in effect sculptors working in glass, and their works as part fine arts.

Question: What famous lampmaker used glass?
Answer: Louis Comfort Tiffany

Question: When did glassworkers begin to consider their products fine art?
Answer: 1960

Question: What type of glass did many Art Nouveau artists use?
Answer: cameo glass

Question: When did mass production of glass art begin?
Answer: early 20th-century

Question: What early civilization made cameo glass?
Answer: Roman Empire

Question: What famous lampmaker used factory production?

Question: When did glassworkers begin to consider their products neo-classical?

Question: What type of glass did many specialists use?

Question: When did mass production of lamps begin?

Question: What early civilization made colored vases?
Glass

Addition of lead(II) oxide lowers melting point, lowers viscosity of the melt, and increases refractive index. Lead oxide also facilitates solubility of other metal oxides and is used in colored glasses. The viscosity decrease of lead glass melt is very significant (roughly 100 times in comparison with soda glasses); this allows easier removal of bubbles and working at lower temperatures, hence its frequent use as an additive in vitreous enamels and glass solders. The high ionic radius of the Pb2+ ion renders it highly immobile in the matrix and hinders the movement of other ions; lead glasses therefore have high electrical resistance, about two orders of magnitude higher than soda-lime glass (108.5 vs 106.5 Ohm·cm, DC at 250 °C). For more details, see lead glass.

Question: What makes glass melt at a lower temperature?
Answer: lead(II) oxide

Question: How much less viscous is lead glass compared with soda glass?
Answer: 100 times

Question: Pb2+ causes lead glass to have what?
Answer: high electrical resistance

Question: Lead oxide makes it easier to dissolve what?
Answer: other metal oxides

Question: What makes glass melt higher than soda?

Question: How much less viscous is lead glass compared with lead?

Question: Pb2+ causes bubbles to have what?

Question: Lead oxide makes it easier to decrease viscosity in what?

Question: What makes the Pb2+ ion vitreous?
Glass

There are three classes of components for oxide glasses: network formers, intermediates, and modifiers. The network formers (silicon, boron, germanium) form a highly cross-linked network of chemical bonds. The intermediates (titanium, aluminium, zirconium, beryllium, magnesium, zinc) can act as both network formers and modifiers, according to the glass composition. The modifiers (calcium, lead, lithium, sodium, potassium) alter the network structure; they are usually present as ions, compensated by nearby non-bridging oxygen atoms, bound by one covalent bond to the glass network and holding one negative charge to compensate for the positive ion nearby. Some elements can play multiple roles; e.g. lead can act both as a network former (Pb4+ replacing Si4+), or as a modifier.

Question: What components of glass for networks?
Answer: silicon, boron, germanium

Question: What type of components change the network's shape?
Answer: modifiers

Question: What type of component can both make and change networks?
Answer: intermediates

Question: What type of chemical attachment connects ions to the network?
Answer: covalent bond

Question: What components of modifiers is used for networks?

Question: What type of components change the oxygen atoms?

Question: What type of component can both make and change ions?

Question: What type of chemical attachment connects cross-linked networks?

Question: What compensates for the bonds nearby?
Glass

The alkali metal ions are small and mobile; their presence in glass allows a degree of electrical conductivity, especially in molten state or at high temperature. Their mobility decreases the chemical resistance of the glass, allowing leaching by water and facilitating corrosion. Alkaline earth ions, with their two positive charges and requirement for two non-bridging oxygen ions to compensate for their charge, are much less mobile themselves and also hinder diffusion of other ions, especially the alkalis. The most common commercial glasses contain both alkali and alkaline earth ions (usually sodium and calcium), for easier processing and satisfying corrosion resistance. Corrosion resistance of glass can be achieved by dealkalization, removal of the alkali ions from the glass surface by reaction with e.g. sulfur or fluorine compounds. Presence of alkaline metal ions has also detrimental effect to the loss tangent of the glass, and to its electrical resistance; glasses for electronics (sealing, vacuum tubes, lamps...) have to take this in account.

Question: What component gives glass the ability to conduct electricity?
Answer: alkali metal ions

Question: How can glass be prevented from corroding?
Answer: dealkalization

Question: What types of ions does typical glass have?
Answer: alkali and alkaline earth ions

Question: Reaction with what causes dealkalization?
Answer: sulfur or fluorine compounds

Question: What can alkaline ions in glass harm, in addition to electrical resistance?
Answer: loss tangent

Question: What component gives glass the ability to bridge oxygen atoms?

Question: How can glass be prevented from diffusing?

Question: What types of compunds does typical glass have?

Question: Reaction with what causes oxygen ions to compensate for their charge?

Question: What can alkaline ions in oxygen harm?
Glass

New chemical glass compositions or new treatment techniques can be initially investigated in small-scale laboratory experiments. The raw materials for laboratory-scale glass melts are often different from those used in mass production because the cost factor has a low priority. In the laboratory mostly pure chemicals are used. Care must be taken that the raw materials have not reacted with moisture or other chemicals in the environment (such as alkali or alkaline earth metal oxides and hydroxides, or boron oxide), or that the impurities are quantified (loss on ignition). Evaporation losses during glass melting should be considered during the selection of the raw materials, e.g., sodium selenite may be preferred over easily evaporating SeO2. Also, more readily reacting raw materials may be preferred over relatively inert ones, such as Al(OH)3 over Al2O3. Usually, the melts are carried out in platinum crucibles to reduce contamination from the crucible material. Glass homogeneity is achieved by homogenizing the raw materials mixture (glass batch), by stirring the melt, and by crushing and re-melting the first melt. The obtained glass is usually annealed to prevent breakage during processing.

Question: What material is useful in glassmaking because of its slow evaporation?
Answer: sodium selenite

Question: What containers are used for melting?
Answer: platinum crucibles

Question: Why are different materials used in a lab than are used in factory production?
Answer: the cost factor has a low priority

Question: What is the reason for crushing the glass and melting it again?
Answer: homogeneity

Question: Why is glass annealed?
Answer: to prevent breakage

Question: What meterial is useful in glassmaking because of its hydroxides?

Question: What containers are used for evaporation?

Question: Why are different materials used in a lab than are used in the environment?

Question: What is the reason for crushing the glass by chemicals?

Question: Why is glass evaporated?
Glass

In the past, small batches of amorphous metals with high surface area configurations (ribbons, wires, films, etc.) have been produced through the implementation of extremely rapid rates of cooling. This was initially termed "splat cooling" by doctoral student W. Klement at Caltech, who showed that cooling rates on the order of millions of degrees per second is sufficient to impede the formation of crystals, and the metallic atoms become "locked into" a glassy state. Amorphous metal wires have been produced by sputtering molten metal onto a spinning metal disk. More recently a number of alloys have been produced in layers with thickness exceeding 1 millimeter. These are known as bulk metallic glasses (BMG). Liquidmetal Technologies sell a number of zirconium-based BMGs. Batches of amorphous steel have also been produced that demonstrate mechanical properties far exceeding those found in conventional steel alloys.

Question: Who coined the term "splat cooling"?
Answer: W. Klement

Question: What are thick alloys made in layers called?
Answer: bulk metallic glasses

Question: What does Liquidmetal Technologies use for their alloys?
Answer: zirconium

Question: What type of metal makes better alloys than traditional steel?
Answer: amorphous steel

Question: At what university was Klement a student?
Answer: Caltech

Question: Who coined the term alloys?

Question: What are thick alloys made in crystals called?

Question: What does Liquidmetal Technologies use for their cooling?

Question: What type of metal makes better alloys than Caltech?

Question: At what university did Klement produce BMGs?
Glass

In 2004, NIST researchers presented evidence that an isotropic non-crystalline metallic phase (dubbed "q-glass") could be grown from the melt. This phase is the first phase, or "primary phase," to form in the Al-Fe-Si system during rapid cooling. Interestingly, experimental evidence indicates that this phase forms by a first-order transition. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) images show that the q-glass nucleates from the melt as discrete particles, which grow spherically with a uniform growth rate in all directions. The diffraction pattern shows it to be an isotropic glassy phase. Yet there is a nucleation barrier, which implies an interfacial discontinuity (or internal surface) between the glass and the melt.

Question: Who showed that q-glass could be produced from a melt?
Answer: NIST researchers

Question: What shows that there is an inner surface between glass and melt?
Answer: nucleation barrier

Question: What is q-glass?
Answer: an isotropic non-crystalline metallic phase

Question: What kind of microscope shows that q-glass grows as separate particles?
Answer: Transmission electron

Question: Who showed that q-glass could be produced from a nucleation barrier?

Question: What shows that there is an inner surface between glass and metal?

Question: What is diffraction?

Question: What kind of microscope shows that q-glass grows as first-order transition?

Question: What forms in the AL-Fe-Si system during an isotropic glassy phase?
Glass

Glass-ceramic materials share many properties with both non-crystalline glass and crystalline ceramics. They are formed as a glass, and then partially crystallized by heat treatment. For example, the microstructure of whiteware ceramics frequently contains both amorphous and crystalline phases. Crystalline grains are often embedded within a non-crystalline intergranular phase of grain boundaries. When applied to whiteware ceramics, vitreous means the material has an extremely low permeability to liquids, often but not always water, when determined by a specified test regime.

Question: What word means that ceramics don't absorb liquids?
Answer: vitreous

Question: What hardens glass-ceramics?
Answer: heat treatment

Question: What materials do glass ceramics have a lot in common with?
Answer: non-crystalline glass and crystalline ceramics

Question: What word means that ceramics don't absorb crystalline?

Question: What hardens liquids?

Question: What materials do test regimes have a lot in common with?

Question: What is water often embedded within?

Question: What are permeability materials formed as?
Glass

Mass production of glass window panes in the early twentieth century caused a similar effect. In glass factories, molten glass was poured onto a large cooling table and allowed to spread. The resulting glass is thicker at the location of the pour, located at the center of the large sheet. These sheets were cut into smaller window panes with nonuniform thickness, typically with the location of the pour centered in one of the panes (known as "bull's-eyes") for decorative effect. Modern glass intended for windows is produced as float glass and is very uniform in thickness.

Question: What were the areas at the center of an old sheet of glass called?
Answer: bull's-eyes

Question: In early 20th century glass production, the glass was thickest at what part of the sheet?
Answer: the center

Question: Currently window glass is made as what?
Answer: float glass

Question: How was the bull's-eye used?
Answer: for decorative effect

Question: What were the areas at the center of window panes called?

Question: In early 20th century glass production, the glass was poured at what part of the sheet?

Question: Currently large sheets are made as what?

Question: How was the table used?

Question: What was poured onto a large window pane?
Glass

The observation that old windows are sometimes found to be thicker at the bottom than at the top is often offered as supporting evidence for the view that glass flows over a timescale of centuries, the assumption being that the glass has exhibited the liquid property of flowing from one shape to another. This assumption is incorrect, as once solidified, glass stops flowing. The reason for the observation is that in the past, when panes of glass were commonly made by glassblowers, the technique used was to spin molten glass so as to create a round, mostly flat and even plate (the crown glass process, described above). This plate was then cut to fit a window. The pieces were not absolutely flat; the edges of the disk became a different thickness as the glass spun. When installed in a window frame, the glass would be placed with the thicker side down both for the sake of stability and to prevent water accumulating in the lead cames at the bottom of the window. Occasionally such glass has been found installed with the thicker side at the top, left or right.

Question: What was the benefit of installing glass with the thick side at the bottom, in addition to avoiding water accumulation?
Answer: stability

Question: Who used to make window panes?
Answer: glassblowers

Question: What is the name for the glassmaking method that involved spinning it into sheets?
Answer: crown glass process

Question: The thickness at the bottom of glass panes was once taken as evidence that glass had features of what state of matter?
Answer: liquid

Question: When does glass stop moving like a liquid?
Answer: once solidified

Question: What was the benefit of installing glass with the thick side at the top?

Question: Who used to make water?

Question: What is the name for the glassmaking method that involved centuries?

Question: The crown glass process was once taken as evidence that glass had features of what state of matter?

Question: When does glass stop moving like the bottom of the window?
Glass

In physics, the standard definition of a glass (or vitreous solid) is a solid formed by rapid melt quenching. The term glass is often used to describe any amorphous solid that exhibits a glass transition temperature Tg. If the cooling is sufficiently rapid (relative to the characteristic crystallization time) then crystallization is prevented and instead the disordered atomic configuration of the supercooled liquid is frozen into the solid state at Tg. The tendency for a material to form a glass while quenched is called glass-forming ability. This ability can be predicted by the rigidity theory. Generally, the structure of a glass exists in a metastable state with respect to its crystalline form, although in certain circumstances, for example in atactic polymers, there is no crystalline analogue of the amorphous phase.

Question: How is "glass" defined in physics?
Answer: a solid formed by rapid melt quenching

Question: What is the tendency to make a glass when cooled called?
Answer: glass-forming ability

Question: What must happen quickly for glass to form?
Answer: cooling

Question: What predicts glass-forming ability?
Answer: rigidity theory

Question: How is "glass" defines in the amorphous phase?

Question: What is the tendency to make a glass from atactic polymers called?

Question: What must happen quickly for polymers to form?

Question: What predicts amorphous phases?

Question: What happens when metastable states are prevented?
Glass

Some people consider glass to be a liquid due to its lack of a first-order phase transition where certain thermodynamic variables such as volume, entropy and enthalpy are discontinuous through the glass transition range. The glass transition may be described as analogous to a second-order phase transition where the intensive thermodynamic variables such as the thermal expansivity and heat capacity are discontinuous. Nonetheless, the equilibrium theory of phase transformations does not entirely hold for glass, and hence the glass transition cannot be classed as one of the classical equilibrium phase transformations in solids.

Question: What does glass not have, leading some to think it is a liquid?
Answer: first-order phase transition

Question: What theory isn't completely valid for glass?
Answer: equilibrium theory of phase transformations

Question: Transition in glass is comparable to what?
Answer: a second-order phase transition

Question: What does glass not have, leading some to think it is a classic equilibrium?

Question: What theory isn't completely valid for thermodynamic variables?

Question: Transition in heat is comparable to what?

Question: What variables are intensive through the glass transition range?

Question: What do some consider to be a transformation?
Glass

Although the atomic structure of glass shares characteristics of the structure in a supercooled liquid, glass tends to behave as a solid below its glass transition temperature. A supercooled liquid behaves as a liquid, but it is below the freezing point of the material, and in some cases will crystallize almost instantly if a crystal is added as a core. The change in heat capacity at a glass transition and a melting transition of comparable materials are typically of the same order of magnitude, indicating that the change in active degrees of freedom is comparable as well. Both in a glass and in a crystal it is mostly only the vibrational degrees of freedom that remain active, whereas rotational and translational motion is arrested. This helps to explain why both crystalline and non-crystalline solids exhibit rigidity on most experimental time scales.

Question: Atomically, glass is similar to what?
Answer: a supercooled liquid

Question: What acts like a liquid but is under the freezing temperature?
Answer: A supercooled liquid

Question: Despite its atomic structure, cooled glass acts like what?
Answer: a solid

Question: In cooled glass, what types of movement stop?
Answer: rotational and translational

Question: Atomically, crystal is similar to what?

Question: What acts like a liquid but is under the experimental scales?

Question: Despite its atomic structure, crystals act like what?

Question: In traditional motion, what types of movement stop?

Question: What behaves as a solid?
Planck_constant

First recognized in 1900 by Max Planck, it was originally the proportionality constant between the minimal increment of energy, E, of a hypothetical electrically charged oscillator in a cavity that contained black body radiation, and the frequency, f, of its associated electromagnetic wave. In 1905 the value E, the minimal energy increment of a hypothetical oscillator, was theoretically associated by Einstein with a "quantum" or minimal element of the energy of the electromagnetic wave itself. The light quantum behaved in some respects as an electrically neutral particle, as opposed to an electromagnetic wave. It was eventually called the photon.

Question: What is energy abbreviated to in science?
Answer: E

Question: What is frequency also known as in science?
Answer: f

Question: What term describes a small amount of element?
Answer: quantum

Question: What did the light quantum, in some ways, behave as?
Answer: an electrically neutral particle

Question: What was later termed the photon?
Answer: The light quantum

Question: When did Max Planck first recognize the value of the Planck constant?
Answer: 1900

Question: Which scientist associated the Planck constant with a quantum five years after Planck's recognition?
Answer: Einstein

Question: Instead of an electromagnetic wave, what did the light quantum behave as in some regards?
Answer: an electrically neutral particle

Question: What is the simple name given to the light quantum today?
Answer: the photon

Question: In what year was the value G associated by Einstein with quantum theories of energy?

Question: Who discovered an association between the value G and quantum energy?

Question: What type of charge did a particle have that behaved similarly to dark quantum energy?

Question: What term describes a large amount of element?

Question: What is the simple name given to the dark quantum today?
Planck_constant

Classical statistical mechanics requires the existence of h (but does not define its value). Eventually, following upon Planck's discovery, it was recognized that physical action cannot take on an arbitrary value. Instead, it must be some multiple of a very small quantity, the "quantum of action", now called the Planck constant. Classical physics cannot explain this fact. In many cases, such as for monochromatic light or for atoms, this quantum of action also implies that only certain energy levels are allowed, and values in between are forbidden.

Question: Classical statistical mechanics requires the existence of what?
Answer: h

Question: What was realized after Planck's discovery?
Answer: that physical action cannot take on an arbitrary value

Question: What is the Planck constant formerly known as?
Answer: quantum of action

Question: Regarding atoms, what does the Planck constant imply?
Answer: that only certain energy levels are allowed

Question: Regarding atoms, what are values in between certain energy levels considered by the Planck constant?
Answer: forbidden

Question: Following Planck's discovery, what was realized about values of physical action?
Answer: physical action cannot take on an arbitrary value

Question: The Planck constant initially was given what name?
Answer: the "quantum of action"

Question: How is the proportional nature of the Planck constant explained?
Answer: Classical physics cannot explain this fact

Question: For certain cases of light or atoms, what does the quantum of action yield?
Answer: only certain energy levels are allowed, and values in between are forbidden.

Question: What does modern statistics mechanics not define the value of?

Question: What is not required to exist in modern statistics mechanics?

Question: What does the Planck Constant negate?

Question: What is the Planck constant incorrectly known as?

Question: Which science is the proportional nature of the Planck constant fact?