Divyanshu67/squad_v2 huggingface dataset:
History_of_science

The development of writing enabled knowledge to be stored and communicated across generations with much greater fidelity. Combined with the development of agriculture, which allowed for a surplus of food, it became possible for early civilizations to develop, because more time and effort could be devoted to tasks (other than food production) than hunter-gatherers or early subsistence farmers had available. This surplus allowed a community to support individuals who did things other than work towards bare survival. These other tasks included systematic studies of nature, study of written information gathered and recorded by others, and often of adding to that body of information.

Question: The advancement of agriculture made what possible?
Answer: a surplus of food

Question: Having a surplus of food allowed farmers and hunter-gatherers to spend less time working on what?
Answer: food production

Question: Before agriculture advancements, what were farmers having to do?
Answer: work towards bare survival

Question: What advancement aided in spreading knowledge across generations?
Answer: The development of writing

Question: Who was able to support the people who were adding to the written knowledge of nature?
Answer: community
History_of_science

Ancient Egypt made significant advances in astronomy, mathematics and medicine. Their development of geometry was a necessary outgrowth of surveying to preserve the layout and ownership of farmland, which was flooded annually by the Nile river. The 3-4-5 right triangle and other rules of thumb were used to build rectilinear structures, and the post and lintel architecture of Egypt. Egypt was also a center of alchemy research for much of the Mediterranean.The Edwin Smith papyrus is one of the first medical documents still extant, and perhaps the earliest document that attempts to describe and analyse the brain: it might be seen as the very beginnings of modern neuroscience. However, while Egyptian medicine had some effective practices, it was not without its ineffective and sometimes harmful practices. Medical historians believe that ancient Egyptian pharmacology, for example, was largely ineffective. Nevertheless, it applies the following components to the treatment of disease: examination, diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis, which display strong parallels to the basic empirical method of science and according to G. E. R. Lloyd played a significant role in the development of this methodology. The Ebers papyrus (c. 1550 BC) also contains evidence of traditional empiricism.

Question: Which civilization advanced in astronomy, mathematics, and medicine?
Answer: Ancient Egypt

Question: What did Egyptians use to better organize their farmland?
Answer: geometry

Question: What theory did the Egyptians use to build rectilinear structures?
Answer: The 3-4-5 right triangle

Question: What research was Egypt known for?
Answer: alchemy

Question: What is the name of the earliest medical document?
Answer: The Edwin Smith papyrus
History_of_science

From their beginnings in Sumer (now Iraq) around 3500 BC, the Mesopotamian people began to attempt to record some observations of the world with numerical data. But their observations and measurements were seemingly taken for purposes other than for elucidating scientific laws. A concrete instance of Pythagoras' law was recorded, as early as the 18th century BC: the Mesopotamian cuneiform tablet Plimpton 322 records a number of Pythagorean triplets (3,4,5) (5,12,13). ..., dated 1900 BC, possibly millennia before Pythagoras,  but an abstract formulation of the Pythagorean theorem was not.

Question: Where did the Mesopotamian people originate from?
Answer: Sumer

Question: How far back do the Mesopotamian people go?
Answer: 3500 BC

Question: What did the Mesopotamian use to record data about the world around them?
Answer: numerical data

Question: What was the earliest recording of Pythagoras' law?
Answer: 18th century BC

Question: Which tablet had Pythagorean triplets on it?
Answer: Plimpton 322
History_of_science

In Babylonian astronomy, records of the motions of the stars, planets, and the moon are left on thousands of clay tablets created by scribes. Even today, astronomical periods identified by Mesopotamian proto-scientists are still widely used in Western calendars such as the solar year and the lunar month. Using these data they developed arithmetical methods to compute the changing length of daylight in the course of the year and to predict the appearances and disappearances of the Moon and planets and eclipses of the Sun and Moon. Only a few astronomers' names are known, such as that of Kidinnu, a Chaldean astronomer and mathematician. Kiddinu's value for the solar year is in use for today's calendars. Babylonian astronomy was "the first and highly successful attempt at giving a refined mathematical description of astronomical phenomena." According to the historian A. Aaboe, "all subsequent varieties of scientific astronomy, in the Hellenistic world, in India, in Islam, and in the West—if not indeed all subsequent endeavour in the exact sciences—depend upon Babylonian astronomy in decisive and fundamental ways."

Question: Who wrote on the clay tablets in Babylonian astronomy?
Answer: scribes

Question: Where are Mesopotamian astronomical periods still used?
Answer: in Western calendars

Question: Who was Kidinnu?
Answer: a Chaldean astronomer and mathematician

Question: Who believes that the Hellenistic world relies on Babylonian astronomy?
Answer: A. Aaboe

Question: Where can Kidinnu's solar year be found in use?
Answer: today's calendars
History_of_science

In Classical Antiquity, the inquiry into the workings of the universe took place both in investigations aimed at such practical goals as establishing a reliable calendar or determining how to cure a variety of illnesses and in those abstract investigations known as natural philosophy. The ancient people who are considered the first scientists may have thought of themselves as natural philosophers, as practitioners of a skilled profession (for example, physicians), or as followers of a religious tradition (for example, temple healers).

Question: Which era was marked by investigating the universe?
Answer: Classical Antiquity

Question: What type of science are making a calendar and finding cures for diseases a part of?
Answer: natural philosophy

Question: What is an example of skilled professionals?
Answer: physicians

Question: What is an example of religious devotee?
Answer: temple healers

Question: What would the first scientists have been considered?
Answer: natural philosophers
History_of_science

The earliest Greek philosophers, known as the pre-Socratics, provided competing answers to the question found in the myths of their neighbors: "How did the ordered cosmos in which we live come to be?" The pre-Socratic philosopher Thales (640-546 BC), dubbed the "father of science", was the first to postulate non-supernatural explanations for natural phenomena, for example, that land floats on water and that earthquakes are caused by the agitation of the water upon which the land floats, rather than the god Poseidon. Thales' student Pythagoras of Samos founded the Pythagorean school, which investigated mathematics for its own sake, and was the first to postulate that the Earth is spherical in shape. Leucippus (5th century BC) introduced atomism, the theory that all matter is made of indivisible, imperishable units called atoms. This was greatly expanded by his pupil Democritus.

Question: What are early Greek philosophers known as?
Answer: pre-Socratics

Question: What question were Greek philosophers trying to answer?
Answer: How did the ordered cosmos in which we live come to be?

Question: Who was named "the father of science"?
Answer: Thales

Question: Which religious deity did Thales undermine with his scientific theories?
Answer: Poseidon

Question: Who was the first person to determine that the Earth is round?
Answer: Samos
History_of_science

Subsequently, Plato and Aristotle produced the first systematic discussions of natural philosophy, which did much to shape later investigations of nature. Their development of deductive reasoning was of particular importance and usefulness to later scientific inquiry. Plato founded the Platonic Academy in 387 BC, whose motto was "Let none unversed in geometry enter here", and turned out many notable philosophers. Plato's student Aristotle introduced empiricism and the notion that universal truths can be arrived at via observation and induction, thereby laying the foundations of the scientific method. Aristotle also produced many biological writings that were empirical in nature, focusing on biological causation and the diversity of life. He made countless observations of nature, especially the habits and attributes of plants and animals in the world around him, classified more than 540 animal species, and dissected at least 50. Aristotle's writings profoundly influenced subsequent Islamic and European scholarship, though they were eventually superseded in the Scientific Revolution.

Question: Plato and Aristotle are known for systematically discussing what?
Answer: natural philosophy

Question: What discussion technique are Plato and Aristotle responsible for?
Answer: deductive reasoning

Question: What year was the Platonic Academy founded?
Answer: 387 BC

Question: Aristotle introduced what theory?
Answer: empiricism

Question: How many species of animals were classified by Aristotle?
Answer: 540
History_of_science

The important legacy of this period included substantial advances in factual knowledge, especially in anatomy, zoology, botany, mineralogy, geography, mathematics and astronomy; an awareness of the importance of certain scientific problems, especially those related to the problem of change and its causes; and a recognition of the methodological importance of applying mathematics to natural phenomena and of undertaking empirical research. In the Hellenistic age scholars frequently employed the principles developed in earlier Greek thought: the application of mathematics and deliberate empirical research, in their scientific investigations. Thus, clear unbroken lines of influence lead from ancient Greek and Hellenistic philosophers, to medieval Muslim philosophers and scientists, to the European Renaissance and Enlightenment, to the secular sciences of the modern day. Neither reason nor inquiry began with the Ancient Greeks, but the Socratic method did, along with the idea of Forms, great advances in geometry, logic, and the natural sciences. According to Benjamin Farrington, former Professor of Classics at Swansea University:

Question: Anatomy, zoology, geography, and studies like them are considered what?
Answer: factual knowledge

Question: What era utilized Greek theories?
Answer: the Hellenistic age

Question: What scientific theory was created by the Greeks?
Answer: the Socratic method

Question: Who employed logic, geometry, and natural sciences?
Answer: the Ancient Greeks

Question: Greek thought is predominately applying mathematics and what other method?
Answer: deliberate empirical research
History_of_science

The astronomer Aristarchus of Samos was the first known person to propose a heliocentric model of the solar system, while the geographer Eratosthenes accurately calculated the circumference of the Earth. Hipparchus (c. 190 – c. 120 BC) produced the first systematic star catalog. The level of achievement in Hellenistic astronomy and engineering is impressively shown by the Antikythera mechanism (150-100 BC), an analog computer for calculating the position of planets. Technological artifacts of similar complexity did not reappear until the 14th century, when mechanical astronomical clocks appeared in Europe.

Question: Who created the sun-centered model of the solar system?
Answer: Aristarchus of Samos

Question: Who was able to determine the circumference of the Earth?
Answer: Eratosthenes

Question: Who made the first catalog of stars?
Answer: Hipparchus

Question: What was used to determine the position of planets within the solar system?
Answer: the Antikythera mechanism

Question: When was the Antikythera mechanism used?
Answer: 150-100 BC
History_of_science

In Hellenistic Egypt, the mathematician Euclid laid down the foundations of mathematical rigor and introduced the concepts of definition, axiom, theorem and proof still in use today in his Elements, considered the most influential textbook ever written. Archimedes, considered one of the greatest mathematicians of all time, is credited with using the method of exhaustion to calculate the area under the arc of a parabola with the summation of an infinite series, and gave a remarkably accurate approximation of Pi. He is also known in physics for laying the foundations of hydrostatics, statics, and the explanation of the principle of the lever.

Question: Who wrote the book Elements?
Answer: Euclid

Question: What was contained within the book Elements?
Answer: the foundations of mathematical rigor

Question: Who was able to determine the the area under a parabola?
Answer: Archimedes

Question: What method did Archimedes employ to determine the area under a parabola?
Answer: exhaustion

Question: Which mathematical figure did Archimedes approximate?
Answer: Pi
History_of_science

Theophrastus wrote some of the earliest descriptions of plants and animals, establishing the first taxonomy and looking at minerals in terms of their properties such as hardness. Pliny the Elder produced what is one of the largest encyclopedias of the natural world in 77 AD, and must be regarded as the rightful successor to Theophrastus. For example, he accurately describes the octahedral shape of the diamond, and proceeds to mention that diamond dust is used by engravers to cut and polish other gems owing to its great hardness. His recognition of the importance of crystal shape is a precursor to modern crystallography, while mention of numerous other minerals presages mineralogy. He also recognises that other minerals have characteristic crystal shapes, but in one example, confuses the crystal habit with the work of lapidaries. He was also the first to recognise that amber was a fossilized resin from pine trees because he had seen samples with trapped insects within them.

Question: What classification guide did Theophrastus create?
Answer: the first taxonomy

Question: In what year did Pliny the Elder publish the largest encyclopedia?
Answer: 77 AD

Question: What did Pliny the Elder observe about diamonds?
Answer: the octahedral shape

Question: Who do engravers use diamond dust for?
Answer: to cut and polish other gems

Question: What characteristic was Pliny the Elder the first to recognize about amber?
Answer: was a fossilized resin
History_of_science

Mathematics: The earliest traces of mathematical knowledge in the Indian subcontinent appear with the Indus Valley Civilization (c. 4th millennium BC ~ c. 3rd millennium BC). The people of this civilization made bricks whose dimensions were in the proportion 4:2:1, considered favorable for the stability of a brick structure. They also tried to standardize measurement of length to a high degree of accuracy. They designed a ruler—the Mohenjo-daro ruler—whose unit of length (approximately 1.32 inches or 3.4 centimetres) was divided into ten equal parts. Bricks manufactured in ancient Mohenjo-daro often had dimensions that were integral multiples of this unit of length.

Question: The Indus Valley Civilization was the first to have traces of what?
Answer: mathematical knowledge

Question: What proportional size were the bricks that the civilization used?
Answer: 4:2:1

Question: What characteristic determined the proportions of the bricks?
Answer: stability

Question: What was the name of the ruler that they created?
Answer: the Mohenjo-daro ruler

Question: How long were the units in inches of the Mohenjo-daro ruler?
Answer: 1.32 inches
History_of_science

Indian astronomer and mathematician Aryabhata (476-550), in his Aryabhatiya (499) introduced a number of trigonometric functions (including sine, versine, cosine and inverse sine), trigonometric tables, and techniques and algorithms of algebra. In 628 AD, Brahmagupta suggested that gravity was a force of attraction. He also lucidly explained the use of zero as both a placeholder and a decimal digit, along with the Hindu-Arabic numeral system now used universally throughout the world. Arabic translations of the two astronomers' texts were soon available in the Islamic world, introducing what would become Arabic numerals to the Islamic World by the 9th century. During the 14th–16th centuries, the Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics made significant advances in astronomy and especially mathematics, including fields such as trigonometry and analysis. In particular, Madhava of Sangamagrama is considered the "founder of mathematical analysis".

Question: When did Aryabhata live?
Answer: 476-550

Question: What were the trigonometric functions that Aryabhata discovered?
Answer: sine, versine, cosine and inverse sine

Question: What theory did Brahmagupta suggest in 628 AD?
Answer: gravity was a force of attraction

Question: What did Brahmagupta use the number zero for?
Answer: a placeholder and a decimal digit

Question: What language did the work of Brahmagupta and Aryabhata have to be translated from?
Answer: Arabic
History_of_science

Astronomy: The first textual mention of astronomical concepts comes from the Vedas, religious literature of India. According to Sarma (2008): "One finds in the Rigveda intelligent speculations about the genesis of the universe from nonexistence, the configuration of the universe, the spherical self-supporting earth, and the year of 360 days divided into 12 equal parts of 30 days each with a periodical intercalary month.". The first 12 chapters of the Siddhanta Shiromani, written by Bhāskara in the 12th century, cover topics such as: mean longitudes of the planets; true longitudes of the planets; the three problems of diurnal rotation; syzygies; lunar eclipses; solar eclipses; latitudes of the planets; risings and settings; the moon's crescent; conjunctions of the planets with each other; conjunctions of the planets with the fixed stars; and the patas of the sun and moon. The 13 chapters of the second part cover the nature of the sphere, as well as significant astronomical and trigonometric calculations based on it.

Question: Which text was the first to have concepts of astronomy in it?
Answer: the Vedas

Question: Who wrote the first 12 chapters of the Siddhanta Shiromani?
Answer: Bhāskara

Question: In what time period was the Siddhanta Shiromani written?
Answer: 12th century

Question: The second section of the Siddhanta Shiromani has how many chapters?
Answer: 13

Question: What topic does the second part of the Siddhanta Shiromani contain?
Answer: the nature of the sphere
History_of_science

Medicine: Findings from Neolithic graveyards in what is now Pakistan show evidence of proto-dentistry among an early farming culture. Ayurveda is a system of traditional medicine that originated in ancient India before 2500 BC, and is now practiced as a form of alternative medicine in other parts of the world. Its most famous text is the Suśrutasamhitā of Suśruta, which is notable for describing procedures on various forms of surgery, including rhinoplasty, the repair of torn ear lobes, perineal lithotomy, cataract surgery, and several other excisions and other surgical procedures.

Question: Where are the Neolithic graveyards?
Answer: Pakistan

Question: What do the findings in the graveyards show evidence of?
Answer: proto-dentistry

Question: What kind of medicine was practiced in India before 2500 BC?
Answer: Ayurveda

Question: What is the name of the text that has information regarding Ayurveda?
Answer: Suśrutasamhitā of Suśruta

Question: What information is in the Susrutasamhita of Susruta?
Answer: surgical procedures
History_of_science

Mathematics: From the earliest the Chinese used a positional decimal system on counting boards in order to calculate. To express 10, a single rod is placed in the second box from the right. The spoken language uses a similar system to English: e.g. four thousand two hundred seven. No symbol was used for zero. By the 1st century BC, negative numbers and decimal fractions were in use and The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art included methods for extracting higher order roots by Horner's method and solving linear equations and by Pythagoras' theorem. Cubic equations were solved in the Tang dynasty and solutions of equations of order higher than 3 appeared in print in 1245 AD by Ch'in Chiu-shao. Pascal's triangle for binomial coefficients was described around 1100 by Jia Xian.

Question: What method did early Chinese mathematicians use to calculate?
Answer: a positional decimal system on counting boards

Question: One rod in the second box from the right is what number?
Answer: 10

Question: When did negative numbers and decimals start being used?
Answer: 1st century BC

Question: What text includes Horner's method?
Answer: The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art

Question: What advanced mathematical methods did the Tang dynasty have?
Answer: Cubic equations
History_of_science

Astronomy: Astronomical observations from China constitute the longest continuous sequence from any civilisation and include records of sunspots (112 records from 364 BC), supernovas (1054), lunar and solar eclipses. By the 12th century, they could reasonably accurately make predictions of eclipses, but the knowledge of this was lost during the Ming dynasty, so that the Jesuit Matteo Ricci gained much favour in 1601 by his predictions. By 635 Chinese astronomers had observed that the tails of comets always point away from the sun.

Question: What observations in astronomy did China record?
Answer: sunspots

Question: What kind of predictions were made during the 12th century?
Answer: eclipses

Question: Who made predictions in 1601?
Answer: Jesuit Matteo Ricci

Question: What year did Chinese astronomers start to observe comets?
Answer: 635

Question: How many records of sunspots are there?
Answer: 112
History_of_science

Seismology: To better prepare for calamities, Zhang Heng invented a seismometer in 132 CE which provided instant alert to authorities in the capital Luoyang that an earthquake had occurred in a location indicated by a specific cardinal or ordinal direction. Although no tremors could be felt in the capital when Zhang told the court that an earthquake had just occurred in the northwest, a message came soon afterwards that an earthquake had indeed struck 400 km (248 mi) to 500 km (310 mi) northwest of Luoyang (in what is now modern Gansu). Zhang called his device the 'instrument for measuring the seasonal winds and the movements of the Earth' (Houfeng didong yi 候风地动仪), so-named because he and others thought that earthquakes were most likely caused by the enormous compression of trapped air. See Zhang's seismometer for further details.

Question: What was invented in 132 CE?
Answer: a seismometer

Question: What occurrence is measured by a seismometer?
Answer: an earthquake

Question: What is the Chinese name for a seismometer?
Answer: Houfeng didong yi

Question: What did the Chinese caused earthquakes?
Answer: enormous compression of trapped air

Question: What was Luoyang renamed to?
Answer: Gansu
History_of_science

There are many notable contributors to the field of Chinese science throughout the ages. One of the best examples would be Shen Kuo (1031–1095), a polymath scientist and statesman who was the first to describe the magnetic-needle compass used for navigation, discovered the concept of true north, improved the design of the astronomical gnomon, armillary sphere, sight tube, and clepsydra, and described the use of drydocks to repair boats. After observing the natural process of the inundation of silt and the find of marine fossils in the Taihang Mountains (hundreds of miles from the Pacific Ocean), Shen Kuo devised a theory of land formation, or geomorphology. He also adopted a theory of gradual climate change in regions over time, after observing petrified bamboo found underground at Yan'an, Shaanxi province. If not for Shen Kuo's writing, the architectural works of Yu Hao would be little known, along with the inventor of movable type printing, Bi Sheng (990-1051). Shen's contemporary Su Song (1020–1101) was also a brilliant polymath, an astronomer who created a celestial atlas of star maps, wrote a pharmaceutical treatise with related subjects of botany, zoology, mineralogy, and metallurgy, and had erected a large astronomical clocktower in Kaifeng city in 1088. To operate the crowning armillary sphere, his clocktower featured an escapement mechanism and the world's oldest known use of an endless power-transmitting chain drive.

Question: Who discovered the idea of true north?
Answer: Shen Kuo

Question: When was Shen Kuo alive?
Answer: 1031–1095

Question: What are drydocks used for?
Answer: to repair boats

Question: What did silt and marine fossils teach Shen Kuo?
Answer: geomorphology

Question: What did Shen Kuo study to discover climate change?
Answer: petrified bamboo
History_of_science

The Jesuit China missions of the 16th and 17th centuries "learned to appreciate the scientific achievements of this ancient culture and made them known in Europe. Through their correspondence European scientists first learned about the Chinese science and culture." Western academic thought on the history of Chinese technology and science was galvanized by the work of Joseph Needham and the Needham Research Institute. Among the technological accomplishments of China were, according to the British scholar Needham, early seismological detectors (Zhang Heng in the 2nd century), the water-powered celestial globe (Zhang Heng), matches, the independent invention of the decimal system, dry docks, sliding calipers, the double-action piston pump, cast iron, the blast furnace, the iron plough, the multi-tube seed drill, the wheelbarrow, the suspension bridge, the winnowing machine, the rotary fan, the parachute, natural gas as fuel, the raised-relief map, the propeller, the crossbow, and a solid fuel rocket, the multistage rocket, the horse collar, along with contributions in logic, astronomy, medicine, and other fields.

Question: Who was the Needham Research Institute named after?
Answer: Joseph Needham

Question: What type of bridge originated in China?
Answer: suspension

Question: What type of map originated in China?
Answer: raised-relief

Question: What type of fan originated in China?
Answer: rotary

Question: What type of globe did Zhang Heng invent?
Answer: water-powered celestial
History_of_science

With the division of the Roman Empire, the Western Roman Empire lost contact with much of its past. In the Middle East, Greek philosophy was able to find some support under the newly created Arab Empire. With the spread of Islam in the 7th and 8th centuries, a period of Muslim scholarship, known as the Islamic Golden Age, lasted until the 13th century. This scholarship was aided by several factors. The use of a single language, Arabic, allowed communication without need of a translator. Access to Greek texts from the Byzantine Empire, along with Indian sources of learning, provided Muslim scholars a knowledge base to build upon.

Question: What was a consequence of the Roman Empire being divided?
Answer: the Western Roman Empire lost contact with much of its past

Question: Where was support found for Greek philosophy?
Answer: Arab Empire

Question: What time period was marked by the spreading of Islam?
Answer: the 7th and 8th centuries

Question: How long did the Islamic Golden Age last?
Answer: until the 13th century

Question: What language did Muslim philosophers speak?
Answer: Arabic
History_of_science

Muslim scientists placed far greater emphasis on experiment than had the Greeks. This led to an early scientific method being developed in the Muslim world, where significant progress in methodology was made, beginning with the experiments of Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) on optics from c. 1000, in his Book of Optics. The law of refraction of light was known to the Persians. The most important development of the scientific method was the use of experiments to distinguish between competing scientific theories set within a generally empirical orientation, which began among Muslim scientists. Ibn al-Haytham is also regarded as the father of optics, especially for his empirical proof of the intromission theory of light. Some have also described Ibn al-Haytham as the "first scientist" for his development of the modern scientific method.

Question: What method did Muslim scientists use more than the Greeks?
Answer: experiment

Question: What book did Ibn al-Haytham write?
Answer: Book of Optics

Question: What law did the Persians know of?
Answer: The law of refraction of light

Question: What was Ibn al-Haytham's nickname?
Answer: the father of optics

Question: What theory did Ibn al-Haytham have proof for?
Answer: the intromission theory of light
History_of_science

In mathematics, the Persian mathematician Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi gave his name to the concept of the algorithm, while the term algebra is derived from al-jabr, the beginning of the title of one of his publications. What is now known as Arabic numerals originally came from India, but Muslim mathematicians did make several refinements to the number system, such as the introduction of decimal point notation. Sabian mathematician Al-Battani (850-929) contributed to astronomy and mathematics, while Persian scholar Al-Razi contributed to chemistry and medicine.

Question: What was Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi's profession?
Answer: mathematician

Question: Where does the word "algebra" come from?
Answer: al-jabr

Question: Where did Arabic numerals originate?
Answer: India

Question: What did Muslim mathematicians add to Arabic numerals?
Answer: decimal point notation

Question: What area of science did Al-Razi contribute to?
Answer: chemistry and medicine
History_of_science

In astronomy, Al-Battani improved the measurements of Hipparchus, preserved in the translation of Ptolemy's Hè Megalè Syntaxis (The great treatise) translated as Almagest. Al-Battani also improved the precision of the measurement of the precession of the Earth's axis. The corrections made to the geocentric model by al-Battani, Ibn al-Haytham, Averroes and the Maragha astronomers such as Nasir al-Din al-Tusi, Mo'ayyeduddin Urdi and Ibn al-Shatir are similar to Copernican heliocentric model. Heliocentric theories may have also been discussed by several other Muslim astronomers such as Ja'far ibn Muhammad Abu Ma'shar al-Balkhi, Abu-Rayhan Biruni, Abu Said al-Sijzi, Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi, and Najm al-Dīn al-Qazwīnī al-Kātibī.

Question: Whose work did Al-Battani improve?
Answer: Hipparchus

Question: What does He Megale Syntaxis mean?
Answer: The great treatise

Question: Which measurement did Al-Battani improve upon?
Answer: the Earth's axis

Question: The geocentric model is similar to what other model?
Answer: Copernican heliocentric model
History_of_science

Ibn Sina (Avicenna) is regarded as the most influential philosopher of Islam. He pioneered the science of experimental medicine and was the first physician to conduct clinical trials. His two most notable works in medicine are the Kitāb al-shifāʾ ("Book of Healing") and The Canon of Medicine, both of which were used as standard medicinal texts in both the Muslim world and in Europe well into the 17th century. Amongst his many contributions are the discovery of the contagious nature of infectious diseases, and the introduction of clinical pharmacology.

Question: Who was most influential in Islamic philosophy?
Answer: Ibn Sina

Question: What method did Ibn Sina introduce?
Answer: clinical trials

Question: What does Kitab al-shifa mean?
Answer: Book of Healing

Question: The Kitab al-shifa and The Canon of Medicine are considered what?
Answer: standard medicinal texts

Question: What characteristic did Ibn Sina find out about infectious diseases?
Answer: contagious
History_of_science

An intellectual revitalization of Europe started with the birth of medieval universities in the 12th century. The contact with the Islamic world in Spain and Sicily, and during the Reconquista and the Crusades, allowed Europeans access to scientific Greek and Arabic texts, including the works of Aristotle, Ptolemy, Jābir ibn Hayyān, al-Khwarizmi, Alhazen, Avicenna, and Averroes. European scholars had access to the translation programs of Raymond of Toledo, who sponsored the 12th century Toledo School of Translators from Arabic to Latin. Later translators like Michael Scotus would learn Arabic in order to study these texts directly. The European universities aided materially in the translation and propagation of these texts and started a new infrastructure which was needed for scientific communities. In fact, European university put many works about the natural world and the study of nature at the center of its curriculum, with the result that the "medieval university laid far greater emphasis on science than does its modern counterpart and descendent."

Question: When were medieval universities created?
Answer: the 12th century

Question: Who sponsored the Toledo School of Translators?
Answer: Raymond of Toledo

Question: At the Toledo School of Translators, what language was Arabic text translated into?
Answer: Latin

Question: Which translator learned Arabic to be able to study the Arabic texts directly?
Answer: Michael Scotus
History_of_science

At the beginning of the 13th century, there were reasonably accurate Latin translations of the main works of almost all the intellectually crucial ancient authors, allowing a sound transfer of scientific ideas via both the universities and the monasteries. By then, the natural philosophy contained in these texts began to be extended by notable scholastics such as Robert Grosseteste, Roger Bacon, Albertus Magnus and Duns Scotus. Precursors of the modern scientific method, influenced by earlier contributions of the Islamic world, can be seen already in Grosseteste's emphasis on mathematics as a way to understand nature, and in the empirical approach admired by Bacon, particularly in his Opus Majus. Pierre Duhem's provocative thesis of the Catholic Church's Condemnation of 1277 led to the study of medieval science as a serious discipline, "but no one in the field any longer endorses his view that modern science started in 1277". However, many scholars agree with Duhem's view that the Middle Ages were a period of important scientific developments.

Question: What language did the important scientific works get translated into for universities and monasteries?
Answer: Latin

Question: Who favored empirical methods?
Answer: Bacon

Question: Who favored mathematics?
Answer: Grosseteste

Question: Who wrote the Catholic Church's Condemnation of 1277?
Answer: Pierre Duhem

Question: What era was important for scientific advancements?
Answer: the Middle Ages
History_of_science

The first half of the 14th century saw much important scientific work being done, largely within the framework of scholastic commentaries on Aristotle's scientific writings. William of Ockham introduced the principle of parsimony: natural philosophers should not postulate unnecessary entities, so that motion is not a distinct thing but is only the moving object and an intermediary "sensible species" is not needed to transmit an image of an object to the eye. Scholars such as Jean Buridan and Nicole Oresme started to reinterpret elements of Aristotle's mechanics. In particular, Buridan developed the theory that impetus was the cause of the motion of projectiles, which was a first step towards the modern concept of inertia. The Oxford Calculators began to mathematically analyze the kinematics of motion, making this analysis without considering the causes of motion.

Question: Who pioneered parsimony?
Answer: William of Ockham

Question: What theory is based off of projectiles' motion?
Answer: impetus

Question: What theory did impetus pave the way for?
Answer: inertia

Question: What did the Oxford Calculators measure?
Answer: the kinematics of motion
History_of_science

In 1348, the Black Death and other disasters sealed a sudden end to the previous period of massive philosophic and scientific development. Yet, the rediscovery of ancient texts was improved after the Fall of Constantinople in 1453, when many Byzantine scholars had to seek refuge in the West. Meanwhile, the introduction of printing was to have great effect on European society. The facilitated dissemination of the printed word democratized learning and allowed a faster propagation of new ideas. New ideas also helped to influence the development of European science at this point: not least the introduction of Algebra. These developments paved the way for the Scientific Revolution, which may also be understood as a resumption of the process of scientific inquiry, halted at the start of the Black Death.

Question: What year did the Black Death occur?
Answer: 1348

Question: What caused ancient texts to be rediscovered by Byzantine scholars?
Answer: the Fall of Constantinople in 1453

Question: The invention of printing improved which society?
Answer: European

Question: Printed word enabled what?
Answer: a faster propagation of new ideas

Question: What type of mathematics aided in developing European science?
Answer: Algebra
History_of_science

The renewal of learning in Europe, that began with 12th century Scholasticism, came to an end about the time of the Black Death, and the initial period of the subsequent Italian Renaissance is sometimes seen as a lull in scientific activity. The Northern Renaissance, on the other hand, showed a decisive shift in focus from Aristoteleian natural philosophy to chemistry and the biological sciences (botany, anatomy, and medicine). Thus modern science in Europe was resumed in a period of great upheaval: the Protestant Reformation and Catholic Counter-Reformation; the discovery of the Americas by Christopher Columbus; the Fall of Constantinople; but also the re-discovery of Aristotle during the Scholastic period presaged large social and political changes. Thus, a suitable environment was created in which it became possible to question scientific doctrine, in much the same way that Martin Luther and John Calvin questioned religious doctrine. The works of Ptolemy (astronomy) and Galen (medicine) were found not always to match everyday observations. Work by Vesalius on human cadavers found problems with the Galenic view of anatomy.

Question: The focus on learning in the 12th century is referred to as what?
Answer: Scholasticism

Question: What began at the same time Scholasticism ended?
Answer: the Black Death

Question: Which era came after Scholasticism?
Answer: Italian Renaissance

Question: What was the focus of the Northern Renaissance?
Answer: chemistry and the biological sciences

Question: Which scientist was known for working on human cadavers?
Answer: Vesalius
History_of_science

The willingness to question previously held truths and search for new answers resulted in a period of major scientific advancements, now known as the Scientific Revolution. The Scientific Revolution is traditionally held by most historians to have begun in 1543, when the books De humani corporis fabrica (On the Workings of the Human Body) by Andreas Vesalius, and also De Revolutionibus, by the astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus, were first printed. The thesis of Copernicus' book was that the Earth moved around the Sun. The period culminated with the publication of the Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica in 1687 by Isaac Newton, representative of the unprecedented growth of scientific publications throughout Europe.

Question: What was the Scientific Revolution?
Answer: a period of major scientific advancements

Question: What year is considered to be the beginning of the Scientific Revolution?
Answer: 1543

Question: What book by Andreas Vesalius was published in 1543?
Answer: De humani corporis fabrica (On the Workings of the Human Body)

Question: What was the focus of De Revolutionibus by Nicolaus Copernicus?
Answer: the Earth moved around the Sun

Question: What book was printed by Isaac Newton in 1687?
Answer: Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica
History_of_science

The Age of Enlightenment was a European affair. The 17th century "Age of Reason" opened the avenues to the decisive steps towards modern science, which took place during the 18th century "Age of Enlightenment". Directly based on the works of Newton, Descartes, Pascal and Leibniz, the way was now clear to the development of modern mathematics, physics and technology by the generation of Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790), Leonhard Euler (1707–1783), Mikhail Lomonosov (1711–1765) and Jean le Rond d'Alembert (1717–1783), epitomized in the appearance of Denis Diderot's Encyclopédie between 1751 and 1772. The impact of this process was not limited to science and technology, but affected philosophy (Immanuel Kant, David Hume), religion (the increasingly significant impact of science upon religion), and society and politics in general (Adam Smith, Voltaire), the French Revolution of 1789 setting a bloody cesura indicating the beginning of political modernity[citation needed]. The early modern period is seen as a flowering of the European Renaissance, in what is often known as the Scientific Revolution, viewed as a foundation of modern science.

Question: The Age of Reason made way for which movement?
Answer: Age of Enlightenment

Question: What event is considered to be the start of political modernity?
Answer: the French Revolution of 1789

Question: What book did Denis Diderot write?
Answer: Encyclopédie
History_of_science

The Romantic Movement of the early 19th century reshaped science by opening up new pursuits unexpected in the classical approaches of the Enlightenment. Major breakthroughs came in biology, especially in Darwin's theory of evolution, as well as physics (electromagnetism), mathematics (non-Euclidean geometry, group theory) and chemistry (organic chemistry). The decline of Romanticism occurred because a new movement, Positivism, began to take hold of the ideals of the intellectuals after 1840 and lasted until about 1880.

Question: Which movement took place during the 19th century?
Answer: The Romantic Movement

Question: What theory did Darwin introduce?
Answer: theory of evolution

Question: Which physics subject was affected by The Romantic Movement?
Answer: electromagnetism

Question: What caused Romanticism to end?
Answer: Positivism

Question: What year did Positivism end?
Answer: 1880
History_of_science

The scientific revolution is a convenient boundary between ancient thought and classical physics. Nicolaus Copernicus revived the heliocentric model of the solar system described by Aristarchus of Samos. This was followed by the first known model of planetary motion given by Johannes Kepler in the early 17th century, which proposed that the planets follow elliptical orbits, with the Sun at one focus of the ellipse. Galileo ("Father of Modern Physics") also made use of experiments to validate physical theories, a key element of the scientific method.

Question: Which movement is considered to be a dividing line between ancient thought and classical physics?
Answer: The scientific revolution

Question: Who made the heliocentric model popular?
Answer: Nicolaus Copernicus

Question: Johannes Kepler created a model of what?
Answer: planetary motion

Question: What did Johannes Kepler's model suggest about the planets?
Answer: the planets follow elliptical orbits

Question: What was Galileo's nickname?
Answer: Father of Modern Physics
History_of_science

The beginning of the 20th century brought the start of a revolution in physics. The long-held theories of Newton were shown not to be correct in all circumstances. Beginning in 1900, Max Planck, Albert Einstein, Niels Bohr and others developed quantum theories to explain various anomalous experimental results, by introducing discrete energy levels. Not only did quantum mechanics show that the laws of motion did not hold on small scales, but even more disturbingly, the theory of general relativity, proposed by Einstein in 1915, showed that the fixed background of spacetime, on which both Newtonian mechanics and special relativity depended, could not exist. In 1925, Werner Heisenberg and Erwin Schrödinger formulated quantum mechanics, which explained the preceding quantum theories. The observation by Edwin Hubble in 1929 that the speed at which galaxies recede positively correlates with their distance, led to the understanding that the universe is expanding, and the formulation of the Big Bang theory by Georges Lemaître.

Question: What science subject explains anomalous results?
Answer: quantum theories

Question: What year did Einstein discover the theory of general relativity?
Answer: 1915

Question: Quantum theories became which subject in 1925?
Answer: quantum mechanics

Question: Which scientist noticed the relationship between the speed and distance of galaxies?
Answer: Edwin Hubble

Question: Edwin Hubble's discovery about galaxies allowed for which theory by Georges Lemaitre?
Answer: the Big Bang theory
History_of_science

In 1938 Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann discovered nuclear fission with radiochemical methods, and in 1939 Lise Meitner and Otto Robert Frisch wrote the first theoretical interpretation of the fission process, which was later improved by Niels Bohr and John A. Wheeler. Further developments took place during World War II, which led to the practical application of radar and the development and use of the atomic bomb. Though the process had begun with the invention of the cyclotron by Ernest O. Lawrence in the 1930s, physics in the postwar period entered into a phase of what historians have called "Big Science", requiring massive machines, budgets, and laboratories in order to test their theories and move into new frontiers. The primary patron of physics became state governments, who recognized that the support of "basic" research could often lead to technologies useful to both military and industrial applications. Currently, general relativity and quantum mechanics are inconsistent with each other, and efforts are underway to unify the two.

Question: Who discovered nuclear fission?
Answer: Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann

Question: Who edited the first paper about nuclear fission?
Answer: Niels Bohr and John A. Wheeler

Question: What event was going on during the creation of the atomic bomb?
Answer: World War II

Question: The atomic bomb was a part of which movement?
Answer: Big Science

Question: What is the problem with general relativity and quantum mechanics?
Answer: inconsistent with each other
History_of_science

Modern chemistry emerged from the sixteenth through the eighteenth centuries through the material practices and theories promoted by alchemy, medicine, manufacturing and mining. A decisive moment came when 'chymistry' was distinguished from alchemy by Robert Boyle in his work The Sceptical Chymist, in 1661; although the alchemical tradition continued for some time after his work. Other important steps included the gravimetric experimental practices of medical chemists like William Cullen, Joseph Black, Torbern Bergman and Pierre Macquer and through the work of Antoine Lavoisier (Father of Modern Chemistry) on oxygen and the law of conservation of mass, which refuted phlogiston theory. The theory that all matter is made of atoms, which are the smallest constituents of matter that cannot be broken down without losing the basic chemical and physical properties of that matter, was provided by John Dalton in 1803, although the question took a hundred years to settle as proven. Dalton also formulated the law of mass relationships. In 1869, Dmitri Mendeleev composed his periodic table of elements on the basis of Dalton's discoveries.

Question: When did modern chemistry come into existence?
Answer: the sixteenth through the eighteenth centuries

Question: Who decided that chemistry and alchemy were different?
Answer: Robert Boyle

Question: What book was written by Robert Boyle in 1661?
Answer: The Sceptical Chymist

Question: What was Antoine Lavoisier's nickname?
Answer: Father of Modern Chemistry

Question: Which theory did the law of conservation of mass disagree with?
Answer: phlogiston theory