Divyanshu67/squad_v2 huggingface dataset:
Cardinal_(Catholicism)

Cardinals elevated to the diaconal order are mainly officials of the Roman Curia holding various posts in the church administration. Their number and influence has varied through the years. While historically predominantly Italian the group has become much more internationally diverse in later years. While in 1939 about half were Italian by 1994 the number was reduced to one third. Their influence in the election of the Pope has been considered important, they are better informed and connected than the dislocated cardinals but their level of unity has been varied. Under the 1587 decree of Pope Sixtus V, which fixed the maximum size of the College of Cardinals, there were 14 cardinal deacons. Later the number increased. As late as 1939 almost half of the cardinals were members of the curia. Pius XII reduced this percentage to 24 percent. John XXIII brought it back up to 37 percent but Paul VI brought it down to 27 percent where John Paul II has maintained this ratio.

Question: In 1939, how many Cardinals were Italian?
Answer: about half

Question: In 1994, how many Cardinals were Italian?
Answer: third

Question: Where are priests that are elevated to the diaconal order mainly officials of?

Question: How many Cardinals were French in 1939?

Question: How many Cardinals were French in 1994?

Question: How many cardinals were members of the curia in 1929?

Question: What year did Pope Sixtus I fix the maximum size of the College of Cardinals?
Cardinal_(Catholicism)

Cardinal deacons derive originally from the seven deacons in the Papal Household and the seven deacons who supervised the Church's works in the districts of Rome during the early Middle Ages, when church administration was effectively the government of Rome and provided all social services. Cardinal deacons are given title to one of these deaconries.

Question: What is the name of one of the deaconries in which Cardinals come from?
Answer: seven deacons in the Papal Household

Question: Where do Cardinal deacons not originally derive from?

Question: Who is originally from the six deacons in the Papal Household?

Question: Who does not supervise the Church's works in the districts of Rome?

Question: Who did not provide all social services in Rome during the early Middle Ages?

Question: Who is not given title to one of these seven deacons?
Cardinal_(Catholicism)

The cardinal deacons are the lowest-ranking cardinals. Cardinals elevated to the diaconal order are either officials of the Roman Curia or priests elevated after their 80th birthday. Bishops with diocesan responsibilities, however, are created cardinal priests.

Question: Which cardinals are ranked lowest?
Answer: cardinal deacons

Question: What title is given to the highest ranking cardinals?

Question: What position do cardinal deacons not hold?

Question: What do bishops become that are without diocesan responsibilities?

Question: What are cardinals who are not elevated to the diaconal order?
Cardinal_(Catholicism)

The cardinal who is the longest-serving member of the order of cardinal priests is titled cardinal protopriest. He had certain ceremonial duties in the conclave that have effectively ceased because he would generally have already reached age 80, at which cardinals are barred from the conclave. The current cardinal protopriest is Paulo Evaristo Arns of Brazil.

Question: Who can become the cardinal protopriest?
Answer: The cardinal who is the longest-serving member of the order of cardinal priests

Question: Who is the cardinal protopriest at this time?
Answer: Paulo Evaristo Arns of Brazil

Question: What title is given to the newest member of the order of cardinal priests?

Question: What position does Paulo Evaristo Arns of Columbia currently hold?

Question: Whose ceremonial duties in the conclave continued after the age of 80?

Question: Who was accepted into the conclave after the age of 80?
Cardinal_(Catholicism)

The Dean of the College of Cardinals, or Cardinal-dean, is the primus inter pares of the College of Cardinals, elected by the cardinal bishops holding suburbicarian sees from among their own number, an election, however, that must be approved by the Pope. Formerly the position of dean belonged by right to the longest-serving of the cardinal bishops.

Question: In the College of Cardinals, the elected Dean needs the approval of who?
Answer: the Pope

Question: Who does not need the approval of the Pope?

Question: What is the Dean of the College of Humanities also known as?

Question: Who does not act as the primus inter pares of the College of Cardinals?

Question: Who approves the appointment of the Cardinal-dean by the Pope?

Question: What position belonged by right to the shortest-serving of the cardinal bishops?
Cardinal_(Catholicism)

In 1965, Pope Paul VI decreed in his motu proprio Ad Purpuratorum Patrum that patriarchs of the Eastern Catholic Churches who were named cardinals (i.e., patriarch cardinals) would also be part of the episcopal order, ranking after the six cardinal bishops of the suburbicarian sees (who had been relieved of direct responsibilities for those sees by Pope John XXIII three years earlier). Patriarch cardinals do not receive title of a suburbicarian see, and as such they cannot elect the dean or become dean. There are currently three Eastern Patriarchs who are cardinal bishops:

Question: Patriarch cardinals are not given what title?
Answer: a suburbicarian see

Question: What did Pope Paul VI decree in 1965 about the patriarchs of the Western Catholic Churches?

Question: Who ranked after the seven cardinal bishops of the suburbicarian sees?

Question: What title did patriarch cardinals receive?

Question: How many Western Patriarchs are currently cardinal bishops?

Question: Who can elect the dean or become dean?
Cardinal_(Catholicism)

Cardinal priests are the most numerous of the three orders of cardinals in the Catholic Church, ranking above the cardinal deacons and below the cardinal bishops. Those who are named cardinal priests today are generally bishops of important dioceses throughout the world, though some hold Curial positions.

Question: Who are the lowest ranking cardinals in the Catholic church?
Answer: cardinal deacons

Question: Who are the highest ranking cardinals in the Catholic Church?
Answer: cardinal bishops

Question: Which rank has the most cardinals?
Answer: Cardinal priests

Question: Who are the highest ranking priests in the Catholic church?

Question: Who are the most numerous of the four orders of cardinals in the Catholic Church?

Question: Who is the lowest ranking priest in the Catholic Church?

Question: What are those named cardinal popes today generally bishops of?

Question: What position do some popes currently hold?
Cardinal_(Catholicism)

In modern times, the name "cardinal priest" is interpreted as meaning a cardinal who is of the order of priests. Originally, however, this referred to certain key priests of important churches of the Diocese of Rome, who were recognized as the cardinal priests, the important priests chosen by the pope to advise him in his duties as Bishop of Rome (the Latin cardo means "hinge"). Certain clerics in many dioceses at the time, not just that of Rome, were said to be the key personnel — the term gradually became exclusive to Rome to indicate those entrusted with electing the bishop of Rome, the pope.

Question: What was the original definition of a cardinal priest?
Answer: priests chosen by the pope

Question: What name was interpreted as meaning a cardinal who is of the order of popes?

Question: What does the name "cardinal popes" originally refer to?

Question: What is the name of the important nuns that are chosen by the pope to advice him?

Question: Who holds the title Cardinal of Rome?

Question: What term did not gradually become exclusive to Rome to indicate those entrusted with electing the pope?
Cardinal_(Catholicism)

While the cardinalate has long been expanded beyond the Roman pastoral clergy and Roman Curia, every cardinal priest has a titular church in Rome, though they may be bishops or archbishops elsewhere, just as cardinal bishops are given one of the suburbicarian dioceses around Rome. Pope Paul VI abolished all administrative rights cardinals had with regard to their titular churches, though the cardinal's name and coat of arms are still posted in the church, and they are expected to celebrate mass and preach there if convenient when they are in Rome.

Question: Each cardinal priest has what?
Answer: a titular church in Rome

Question: What does every cardinal priest not have?

Question: What has not been expanded beyond the Roman pastoral clergy and Roman Curia?

Question: What did Pope Paul V abolish?

Question: What is not still posted in the church after Pope Paul VI abolished all administrative rights?

Question: What are cardinals not expected to do?
Cardinal_(Catholicism)

While the number of cardinals was small from the times of the Roman Empire to the Renaissance, and frequently smaller than the number of recognized churches entitled to a cardinal priest, in the 16th century the College expanded markedly. In 1587, Pope Sixtus V sought to arrest this growth by fixing the maximum size of the College at 70, including 50 cardinal priests, about twice the historical number. This limit was respected until 1958, and the list of titular churches modified only on rare occasions, generally when a building fell into disrepair. When Pope John XXIII abolished the limit, he began to add new churches to the list, which Popes Paul VI and John Paul II continued to do. Today there are close to 150 titular churches, out of over 300 churches in Rome.

Question: In what year did Pope Sixtus V put a cap on the number of cardinals in the College of Cardinals?
Answer: 1587

Question: What was the maximum number allowed per Pope Sixtus V?
Answer: 70

Question: Who removed the cap on cardinals in the College of the Cardinals?
Answer: Pope John XXIII

Question: Who had a large number from the times of the Roman Empire to the Renaissance?

Question: What happened to the College of the Cardinals in the 3rd century?

Question: Who sought to cap the number of the College at 50?

Question: Who upheld the cap on cardinals in the College of the Cardinals?
Cardinal_(Catholicism)

For a period ending in the mid-20th century, long-serving cardinal priests were entitled to fill vacancies that arose among the cardinal bishops, just as cardinal deacons of ten years' standing are still entitled to become cardinal priests. Since then, cardinals have been advanced to cardinal bishop exclusively by papal appointment.

Question: What were long-serving cardinal priests entitled to do ending in the mid-fifteenth century?

Question: What are cardinal deacons of eight years standing still entitled to become?

Question: Who has not been advanced to cardinal bishop exclusively by papal appointment?

Question: How have cardinals been advance to cardinal priests?

Question: Who filled vacancies that arose among the cardinal priests?
Cardinal_(Catholicism)

A cardinal named in pectore is known only to the pope; not even the cardinal so named is necessarily aware of his elevation, and in any event cannot function as a cardinal while his appointment is in pectore. Today, cardinals are named in pectore to protect them or their congregations from reprisals if their identities were known.

Question: Which cardinal is known by all the Catholic Church?

Question: What does the cardinal named pectore know?

Question: What can a cardinal in pectore continue to function as?

Question: What is done to cardinals that does not protect them or their congregations?
Iranian_languages

The Iranian languages or Iranic languages form a branch of the Indo-Iranian languages, which in turn are a branch of the Indo-European language family. The speakers of Iranian languages are known as Iranian peoples. Historical Iranian languages are grouped in three stages: Old Iranian (until 400 BCE), Middle Iranian (400 BCE – 900 CE), and New Iranian (since 900 CE). Of the Old Iranian languages, the better understood and recorded ones are Old Persian (a language of Achaemenid Iran) and Avestan (the language of the Avesta). Middle Iranian languages included Middle Persian (a language of Sassanid Iran), Parthian, and Bactrian.

Question: What is another term meaning Iranian languages?
Answer: Iranic languages

Question: What are the Iranic languages a subgroup of?
Answer: Indo-Iranian languages

Question: What are Indo-Iranian languages a subset of?
Answer: Indo-European language family

Question: When did the change from Old Iranian to Middle Iranian occur?
Answer: 400 BCE

Question: What is an example of a Sassanid language?
Answer: Middle Persian

Question: What stage of Iranian languages from 400 BCE to 900 CE includes old Persian?

Question: What stage of Iranian language was in use until 400 BCE and included Parthian and Bactrian?

Question: When did the change from old Iranian to new Iranian occur?

Question: Where are the old Iranian languages Parthian and Bactrian from?
Iranian_languages

As of 2008, there were an estimated 150–200 million native speakers of Iranian languages. Ethnologue estimates there are 86 Iranian languages, the largest amongst them being Persian, Pashto, Kurdish, and Balochi.

Question: How many different Iranian languages exist?
Answer: 86

Question: In what year were there hundred and 50 to 200 Iranian languages

Question: What are some of the largest among the 200 Iranian languages?

Question: What were their 86 million of in 2008
Iranian_languages

The term Iranian is applied to any language which descends from the ancestral Proto-Iranian language. Iranian derives from the Persian and Sanskrit origin word Arya.

Question: Iranian languages are all said to be derived from which predecessor?
Answer: Proto-Iranian

Question: From what languages does the word Aryao come?
Answer: Persian and Sanskrit

Question: What is any language that descends from ancestral Persian?

Question: What word is derived from Sanskrit and Arya?

Question: Arya is derived from what ancestral language?
Iranian_languages

The use of the term for the Iranian language family was introduced in 1836 by Christian Lassen. Robert Needham Cust used the term Irano-Aryan in 1878, and Orientalists such as George Abraham Grierson and Max Müller contrasted Irano-Aryan (Iranian) and Indo-Aryan (Indic). Some recent scholarship, primarily in German, has revived this convention.

Question: When was the phrase Iranian language family first used?
Answer: 1836

Question: Who first used the term Iranian language?
Answer: Christian Lassen

Question: Who first used the term Irano-Aryan?
Answer: Robert Needham Cust

Question: When was the phrase Irano-Aryan first used?
Answer: 1878

Question: When did Robert Needham Cust introduced the term Iranian?

Question: What term did Christian Lassen using 1878?

Question: What did George Abraham Grierson and Christian Lassen contrast?

Question: What scholars have revived the term Irano-Aryan
Iranian_languages

All Iranian languages are descended from a common ancestor, Proto-Iranian. In turn, and together with Proto-Indo-Aryan and the Nuristani languages, Proto-Iranian descends from a common ancestor Proto-Indo-Iranian. The Indo-Iranian languages are thought to have originated in Central Asia. The Andronovo culture is the suggested candidate for the common Indo-Iranian culture ca. 2000 BC.

Question: From where did Iranian languages originate?
Answer: Proto-Iranian

Question: What part of the world is it theorized that Indo-Iranian languages came from?
Answer: Central Asia

Question: What society is a strong contender for the common culture speaking Indo-Iranian?
Answer: Andronovo

Question: When did the Andronovo culture exist?
Answer: 2000 BC

Question: What other language did most Iranian languages descend from?

Question: What other language besides Nuristani this proto-Iranian descent from?

Question: What language does Proto-Indo Iranian descent from?

Question: What languages are believed to have originated in central India?
Iranian_languages

It was situated precisely in the western part of Central Asia that borders present-day Russia (and present-day Kazakhstan). It was in relative proximity to the other satem ethno-linguistic groups of the Indo-European family, like Thracian, Balto-Slavic and others, and to common Indo-European's original homeland (more precisely, the steppes of southern Russia to the north of the Caucasus), according to the reconstructed linguistic relationships of common Indo-European.

Question: What language family did Thracian and Balto-Slavic belong to?
Answer: Indo-European

Question: What Indo-European groups belong to the Satem language family?

Question: What language family originated in the mountains of Russia?
Iranian_languages

Proto-Iranian thus dates to some time after Proto-Indo-Iranian break-up, or the early second millennium BCE, as the Old Iranian languages began to break off and evolve separately as the various Iranian tribes migrated and settled in vast areas of southeastern Europe, the Iranian plateau, and Central Asia.

Question: Where did early Iranian people establish societies?
Answer: southeastern Europe, the Iranian plateau, and Central Asia

Question: What language came sometime after the breakup of Proto-Iranian?

Question: What language broke up after the second millennium BCE?

Question: When did the middle Iranian language begin to break off?
Iranian_languages

The multitude of Middle Iranian languages and peoples indicate that great linguistic diversity must have existed among the ancient speakers of Iranian languages. Of that variety of languages/dialects, direct evidence of only two have survived. These are:

Question: What characteristic of Middle Iranian civilization is shown by the number of different languages and their speakers?
Answer: linguistic diversity

Question: How many of the Middlie Iranian tongues have remained in existence since ancient time?
Answer: two

Question: What characteristic of middle Iranian civilization is shown by the limited number of languages and speakers?

Question: How many middle Iranian languages are still spoken today?

Question: What languages were spoken by a limited number of people?
Iranian_languages

Old Persian is the Old Iranian dialect as it was spoken in south-western Iran by the inhabitants of Parsa, who also gave their name to their region and language. Genuine Old Persian is best attested in one of the three languages of the Behistun inscription, composed circa 520 BC, and which is the last inscription (and only inscription of significant length) in which Old Persian is still grammatically correct. Later inscriptions are comparatively brief, and typically simply copies of words and phrases from earlier ones, often with grammatical errors, which suggests that by the 4th century BC the transition from Old Persian to Middle Persian was already far advanced, but efforts were still being made to retain an "old" quality for official proclamations.

Question: In which historical record does Old Persian appear in exemplary form?
Answer: the Behistun inscription

Question: When was the Behistun inscription written?
Answer: 520 BC

Question: During what century was the change from Old to Middle Persian well underway?
Answer: 4th century BC

Question: What dialect was spoken in northwestern Iran

Question: What official purpose was Middle Persian being used for in the fourth century BC?

Question: What inscription was composed in the 4th Century BC.

Question: In which document composed in 520 BC was old Persian grammatically incorrect?

Question: During what century was the change from old to middle Persian just beginning?
Iranian_languages

The other directly attested Old Iranian dialects are the two forms of Avestan, which take their name from their use in the Avesta, the liturgical texts of indigenous Iranian religion that now goes by the name of Zoroastrianism but in the Avesta itself is simply known as vohu daena (later: behdin). The language of the Avesta is subdivided into two dialects, conventionally known as "Old (or 'Gathic') Avestan", and "Younger Avestan". These terms, which date to the 19th century, are slightly misleading since 'Younger Avestan' is not only much younger than 'Old Avestan', but also from a different geographic region. The Old Avestan dialect is very archaic, and at roughly the same stage of development as Rigvedic Sanskrit. On the other hand, Younger Avestan is at about the same linguistic stage as Old Persian, but by virtue of its use as a sacred language retained its "old" characteristics long after the Old Iranian languages had yielded to their Middle Iranian stage. Unlike Old Persian, which has Middle Persian as its known successor, Avestan has no clearly identifiable Middle Iranian stage (the effect of Middle Iranian is indistinguishable from effects due to other causes).

Question: What ancient religious document exists in two versions and includes Old Iranian language?
Answer: Avestan

Question: What is the contemporary name of the religion which Avesta was part of?
Answer: Zoroastrianism

Question: What language shows a level of maturity corresponding to Old Avestan?
Answer: Rigvedic Sanskrit

Question: What language shows the same level of development as Younger Avestan?
Answer: Old Persian

Question: What dialect is the Avesta language from?

Question: How many dialects of the Avesta language or there?

Question: What religion is vohu daena the contemporary name for?

Question: Why did old Persian retained its old characteristics long after the old Iranian languages

Question: What language shows the same level of development as old Avestan
Iranian_languages

In addition to Old Persian and Avestan, which are the only directly attested Old Iranian languages, all Middle Iranian languages must have had a predecessor "Old Iranian" form of that language, and thus can all be said to have had an (at least hypothetical) "Old" form. Such hypothetical Old Iranian languages include Carduchi (the hypothetical predecessor to Kurdish) and Old Parthian. Additionally, the existence of unattested languages can sometimes be inferred from the impact they had on neighbouring languages. Such transfer is known to have occurred for Old Persian, which has (what is called) a "Median" substrate in some of its vocabulary. Also, foreign references to languages can also provide a hint to the existence of otherwise unattested languages, for example through toponyms/ethnonyms or in the recording of vocabulary, as Herodotus did for what he called "Scythian".

Question: What language is Carduchi thought to have become?
Answer: Kurdish

Question: What language did Herodotus invent a name for?
Answer: Scythian

Question: What language to Kurdish become?

Question: What cannot be inferred from the impact on a neighboring language?

Question: What kind of substrate is Middle Iranian?

Question: Who reported vocabulary for old Persian?
Iranian_languages

Conventionally, Iranian languages are grouped in "western" and "eastern" branches. These terms have little meaning with respect to Old Avestan as that stage of the language may predate the settling of the Iranian peoples into western and eastern groups. The geographic terms also have little meaning when applied to Younger Avestan since it isn't known where that dialect (or dialects) was spoken either. Certain is only that Avestan (all forms) and Old Persian are distinct, and since Old Persian is "western", and Avestan was not Old Persian, Avestan acquired a default assignment to "eastern". Confusing the issue is the introduction of a western Iranian substrate in later Avestan compositions and redactions undertaken at the centers of imperial power in western Iran (either in the south-west in Persia, or in the north-west in Nisa/Parthia and Ecbatana/Media).

Question: What are the two main divisions of Iranian tongues?
Answer: western and eastern

Question: Which language is associated with the western branch of Iranian?
Answer: Old Persian

Question: Which language is associated with the eastern branch of Iranian?
Answer: Avestan

Question: What languages are grouped into northern and southern branches?

Question: What language is associated with the Western branch of old Persian?

Question: What language is associated with the Eastern branch of Avestan?

Question: What were the centers of imperial power in Persia?
Iranian_languages

Two of the earliest dialectal divisions among Iranian indeed happen to not follow the later division into Western and Eastern blocks. These concern the fate of the Proto-Indo-Iranian first-series palatal consonants, *ć and *dź:

Question: What elements of Proto-Indo-Iranian did not diverge according to the ensuing split between eastern and western variants?
Answer: *ć and *dź

Question: What type of letters are *ć and *dź?
Answer: first-series palatal consonants

Question: What Iranian dialects did not follow the Western and Eastern blocks?

Question: What type of valves are c and dz?
Iranian_languages

As a common intermediate stage, it is possible to reconstruct depalatalized affricates: *c, *dz. (This coincides with the state of affairs in the neighboring Nuristani languages.) A further complication however concerns the consonant clusters *ćw and *dźw:

Question: What languages share a similar situation?
Answer: Nuristani languages

Question: What other elements of early Iranian languages problematize the east-west division?
Answer: *ćw and *dźw

Question: What is the linguistic categorization of *ćw and *dźw?
Answer: consonant clusters

Question: What is contrary to the state of affairs in the Nuristani languages?

Question: What other elements of early Iranian language support the East-West division?
Iranian_languages

It is possible that other distinct dialect groups were already in existence during this period. Good candidates are the hypothethical ancestor languages of Alanian/Scytho-Sarmatian subgroup of Scythian in the far northwest; and the hypothetical "Old Parthian" (the Old Iranian ancestor of Parthian) in the near northwest, where original *dw > *b (paralleling the development of *ćw).

Question: What may have also been in use at the time?
Answer: other distinct dialect groups

Question: Precursors of what subset of Scythian are theorized to have existed?
Answer: Alanian/Scytho-Sarmatian

Question: What possible predecessor of Pathian is thought to have existed?
Answer: Old Parthian

Question: What was not in use at the time?

Question: What is the ancestor of old Iranian?

Question: c parallel the development of what other two letters?

Question: Scythian was the ancestor of what other languages?
Iranian_languages

What is known in Iranian linguistic history as the "Middle Iranian" era is thought to begin around the 4th century BCE lasting through the 9th century. Linguistically the Middle Iranian languages are conventionally classified into two main groups, Western and Eastern.

Question: When did the age of Middle Iranian come to a close?
Answer: 9th century

Question: What are the two main divisions of Middle Iranian?
Answer: Western and Eastern

Question: What era began in the ninth century?

Question: What language was divided into a northern and southern division?
Iranian_languages

The Western family includes Parthian (Arsacid Pahlavi) and Middle Persian, while Bactrian, Sogdian, Khwarezmian, Saka, and Old Ossetic (Scytho-Sarmatian) fall under the Eastern category. The two languages of the Western group were linguistically very close to each other, but quite distinct from their eastern counterparts. On the other hand, the Eastern group was an areal entity whose languages retained some similarity to Avestan. They were inscribed in various Aramaic-derived alphabets which had ultimately evolved from the Achaemenid Imperial Aramaic script, though Bactrian was written using an adapted Greek script.

Question: Bactrian, Sogdian, and Saka are examples of what type of Iranian language?
Answer: Eastern

Question: Which language bears a resemblance to the diversity of eastern Iranian languages?
Answer: Avestan

Question: Where did the the alphabets used by eastern languages come from?
Answer: Aramaic

Question: What did the Bactrian language use for writing?
Answer: Greek script

Question: What family includes party on an Old Persian?

Question: What family includes Bactrain, Sogdian and old Iranian?

Question: Where did the alphabet used by Western languages come from?

Question: What script was used for Persian rating?
Iranian_languages

Middle Persian (Pahlavi) was the official language under the Sasanian dynasty in Iran. It was in use from the 3rd century CE until the beginning of the 10th century. The script used for Middle Persian in this era underwent significant maturity. Middle Persian, Parthian and Sogdian were also used as literary languages by the Manichaeans, whose texts also survive in various non-Iranian languages, from Latin to Chinese. Manichaean texts were written in a script closely akin to the Syriac script.

Question: What is another term for Middle Persian?
Answer: Pahlavi

Question: When did Middle Persian start being u sed?
Answer: 3rd century CE

Question: What are three languages employed by the Manichaeans?
Answer: Middle Persian, Parthian and Sogdian

Question: What was the writing of Manichaean documents similar to?
Answer: Syriac script

Question: Underwood dynasty was old Persian the official language?

Question: What language was in use in Iran before the third century?

Question: What are three spoken languages use by the Manchaeans?

Question: Latin and Chinese writing were similar to what texts?
Iranian_languages

Following the Islamic Conquest of Persia (Iran), there were important changes in the role of the different dialects within the Persian Empire. The old prestige form of Middle Iranian, also known as Pahlavi, was replaced by a new standard dialect called Dari as the official language of the court. The name Dari comes from the word darbâr (دربار), which refers to the royal court, where many of the poets, protagonists, and patrons of the literature flourished. The Saffarid dynasty in particular was the first in a line of many dynasties to officially adopt the new language in 875 CE. Dari may have been heavily influenced by regional dialects of eastern Iran, whereas the earlier Pahlavi standard was based more on western dialects. This new prestige dialect became the basis of Standard New Persian. Medieval Iranian scholars such as Abdullah Ibn al-Muqaffa (8th century) and Ibn al-Nadim (10th century) associated the term "Dari" with the eastern province of Khorasan, while they used the term "Pahlavi" to describe the dialects of the northwestern areas between Isfahan and Azerbaijan, and "Pârsi" ("Persian" proper) to describe the Dialects of Fars. They also noted that the unofficial language of the royalty itself was yet another dialect, "Khuzi", associated with the western province of Khuzestan.

Question: The proliferation of which religion had a profound effect on the development of Iranian languages?
Answer: Islam

Question: What language displaced Middle Iranian as the court's official tongue?
Answer: Dari

Question: What was the first dynasty to use Dari?
Answer: Saffarid

Question: When did the Saffarid dynasty begin using Dari?
Answer: 875 CE

Question: What area was the name Dari connected to by medieval Iranian thinkers?
Answer: Khorasan

Question: What religion slowed the spread of the Iranian language?

Question: What language do middle Iranian displace is the court's official language?

Question: What was the last Dynasty to use Dari

Question: Who stopped using Dari in 875 CE?

Question: What was the official dialect of the royalty itself?
Iranian_languages

The Islamic conquest also brought with it the adoption of Arabic script for writing Persian and much later, Kurdish, Pashto and Balochi. All three were adapted to the writing by the addition of a few letters. This development probably occurred some time during the second half of the 8th century, when the old middle Persian script began dwindling in usage. The Arabic script remains in use in contemporary modern Persian. Tajik script was first Latinised in the 1920s under the then Soviet nationality policy. The script was however subsequently Cyrillicized in the 1930s by the Soviet government.

Question: What was the new form of writing introduced by the spread of Islam?
Answer: Arabic script

Question: When did usage of Middle Persian script fall off?
Answer: second half of the 8th century

Question: What script was converted to Latin in the 1920s?
Answer: Tajik script

Question: When was Tajik script converted to Cyrillic?
Answer: the 1930s

Question: Who catalyzed the conversion of Tajik script into Cyrillic?
Answer: the Soviet government

Question: The spread of what religion introduce the Persian script?

Question: When did the use of middle Persian script begin?

Question: When was Arabic script converted to Latin?

Question: What's began the conversion of Arabic script to Cyrillic?
Iranian_languages

The geographical regions in which Iranian languages were spoken were pushed back in several areas by newly neighbouring languages. Arabic spread into some parts of Western Iran (Khuzestan), and Turkic languages spread through much of Central Asia, displacing various Iranian languages such as Sogdian and Bactrian in parts of what is today Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and Tajikistan. In Eastern Europe, mostly comprising the territory of modern-day Ukraine, southern European Russia, and parts of the Balkans, the core region of the native Scythians, Sarmatians, and Alans had been decisively been taken over as a result of absorption and assimilation (e.g. Slavicisation) by the various Proto-Slavic population of the region, by the 6th century AD. This resulted in the displacement and extinction of the once predominant Scythian languages of the region. Sogdian's close relative Yaghnobi barely survives in a small area of the Zarafshan valley east of Samarkand, and Saka as Ossetic in the Caucasus, which is the sole remnant of the once predominant Scythian languages in Eastern Europe proper and large parts of the North Caucasus. Various small Iranian languages in the Pamirs survive that are derived from Eastern Iranian.

Question: What is another term for Western Iran?
Answer: Khuzestan

Question: What are two languages that were forced out by the spread of Arabic?
Answer: Sogdian and Bactrian

Question: By what century had the area inhabited by Sarmatians been absorbed by pre-Slavic people?
Answer: 6th century AD

Question: Where can the remnants of Yaghnobi be found?
Answer: Zarafshan valley

Question: Ossetic is a version of which Scythian language?
Answer: Saka

Question: What language writing to some parts of eastern Iran?

Question: What two languages grew alongside Arabic?

Question: By what century had the area inhabited by pre-Slavic people been absorbed by the Sarmations?

Question: What small area still speaks Sogdian?
Lighting

LED lamps have been advocated as the newest and best environmental lighting method. According to the Energy Saving Trust, LED lamps use only 10% power compared to a standard incandescent bulb, where compact fluorescent lamps use 20% and energy saving halogen lamps 70%. The lifetime is also much longer — up to 50,000 hours. A downside is still the initial cost, which is higher than that of compact fluorescent lamps.

Question: How much more power does a standard incandescent bulb use compared to LED?
Answer: 10%

Question: What is the average lifetime of a CFL?
Answer: 50,000 hours

Question: How much power does a halogen lamp save compared to a standard blub?
Answer: 70%
Separation_of_powers_under_the_United_States_Constitution

Separation of powers is a political doctrine originating in the writings of Montesquieu in The Spirit of the Laws where he urged for a constitutional government with three separate branches of government. Each of the three branches would have defined abilities to check the powers of the other branches. This idea was called separation of powers. This philosophy heavily influenced the writing of the United States Constitution, according to which the Legislative, Executive, and Judicial branches of the United States government are kept distinct in order to prevent abuse of power. This United States form of separation of powers is associated with a system of checks and balances.

Question: Which political practice did Montesquieu originate?
Answer: Separation of powers

Question: How many divisions of the government did Montesquieu call for?
Answer: three

Question: What document was greatly informed by the idea of separation of powers?
Answer: United States Constitution

Question: What kind of oversight does the separation of powers help to promote?
Answer: checks and balances

Question: What was the doctrine called that allowed the three branches of government to check the powers of each other?
Answer: separation of powers

Question: What originates in the writings of the Legislative powers?

Question: Who urged for a government with four individual branches?

Question: In which doctrine did the US call for three separate branches of government?

Question: Which philosophy was a great influence on the Legislative branch of government?

Question: Which document was greatly influenced by the idea of a constitutional government?
Separation_of_powers_under_the_United_States_Constitution

During the Age of Enlightenment, philosophers such as John Locke advocated the principle in their writings, whereas others, such as Thomas Hobbes, strongly opposed it. Montesquieu was one of the foremost supporters of separating the legislature, the executive, and the judiciary. His writings considerably influenced the opinions of the framers of the United States Constitution.

Question: Which Enlightenment thinker supported the idea of separation of powers?
Answer: John Locke

Question: Which Enlightenment thinker was against the separation of powers?
Answer: Thomas Hobbes

Question: Who was a leading advocate of dividing government into different branches?
Answer: Montesquieu

Question: Whose thoughts were impacted by Montesquieu's philosophy?
Answer: the framers of the United States Constitution

Question: Who was an advocate of separation of powers?
Answer: John Locke

Question: Who was an opponent of separation of powers?
Answer: Thomas Hobbes

Question: Who's writing were very influential on the design of the United States Constitution?  
Answer: Montesquieu

Question: During which age did Thomas Hobbes advocate the principle in his writing?

Question: During which age did John Locke oppose the principle in his writing?

Question: Who was at the forefront of the opposition towards separating the branches of government?

Question: Who's writings had no influence on the framers of the US constitution?
Separation_of_powers_under_the_United_States_Constitution

Strict separation of powers did not operate in The United Kingdom, the political structure of which served in most instances[citation needed] as a model for the government created by the U.S. Constitution.[citation needed] Under the UK Westminster system, based on parliamentary sovereignty and responsible government, Parliament (consisting of the Sovereign (King-in-Parliament), House of Lords and House of Commons) was the supreme lawmaking authority. The executive branch acted in the name of the King ("His Majesty's Government"), as did the judiciary. The King's Ministers were in most cases members of one of the two Houses of Parliament, and the Government needed to sustain the support of a majority in the House of Commons. One minister, the Lord Chancellor, was at the same time the sole judge in the Court of Chancery and the presiding officer in the House of Lords. Therefore, it may be seen that the three branches of British government often violated the strict principle of separation of powers, even though there were many occasions when the different branches of the government disagreed with each other. Some U.S. states did not observe a strict separation of powers in the 18th century. In New Jersey, the Governor also functioned as a member of the state's highest court and as the presiding officer of one house of the New Jersey Legislature. The President of Delaware was a member of the Court of Appeals; the presiding officers of the two houses of the state legislature also served in the executive department as Vice Presidents. In both Delaware and Pennsylvania, members of the executive council served at the same time as judges. On the other hand, many southern states explicitly required separation of powers. Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina and Georgia all kept the branches of government "separate and distinct."

Question: What country's government, on which the US government was modeled, did not formally implement separation of powers?
Answer: UK

Question: What were the two main principles informing the government of the UK?
Answer: parliamentary sovereignty and responsible government

Question: What term describes the status of the different branches of government in Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina and Georgia?
Answer: separate and distinct

Question: What country's government served as a model for the United States Government?
Answer: United Kingdom

Question: In the 18th century what function, besides President, did the Delaware President serve? 
Answer: a member of the Court of Appeals

Question: Which political structure served as a model for the United Kingdom government?

Question: What body consisted of the House of Lords and the House of Majesty;s government?

Question: What were the Chancellor's Ministers mos often members of?

Question: In which state was the Governor a member of the court of appeals?

Question: In which states did members of the Lord Chancellor's council and judges serve at the same time?
Separation_of_powers_under_the_United_States_Constitution

Congress has the sole power to legislate for the United States. Under the nondelegation doctrine, Congress may not delegate its lawmaking responsibilities to any other agency. In this vein, the Supreme Court held in the 1998 case Clinton v. City of New York that Congress could not delegate a "line-item veto" to the President, by powers vested in the government by the Constitution.

Question: What is the only branch of U.S. government imbued with lawmaking abilities?
Answer: Congress

Question: Which court case upheld the rule of nondelegation?
Answer: Clinton v. City of New York

Question: When was Clinton v. City of New York decided by the Supreme Court?
Answer: 1998

Question: In the US who has the sole power to pass legislation?
Answer: Congress

Question: What is the doctrine called that does not allow congress to pass on their power to pass laws to any other agency?
Answer: nondelegation doctrine

Question: What was the court case that struck down the line item veto?
Answer: Clinton v. City of New York

Question: What year was Clinton v. City of New York decided by the supreme court?
Answer: 1998

Question: Who has shared legislative power in the United States?

Question: Which doctrine says Congress can delegate its powers to whoever it wants?

Question: In which year was the court case Clinton v. Supreme Court held?

Question: Who may delegate lawmaking responsibilities to other agencies as it pleases?

Question: In which country does Congress have shared lawmaking responsibilities?
Separation_of_powers_under_the_United_States_Constitution

Where Congress does not make great and sweeping delegations of its authority, the Supreme Court has been less stringent. One of the earliest cases involving the exact limits of non-delegation was Wayman v. Southard 23 U.S. (10 Wet.) 1, 42 (1825). Congress had delegated to the courts the power to prescribe judicial procedure; it was contended that Congress had thereby unconstitutionally clothed the judiciary with legislative powers. While Chief Justice John Marshall conceded that the determination of rules of procedure was a legislative function, he distinguished between "important" subjects and mere details. Marshall wrote that "a general provision may be made, and power given to those who are to act under such general provisions, to fill up the details."

Question: What was one of the first times the Supreme Court tried a case regarding nondelegation?
Answer: Wayman v. Southard

Question: In what year was Wayman v. Southard tried by the U.S. Supreme Court?
Answer: 1825

Question: Who was Chief Justice of the Supreme Court when Wayman v. Southard reached the Supreme Court?
Answer: John Marshall

Question: In Wayman v. Southard, what branch was accused of being given lawmaking abilities by Congress?
Answer: the judiciary

Question: What is the name of the 1825 case where the supreme court held that congress could delegate their responsibilities to the court?
Answer: Wayman v. Southard

Question: Who was chief justice of the supreme court under the Wayman v. Southard ruling?
Answer: John Marshall

Question: Where has the Supreme Court been known to be more stringent towards Congress?

Question: What is one of the most recent races regarding limits of non delegation?

Question: When did the Supreme Court hear John Marshall v Southard?

Question: Which case was heard by Congress in regards to non delegation limits?

Question: When was the US Congress Court Wayman v. Southard heard?
Separation_of_powers_under_the_United_States_Constitution

Marshall's words and future court decisions gave Congress much latitude in delegating powers. It was not until the 1930s that the Supreme Court held a delegation of authority unconstitutional. In a case involving the creation of the National Recovery Administration called A.L.A. Schechter Poultry Corp. v. United States, 295 U.S. 495 (1935), Congress could not authorize the president to formulate codes of "fair competition." It was held that Congress must set some standards governing the actions of executive officers. The Court, however, has deemed that phrases such as "just and reasonable," "public interest" and "public convenience" suffice.

Question: When was the first time that a Congressional attempt at delegating lawmaking responsibility was found to be in violation of the Constitution?
Answer: the 1930s

Question: The establishment of what body was the subject of A.L.A. Schechter Poultry Corp. v. United States?
Answer: National Recovery Administration

Question: In what year was A.L.A. Schechter v. United States tried before the Supreme Court?
Answer: 1935

Question: In what year did the supreme court determine that delegating powers by congress was unconstitutional?
Answer: 1935

Question: What was the supreme court case that was determined that congress could not allow the President to determine fair competition?
Answer: Schechter Poultry Corp. v. United States

Question: What gave Congress less latitude in delegating powers?

Question: During which decade did the Supreme Court hold a delegation of authority as constitutional?

Question: When did Congress make the decision that a delegation of authority is unconstitutional?

Question: In which case was Congress able to authorize the president to formulate codes?

Question: During which year did Congress authorize the presidential formulation of fair competition codes?