Divyanshu67/squad_v2 huggingface dataset:
Roman_Republic

In 494 BC, the city was at war with two neighboring tribes. The plebeian soldiers refused to march against the enemy, and instead seceded to the Aventine Hill. The plebeians demanded the right to elect their own officials. The patricians agreed, and the plebeians returned to the battlefield. The plebeians called these new officials "plebeian tribunes". The tribunes would have two assistants, called "plebeian aediles". During the 5th century BC, a series of reforms were passed. The result of these reforms was that any law passed by the plebeian would have the full force of law. In 443 BC, the censorship was created. From 375 BC to 371 BC, the republic experienced a constitutional crisis during which the tribunes used their vetoes to prevent the election of senior magistrates.

Question: In what year was the city in conflict with two nearby tribes?
Answer: 494 BC

Question: Which group of people requested the ability to elect officials?
Answer: The plebeians

Question: Who used the vetoes that they had been given to prevent the appointment of magistrates?
Answer: the tribunes

Question: What were the assistants to the plebeian tribunes named?
Answer: plebeian aediles

Question: During what century were reformed passed that allowed laws passed by the plebeians to have the full force of the law?
Answer: 5th century BC
Roman_Republic

After the consulship had been opened to the plebeians, the plebeians were able to hold both the dictatorship and the censorship. Plebiscites of 342 BC placed limits on political offices; an individual could hold only one office at a time, and ten years must elapse between the end of his official term and his re-election. Further laws attempted to relieve the burden of debt from plebeians by banning interest on loans. In 337 BC, the first plebeian praetor was elected. During these years, the tribunes and the senators grew increasingly close. The senate realised the need to use plebeian officials to accomplish desired goals. To win over the tribunes, the senators gave the tribunes a great deal of power and the tribunes began to feel obligated to the senate. As the tribunes and the senators grew closer, plebeian senators were often able to secure the tribunate for members of their own families. In time, the tribunate became a stepping stone to higher office.

Question: What year were limits placed upon plebeians that prevented them from holding more than one office concurrently?
Answer: 342 BC

Question: What could no longer be associated with debt after laws were passed preventing it?
Answer: interest

Question: What year saw the election of a plebeian to the office of praetor?
Answer: 337 BC

Question: How did senators attempt to gain the favor of the tribunes?
Answer: gave the tribunes a great deal of power

Question: What was considered a pathway to holding a higher office?
Answer: the tribunate
Roman_Republic

Shortly before 312 BCE, the Plebeian Council enacted the Plebiscitum Ovinium. During the early republic, only consuls could appoint new senators. This initiative, however, transferred this power to the censors. It also required the censor to appoint any newly elected magistrate to the senate. By this point, plebeians were already holding a significant number of magisterial offices. Thus, the number of plebeian senators probably increased quickly. However, it remained difficult for a plebeian to enter the senate if he was not from a well-known political family, as a new patrician-like plebeian aristocracy emerged. The old nobility existed through the force of law, because only patricians were allowed to stand for high office. The new nobility existed due to the organization of society. As such, only a revolution could overthrow this new structure.

Question: In what year was the Plebiscitum Ovinium initiative enacted?
Answer: before 312 BCE

Question: Who had already held a large amount of magisterial offices?
Answer: plebeians

Question: Who was allowed to be elected to high office positions?
Answer: only patricians

Question: What initiative provided censors with the abillity to appoint new senators?
Answer: Plebiscitum Ovinium

Question: Who could a newly elected magistrate expect to be appointed by?
Answer: the censor
Roman_Republic

By 287 BC, the economic condition of the average plebeian had become poor. The problem appears to have centered around widespread indebtedness. The plebeians demanded relief, but the senators refused to address their situation. The result was the final plebeian secession. The plebeians seceded to the Janiculum hill. To end the secession, a dictator was appointed. The dictator passed a law (the Lex Hortensia), which ended the requirement that the patrician senators must agree before any bill could be considered by the Plebeian Council. This was not the first law to require that an act of the Plebeian Council have the full force of law. The Plebeian Council acquired this power during a modification to the original Valerian law in 449 BC. The significance of this law was in the fact that it robbed the patricians of their final weapon over the plebeians. The result was that control over the state fell, not onto the shoulders of voters, but to the new plebeian nobility.

Question: What was the economic status of your typical plebeian in 287 BC?
Answer: poor

Question: Who refused to concern themselves with the plebeians debt situation?
Answer: senators

Question: What law was passed that allowed the Plebeian Council to consider a bill without the approval of the patrician senators?
Answer: the Lex Hortensia

Question: What did the patrician senators refusal to address the accumulating debt of the plebeians lead to?
Answer: the final plebeian secession
Roman_Republic

The plebeians had finally achieved political equality with the patricians. However, the plight of the average plebeian had not changed. A small number of plebeian families achieved the same standing that the old aristocratic patrician families had always had, but the new plebeian aristocrats became as uninterested in the plight of the average plebeian as the old patrician aristocrats had always been. The plebeians rebelled by leaving Rome and refusing to return until they had more rights. The patricians then noticed how much they needed the plebeians and accepted their terms. The plebeians then returned to Rome and continued their work.

Question: Which group of people were now considered to be politically equal with the plebeians?
Answer: patricians

Question: Which group of people rebelled by vacating Rome?
Answer: The plebeians

Question: How many plebeian families had an identical standing as the old aristocratic patrician families?
Answer: A small number

Question: What did the rebelling plebeians want before they returned to Rome?
Answer: more rights
Roman_Republic

The Hortensian Law deprived the patricians of their last weapon against the plebeians, and thus resolved the last great political question of the era. No such important political changes occurred between 287 BC and 133 BC. The important laws of this era were still enacted by the senate. In effect, the plebeians were satisfied with the possession of power, but did not care to use it. The senate was supreme during this era because the era was dominated by questions of foreign and military policy. This was the most militarily active era of the Roman Republic.

Question: Why was the senate considered to be supreme during this time?
Answer: because the era was dominated by questions of foreign and military policy

Question: What years did no important political changes happen during?
Answer: 287 BC and 133 BC

Question: What group of people often failed to use the power that was given to them?
Answer: the plebeians

Question: Who enacted crucial laws during this period of time?
Answer: the senate

Question: What was a political element that satiated the plebeians?
Answer: the possession of power
Roman_Republic

In the final decades of this era many plebeians grew poorer. The long military campaigns had forced citizens to leave their farms to fight, while their farms fell into disrepair. The landed aristocracy began buying bankrupted farms at discounted prices. As commodity prices fell, many farmers could no longer operate their farms at a profit. The result was the ultimate bankruptcy of countless farmers. Masses of unemployed plebeians soon began to flood into Rome, and thus into the ranks of the legislative assemblies. Their poverty usually led them to vote for the candidate who offered them the most. A new culture of dependency was emerging, in which citizens would look to any populist leader for relief.

Question: What had caused citizens to vacate their farms?
Answer: long military campaigns

Question: How could a candidate assure the vote of a poverty stricken plebeian?
Answer: offered them the most

Question: What type of culture was a side effect of the rampant poverty of the average plebeian?
Answer: culture of dependency

Question: What caused the bankruptcy of many farmers during this era?
Answer: commodity prices fell

Question: Who had bought the now bankrupt farms?
Answer: landed aristocracy
Roman_Republic

Tiberius Gracchus was elected tribune in 133 BC. He attempted to enact a law which would have limited the amount of land that any individual could own. The aristocrats, who stood to lose an enormous amount of money, were bitterly opposed to this proposal. Tiberius submitted this law to the Plebeian Council, but the law was vetoed by a tribune named Marcus Octavius. Tiberius then used the Plebeian Council to impeach Octavius. The theory, that a representative of the people ceases to be one when he acts against the wishes of the people, was counter to Roman constitutional theory. If carried to its logical end, this theory would remove all constitutional restraints on the popular will, and put the state under the absolute control of a temporary popular majority. His law was enacted, but Tiberius was murdered with 300 of his associates when he stood for reelection to the tribunate.

Question: To what position was Tiberius Gracchus elected?
Answer: tribune

Question: Who had tried to enact a law that places a limit on the amount of property any single individual could possess?
Answer: Tiberius Gracchus

Question: When was Tiberius Gracchus murdered?
Answer: when he stood for reelection to the tribunate

Question: Which tribune was impeached by the Plebeian Council?
Answer: Marcus Octavius

Question: What was considered to be the opposite of Roman constitutional theory?
Answer: that a representative of the people ceases to be one when he acts against the wishes of the people
Roman_Republic

Tiberius' brother Gaius was elected tribune in 123 BC. Gaius Gracchus' ultimate goal was to weaken the senate and to strengthen the democratic forces. In the past, for example, the senate would eliminate political rivals either by establishing special judicial commissions or by passing a senatus consultum ultimum ("ultimate decree of the senate"). Both devices would allow the Senate to bypass the ordinary due process rights that all citizens had. Gaius outlawed the judicial commissions, and declared the senatus consultum ultimum to be unconstitutional. Gaius then proposed a law which would grant citizenship rights to Rome's Italian allies. This last proposal was not popular with the plebeians and he lost much of his support. He stood for election to a third term in 121 BC, but was defeated and then murdered by representatives of the senate with 3,000 of his supporters on Capitoline Hill in Rome. Though the senate retained control, the Gracchi had strengthened the political influence of the plebeians.

Question: In what year was Gaius elected to office?
Answer: 123 BC

Question: What is considered to be the end game of Gaius Gracchus?
Answer: weaken the senate and to strengthen the democratic forces

Question: Who brought forward a law that would given citizenship right to Italian allies of Rome?
Answer: Gaius

Question: Which elected official lost the election in 121 BC?
Answer: Gaius

Question: What was the location of the Gaius Gracchus murder?
Answer: Capitoline Hill in Rome
Roman_Republic

In 118 BC, King Micipsa of Numidia (current-day Algeria and Tunisia) died. He was succeeded by two legitimate sons, Adherbal and Hiempsal, and an illegitimate son, Jugurtha. Micipsa divided his kingdom between these three sons. Jugurtha, however, turned on his brothers, killing Hiempsal and driving Adherbal out of Numidia. Adherbal fled to Rome for assistance, and initially Rome mediated a division of the country between the two brothers. Eventually, Jugurtha renewed his offensive, leading to a long and inconclusive war with Rome. He also bribed several Roman commanders, and at least two tribunes, before and during the war. His nemesis, Gaius Marius, a legate from a virtually unknown provincial family, returned from the war in Numidia and was elected consul in 107 BC over the objections of the aristocratic senators. Marius invaded Numidia and brought the war to a quick end, capturing Jugurtha in the process. The apparent incompetence of the Senate, and the brilliance of Marius, had been put on full display. The populares party took full advantage of this opportunity by allying itself with Marius.

Question: Who was the illegitimate offspring of the King Micipsa of Numidia?
Answer: Jugurtha

Question: Who was Jugurtha's rival?
Answer: Gaius Marius

Question: When was Gaius Marius elected to the position of consul?
Answer: 107 BC

Question: Who did not agree with the election of Gaius Marius?
Answer: aristocratic senators

Question: Which individual did the populares part have an allegiance with?
Answer: Marius
Roman_Republic

Several years later, in 88 BC, a Roman army was sent to put down an emerging Asian power, king Mithridates of Pontus. The army, however, was defeated. One of Marius' old quaestors, Lucius Cornelius Sulla, had been elected consul for the year, and was ordered by the senate to assume command of the war against Mithridates. Marius, a member of the "populares" party, had a tribune revoke Sulla's command of the war against Mithridates. Sulla, a member of the aristocratic ("optimates") party, brought his army back to Italy and marched on Rome. Sulla was so angry at Marius' tribune that he passed a law intended to permanently weaken the tribunate. He then returned to his war against Mithridates. With Sulla gone, the populares under Marius and Lucius Cornelius Cinna soon took control of the city.

Question: In what year was a Roman army dispatched to terminate the King of Pontus?
Answer: 88 BC

Question: Who was ordered by the senate to become commander in the conflict with King Mithridates?
Answer: Lucius Cornelius Sulla

Question: Who had successfully passed a law whose sole purpose was to lessen the power of the tribunate?
Answer: Sulla

Question: What political party did Lucius Cornelius Sulla belong to?
Answer: populares

Question: What happened after Sulla returned to the conflict with Mithridates?
Answer: Marius and Lucius Cornelius Cinna soon took control of the city
Roman_Republic

During the period in which the populares party controlled the city, they flouted convention by re-electing Marius consul several times without observing the customary ten-year interval between offices. They also transgressed the established oligarchy by advancing unelected individuals to magisterial office, and by substituting magisterial edicts for popular legislation. Sulla soon made peace with Mithridates. In 83 BC, he returned to Rome, overcame all resistance, and recaptured the city. Sulla and his supporters then slaughtered most of Marius' supporters. Sulla, having observed the violent results of radical popular reforms, was naturally conservative. As such, he sought to strengthen the aristocracy, and by extension the senate. Sulla made himself dictator, passed a series of constitutional reforms, resigned the dictatorship, and served one last term as consul. He died in 78 BC.

Question: How many years was normal to span between offices prior to the populares controlling the city?
Answer: ten-year interval

Question: In what year did Sulla succesfully take over the populares controlled city?
Answer: 83 BC

Question: Who were slaughtered upon the arrival of Sulla in Rome?
Answer: most of Marius' supporters

Question: In what year did Sulla die?
Answer: 78 BC

Question: Which leader had achieved peace with Mithridates?
Answer: Sulla
Roman_Republic

In 77 BC, the senate sent one of Sulla's former lieutenants, Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus ("Pompey the Great"), to put down an uprising in Spain. By 71 BC, Pompey returned to Rome after having completed his mission. Around the same time, another of Sulla's former lieutenants, Marcus Licinius Crassus, had just put down the Spartacus-led gladiator/slave revolt in Italy. Upon their return, Pompey and Crassus found the populares party fiercely attacking Sulla's constitution. They attempted to forge an agreement with the populares party. If both Pompey and Crassus were elected consul in 70 BC, they would dismantle the more obnoxious components of Sulla's constitution. The two were soon elected, and quickly dismantled most of Sulla's constitution.

Question: Where in the year 77 BC was an uprising?
Answer: Spain

Question: Which former lieutenant of Sulla had dismantled most of the constitution that Sulla had crafted?
Answer: Pompey

Question: In what year was the election held that let Pompey and Crassus obtain the seat of consul?
Answer: 70 BC

Question: Who was the instigator in the slave revolt in Italy?
Answer: Spartacus

Question: When did Pompey return to Rome after having quelled the uprising in Spain?
Answer: 71 BC
Roman_Republic

Around 66 BC, a movement to use constitutional, or at least peaceful, means to address the plight of various classes began. After several failures, the movement's leaders decided to use any means that were necessary to accomplish their goals. The movement coalesced under an aristocrat named Lucius Sergius Catilina. The movement was based in the town of Faesulae, which was a natural hotbed of agrarian agitation. The rural malcontents were to advance on Rome, and be aided by an uprising within the city. After assassinating the consuls and most of the senators, Catiline would be free to enact his reforms. The conspiracy was set in motion in 63 BC. The consul for the year, Marcus Tullius Cicero, intercepted messages that Catiline had sent in an attempt to recruit more members. As a result, the top conspirators in Rome (including at least one former consul) were executed by authorisation (of dubious constitutionality) of the senate, and the planned uprising was disrupted. Cicero then sent an army, which cut Catiline's forces to pieces.

Question: When did the movement that considered the use of peaceful means to solve the plight of lesser classes begin?
Answer: Around 66 BC

Question: How many former consuls in Rome were executed as a result of a conspiracy?
Answer: one former consul

Question: What town was a common site of agitation within the area?
Answer: Faesulae

Question: Who can lay claim to the destruction of Lucius Sergius Catilina's forces?
Answer: Cicero

Question: Which individual had planned an uprising that ideally would see the death of most of the Roman senators?
Answer: Lucius Sergius Catilina
Roman_Republic

In 62 BC, Pompey returned victorious from Asia. The Senate, elated by its successes against Catiline, refused to ratify the arrangements that Pompey had made. Pompey, in effect, became powerless. Thus, when Julius Caesar returned from a governorship in Spain in 61 BC, he found it easy to make an arrangement with Pompey. Caesar and Pompey, along with Crassus, established a private agreement, now known as the First Triumvirate. Under the agreement, Pompey's arrangements would be ratified. Caesar would be elected consul in 59 BC, and would then serve as governor of Gaul for five years. Crassus was promised a future consulship.

Question: In which year would Julius Caesar hope to be elected to the position of consul?
Answer: 59 BC

Question: What was the name of the private agreement between Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus?
Answer: First Triumvirate

Question: What was Crassus agree to receive in the First Triumvirate agreement?
Answer: a future consulship

Question: When did Julius Caesar return to Rome?
Answer: 61 BC

Question: What provided the Roman senate with exuberance?
Answer: successes against Catiline
Roman_Republic

Caesar became consul in 59 BC. His colleague, Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus, was an extreme aristocrat. Caesar submitted the laws that he had promised Pompey to the assemblies. Bibulus attempted to obstruct the enactment of these laws, and so Caesar used violent means to ensure their passage. Caesar was then made governor of three provinces. He facilitated the election of the former patrician Publius Clodius Pulcher to the tribunate for 58 BC. Clodius set about depriving Caesar's senatorial enemies of two of their more obstinate leaders in Cato and Cicero. Clodius was a bitter opponent of Cicero because Cicero had testified against him in a sacrilege case. Clodius attempted to try Cicero for executing citizens without a trial during the Catiline conspiracy, resulting in Cicero going into self-imposed exile and his house in Rome being burnt down. Clodius also passed a bill that forced Cato to lead the invasion of Cyprus which would keep him away from Rome for some years. Clodius also passed a law to expand the previous partial grain subsidy to a fully free grain dole for citizens.

Question: Who had tried to prevent the enactment of the laws that Caesar had proposed?
Answer: Bibulus

Question: What type of case saw Cicero testify against Clodius?
Answer: sacrilege case

Question: Who enacted a law that would increase the partial grain subsidy?
Answer: Clodius

Question: Which individual lost his home to a fire?
Answer: Cicero

Question: Who was elected to the tribunate in 58 BC?
Answer: Publius Clodius Pulcher
Roman_Republic

Clodius formed armed gangs that terrorised the city and eventually began to attack Pompey's followers, who in response funded counter-gangs formed by Titus Annius Milo. The political alliance of the triumvirate was crumbling. Domitius Ahenobarbus ran for the consulship in 55 BC promising to take Caesar's command from him. Eventually, the triumvirate was renewed at Lucca. Pompey and Crassus were promised the consulship in 55 BC, and Caesar's term as governor was extended for five years. Crassus led an ill-fated expedition with legions led by his son, Caesar's lieutenant, against the Kingdom of Parthia. This resulted in his defeat and death at the Battle of Carrhae. Finally, Pompey's wife, Julia, who was Caesar's daughter, died in childbirth. This event severed the last remaining bond between Pompey and Caesar.

Question: Who was responsible for the attacks on followers of Pompey?
Answer: Clodius

Question: What political position were Pompey and Crassus assured they would receive in 55 BC?
Answer: consul

Question: What caused the death of Julius Caesar's female offspring?
Answer: childbirth

Question: Which individual ran for consul in 55 BC?
Answer: Domitius Ahenobarbus

Question: Who was responsible for an expedition against the Parthian Kingdom?
Answer: Crassus
Roman_Republic

Beginning in the summer of 54 BC, a wave of political corruption and violence swept Rome. This chaos reached a climax in January of 52 BC, when Clodius was murdered in a gang war by Milo. On 1 January 49 BC, an agent of Caesar presented an ultimatum to the senate. The ultimatum was rejected, and the senate then passed a resolution which declared that if Caesar did not lay down his arms by July of that year, he would be considered an enemy of the Republic. Meanwhile, the senators adopted Pompey as their new champion against Caesar. On 7 January of 49 BC, the senate passed a senatus consultum ultimum, which vested Pompey with dictatorial powers. Pompey's army, however, was composed largely of untested conscripts. On 10 January, Caesar crossed the Rubicon with his veteran army (in violation of Roman laws) and marched towards Rome. Caesar's rapid advance forced Pompey, the consuls and the senate to abandon Rome for Greece. Caesar entered the city unopposed.

Question: In which year did Clodius die?
Answer: 52 BC

Question: Who was responsible for the death of Clodius?
Answer: Milo

Question: Who did the senators decide would aid them in their conflict with Caesar?
Answer: Pompey

Question: What type of powers were granted to Pompey by the senate?
Answer: dictatorial

Question: Ultimately what forced the senate to abandon Rome and flee to Greece?
Answer: Caesar's rapid advance
Roman_Republic

Caesar held both the dictatorship and the tribunate, and alternated between the consulship and the proconsulship. In 48 BC, Caesar was given permanent tribunician powers. This made his person sacrosanct, gave him the power to veto the senate, and allowed him to dominate the Plebeian Council. In 46 BC, Caesar was given censorial powers, which he used to fill the senate with his own partisans. Caesar then raised the membership of the Senate to 900. This robbed the senatorial aristocracy of its prestige, and made it increasingly subservient to him. While the assemblies continued to meet, he submitted all candidates to the assemblies for election, and all bills to the assemblies for enactment. Thus, the assemblies became powerless and were unable to oppose him.

Question: In Rome during this time who was considered to hold both the dictatorship and the position of the tribunate?
Answer: Caesar

Question: What power could Caesar use against the senate should he choose?
Answer: power to veto

Question: In what year was Caesar given the power of a censor?
Answer: 46 BC

Question: What is considered to have counteracted the prestige of the senatorial aristocracy?
Answer: raised the membership of the Senate to 900
Roman_Republic

Caesar was assassinated on March 15, 44 BC. The assassination was led by Gaius Cassius and Marcus Brutus. Most of the conspirators were senators, who had a variety of economic, political, or personal motivations for carrying out the assassination. Many were afraid that Caesar would soon resurrect the monarchy and declare himself king. Others feared loss of property or prestige as Caesar carried out his land reforms in favor of the landless classes. Virtually all the conspirators fled the city after Caesar's death in fear of retaliation. The civil war that followed destroyed what was left of the Republic.

Question: On what date was Caesar killed?
Answer: March 15, 44 BC

Question: Who comprised most of the members of the conspiracy to assassinate Caesar?
Answer: senators

Question: What did some members of the conspiracy believe Caesar would bring back?
Answer: the monarchy

Question: Who did Gaius Cassius and Marcus Brutus lead the conspiracy against?
Answer: Caesar

Question: Why did many members of the senate flee the city after Caesar's death?
Answer: fear of retaliation
Roman_Republic

After the assassination, Mark Antony formed an alliance with Caesar's adopted son and great-nephew, Gaius Octavian. Along with Marcus Lepidus, they formed an alliance known as the Second Triumvirate. They held powers that were nearly identical to the powers that Caesar had held under his constitution. As such, the Senate and assemblies remained powerless, even after Caesar had been assassinated. The conspirators were then defeated at the Battle of Philippi in 42 BC. Eventually, however, Antony and Octavian fought against each other in one last battle. Antony was defeated in the naval Battle of Actium in 31 BC, and he committed suicide with his lover, Cleopatra. In 29 BC, Octavian returned to Rome as the unchallenged master of the Empire and later accepted the title of Augustus ("Exalted One"). He was convinced that only a single strong ruler could restore order in Rome.

Question: Who was soon allied with Caesar's adopted son following his death?
Answer: Mark Antony

Question: In what year did the Battle of Philippi end?
Answer: 42 BC

Question: How did Mark Antony die?
Answer: he committed suicide

Question: What was the alliance that was formed with Marcus Lepidus named?
Answer: the Second Triumvirate

Question: In what battle did Mark Antony see defeat?
Answer: Battle of Actium
Roman_Republic

As with most ancient civilizations, Rome's military served the triple purposes of securing its borders, exploiting peripheral areas through measures such as imposing tribute on conquered peoples, and maintaining internal order. From the outset, Rome's military typified this pattern and the majority of Rome's wars were characterized by one of two types. The first is the foreign war, normally begun as a counter-offensive or defense of an ally. The second is the civil war, which plagued the Roman Republic in its final century. Roman armies were not invincible, despite their formidable reputation and host of victories. Over the centuries the Romans "produced their share of incompetents" who led Roman armies into catastrophic defeats. Nevertheless, it was generally the fate of the greatest of Rome's enemies, such as Pyrrhus and Hannibal, to win early battles but lose the war. The history of Rome's campaigning is, if nothing else, a history of obstinate persistence overcoming appalling losses.

Question: Who in Rome was responsible for imposing tribute on nations that they had conquered?
Answer: Rome's military

Question: What could be considered a trait of Rome's military campaigns?
Answer: obstinate persistence

Question: What was considered a problem in the Roman Republic during its last century?
Answer: civil war

Question: What would often lead Rome to wage war in foreign lands?
Answer: defense of an ally
Roman_Republic

One disadvantage of the phalanx was that it was only effective when fighting in large, open spaces, which left the Romans at a disadvantage when fighting in the hilly terrain of central Italian peninsula. In the 4th century BC, the Romans abandoned the phalanx in favour of the more flexible manipular formation. This change is sometimes attributed to Marcus Furius Camillus and placed shortly after the Gallic invasion of 390 BC; it is more likely, however, that they were copied from Rome's Samnite enemies to the south, possibly as a result of Samnite victories during the Second Samnite War (326 to 304 BC).

Question: What was a detriment of using the phalanx formation?
Answer: only effective when fighting in large, open spaces

Question: In what century was the phalanx formation finally discarded by the Roman people?
Answer: 4th century BC

Question: What fighting formation would eventually replace the phalanx in battle?
Answer: manipular formation

Question: Where is the likely source of the change to the manipular formation?
Answer: copied from Rome's Samnite enemies

Question: What type of ground could be found in the central Italian peninsula?
Answer: hilly terrain
Roman_Republic

The heavy infantry of the maniples were supported by a number of light infantry and cavalry troops, typically 300 horsemen per manipular legion. The cavalry was drawn primarily from the richest class of equestrians. There was an additional class of troops who followed the army without specific martial roles and were deployed to the rear of the third line. Their role in accompanying the army was primarily to supply any vacancies that might occur in the maniples. The light infantry consisted of 1,200 unarmoured skirmishing troops drawn from the youngest and lower social classes. They were armed with a sword and a small shield, as well as several light javelins.

Question: How many horseman were likely to be found in a single manipular legion?
Answer: 300 horsemen

Question: Where could you expect the extensive amount of cavalry troops to be sourced from?
Answer: richest class of equestrians

Question: What often neglected social class was the light infantry comprised of?
Answer: lower social classes.

Question: Small shields could be found in what section of the infantry?
Answer: light infantry

Question: What type of infantry joined light, and the cavalry in battle?
Answer: heavy infantry
Roman_Republic

Rome's military confederation with the other peoples of the Italian peninsula meant that half of Rome's army was provided by the Socii, such as the Etruscans, Umbrians, Apulians, Campanians, Samnites, Lucani, Bruttii, and the various southern Greek cities. Polybius states that Rome could draw on 770,000 men at the beginning of the Second Punic War, of which 700,000 were infantry and 70,000 met the requirements for cavalry. Rome's Italian allies would be organized in alae, or wings, roughly equal in manpower to the Roman legions, though with 900 cavalry instead of 300.

Question: Where did Rome receive half of their army from?
Answer: the Socii

Question: How many calvary did Rome's Italian allies use?
Answer: 900 cavalry

Question: How many soldiers were available to Rome at the start of the Second Punic War?
Answer: 770,000 men

Question: What did Rome's Italian allies call their battle formation?
Answer: alae

Question: What allowed Rome to source some of their military from other nearby areas?
Answer: military confederation with the other peoples
Roman_Republic

The extraordinary demands of the Punic Wars, in addition to a shortage of manpower, exposed the tactical weaknesses of the manipular legion, at least in the short term. In 217 BC, near the beginning of the Second Punic War, Rome was forced to effectively ignore its long-standing principle that its soldiers must be both citizens and property owners. During the 2nd century BC, Roman territory saw an overall decline in population, partially due to the huge losses incurred during various wars. This was accompanied by severe social stresses and the greater collapse of the middle classes. As a result, the Roman state was forced to arm its soldiers at the expense of the state, which it had not had to do in the past.

Question: During what century did Roman controlled areas see a decline in their populations?
Answer: 2nd century BC

Question: What caused the Roman state to provide armaments to their army?
Answer: greater collapse of the middle classes

Question: What were soldiers expected to own prior to the year 217 BC?
Answer: property

Question: What was considered an attributing factor to the decline of the Roman population?
Answer: huge losses incurred during various wars
Roman_Republic

In process known as the Marian reforms, Roman consul Gaius Marius carried out a programme of reform of the Roman military. In 107 BC, all citizens, regardless of their wealth or social class, were made eligible for entry into the Roman army. This move formalised and concluded a gradual process that had been growing for centuries, of removing property requirements for military service. The distinction between the three heavy infantry classes, which had already become blurred, had collapsed into a single class of heavy legionary infantry. The heavy infantry legionaries were drawn from citizen stock, while non-citizens came to dominate the ranks of the light infantry. The army's higher-level officers and commanders were still drawn exclusively from the Roman aristocracy.

Question: Who was now able to join military service in 107 BC?
Answer: all citizens

Question: Where would legionaries in the Roman army likely to be sourced from?
Answer: citizen stock

Question: Who would likely make up the majority of the Roman army's light infantry?
Answer: non-citizens

Question: Which consul was responsible for the reforms that allowed all citizens access to join the Roman army?
Answer: Gaius Marius

Question: What was the process that removed the property requirement for the Roman military called?
Answer: Marian reforms
Roman_Republic

The legions of the late Republic were, structurally, almost entirely heavy infantry. The legion's main sub-unit was called a cohort and consisted of approximately 480 infantrymen. The cohort was therefore a much larger unit than the earlier maniple sub-unit, and was divided into six centuries of 80 men each. Each century was separated further into 10 "tent groups" of 8 men each. The cavalry troops were used as scouts and dispatch riders rather than battlefield cavalry. Legions also contained a dedicated group of artillery crew of perhaps 60 men. Each legion was normally partnered with an approximately equal number of allied (non-Roman) troops.

Question: Around how many units could be expected to be contained within a cohort?
Answer: 480 infantrymen

Question: How many troops were placed into each tent group?
Answer: 8 men

Question: Who would now be used as scouts instead of fighting alongside the army in the battlefield?
Answer: cavalry troops

Question: What designation of troops was considered to make up the majority of a legion?
Answer: cohort
Roman_Republic

After having declined in size following the subjugation of the Mediterranean, the Roman navy underwent short-term upgrading and revitalisation in the late Republic to meet several new demands. Under Caesar, an invasion fleet was assembled in the English Channel to allow the invasion of Britannia; under Pompey, a large fleet was raised in the Mediterranean Sea to clear the sea of Cilician pirates. During the civil war that followed, as many as a thousand ships were either constructed or pressed into service from Greek cities.

Question: In which sea was a large amount of naval vessels sent in order to remove Cilician pirates?
Answer: Mediterranean Sea

Question: Around how many ships were sent into service from Greek cities?
Answer: as many as a thousand ships

Question: Who was ultimately responsible for the naval ships that were sent to the English Channel?
Answer: Caesar

Question: What was the driving force behind the revitalization of the Roman naval forces?
Answer: to meet several new demands

Question: What aspect of the Roman military saw a decline in size after the subjugation of the Mediterranean?
Answer: Roman navy
Roman_Republic

The senate's ultimate authority derived from the esteem and prestige of the senators. This esteem and prestige was based on both precedent and custom, as well as the caliber and reputation of the senators. The senate passed decrees, which were called senatus consulta. These were officially "advice" from the senate to a magistrate. In practice, however, they were usually followed by the magistrates. The focus of the Roman senate was usually directed towards foreign policy. Though it technically had no official role in the management of military conflict, the senate ultimately was the force that oversaw such affairs. The power of the senate expanded over time as the power of the legislative assemblies declined, and the senate took a greater role in ordinary law-making. Its members were usually appointed by Roman Censors, who ordinarily selected newly elected magistrates for membership in the senate, making the senate a partially elected body. During times of military emergency, such as the civil wars of the 1st century BC, this practice became less prevalent, as the Roman Dictator, Triumvir or the senate itself would select its members.

Question: What was the general source of the Roman senate's authority?
Answer: the esteem and prestige of the senators

Question: Who was responsible for overseeing a military action?
Answer: the senate

Question: What was a motion that was enacted by the senate called?
Answer: senatus consulta

Question: What area was the likely focal point of the Roman senate?
Answer: foreign policy

Question: What governing Roman body would self-select their own members during times of great distress?
Answer: the senate itself would select its members
Roman_Republic

The legal status of Roman citizenship was limited and was a vital prerequisite to possessing many important legal rights such as the right to trial and appeal, to marry, to vote, to hold office, to enter binding contracts, and to special tax exemptions. An adult male citizen with the full complement of legal and political rights was called "optimo jure." The optimo jure elected their assemblies, whereupon the assemblies elected magistrates, enacted legislation, presided over trials in capital cases, declared war and peace, and forged or dissolved treaties. There were two types of legislative assemblies. The first was the comitia ("committees"), which were assemblies of all optimo jure. The second was the concilia ("councils"), which were assemblies of specific groups of optimo jure.

Question: What was the main requirement of seeking a trial in the Roman courts?
Answer: legal status of Roman citizenship

Question: Who would be expected to oversee a capital case in the Roman courts?
Answer: assemblies

Question: Which designation of people made up the entirety of the members of a comitia?
Answer: optimo jure

Question: Who did the assemblies elected by the optimo jure elect?
Answer: magistrates

Question: What type of assembly could specific groupings of optimo jure be found in?
Answer: concilia
Roman_Republic

Citizens were organized on the basis of centuries and tribes, which would each gather into their own assemblies. The Comitia Centuriata ("Centuriate Assembly") was the assembly of the centuries (i.e. soldiers). The president of the Comitia Centuriata was usually a consul. The centuries would vote, one at a time, until a measure received support from a majority of the centuries. The Comitia Centuriata would elect magistrates who had imperium powers (consuls and praetors). It also elected censors. Only the Comitia Centuriata could declare war, and ratify the results of a census. It also served as the highest court of appeal in certain judicial cases.

Question: What Roman assembly elected both magistrates and censors?
Answer: Comitia Centuriata

Question: What profession of people made up the entireity of the Comitia Centuriata?
Answer: centuries

Question: Would the Comitia Centuriata occasionally be called upon to serve as the highest court of appeal?
Answer: It also served as the highest court of appeal in certain judicial cases

Question: Which elected official had imperium powers?
Answer: magistrates
Roman_Republic

The assembly of the tribes (i.e. the citizens of Rome), the Comitia Tributa, was presided over by a consul, and was composed of 35 tribes. The tribes were not ethnic or kinship groups, but rather geographical subdivisions. The order that the thirty-five tribes would vote in was selected randomly by lot. Once a measure received support from a majority of the tribes, the voting would end. While it did not pass many laws, the Comitia Tributa did elect quaestors, curule aediles, and military tribunes. The Plebeian Council was identical to the assembly of the tribes, but excluded the patricians (the elite who could trace their ancestry to the founding of Rome). They elected their own officers, plebeian tribunes and plebeian aediles. Usually a plebeian tribune would preside over the assembly. This assembly passed most laws, and could also act as a court of appeal.

Question: How many tribes were considered to be in the Comitia Tributa?
Answer: 35 tribes

Question: How were the assembly of tribes segregated into specific tribes?
Answer: geographical subdivisions

Question: What assembly was responsible for the election of quaestors?
Answer: the Comitia Tributa

Question: When would the assembly of tribes cease voting?
Answer: Once a measure received support from a majority of the tribes

Question: Who would be responsible for the election of a plebeian tribune?
Answer: a plebeian
Roman_Republic

Each republican magistrate held certain constitutional powers. Only the People of Rome (both plebeians and patricians) had the right to confer these powers on any individual magistrate. The most powerful constitutional power was imperium. Imperium was held by both consuls and praetors. Imperium gave a magistrate the authority to command a military force. All magistrates also had the power of coercion. This was used by magistrates to maintain public order. While in Rome, all citizens had a judgement against coercion. This protection was called provocatio (see below). Magistrates also had both the power and the duty to look for omens. This power would often be used to obstruct political opponents.

Question: Who had the right to grant powers to a magistrate?
Answer: People of Rome

Question: What is considered to be the most authoritative constitutional power?
Answer: imperium

Question: What did the constitutional power of imperium grant a magistrate?
Answer: authority to command a military force

Question: What would be one of the duties that a newly elected magistrate could expect to perform?
Answer: to look for omens

Question: What power was in possession of every single magistrate in Rome?
Answer: power of coercion
Roman_Republic

One check on a magistrate's power was his collegiality. Each magisterial office would be held concurrently by at least two people. Another such check was provocatio. Provocatio was a primordial form of due process. It was a precursor to habeas corpus. If any magistrate tried to use the powers of the state against a citizen, that citizen could appeal the decision of the magistrate to a tribune. In addition, once a magistrate's one-year term of office expired, he would have to wait ten years before serving in that office again. This created problems for some consuls and praetors, and these magistrates would occasionally have their imperium extended. In effect, they would retain the powers of the office (as a promagistrate), without officially holding that office.

Question: How long concurrently could an elected magistrate serve in office?
Answer: one-year

Question: How many people would serve concurrently in a single magisterial office?
Answer: at least two people

Question: What form of due process was a harbinger of our vary own habeas corpus?
Answer: Provocatio

Question: What would you call a magistrate who had his powers of imperium continued?
Answer: promagistrate

Question: Who would a Roman go see in an attempt to reverse the decision of a magistrate?
Answer: a tribune
Roman_Republic

The consuls of the Roman Republic were the highest ranking ordinary magistrates; each consul served for one year. Consuls had supreme power in both civil and military matters. While in the city of Rome, the consuls were the head of the Roman government. They would preside over the senate and the assemblies. While abroad, each consul would command an army. His authority abroad would be nearly absolute. Praetors administered civil law and commanded provincial armies. Every five years, two censors were elected for an 18-month term, during which they would conduct a census. During the census, they could enroll citizens in the senate, or purge them from the senate. Aediles were officers elected to conduct domestic affairs in Rome, such as managing public games and shows. The quaestors would usually assist the consuls in Rome, and the governors in the provinces. Their duties were often financial.

Question: Which official had supremacy in both civil and military matters?
Answer: Consuls

Question: Who was responsible for the adminstration of civil laws?
Answer: Praetors

Question: Who was responsible for the handling of the Roman census?
Answer: two censors

Question: How long could an elected censor remain in office for?
Answer: 18-month term

Question: What officer primarily had duties over finance matters?
Answer: quaestors
Roman_Republic

Since the tribunes were considered to be the embodiment of the plebeians, they were sacrosanct. Their sacrosanctity was enforced by a pledge, taken by the plebeians, to kill any person who harmed or interfered with a tribune during his term of office. All of the powers of the tribune derived from their sacrosanctity. One consequence was that it was considered a capital offense to harm a tribune, to disregard his veto, or to interfere with a tribune. In times of military emergency, a dictator would be appointed for a term of six months. Constitutional government would be dissolved, and the dictator would be the absolute master of the state. When the dictator's term ended, constitutional government would be restored.

Question: How long could a dictator be appointed for in times of certain emergencies?
Answer: six months

Question: What would happen during the commencement of a dictator's term?
Answer: Constitutional government would be dissolved

Question: What type of offense was the harm of a tribute treated as?
Answer: capital offense

Question: What was the ultimate source of the tribunes powers?
Answer: their sacrosanctity