Divyanshu67/squad_v2 huggingface dataset:
Light-emitting_diode

LEDs have also been used as a medium-quality voltage reference in electronic circuits. The forward voltage drop (e.g. about 1.7 V for a normal red LED) can be used instead of a Zener diode in low-voltage regulators. Red LEDs have the flattest I/V curve above the knee. Nitride-based LEDs have a fairly steep I/V curve and are useless for this purpose. Although LED forward voltage is far more current-dependent than a Zener diode, Zener diodes with breakdown voltages below 3 V are not widely available.

Question: What quality has LEDs been used as?
Answer: medium-quality

Question: What LED has the flattest I/V curve above the knee?
Answer: Red

Question: What LEDs have a very steep I/V curve?
Answer: Nitride-based LEDs

Question: LED forward voltage is more current-dependent than what diode?
Answer: Zener

Question: Zener diodes below what voltage are not widely available?
Answer: 3 V

Question: What quality hasn't LEDs been used as?

Question:  What LED has the least flattest I/V curve above the knee?

Question: What LEDs have a not very steep I/V curve?

Question: What LEDs don't have a very steep I/V curve?
Great_power

The term "great power" was first used to represent the most important powers in Europe during the post-Napoleonic era. The "Great Powers" constituted the "Concert of Europe" and claimed the right to joint enforcement of the postwar treaties. The formalization of the division between small powers and great powers came about with the signing of the Treaty of Chaumont in 1814. Since then, the international balance of power has shifted numerous times, most dramatically during World War I and World War II. While some nations are widely considered to be great powers, there is no definitive list of them. In literature, alternative terms for great power are often world power or major power, but these terms can also be interchangeable with superpower.

Question: What was the formalization of the division of small powers and great powers?
Answer: Treaty of Chaumont

Question: During the post Napoleonic era where were the first Great Powers concentrated?
Answer: Europe

Question: During what 2 wars was the balance of power shift most dramatic?
Answer: World War I and World War II

Question: What is another term for Great Power?
Answer: superpower

Question: Why was the term formalization and division first used?

Question: Which international balance of power formally created the division between small and great powers?

Question: In what year was the definitive list of powers signed?

Question: For which post Napoleonic era has the balance of power shifted dramatically?

Question: What is another term used in place of international balance of power?
Great_power

A great power is a sovereign state that is recognized as having the ability and expertise to exert its influence on a global scale. Great powers characteristically possess military and economic strength, as well as diplomatic and soft power influence, which may cause middle or small powers to consider the great powers' opinions before taking actions of their own. International relations theorists have posited that great power status can be characterized into power capabilities, spatial aspects, and status dimensions. Sometimes the status of great powers is formally recognized in conferences such as the Congress of Vienna or an international structure such as the United Nations Security Council (China, France, Russia, the United Kingdom and the United States serve as the body's five permanent members). At the same time the status of great powers can be informally recognized in a forum such as the G7 which consists of Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, the United Kingdom and the United States of America.

Question: What do great powers usually have?
Answer: military and economic strength, as well as diplomatic and soft power influence

Question: What are the permanent members of UN Security Council?
Answer: China, France, Russia, the United Kingdom and the United States

Question: What are the countries in the G7?
Answer: Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, the United Kingdom and the United States of America

Question: What 3 factors have international relations theorists considered factors for great power status?
Answer: power capabilities, spatial aspects, and status dimensions

Question: What great power has five permanent members?

Question: What international structure exerts its influence on a global scale?

Question: What has the United Nations Security Council characterized as comprising great power status?

Question: What spatial aspects are Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, the United Kingdom and the United States a part of?

Question: In what conference are great powers opinions formally considered?
Great_power

Early writings on the subject tended to judge states by the realist criterion, as expressed by the historian A. J. P. Taylor when he noted that "The test of a great power is the test of strength for war." Later writers have expanded this test, attempting to define power in terms of overall military, economic, and political capacity. Kenneth Waltz, the founder of the neorealist theory of international relations, uses a set of five criteria to determine great power: population and territory; resource endowment; economic capability; political stability and competence; and military strength. These expanded criteria can be divided into three heads: power capabilities, spatial aspects, and status.

Question: Who wrote, "The test of a great power is the test of strength for war."?
Answer: A. J. P. Taylor

Question: Whos was the founder of the neorealist theory of international relations?
Answer: Kenneth Waltz

Question: What 5 criteria did neorealist use to determine great powers?
Answer: population and territory; resource endowment; economic capability; political stability and competence; and military strength

Question: What 3 areas can summarize the great power determination?
Answer: power capabilities, spatial aspects, and status

Question: What did the historian Kenneth Waltz note about great power?

Question: With what terms did later writers define neorealist theory?

Question: What term was used in early times to judge a state's political capacity?

Question: What three groups can political capacity be divided into?

Question: Who was the founder of the neorealist theory on the test of strength for war?
Great_power

All states have a geographic scope of interests, actions, or projected power. This is a crucial factor in distinguishing a great power from a regional power; by definition the scope of a regional power is restricted to its region. It has been suggested that a great power should be possessed of actual influence throughout the scope of the prevailing international system. Arnold J. Toynbee, for example, observes that "Great power may be defined as a political force exerting an effect co-extensive with the widest range of the society in which it operates. The Great powers of 1914 were 'world-powers' because Western society had recently become 'world-wide'."

Question: What do all states have?
Answer: geographic scope of interests, actions, or projected power

Question: Who stated that "Great power may be defined as a political force exerting an effect co-extensive with the widest range of the society in which it operates. The Great powers of 1914 were 'world-powers"?
Answer: Arnold J. Toynbee

Question: What type of powers should have actual influence throughout the scope of the prevailing international system?
Answer: great power

Question: What type of power is restricted to its region?
Answer: regional power

Question: What three things do all political forces have?

Question: What should a Western society possess?

Question: What is a range of society restricted to?

Question: What were international systems called in 1914?

Question: What political force was world-wide in 1914?
Great_power

Other important criteria throughout history are that great powers should have enough influence to be included in discussions of political and diplomatic questions of the day, and have influence on the final outcome and resolution. Historically, when major political questions were addressed, several great powers met to discuss them. Before the era of groups like the United Nations, participants of such meetings were not officially named, but were decided based on their great power status. These were conferences which settled important questions based on major historical events. This might mean deciding the political resolution of various geographical and nationalist claims following a major conflict, or other contexts.

Question: What discussion should great powers be included on?
Answer: political and diplomatic questions of the day

Question: Historically, when would great powers meet?
Answer: when major political questions were addressed

Question: What types of decisions would great powers reach?
Answer: political resolution of various geographical and nationalist claims following a major conflict, or other contexts

Question: What criteria should groups like the UN have?

Question: In the past when would officially named participants meet?

Question: What is an example of something United Nations did to settle an issue?

Question: What should geographical and nationalist claims have influence on?

Question: What did criteria throughout history settle?
Great_power

Lord Castlereagh, the British Foreign Secretary, first used the term in its diplomatic context, in a letter sent on February 13, 1814: "It affords me great satisfaction to acquaint you that there is every prospect of the Congress terminating with a general accord and Guarantee between the Great powers of Europe, with a determination to support the arrangement agreed upon, and to turn the general influence and if necessary the general arms against the Power that shall first attempt to disturb the Continental peace."

Question: When did Lord Castlereagh first use the term Great Powers?
Answer: in a letter sent on February 13, 1814

Question: What position did Lord Castlereagh hold?
Answer: British Foreign Secretary

Question: What did Castlereagh determine as the last resort of great power's influence?
Answer: if necessary the general arms against the Power that shall first attempt to disturb the Continental peace

Question: What member of Congress first used the term Great Powers?

Question: When did Lord Castleereagh first use the term Continental peace?

Question: What did the Great powers of Europe send in 1814?

Question: What general influence was agreed upon in the letter sent in 1814?

Question: What is the Great power turning against in the letter sent in 1814?
Great_power

Of the five original great powers recognised at the Congress of Vienna, only France and the United Kingdom have maintained that status continuously to the present day, although France was defeated in the Franco-Prussian War and occupied during World War II. After the Congress of Vienna, the British Empire emerged as the pre-eminent power, due to its navy and the extent of its territories, which signalled the beginning of the Pax Britannica and of the Great Game between the UK and Russia. The balance of power between the Great Powers became a major influence in European politics, prompting Otto von Bismarck to say "All politics reduces itself to this formula: try to be one of three, as long as the world is governed by the unstable equilibrium of five great powers."

Question: What 2 powers named in the 5 orignal great powers of the congress of vienna have maintained that status?
Answer: only France and the United Kingdom

Question: What country lost Franco-Prussian war?
Answer: France

Question: What country emerged as the pre-eminent power, due to its navy and the extent of its territories?
Answer: British Empire

Question: Balance of power of great powers was a major influence on what continents politics?
Answer: European

Question: Who stated that "All politics reduces itself to this formula: try to be one of three, as long as the world is governed by the unstable equilibrium of five great powers.?"
Answer: Otto von Bismarck

Question: What two powers involved in the Franco-Prussian war have the same status today?

Question: After WWII which country was the pre-eminent power?

Question: What became a main influence for the Congress of Vienna?

Question: By what formula are all great powers reduced?

Question: What pre-eminent power lost the Franco-Prussian war?
Great_power

Over time, the relative power of these five nations fluctuated, which by the dawn of the 20th century had served to create an entirely different balance of power. Some, such as the United Kingdom and Prussia (as the founder of the newly formed German state), experienced continued economic growth and political power. Others, such as Russia and Austria-Hungary, stagnated. At the same time, other states were emerging and expanding in power, largely through the process of industrialization. These countries seeking to attain great power status were: Italy after the Risorgimento, Japan after the Meiji Restoration, and the United States after its civil war. By the dawn of the 20th century, the balance of world power had changed substantially since the Congress of Vienna. The Eight-Nation Alliance was a belligerent alliance of eight nations against the Boxer Rebellion in China. It formed in 1900 and consisted of the five Congress powers plus Italy, Japan, and the United States, representing the great powers at the beginning of 20th century.

Question: Was the power of the 5 countries constant?
Answer: relative power of these five nations fluctuated

Question: What countries found their economic growth in early 20th century?
Answer: United Kingdom and Prussia

Question: Which of the 5 powers were beginning to stagnate in early 20th century?
Answer: Russia and Austria-Hungary

Question: What agreement replaced the Congress of Vienna?
Answer: Eight-Nation Alliance

Question: What conflict was this agreement in opposition of?
Answer: Boxer Rebellion in China.

Question: During the Risorgimento, what had changed since the Congress of Vienna?

Question: What were other states doing through the political power process?

Question: What was the US seeking to do after the Meiji Restoration?

Question: What nation alliance was formed to be against the Meiji Restoration?

Question: What did the balance of world power consist of after 1900?
Great_power

Shifts of international power have most notably occurred through major conflicts. The conclusion of the Great War and the resulting treaties of Versailles, St-Germain, Neuilly, Trianon and Sèvres witnessed the United Kingdom, France, Italy, Japan and the United States as the chief arbiters of the new world order. In the aftermath of World War I the German Empire was defeated, the Austria-Hungarian empire was divided into new, less powerful states and the Russian Empire fell to a revolution. During the Paris Peace Conference, the "Big Four"—France, Italy, United Kingdom and the United States—held noticeably more power and influence on the proceedings and outcome of the treaties than Japan. The Big Four were leading architects of the Treaty of Versailles which was signed by Germany; the Treaty of St. Germain, with Austria; the Treaty of Neuilly, with Bulgaria; the Treaty of Trianon, with Hungary; and the Treaty of Sèvres, with the Ottoman Empire. During the decision-making of the Treaty of Versailles, Italy pulled out of the conference because a part of its demands were not met and temporarily left the other three countries as the sole major architects of that treaty, referred to as the "Big Three".

Question: What marked the conclusion of The Great War?
Answer: treaties of Versailles, St-Germain, Neuilly, Trianon and Sèvres

Question: Who were  the chief arbiters of the new world order?
Answer: United Kingdom, France, Italy, Japan and the United States

Question: Who created the Treaty of Versailles?
Answer: Big Three

Question: Who were the big four?
Answer: France, Italy, United Kingdom and the United States

Question: What resulted after the end of the new world order?

Question: What empire was defeated after the Big Four?

Question: When did Austria fall to revolution?

Question: During the Great War which four countries had more power and influence?

Question: When did The United States pull out of the conference temporarily?
Great_power

The victorious great powers also gained an acknowledgement of their status through permanent seats at the League of Nations Council, where they acted as a type of executive body directing the Assembly of the League. However, the Council began with only four permanent members—the United Kingdom, France, Italy, and Japan—because the United States, meant to be the fifth permanent member, left because the US Senate voted on 19 March 1920 against the ratification of the Treaty of Versailles, thus preventing American participation in the League.

Question: Who were the four permanent members of the League of Nations Council?
Answer: United Kingdom, France, Italy, and Japan

Question: Why was United Stated excluded from League of Nations Council?
Answer: against the ratification of the Treaty of Versailles, thus preventing American participation in the League

Question: When did US Senate vote against treaty of versailles ratification?
Answer: 19 March 1920

Question: What organiztion acted as acknowledgement of status of great powers?
Answer: League of Nations Council

Question: When did the League of Nations council vote against the Treaty of Versailles ratification?

Question: Why was France excluded from the League of Nations Council?

Question: What four countries were permanent members of the Senate?

Question: What council voted against ratification of the Treaty of Versailles?

Question: What did voting against the Assembly of the League prevent?
Great_power

When World War II started in 1939, it divided the world into two alliances—the Allies (the United Kingdom and France at first in Europe, China in Asia since 1937, followed in 1941 by the Soviet Union, the United States); and the Axis powers consisting of Germany, Italy and Japan.[nb 1] During World War II, the United States, United Kingdom, and Soviet Union controlled Allied policy and emerged as the "Big Three". The Republic of China and the Big Three were referred as a "trusteeship of the powerful"  and were recognized as the Allied "Big Four" in Declaration by United Nations in 1942. These four countries were referred as the "Four Policemen" of the Allies and considered as the primary victors of World War II. The importance of France was acknowledged by their inclusion, along with the other four, in the group of countries allotted permanent seats in the United Nations Security Council.

Question: When did World War II start?
Answer: 1939

Question: How many groups were involved in conflict of World War II?
Answer: two alliances

Question: Who made up the Axis powers?
Answer: Germany, Italy and Japan

Question: Who were the winners of World War II?
Answer: Allies

Question: The winners of World War II along with France were allotted permanent seats for what organization?
Answer: United Nations Security Council

Question: What trusteeship of the powerful started in 1939?

Question: Who made up the permanent seats alliances since 1937?

Question: What was Germany, Italy and Japan  and France recognized as by the UN in 1942?

Question: What were four alliances in WWII referred to?

Question: Who was part of the inclusion powers?
Great_power

Since the end of the World Wars, the term "great power" has been joined by a number of other power classifications. Foremost among these is the concept of the superpower, used to describe those nations with overwhelming power and influence in the rest of the world. It was first coined in 1944 by William T.R. Fox and according to him, there were three superpowers: the British Empire, the United States, and the Soviet Union. But by the mid-1950s the British Empire lost its superpower status, leaving the United States and the Soviet Union as the world's superpowers.[nb 2] The term middle power has emerged for those nations which exercise a degree of global influence, but are insufficient to be decisive on international affairs. Regional powers are those whose influence is generally confined to their region of the world.

Question: What is a superpower?
Answer: nations with overwhelming power and influence in the rest of the world

Question: Who first used the term superpower?
Answer: William T.R. Fox

Question: Who were the three original superpowers?
Answer: British Empire, the United States, and the Soviet Union

Question: Who lost their superpower status in 1950s?
Answer: British Empire

Question: What are middle powers?
Answer: those nations which exercise a degree of global influence, but are insufficient to be decisive on international affairs

Question: Who first used the term overwhelming influence?

Question: What are the regional powers according to William T. R. Fox?

Question: When did the Soviet Union lose its superpower status?

Question: How many original middle powers are there?

Question: Which nations have a degree of overwhelming power but are not decisive internationally?
Great_power

During the Cold War, the Asian power of Japan and the European powers of the United Kingdom, France, and West Germany rebuilt their economies. France and the United Kingdom maintained technologically advanced armed forces with power projection capabilities and maintain large defence budgets to this day. Yet, as the Cold War continued, authorities began to question if France and the United Kingdom could retain their long-held statuses as great powers. China, with the world's largest population, has slowly risen to great power status, with large growth in economic and military power in the post-war period. After 1949, the Republic of China began to lose its recognition as the sole legitimate government of China by the other great powers, in favour of the People's Republic of China. Subsequently, in 1971, it lost its permanent seat at the UN Security Council to the People's Republic of China.

Question: During the cold war, what European powers rebuilt their ecomonies?
Answer: United Kingdom, France, and West Germany

Question: By what year was China beginning to lose its hold as sole legitimate government?
Answer: 1949

Question: When did China lose its permanent seat at UN security council?
Answer: 1971

Question: What powers rebuilt their economies during 1949?

Question: What two countries status as military powers was questioned?

Question: When did West Germany lose its permanent UN security council seat?

Question: After the cold war, which country began to lose its status as sole legitimate government?

Question: What did China and Japan maintain to this day?
Great_power

According to Joshua Baron – a "researcher, lecturer, and consultant on international conflict" – since the early 1960s direct military conflicts and major confrontations have "receded into the background" with regards to relations among the great powers. Baron argues several reasons why this is the case, citing the unprecedented rise of the United States and its predominant position as the key reason. Baron highlights that since World War Two no other great power has been able to achieve parity or near parity with the United States, with the exception of the Soviet Union for a brief time. This position is unique among the great powers since the start of the modern era (the 16th century), where there has traditionally always been "tremendous parity among the great powers". This unique period of American primacy has been an important factor in maintaining a condition of peace between the great powers.

Question: Since what time has military conflicts receded?
Answer: 1960s

Question: What country has risen above other superpowers?
Answer: United States

Question: Since what century has there always been parity in powers?
Answer: modern era (the 16th century)

Question: Who's primacy has factored into maintaining peace among powers?
Answer: American

Question: Since what time has there been direct military conflicts among countries?

Question: What has been important factor of the great powers receding into the background?

Question: Since the 1960's what power was briefly equal in parity with the US?

Question: What country has been involved in major confrontations among powers?

Question: What has the Soviet Union mentioned about relations between the great powers?
Great_power

Another important factor is the apparent consensus among Western great powers that military force is no longer an effective tool of resolving disputes among their peers. This "subset" of great powers – France, Germany, Japan, the United Kingdom and the United States – consider maintaining a "state of peace" as desirable. As evidence, Baron outlines that since the Cuban missile crisis (1962) during the Cold War, these influential Western nations have resolved all disputes among the great powers peacefully at the United Nations and other forums of international discussion.

Question: What formerly effective tool for international disputes is no longer effective among peer powers?
Answer: military force

Question: What great powers have maintained peace?
Answer: France, Germany, Japan, the United Kingdom and the United States

Question: Where have the powers maintained peace in recent years?
Answer: United Nations and other forums

Question: What was the last crisis during cold war to escalate world powers?
Answer: Cuban missile crisis (1962

Question: What countries agree that military force is effective to resolve disputes?

Question: During what event did great powers use military force?

Question: Who mentioned that Western great powers still use military force to resolve disputes?

Question: What formerly effective tool for the Cuban missile crisis is no longer effective?

Question: Where have western nations discussed using military force?
Great_power

China, France, Russia, the United Kingdom and the United States are often referred to as great powers by academics due to "their political and economic dominance of the global arena". These five nations are the only states to have permanent seats with veto power on the UN Security Council. They are also the only recognized "Nuclear Weapons States" under the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, and maintain military expenditures which are among the largest in the world. However, there is no unanimous agreement among authorities as to the current status of these powers or what precisely defines a great power. For example, sources have at times referred to China, France, Russia and the United Kingdom as middle powers.

Question: What countries are recognized as Nuclear Weapons States?
Answer: China, France, Russia, the United Kingdom and the United States

Question: How many countries are permanent seats on the UN Security Council?
Answer: five

Question: What other countries are referred to as middle powers?
Answer: China, France, Russia and the United Kingdom

Question: What treaty addresses nuclear weapons?
Answer: Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty

Question: What treaty addresses global political and economic dominance?

Question: What five countries are referred to as middle powers?

Question: Why Are China, France, Russia, the UK and the US seen as by middle powers?

Question: What is there not consensus on among nations regarding powers?

Question: What do the five nations have as middle powers on the UN Security Council?
Great_power

Japan and Germany are great powers too, though due to their large advanced economies (having the third and fourth largest economies respectively) rather than their strategic and hard power capabilities (i.e., the lack of permanent seats and veto power on the UN Security Council or strategic military reach). Germany has been a member together with the five permanent Security Council members in the P5+1 grouping of world powers. Like China, France, Russia and the United Kingdom; Germany and Japan have also been referred to as middle powers.

Question: What countries are great powers mostly based on economic reasons?
Answer: Japan and Germany

Question: Due to lack of strategic and hard power, countries are excluded from what?
Answer: UN Security Council

Question: What is the name for the grouping of countries of China, France, Russia and the United Kingdom; Germany and Japan?
Answer: middle powers

Question: What two countries are great powers because of their hard power capabilities?

Question: What grouping of world powers has Japan been a member of?

Question: What benefits do middle power countries have as permanent members at the UN?

Question: How large are France and Russia's economies?

Question: What are the five permanent Security Council Members lacking militarily?
Great_power

In addition to those contemporary great powers mentioned above, Zbigniew Brzezinski and Malik Mohan consider India to be a great power too. Although unlike the contemporary great powers who have long been considered so, India's recognition among authorities as a great power is comparatively recent. However, there is no collective agreement among observers as to the status of India, for example, a number of academics believe that India is emerging as a great power, while some believe that India remains a middle power.

Question: Zbigniew Brzezinski and Malik Mohan consider what country to be a great power too?
Answer: India

Question: Many academics debate the status of this country as a power?
Answer: India

Question: Is there agreement on the status of all powers?
Answer: no collective agreement

Question: Who have recently recognized contemporary great powers?

Question: What have observers long considered about India's status?

Question: What do academics believe contemporary great powers remain?

Question: What is the consensus about India's status among great powers?

Question: What is one type of power some world powers view as India's status in the world?
Great_power

Milena Sterio, American expert of international law, includes the former axis powers (Germany, Italy and Japan) and India among the great powers along with the permanent members of the UNSC. She considers Germany, Japan and Italy to be great powers due to their G7 membership and because of their influence in regional and international organizations.  Various authors describe Italy as an equal major power, while others view Italy as an "intermittent great power" or as "the least of the great powers".

Question: Milena Sterio includes what former axis powers among great powers?
Answer: Germany, Italy and Japan

Question: What emerging power is considered a great power?
Answer: India

Question: What G7 members are among great powers?
Answer: Germany, Japan and Italy

Question: Which country is debated as intermittent and/or least of great powers?
Answer: Italy

Question: What international organization members are considered great powers?

Question: What separate status are Germany, Italy and Japan given by various authors?

Question: What permanent member of the UNSC is considered the least of the great powers?

Question: What former axis powers do various authors include as great powers?

Question: Why does Milena Sterio consider UNSC members great powers?
Great_power

With continuing European integration, the European Union is increasingly being seen as a great power in its own right, with representation at the WTO and at G8 and G-20 summits. This is most notable in areas where the European Union has exclusive competence (i.e. economic affairs). It also reflects a non-traditional conception of Europe's world role as a global "civilian power", exercising collective influence in the functional spheres of trade and diplomacy, as an alternative to military dominance. The European Union is a supranational union and not a sovereign state, and has limited scope in the areas of foreign affairs and defence policy. These remain largely with the member states of the European Union, which include the three great powers of France, Germany and the United Kingdom (referred to as the "EU three").

Question: What organization is often seen as a great power in addition to member counties?
Answer: European Union

Question: What other tools are used as alternative to military force?
Answer: trade and diplomacy

Question: How many great powers are members of Europian Union?
Answer: three

Question: What summits does EU have membership?
Answer: WTO and at G8 and G-20

Question: Where does Europe use its military dominance?

Question: As a supranational union, what are the UK's limits?

Question: How many great powers are members of the WTO?

Question: At what summits does Germany have representation?

Question: In what area is the WTO exclusively competent?
Great_power

Referring to great power relations pre-1960, Joshua Baron highlights that starting from around the 16th century and the rise of several European great powers, military conflicts and confrontations was the defining characteristic of diplomacy and relations between such powers. "Between 1500 and 1953, there were 64 wars in which at least one great power was opposed to another, and they averaged little more than five years in length. In approximately a 450-year time frame, on average at least two great powers were fighting one another in each and every year." Even during the period of Pax Britannica (or "the British Peace") between 1815 and 1914, war and military confrontations among the great powers was still a frequent occurrence. In fact, Joshua Baron points out that, in terms of militarized conflicts or confrontations, the UK led the way in this period with nineteen such instances against; Russia (8), France (5), Germany/Prussia (5) and Italy (1).

Question: How many wars occured between 1500s and 1953?
Answer: 64

Question: For bout how many years was an average of one great power fighting another each year?
Answer: 450

Question: What country had the most conflicts from 1500s through mid 20th century?
Answer: UK

Question: What span was the Pax Britannica?
Answer: between 1815 and 1914

Question: Between 1815 and 1914, how many acts of diplomacy were there and with what countries?

Question: How many wars occurred pre-1960, that averaged about 5 years?

Question: Between 1815-1914 what country had the most defining characteristics of diplomacy?

Question: In the 16th century, how many great powers were fighting each other in every year?

Question: During what time frame was diplomacy frequent among the great powers?
Bird

The earliest known avialan fossils come from the Tiaojishan Formation of China, which has been dated to the late Jurassic period (Oxfordian stage), about 160 million years ago. The avialan species from this time period include Anchiornis huxleyi, Xiaotingia zhengi, and Aurornis xui. The well-known early avialan, Archaeopteryx, dates from slightly later Jurassic rocks (about 155 million years old) from Germany. Many of these early avialans shared unusual anatomical features that may be ancestral to modern birds, but were later lost during bird evolution. These features include enlarged claws on the second toe which may have been held clear of the ground in life, and long feathers or "hind wings" covering the hind limbs and feet, which may have been used in aerial maneuvering.

Question: The Oxfordian stage is also known as what?
Answer: late Jurassic period

Question: How long ago was the late Jurassic period?
Answer: about 160 million years ago

Question: Avian species such as Anchiornis huxleyi and Xiaotingia zhengi are from which time period?
Answer: late Jurassic period

Question: What may have been used in aerial maneuvering?
Answer: hind wings
Bird

Many species of the second major avialan lineage to diversify, the Euornithes (meaning "true birds", because they include the ancestors of modern birds), were semi-aquatic and specialized in eating fish and other small aquatic organisms. Unlike the enantiornithes, which dominated land-based and arboreal habitats, most early euornithes lacked perching adaptations and seem to have included shorebird-like species, waders, and swimming and diving species. The later included the superficially gull-like Ichthyornis, the Hesperornithiformes, which became so well adapted to hunting fish in marine environments that they lost the ability to fly and became primarily aquatic. The early euornithes also saw the development of many traits associated with modern birds, like strongly keeled breastbones, toothless, beaked portions of their jaws (though most non-avian euornithes retained teeth in other parts of the jaws). Euornithes also included the first avialans to develop true pygostyle and a fully mobile fan of tail feathers, which may have replaced the "hind wing" as the primary mode of aerial maneuverability and braking in flight.

Question: What does Euornithes mean?
Answer: true birds

Question: Why does Euornithes mean "true birds?"
Answer: because they include the ancestors of modern birds

Question: What group became the first avialans to develop true pygostyle and a fully mobile fan of tail feathers?
Answer: Euornithes

Question: What may have replaced the "hind wing" as the primary mode of aerial maneuverability?
Answer: fully mobile fan of tail feathers
Bird

Birds have one of the most complex respiratory systems of all animal groups. Upon inhalation, 75% of the fresh air bypasses the lungs and flows directly into a posterior air sac which extends from the lungs and connects with air spaces in the bones and fills them with air. The other 25% of the air goes directly into the lungs. When the bird exhales, the used air flows out of the lung and the stored fresh air from the posterior air sac is simultaneously forced into the lungs. Thus, a bird's lungs receive a constant supply of fresh air during both inhalation and exhalation. Sound production is achieved using the syrinx, a muscular chamber incorporating multiple tympanic membranes which diverges from the lower end of the trachea; the trachea being elongated in some species, increasing the volume of vocalizations and the perception of the bird's size.

Question: Which animal has one of the most complex respiratory system of all animal groups?
Answer: Birds

Question: Upon inhalation, what percentage of fresh air bypasses the lungs and flows directly into a posterior air sac?
Answer: 75%

Question: Where does the other 25 percent of fresh air go?
Answer: directly into the lungs

Question: Sound production is achieved using what muscular chamber?
Answer: syrinx

Question: What is the syrinx?
Answer: a muscular chamber incorporating multiple tympanic membranes
Bird

A dearth of field observations limit our knowledge, but intraspecific conflicts are known to sometimes result in injury or death. The screamers (Anhimidae), some jacanas (Jacana, Hydrophasianus), the spur-winged goose (Plectropterus), the torrent duck (Merganetta) and nine species of lapwing (Vanellus) use a sharp spur on the wing as a weapon. The steamer ducks (Tachyeres), geese and swans (Anserinae), the solitaire (Pezophaps), sheathbills (Chionis), some guans (Crax) and stone curlews (Burhinus) use a bony knob on the alular metacarpal to punch and hammer opponents. The jacanas Actophilornis and Irediparra have an expanded, blade-like radius. The extinct Xenicibis was unique in having an elongate forelimb and massive hand which likely functioned in combat or defence as a jointed club or flail. Swans, for instance, may strike with the bony spurs and bite when defending eggs or young.

Question: What is known to sometimes result in injury or death?
Answer: intraspecific conflicts

Question: What is another name for Anhimidae?
Answer: screamers

Question: What is another name for steamer ducks?
Answer: Tachyeres

Question: What do stone curlews use to punch and hammer opponents?
Answer: bony knob on the alular metacarpal
Bird

Birds sometimes use plumage to assess and assert social dominance, to display breeding condition in sexually selected species, or to make threatening displays, as in the sunbittern's mimicry of a large predator to ward off hawks and protect young chicks. Variation in plumage also allows for the identification of birds, particularly between species. Visual communication among birds may also involve ritualised displays, which have developed from non-signalling actions such as preening, the adjustments of feather position, pecking, or other behaviour. These displays may signal aggression or submission or may contribute to the formation of pair-bonds. The most elaborate displays occur during courtship, where "dances" are often formed from complex combinations of many possible component movements; males' breeding success may depend on the quality of such displays.

Question: What do birds sometimes use to assess and assert social dominance?
Answer: plumage

Question: What allows for the identification of birds, particularly between species?
Answer: Variation in plumage

Question: Visual communication among birds may involve what kind of displays?
Answer: ritualised displays
Bird

Calls are used for a variety of purposes, including mate attraction, evaluation of potential mates, bond formation, the claiming and maintenance of territories, the identification of other individuals (such as when parents look for chicks in colonies or when mates reunite at the start of breeding season), and the warning of other birds of potential predators, sometimes with specific information about the nature of the threat. Some birds also use mechanical sounds for auditory communication. The Coenocorypha snipes of New Zealand drive air through their feathers, woodpeckers drum territorially, and palm cockatoos use tools to drum.

Question: What do birds use for evaluation of potential mates and mate attraction?
Answer: Calls

Question: What do some birds use for auditory communication?
Answer: mechanical sounds

Question: Which type of birds use tools to drum?
Answer: palm

Question: Which birds drum territorially?
Answer: woodpeckers
Bird

Ninety-five percent of bird species are socially monogamous. These species pair for at least the length of the breeding season or—in some cases—for several years or until the death of one mate. Monogamy allows for both paternal care and biparental care, which is especially important for species in which females require males' assistance for successful brood-rearing. Among many socially monogamous species, extra-pair copulation (infidelity) is common. Such behaviour typically occurs between dominant males and females paired with subordinate males, but may also be the result of forced copulation in ducks and other anatids. Female birds have sperm storage mechanisms that allow sperm from males to remain viable long after copulation, a hundred days in some species. Sperm from multiple males may compete through this mechanism. For females, possible benefits of extra-pair copulation include getting better genes for her offspring and insuring against the possibility of infertility in her mate. Males of species that engage in extra-pair copulations will closely guard their mates to ensure the parentage of the offspring that they raise.

Question: What percent of bird species are socially monogamous?
Answer: Ninety-five percent

Question: What is extra-pair copulation?
Answer: infidelity

Question: What do female birds have that allow sperm from males to remain viable long after copulation?
Answer: sperm storage mechanisms

Question: Why do males that engage in extra-pair copulation closely guard their mates?
Answer: to ensure the parentage of the offspring that they raise
Bird

All birds lay amniotic eggs with hard shells made mostly of calcium carbonate. Hole and burrow nesting species tend to lay white or pale eggs, while open nesters lay camouflaged eggs. There are many exceptions to this pattern, however; the ground-nesting nightjars have pale eggs, and camouflage is instead provided by their plumage. Species that are victims of brood parasites have varying egg colours to improve the chances of spotting a parasite's egg, which forces female parasites to match their eggs to those of their hosts.

Question: What kind of eggs to all birds lay?
Answer: amniotic eggs

Question: All birds lay eggs with hard shells made mostly out of what?
Answer: calcium carbonate

Question: What kind of eggs do open nesters lay?
Answer: camouflaged eggs

Question: What type of birds lay white or pale eggs?
Answer: Hole and burrow nesting species
Bird

Birds are often important to island ecology. Birds have frequently reached islands that mammals have not; on those islands, birds may fulfill ecological roles typically played by larger animals. For example, in New Zealand the moas were important browsers, as are the kereru and kokako today. Today the plants of New Zealand retain the defensive adaptations evolved to protect them from the extinct moa. Nesting seabirds may also affect the ecology of islands and surrounding seas, principally through the concentration of large quantities of guano, which may enrich the local soil and the surrounding seas.

Question: What are often important to island ecology?
Answer: Birds

Question: What type of birds may also affect the ecology of islands and surrounding areas?
Answer: Nesting seabirds

Question: In New Zealand, what were important browsers, as the kereru and kokako are today?
Answer: moas
Bird

Since birds are highly visible and common animals, humans have had a relationship with them since the dawn of man. Sometimes, these relationships are mutualistic, like the cooperative honey-gathering among honeyguides and African peoples such as the Borana. Other times, they may be commensal, as when species such as the house sparrow have benefited from human activities. Several bird species have become commercially significant agricultural pests, and some pose an aviation hazard. Human activities can also be detrimental, and have threatened numerous bird species with extinction (hunting, avian lead poisoning, pesticides, roadkill, and predation by pet cats and dogs are common sources of death for birds).

Question: Why have humans had a relationship with birds since the dawn of man?
Answer: Since birds are highly visible and common animals

Question: What is it called when the house sparrow has benefited from human activity?
Answer: commensal

Question: What have threatened numerous bird species with extinction?
Answer: Human activities
Qing_dynasty

The Qing dynasty (Chinese: 清朝; pinyin: Qīng Cháo; Wade–Giles: Ch'ing Ch'ao; IPA: [tɕʰíŋ tʂʰɑ̌ʊ̯]), officially the Great Qing (Chinese: 大清; pinyin: Dà Qīng), also called the Empire of the Great Qing, or the Manchu dynasty, was the last imperial dynasty of China, ruling from 1644 to 1912 with a brief, abortive restoration in 1917. It was preceded by the Ming dynasty and succeeded by the Republic of China. The Qing multi-cultural empire lasted almost three centuries and formed the territorial base for the modern Chinese state.

Question: What was the last Chinese dynasty?
Answer: Great Qing, or the Manchu dynasty

Question: When did the Manchu dynasty rule?
Answer: 1644 to 1912

Question: What was the dynasty that ruled before the Manchu?
Answer: Ming

Question: What government took over from the Manchu dynasty?
Answer: Republic of China

Question: What is another name for the Manchu dynasty?
Answer: Qing