Divyanshu67/squad_v2 huggingface dataset:
Capacitor

For air dielectric capacitors the breakdown field strength is of the order 2 to 5 MV/m; for mica the breakdown is 100 to 300 MV/m; for oil, 15 to 25 MV/m; it can be much less when other materials are used for the dielectric. The dielectric is used in very thin layers and so absolute breakdown voltage of capacitors is limited. Typical ratings for capacitors used for general electronics applications range from a few volts to 1 kV. As the voltage increases, the dielectric must be thicker, making high-voltage capacitors larger per capacitance than those rated for lower voltages. The breakdown voltage is critically affected by factors such as the geometry of the capacitor conductive parts; sharp edges or points increase the electric field strength at that point and can lead to a local breakdown. Once this starts to happen, the breakdown quickly tracks through the dielectric until it reaches the opposite plate, leaving carbon behind and causing a short (or relatively low resistance) circuit. The results can be explosive as the short in the capacitor draws current from the surrounding circuitry and dissipates the energy.

Question: What order is the breakdown field strength for air dielectric capacitors of?
Answer: of the order 2 to 5 MV/m

Question: Of what order is the breakdown field strength for mica dielectric capacitors?
Answer: 100 to 300 MV/m

Question: In what way is the dielectric used in order to cause the absolute breakdown voltage of capacitors to be limited?
Answer: The dielectric is used in very thin layers

Question: What is one factor that critically affects the breakdown voltage of the capacitor?
Answer: the geometry of the capacitor conductive parts

Question: What is the difference in the physical attributes of the dielectric used in high voltage capacitors compared to low voltage capacitors?
Answer: the dielectric must be thicker

Question: What order is the breakdown field weakness for air dielectric capacitors of?

Question: Of what order is the breakdown field weakness for mica dielectric capacitors?

Question: In what way is the dielectric never used in order to cause the absolute breakdown voltage of capacitors to be limited?

Question: What is one factor that does not affect the breakdown voltage of the capacitor?

Question: What is the difference in the physical attributes of the dielectric used in high voltage capacitors compared to even higher voltage capacitors?
Capacitor

Ripple current is the AC component of an applied source (often a switched-mode power supply) whose frequency may be constant or varying. Ripple current causes heat to be generated within the capacitor due to the dielectric losses caused by the changing field strength together with the current flow across the slightly resistive supply lines or the electrolyte in the capacitor. The equivalent series resistance (ESR) is the amount of internal series resistance one would add to a perfect capacitor to model this. Some types of capacitors, primarily tantalum and aluminum electrolytic capacitors, as well as some film capacitors have a specified rating value for maximum ripple current.

Question: What name is given to the AC component of an applied source having either constant or alternating frequency?
Answer: Ripple current

Question: What is one cause of dielectric losses in a capacitor?
Answer: changing field strength

Question: What is another cause of dielectric losses in a capacitor?
Answer: current flow across the slightly resistive supply lines or the electrolyte

Question: What is the name given to the amount of internal series resistance needed to add to an ideal capacitor model in order to represent the heat generated by dielectric losses?
Answer: equivalent series resistance (ESR)

Question: What is one type of capacitor that has a specified rating value for maximum ripple current?
Answer: aluminum electrolytic capacitors

Question: What name is given to the AC component of an applied source having no constant or alternating frequency?

Question: What is one cause of dielectric gains in a capacitor?

Question:  What is another cause of dielectric gains in a capacitor?

Question: What does ESS stand for?

Question:  What is one type of capacitor that has no specified rating value for maximum ripple current?
Capacitor

The capacitance of certain capacitors decreases as the component ages. In ceramic capacitors, this is caused by degradation of the dielectric. The type of dielectric, ambient operating and storage temperatures are the most significant aging factors, while the operating voltage has a smaller effect. The aging process may be reversed by heating the component above the Curie point. Aging is fastest near the beginning of life of the component, and the device stabilizes over time. Electrolytic capacitors age as the electrolyte evaporates. In contrast with ceramic capacitors, this occurs towards the end of life of the component.

Question: What value of some capacitors decreases with age?
Answer: The capacitance

Question: What causes the decrease of capacitance in ceramic capacitors as they age?
Answer: degradation of the dielectric

Question: What is one of the most important aging factors in capacitors?
Answer: The type of dielectric

Question: What is another important factor which governs how a capacitor ages?
Answer: ambient operating and storage temperatures

Question: At what point can the aging effect of a capacitor be reversed if the component is heated beyond?
Answer: the Curie point

Question: What value of some capacitors increases with age?

Question: What causes the increase of capacitance in ceramic capacitors as they age?

Question:  What is one of the least important aging factors in capacitors?

Question: What is the least important factor which governs how a capacitor ages?

Question: At what point can the aging effect of a capacitor never be reversed if the component is heated beyond?
Capacitor

Capacitors, especially ceramic capacitors, and older designs such as paper capacitors, can absorb sound waves resulting in a microphonic effect. Vibration moves the plates, causing the capacitance to vary, in turn inducing AC current. Some dielectrics also generate piezoelectricity. The resulting interference is especially problematic in audio applications, potentially causing feedback or unintended recording. In the reverse microphonic effect, the varying electric field between the capacitor plates exerts a physical force, moving them as a speaker. This can generate audible sound, but drains energy and stresses the dielectric and the electrolyte, if any.

Question: What is the effect called when capacitors absorb sound waves?
Answer: microphonic effect

Question: What value of a capacitor is varied when vibration moves the conducting plates? 
Answer: the capacitance

Question: What sort of current is induced when the capacitance of a capacitor is altered?
Answer: AC current

Question: In what type of applications is piezeoelectricity especially problematic?
Answer: audio applications

Question: What is it called when a changing electric field existing between the conductive plates of a capacitor physically moves them?
Answer: the reverse microphonic effect

Question:  What is the effect called when capacitors don't absorb sound waves?

Question:  What value of a capacitor is not varied when vibration moves the conducting plates?

Question:  What sort of current is induced when the capacitance of a capacitor is unaltered?

Question: In what type of applications is piezeoelectricity never problematic?

Question: What is it called when a changing electric field existing between the conductive plates of a capacitor keeps them still?
Capacitor

For maximum life, capacitors usually need to be able to handle the maximum amount of reversal that a system will experience. An AC circuit will experience 100% voltage reversal, while under-damped DC circuits will experience less than 100%. Reversal creates excess electric fields in the dielectric, causes excess heating of both the dielectric and the conductors, and can dramatically shorten the life expectancy of the capacitor. Reversal ratings will often affect the design considerations for the capacitor, from the choice of dielectric materials and voltage ratings to the types of internal connections used.

Question: What percentage of voltage reversal does an AC circuit experience?
Answer: 100% voltage reversal

Question: What does voltage reversal create in the dielectric of a capacitor?
Answer: excess electric fields

Question: What percentage of voltage reversal will an under damped DC circuit experience?
Answer: less than 100%

Question: What does excess electric field present in the dielectric lead to?
Answer: heating of both the dielectric and the conductors

Question: When designing a capacitor, what is an important rating to consider?
Answer: Reversal ratings

Question: What percentage of voltage reversal does an AC circuit never experience?

Question:  What does voltage reversal never create in the dielectric of a capacitor?

Question: What percentage of voltage reversal will an over damped DC circuit experience?

Question: When designing a capacitor, what is an unimportant rating to consider?

Question:  What does excess electric field not present in the dielectric lead to?
Capacitor

Capacitors made with any type of dielectric material will show some level of "dielectric absorption" or "soakage". On discharging a capacitor and disconnecting it, after a short time it may develop a voltage due to hysteresis in the dielectric. This effect can be objectionable in applications such as precision sample and hold circuits or timing circuits. The level of absorption depends on many factors, from design considerations to charging time, since the absorption is a time-dependent process. However, the primary factor is the type of dielectric material. Capacitors such as tantalum electrolytic or polysulfone film exhibit very high absorption, while polystyrene or Teflon allow very small levels of absorption. In some capacitors where dangerous voltages and energies exist, such as in flashtubes, television sets, and defibrillators, the dielectric absorption can recharge the capacitor to hazardous voltages after it has been shorted or discharged. Any capacitor containing over 10 joules of energy is generally considered hazardous, while 50 joules or higher is potentially lethal. A capacitor may regain anywhere from 0.01 to 20% of its original charge over a period of several minutes, allowing a seemingly safe capacitor to become surprisingly dangerous.

Question: After discharging and disconnecting a capacitor, what causes it to develop a voltage?
Answer: hysteresis in the dielectric

Question: What does the process of dielectric absorption in a capacitor depend on?
Answer: time-dependent

Question: What level of dielectric absorption would a tantalum electrolytic capacitor display? 
Answer: very high absorption

Question: What level of dielectric absorption would a Teflon capacitor exhibit?
Answer: very small levels of absorption

Question: What amount of energy must a capacitor contain in order to be generally considered dangerous? 
Answer: over 10 joules of energy

Question: After discharging and disconnecting a capacitor, what causes it to underdevelop a voltage?

Question:  What does the process of dielectric absorption in a capacitor not depend on?

Question: What level of dielectric absorption would a tantalum electrolytic capacitor never display?

Question: What level of dielectric absorption would a Teflon capacitor never exhibit?

Question: What amount of energy must a capacitor contain in order to never be considered dangerous?
Capacitor

Leakage is equivalent to a resistor in parallel with the capacitor. Constant exposure to heat can cause dielectric breakdown and excessive leakage, a problem often seen in older vacuum tube circuits, particularly where oiled paper and foil capacitors were used. In many vacuum tube circuits, interstage coupling capacitors are used to conduct a varying signal from the plate of one tube to the grid circuit of the next stage. A leaky capacitor can cause the grid circuit voltage to be raised from its normal bias setting, causing excessive current or signal distortion in the downstream tube. In power amplifiers this can cause the plates to glow red, or current limiting resistors to overheat, even fail. Similar considerations apply to component fabricated solid-state (transistor) amplifiers, but owing to lower heat production and the use of modern polyester dielectric barriers this once-common problem has become relatively rare.

Question: With what value is a resistor in parallel with a capacitor equal to?
Answer: Leakage

Question: What can cause excessive leakage in a capacitor?
Answer: Constant exposure to heat

Question: What sort of capacitors are used to carry a varying signal from the conductive plate of one tube to the grid circuit of the next stage?
Answer: interstage coupling capacitors

Question: What type of capacitor can cause signal distortion in the downstream tube?
Answer: A leaky capacitor

Question: If the grid circuit voltage is increased beyond its regular bias setting, what can happen to the conductive plates in power amplifiers?
Answer: cause the plates to glow red

Question: With what value is a resistor in parallel with a capacitor not equal to?

Question:  What will never cause excessive leakage in a capacitor?

Question:  What sort of capacitors are never used to carry a varying signal from the conductive plate of one tube to the grid circuit of the next stage?

Question: What type of capacitor will never cause signal distortion in the downstream tube?

Question: If the grid circuit voltage is increased beyond its regular bias setting, what doesn't happen to the conductive plates in power amplifiers?
Capacitor

Most types of capacitor include a dielectric spacer, which increases their capacitance. These dielectrics are most often insulators. However, low capacitance devices are available with a vacuum between their plates, which allows extremely high voltage operation and low losses. Variable capacitors with their plates open to the atmosphere were commonly used in radio tuning circuits. Later designs use polymer foil dielectric between the moving and stationary plates, with no significant air space between them.

Question: What do many capacitors contain that raises the capacitance?
Answer: a dielectric spacer

Question: What sort of dielectric is used in low capacitance devices?
Answer: a vacuum

Question: What sort of capacitors have traditionally been used in radio tuning circuits?
Answer: Variable capacitors

Question: How did the capacitor traditionally used in radio tuning circuits change over time? 
Answer: use polymer foil dielectric between the moving and stationary plates

Question: What did the later designs of capacitors used in radio tuning circuits no longer have?
Answer: no significant air space

Question: What do many capacitors contain that lower the capacitance?

Question:  What sort of dielectric is never used in low capacitance devices?

Question: What sort of capacitors have not traditionally been used in radio tuning circuits?

Question: How did the capacitor traditionally used in radio tuning circuits stay the same over time?

Question:  What did the later designs of capacitors used in radio tuning circuits still have?
Capacitor

Several solid dielectrics are available, including paper, plastic, glass, mica and ceramic materials. Paper was used extensively in older devices and offers relatively high voltage performance. However, it is susceptible to water absorption, and has been largely replaced by plastic film capacitors. Plastics offer better stability and ageing performance, which makes them useful in timer circuits, although they may be limited to low operating temperatures and frequencies. Ceramic capacitors are generally small, cheap and useful for high frequency applications, although their capacitance varies strongly with voltage and they age poorly. They are broadly categorized as class 1 dielectrics, which have predictable variation of capacitance with temperature or class 2 dielectrics, which can operate at higher voltage. Glass and mica capacitors are extremely reliable, stable and tolerant to high temperatures and voltages, but are too expensive for most mainstream applications. Electrolytic capacitors and supercapacitors are used to store small and larger amounts of energy, respectively, ceramic capacitors are often used in resonators, and parasitic capacitance occurs in circuits wherever the simple conductor-insulator-conductor structure is formed unintentionally by the configuration of the circuit layout.

Question: What benefit is offered by solid state paper capacitors?
Answer: relatively high voltage performance

Question: What type of capacitor has mostly replaced solid state paper capacitors?
Answer: plastic film capacitors

Question: What sort of circuit are plastic capacitors especially useful for?
Answer: timer circuits

Question: What is one type of reliable capacitor that is resistant to temperature and voltage changes?
Answer: Glass

Question: What is another type of reliable capacitor that is resistant to temperature and voltage changes?
Answer: mica capacitors

Question:  What benefit is never offered by solid state paper capacitors?

Question:  What type of capacitor has not replaced solid state paper capacitors?

Question:  What sort of circuit are plastic capacitors not useful for?

Question: What is one type of reliable capacitor that is non-resistant to temperature and voltage changes?

Question:  What is another type of reliable capacitor that is not resistant to temperature and voltage changes?
Capacitor

Electrolytic capacitors use an aluminum or tantalum plate with an oxide dielectric layer. The second electrode is a liquid electrolyte, connected to the circuit by another foil plate. Electrolytic capacitors offer very high capacitance but suffer from poor tolerances, high instability, gradual loss of capacitance especially when subjected to heat, and high leakage current. Poor quality capacitors may leak electrolyte, which is harmful to printed circuit boards. The conductivity of the electrolyte drops at low temperatures, which increases equivalent series resistance. While widely used for power-supply conditioning, poor high-frequency characteristics make them unsuitable for many applications. Electrolytic capacitors will self-degrade if unused for a period (around a year), and when full power is applied may short circuit, permanently damaging the capacitor and usually blowing a fuse or causing failure of rectifier diodes (for instance, in older equipment, arcing in rectifier tubes). They can be restored before use (and damage) by gradually applying the operating voltage, often done on antique vacuum tube equipment over a period of 30 minutes by using a variable transformer to supply AC power. Unfortunately, the use of this technique may be less satisfactory for some solid state equipment, which may be damaged by operation below its normal power range, requiring that the power supply first be isolated from the consuming circuits. Such remedies may not be applicable to modern high-frequency power supplies as these produce full output voltage even with reduced input.

Question: What is one type of metal which the conducting plates in electrolytic capacitors are commonly made of?
Answer: aluminum

Question: What type of dielectric layer is used in electrolytic capacitors?
Answer: an oxide dielectric layer

Question: What happens to the conductivity of the electrolyte at low temperatures?
Answer: drops at low temperatures

Question: How can electrolytic capacitors be safely used after having been stored unused for a long time?
Answer: by gradually applying the operating voltage

Question: Why might the method gradually applying the operating voltage not be suitable to protect electrolytic capacitors in modern devices?
Answer: these produce full output voltage even with reduced input

Question: What is one type of metal which the conducting plates in electrolytic capacitors are never made of?

Question:  What type of dielectric layer is never used in electrolytic capacitors?

Question: What happens to the conductivity of the electrolyte at high temperatures?

Question: How can electrolytic capacitors be safely used after having been used for a long time?

Question: Why might the method gradually applying the operating voltage not be suitable to protect electrolytic capacitors in ancient devices?
Capacitor

Several other types of capacitor are available for specialist applications. Supercapacitors store large amounts of energy. Supercapacitors made from carbon aerogel, carbon nanotubes, or highly porous electrode materials, offer extremely high capacitance (up to 5 kF as of 2010[update]) and can be used in some applications instead of rechargeable batteries. Alternating current capacitors are specifically designed to work on line (mains) voltage AC power circuits. They are commonly used in electric motor circuits and are often designed to handle large currents, so they tend to be physically large. They are usually ruggedly packaged, often in metal cases that can be easily grounded/earthed. They also are designed with direct current breakdown voltages of at least five times the maximum AC voltage.

Question: What is the main feature of a supercapacitor?
Answer: Supercapacitors store large amounts of energy

Question: What is one type of material with which a supercapacitor may be constructed?
Answer: carbon nanotubes

Question: As of 2010, what is the highest capacitance a supercapacitor has achieved?
Answer: up to 5 kF

Question: What type of capacitor is commonly used in electric motor circuits?
Answer: Alternating current capacitors

Question: How many times the maximum AC voltage are AC capacitors designed to withstand?
Answer: at least five times the maximum AC voltage

Question:  What is the main feature of a non-supercapacitor?

Question:  What is one type of material with which a supercapacitor may not be constructed?

Question: As of 2010, what is the lowest capacitance a supercapacitor has achieved?

Question:  What type of capacitor is never used in electric motor circuits?

Question: How many times the minimum AC voltage are AC capacitors designed to withstand?
Capacitor

If a capacitor is driven with a time-varying voltage that changes rapidly enough, at some frequency the polarization of the dielectric cannot follow the voltage. As an example of the origin of this mechanism, the internal microscopic dipoles contributing to the dielectric constant cannot move instantly, and so as frequency of an applied alternating voltage increases, the dipole response is limited and the dielectric constant diminishes. A changing dielectric constant with frequency is referred to as dielectric dispersion, and is governed by dielectric relaxation processes, such as Debye relaxation. Under transient conditions, the displacement field can be expressed as (see electric susceptibility):

Question: Under what condition might the polarization of the dielectric be unable to follow the voltage?
Answer: driven with a time-varying voltage that changes rapidly

Question: What type of dipoles which add to the dielectric constant cannot move instantly if a rapidly changing time varying voltage is driving the capacitor?
Answer: the internal microscopic dipoles

Question: What is it called when a dielectric constant changes with frequency?
Answer: dielectric dispersion

Question: What regulates dielectric dispersion?
Answer: dielectric relaxation processes

Question: What is an example of a dielectric relaxation process?
Answer: Debye relaxation

Question: Under what condition might the polarization of the dielectric be able to follow the voltage?

Question: What type of dipoles which add to the dielectric constant cannot move instantly if a slowly changing time varying voltage is driving the capacitor?

Question: What is it called when a dielectric constant stays the same with frequency?

Question:  What deregulates dielectric dispersion?

Question:  What is an example of an undielectric relaxation process?
Capacitor

where a single prime denotes the real part and a double prime the imaginary part, Z(ω) is the complex impedance with the dielectric present, Ccmplx(ω) is the so-called complex capacitance with the dielectric present, and C0 is the capacitance without the dielectric. (Measurement "without the dielectric" in principle means measurement in free space, an unattainable goal inasmuch as even the quantum vacuum is predicted to exhibit nonideal behavior, such as dichroism. For practical purposes, when measurement errors are taken into account, often a measurement in terrestrial vacuum, or simply a calculation of C0, is sufficiently accurate.)

Question: How is the complex impedance with dielectric represented mathematically?
Answer: Z(ω)

Question: How is the complex capacitance without dielectric represented mathematically?
Answer: C0

Question: Why is the value of C0 unattainable in reality?
Answer: even the quantum vacuum is predicted to exhibit nonideal behavior

Question: Under what condition is the approximation C0 sufficiently accurate for calculation purposes?
Answer: in terrestrial vacuum

Question: How is the complex capacitance mathematically represented with the dielectric present?
Answer: Ccmplx(ω)

Question: How is the non-complex impedance with dielectric represented mathematically?

Question: How is the complex capacitance with dielectric represented mathematically?

Question:  Why isn't the value of C0 unattainable in reality?

Question: Under what condition is the approximation C0 sufficiently inaccurate for calculation purposes?

Question: How is the complex capacitance mathematically unrepresented with the dielectric present?
Capacitor

The arrangement of plates and dielectric has many variations depending on the desired ratings of the capacitor. For small values of capacitance (microfarads and less), ceramic disks use metallic coatings, with wire leads bonded to the coating. Larger values can be made by multiple stacks of plates and disks. Larger value capacitors usually use a metal foil or metal film layer deposited on the surface of a dielectric film to make the plates, and a dielectric film of impregnated paper or plastic – these are rolled up to save space. To reduce the series resistance and inductance for long plates, the plates and dielectric are staggered so that connection is made at the common edge of the rolled-up plates, not at the ends of the foil or metalized film strips that comprise the plates.

Question: What order of magnitude of capacitance is suitable for capacitors comprised of ceramic disks with metallic coatings?
Answer: microfarads and less

Question: How are larger value capacitors often constructed?
Answer: multiple stacks of plates and disks

Question: What do larger value capacitors often use as the dielectric medium?
Answer: impregnated paper or plastic – these are rolled up to save space

Question: Why are the plates and dielectrics often staggered in larger value capacitors?
Answer: To reduce the series resistance and inductance

Question: How are the conductive plates often made for larger value capacitors?
Answer: metal film layer deposited on the surface of a dielectric film

Question: What order of magnitude of capacitance is suitable for capacitors comprised of ceramic disks without metallic coatings?

Question:  How are smaller value capacitors often constructed?

Question: What do smaller value capacitors often use as the dielectric medium?

Question: Why are the plates and dielectrics often staggered in smaller value capacitors?

Question:  How are the conductive plates never made for larger value capacitors?
Capacitor

Capacitors may have their connecting leads arranged in many configurations, for example axially or radially. "Axial" means that the leads are on a common axis, typically the axis of the capacitor's cylindrical body – the leads extend from opposite ends. Radial leads might more accurately be referred to as tandem; they are rarely actually aligned along radii of the body's circle, so the term is inexact, although universal. The leads (until bent) are usually in planes parallel to that of the flat body of the capacitor, and extend in the same direction; they are often parallel as manufactured.

Question: What is one type of configuration in which a capacitor may have its connecting leads organized?
Answer: axially

Question: What is another type of configuration in which a capacitor may have its connecting leads arranged?
Answer: radially

Question: Which type of configuration is often manufactured with the leads parallel to the body of the capacitor?
Answer: Radial

Question: How are the leads of an axially configured capacitor arranged?
Answer: on a common axis

Question: How could radial leads be more correctly described?
Answer: as tandem

Question: What is one type of configuration in which a capacitor not have its connecting leads organized?

Question: What is another type of configuration in which a capacitor will never have its connecting leads arranged?

Question: Which type of configuration is never manufactured with the leads parallel to the body of the capacitor?

Question:  How are the leads of an axially configured capacitor not arranged?

Question:  How could radial leads be less correctly described?
Capacitor

Small, cheap discoidal ceramic capacitors have existed since the 1930s, and remain in widespread use. Since the 1980s, surface mount packages for capacitors have been widely used. These packages are extremely small and lack connecting leads, allowing them to be soldered directly onto the surface of printed circuit boards. Surface mount components avoid undesirable high-frequency effects due to the leads and simplify automated assembly, although manual handling is made difficult due to their small size.

Question: Since when have inexpensive ceramic disc capacitors existed?
Answer: the 1930s

Question: Since when have surface mount packages for capacitors been commonly in use?
Answer: the 1980s

Question: What do surface mount packages lack that allows their use on the surface of printed circuit boards?
Answer: connecting leads

Question: What is one benefit of using surface mount components?
Answer: simplify automated assembly

Question: What is one difficulty when using surface mount components?
Answer: manual handling is made difficult due to their small size

Question: What happened since the 1940s?

Question: What has been in use since the 1990s?

Question: What do surface mount packages have that allows their use on the surface of printed circuit boards?

Question:  What is one inconvenience of using surface mount components?

Question:  What is one easy part when using surface mount components?
Capacitor

Mechanically controlled variable capacitors allow the plate spacing to be adjusted, for example by rotating or sliding a set of movable plates into alignment with a set of stationary plates. Low cost variable capacitors squeeze together alternating layers of aluminum and plastic with a screw. Electrical control of capacitance is achievable with varactors (or varicaps), which are reverse-biased semiconductor diodes whose depletion region width varies with applied voltage. They are used in phase-locked loops, amongst other applications.

Question: What do mechanically controlled variable capacitors enable to be modified?
Answer: the plate spacing

Question: How do cheap variable capacitors vary the separation distance between layers of a plastic and aluminum?
Answer: with a screw

Question: Of what type of diodes are varactors or varicaps comprised?
Answer: reverse-biased semiconductor diodes

Question: What varies as a function of voltage in varactors?
Answer: depletion region

Question: What is an application of varactors?
Answer: phase-locked loops

Question: What do mechanically controlled variable capacitors disable to be modified?

Question: How do cheap variable capacitors vary the separation distance against layers of a plastic and aluminum?

Question:  Of what type of diodes are varactors or varicaps uncomprised?

Question: What doesn't vary as a function of voltage in varactors?

Question:  What is not an application of varactors?
Capacitor

Most capacitors have numbers printed on their bodies to indicate their electrical characteristics. Larger capacitors like electrolytics usually display the actual capacitance together with the unit (for example, 220 μF). Smaller capacitors like ceramics, however, use a shorthand consisting of three numeric digits and a letter, where the digits indicate the capacitance in pF (calculated as XY × 10Z for digits XYZ) and the letter indicates the tolerance (J, K or M for ±5%, ±10% and ±20% respectively).

Question: How do larger capacitors present their electrical characteristics?
Answer: display the actual capacitance together with the unit (for example, 220 μF)

Question: What does the abbreviated electrical characteristics of smaller capacitors consist of?
Answer: three numeric digits and a letter

Question: What part of the electrical characteristics of smaller capacitors do the digits of the abbreviated notation represent ?
Answer: the digits indicate the capacitance

Question: What does the letter of the abbreviated notation for the electrical characteristics of smaller capacitors represent?
Answer: the letter indicates the tolerance

Question: In what SI unit is the capacitance reported on smaller capacitors?
Answer: in pF

Question: How do larger capacitors hide their electrical characteristics?

Question: What does the abbreviated electrical characteristics of larger capacitors consist of?

Question: What part of the electrical characteristics of larger capacitors do the digits of the abbreviated notation represent ?

Question:  What does the letter of the abbreviated notation for the electrical characteristics of larger capacitors represent?

Question:  In what SI unit is the capacitance reported on larger capacitors?
Capacitor

Capacitors are connected in parallel with the power circuits of most electronic devices and larger systems (such as factories) to shunt away and conceal current fluctuations from the primary power source to provide a "clean" power supply for signal or control circuits. Audio equipment, for example, uses several capacitors in this way, to shunt away power line hum before it gets into the signal circuitry. The capacitors act as a local reserve for the DC power source, and bypass AC currents from the power supply. This is used in car audio applications, when a stiffening capacitor compensates for the inductance and resistance of the leads to the lead-acid car battery.

Question: Why are capacitors connected in parallel with the power circuits of many devices and large systems?
Answer: to provide a "clean" power supply for signal or control circuits

Question: How do the capacitors connected in parallel act with currents from the power supply?
Answer: as a local reserve for the DC power source

Question: What is one value a stiffening capacitor accounts for when used in for car audio purposes?
Answer: the inductance

Question: What is another value a stiffening capacitor accounts for when used in for car audio purposes?
Answer: resistance

Question: What do parallel capacitors do to fluctuating current in order to deliver "clean" power for control circuits?
Answer: conceal current fluctuations

Question: Why are capacitors connected in parallel without the power circuits of many devices and large systems?

Question:  How do the capacitors connected perpendicullarly act with currents from the power supply?

Question: What is one value a stiffening capacitor accounts for when used in for a plane audio purposes?

Question:  What is another value a stiffening capacitor accounts for when used in for boat audio purposes?

Question: What do parallel capacitors do to fluctuating current in order to deliver "dirty" power for control circuits?
Capacitor

In electric power distribution, capacitors are used for power factor correction. Such capacitors often come as three capacitors connected as a three phase load. Usually, the values of these capacitors are given not in farads but rather as a reactive power in volt-amperes reactive (var). The purpose is to counteract inductive loading from devices like electric motors and transmission lines to make the load appear to be mostly resistive. Individual motor or lamp loads may have capacitors for power factor correction, or larger sets of capacitors (usually with automatic switching devices) may be installed at a load center within a building or in a large utility substation.

Question: In what scenario are capacitors used for power factor correction?
Answer: In electric power distribution

Question: How are capacitors used for for power factor correction prepared?
Answer: as three capacitors connected as a three phase load

Question: In what what unit is the capacitance reported for capacitors used in power factor correction?
Answer: reactive power in volt-amperes reactive (var)

Question: What is the reason for using capacitors in power factor correction?
Answer: to counteract inductive loading

Question: How are power factor correction capacitors sometimes installed?
Answer: at a load center within a building

Question: In what scenario are capacitors never used for power factor correction?

Question:  How are capacitors never used for power factor correction prepared?

Question: In what what unit is the capacitance reported for capacitors never used in power factor correction?

Question:  What is the reason for never using capacitors in power factor correction?

Question:  How are power factor correction capacitors never installed?
Capacitor

When an inductive circuit is opened, the current through the inductance collapses quickly, creating a large voltage across the open circuit of the switch or relay. If the inductance is large enough, the energy will generate a spark, causing the contact points to oxidize, deteriorate, or sometimes weld together, or destroying a solid-state switch. A snubber capacitor across the newly opened circuit creates a path for this impulse to bypass the contact points, thereby preserving their life; these were commonly found in contact breaker ignition systems, for instance. Similarly, in smaller scale circuits, the spark may not be enough to damage the switch but will still radiate undesirable radio frequency interference (RFI), which a filter capacitor absorbs. Snubber capacitors are usually employed with a low-value resistor in series, to dissipate energy and minimize RFI. Such resistor-capacitor combinations are available in a single package.

Question: What happens to the current when an inductive circuit is opened?
Answer: the current through the inductance collapses quickly

Question: What happens to the voltage when an inductive circuit is opened?
Answer: a large voltage across the open circuit of the switch

Question: What type of capacitor is used to make a path to bypass the contact points?
Answer: A snubber capacitor

Question: What is a typical system in which a snubber capacitor is found?
Answer: contact breaker ignition systems

Question: What type of capacitor absorbs radio frequency interference?
Answer: a filter capacitor

Question:  What happens to the current when an inductive circuit is closed?

Question:  What happens to the voltage when an inductive circuit is closed?

Question: What type of capacitor is used to make a path to not bypass the contact points?

Question:  What is a typical system in which a snubber capacitor is not found?

Question:  What type of capacitor dispenses radio frequency interference?
Capacitor

In single phase squirrel cage motors, the primary winding within the motor housing is not capable of starting a rotational motion on the rotor, but is capable of sustaining one. To start the motor, a secondary "start" winding has a series non-polarized starting capacitor to introduce a lead in the sinusoidal current. When the secondary (start) winding is placed at an angle with respect to the primary (run) winding, a rotating electric field is created. The force of the rotational field is not constant, but is sufficient to start the rotor spinning. When the rotor comes close to operating speed, a centrifugal switch (or current-sensitive relay in series with the main winding) disconnects the capacitor. The start capacitor is typically mounted to the side of the motor housing. These are called capacitor-start motors, that have relatively high starting torque. Typically they can have up-to four times as much starting torque than a split-phase motor and are used on applications such as compressors, pressure washers and any small device requiring high starting torques.

Question: What is the main winding on a squirrel cage motor capable of withstanding?
Answer: a rotational motion on the rotor

Question: What sort of capacitors are used on the second winding of a squirrel cage motor?
Answer: series non-polarized starting capacitor

Question: What does the capacitor on the second winding of a squirrel cage motor do?
Answer: introduce a lead in the sinusoidal current

Question: What does the centrifugal switch do the capacitor when the rotor achieves operating speed?
Answer: disconnects the capacitor

Question: Where is the start capacitor commonly mounted?
Answer: to the side of the motor housing

Question: What is the main winding on a squirrel cage motor capable of withstanding?

Question: What sort of capacitors are never used on the second winding of a squirrel cage motor?

Question: What doesn't the capacitor on the second winding of a squirrel cage motor do?

Question:  Where is the start capacitor commonly mounted?
Capacitor

Capacitors may retain a charge long after power is removed from a circuit; this charge can cause dangerous or even potentially fatal shocks or damage connected equipment. For example, even a seemingly innocuous device such as a disposable-camera flash unit, powered by a 1.5 volt AA battery, has a capacitor which may contain over 15 joules of energy and be charged to over 300 volts. This is easily capable of delivering a shock. Service procedures for electronic devices usually include instructions to discharge large or high-voltage capacitors, for instance using a Brinkley stick. Capacitors may also have built-in discharge resistors to dissipate stored energy to a safe level within a few seconds after power is removed. High-voltage capacitors are stored with the terminals shorted, as protection from potentially dangerous voltages due to dielectric absorption or from transient voltages the capacitor may pick up from static charges or passing weather events.

Question: How much energy could a capacitor in a disposable camera contain?
Answer: over 15 joules of energy

Question: To what voltage could a capacitor from a disposable camera be charged to?
Answer: over 300 volts

Question: What device can be used to discharge large voltage capacitors?
Answer: a Brinkley stick

Question: How are the terminals of high voltage capacitors stored?
Answer: with the terminals shorted

Question: What type of charge could a capacitor pick up a transient charge from?
Answer: from static charges

Question: How much energy could a capacitor in a disposable camera release?

Question: To what voltage could a capacitor from a disposable camera be never charged to?

Question:  What device can't be used to discharge large voltage capacitors?

Question:  How aren't the terminals of high voltage capacitors stored?

Question: What type of charge couldn't a capacitor pick up a transient charge from?
Capacitor

Capacitors may catastrophically fail when subjected to voltages or currents beyond their rating, or as they reach their normal end of life. Dielectric or metal interconnection failures may create arcing that vaporizes the dielectric fluid, resulting in case bulging, rupture, or even an explosion. Capacitors used in RF or sustained high-current applications can overheat, especially in the center of the capacitor rolls. Capacitors used within high-energy capacitor banks can violently explode when a short in one capacitor causes sudden dumping of energy stored in the rest of the bank into the failing unit. High voltage vacuum capacitors can generate soft X-rays even during normal operation. Proper containment, fusing, and preventive maintenance can help to minimize these hazards.

Question: What could cause the failure of a capacitor?
Answer: when subjected to voltages or currents beyond their rating

Question: What can happen to capacitors used in high current applications?
Answer: overheat

Question: What can happen to capacitors used in high energy capacitor banks?
Answer: violently explode

Question: What type of capacitors can generate soft x-rays?
Answer: High voltage vacuum capacitors

Question: What is one way to help minimize capacitor dangers?
Answer: preventive maintenance

Question: What couldn't cause the failure of a capacitor?

Question:  What can't happen to capacitors used in high current applications?

Question: What can happen to capacitors used in low energy capacitor banks?

Question:  What type of capacitors can generate hard x-rays?

Question:  What is one way to help maximize capacitor dangers?
History_of_science

The history of science is the study of the development of science and scientific knowledge, including both the natural sciences and social sciences. (The history of the arts and humanities is termed as the history of scholarship.) Science is a body of empirical, theoretical, and practical knowledge about the natural world, produced by scientists who emphasize the observation, explanation, and prediction of real world phenomena. Historiography of science, in contrast, often draws on the historical methods of both intellectual history and social history.

Question: What are natural and social sciences a subcategory of?
Answer: The history of science

Question: What is the history of arts and humanities called?
Answer: the history of scholarship

Question: What kind of phenomena does science study?
Answer: real world

Question: Intellectual history and social history are used in what?
Answer: Historiography of science
History_of_science

The English word scientist is relatively recent—first coined by William Whewell in the 19th century. Previously, people investigating nature called themselves natural philosophers. While empirical investigations of the natural world have been described since classical antiquity (for example, by Thales, Aristotle, and others), and scientific methods have been employed since the Middle Ages (for example, by Ibn al-Haytham, and Roger Bacon), the dawn of modern science is often traced back to the early modern period and in particular to the scientific revolution that took place in 16th- and 17th-century Europe. Scientific methods are considered to be so fundamental to modern science that some consider earlier inquiries into nature to be pre-scientific. Traditionally, historians of science have defined science sufficiently broadly to include those inquiries.

Question: Who coined the word "scientist"?
Answer: William Whewell

Question: When was the word "scientist" created?
Answer: 19th century

Question: What are people who study nature called?
Answer: natural philosophers

Question: Ibn al-Haytham and Roger Bacon were scientists in which time period?
Answer: the Middle Ages

Question: When was the beginning of modern science considered to be?
Answer: the scientific revolution