Divyanshu67/squad_v2 huggingface dataset:
The_Blitz

The military effectiveness of bombing varied. The Luftwaffe dropped around 45,000 short tons (41,000 t) of bombs during the Blitz disrupting production and transport, reducing food supplies and shaking the British morale. It also helped to support the U-Boat blockade by sinking some 58,000 long tons (59,000 t) of shipping destroyed and 450,000 long tons (460,000 t) damaged. Yet, overall the British production rose steadily throughout this period although there were significant falls during April 1941, probably influenced by the departure of workers of Easter Holidays according to the British official history. The British official history on war production noted the great impact was upon the supply of components rather than complete equipment. In aircraft production, the British were denied the opportunity to reach the planned target of 2,500 aircraft in a month, arguably the greatest achievement of the bombing, as it forced the dispersal of industry. In April 1941, when the targets were British ports, rifle production fell by 25%, filled-shell production by 4.6%, and in smallarms production 4.5% overall. The strategic impact on industrial cities was varied; most took from 10–15 days to recover from heavy raids, although Belfast and Liverpool took longer. The attacks against Birmingham took war industries some three months to recover fully from. The exhausted population took three weeks to overcome the effects of an attack.

Question: The Luftwaffe used how many short tons of bombs during the Blitz?
Answer: 45,000 short tons

Question: The Luftwaffe helped the U-boats by sinking how much shipping?
Answer: 58,000 long tons

Question: How did the British production fare as a result of all the bombing?
Answer: overall the British production rose steadily throughout this period

Question: What was the greatest achievement of the bombings?
Answer: British were denied the opportunity to reach the planned target of 2,500 aircraft in a month

Question: How long was the recovery of industrial cities from raids?
Answer: most took from 10–15 days
The_Blitz

The air offensive against the RAF and British industry failed to have the desired effect. More might have been achieved had the OKL exploited their enemy's weak spot, the vulnerability of British sea communications. The Allies did so later when Bomber Command attacked rail communications and the United States Army Air Forces targeted oil, but that would have required an economic-industrial analysis of which the Luftwaffe was incapable. The OKL instead sought clusters of targets that suited the latest policy (which changed frequently), and disputes within the leadership were about tactics rather than strategy. Though militarily ineffective, the Blitz caused enormous damage to Britain's infrastructure and housing stock. It cost around 41,000 lives, and may have injured another 139,000.

Question: How could have more been achieved in the air offensive?
Answer: had the OKL exploited their enemy's weak spot

Question: What did the disputes in the OKL tend to be about?
Answer: about tactics rather than strategy

Question: What was the Luftwaffe incapable of doing?
Answer: an economic-industrial analysis

Question: How many casualties did the Blitz ultimately cause?
Answer: cost around 41,000 lives, and may have injured another 139,000
The_Blitz

The relieved British began to assess the impact of the Blitz in August 1941, and the RAF Air Staff used the German experience to improve Bomber Command's offensives. They concluded bombers should strike a single target each night and use more incendiaries because they had a greater impact on production than high explosives. They also noted regional production was severely disrupted when city centres were devastated through the loss of administrative offices, utilities and transport. They believed the Luftwaffe had failed in precision attack, and concluded the German example of area attack using incendiaries was the way forward for operations over Germany.

Question: What helped increase the Bomber Command's offensives?
Answer: the German experience

Question: What did the RAF conclude?
Answer: bombers should strike a single target each night and use more incendiaries because they had a greater impact on production than high explosives

Question: What caused the most production disruption?
Answer: when city centres were devastated through the loss of administrative offices, utilities and transport.

Question: What did the Luftwaffe fail?
Answer: failed in precision attack

Question: What did the experience of German's using incendiaries mean?
Answer: using incendiaries was the way forward for operations over Germany.
The_Blitz

Some writers claim the Air Staff ignored a critical lesson, however: British morale did not break. Targeting German morale, as Bomber Command would do, was no more successful. Aviation strategists dispute that morale was ever a major consideration for Bomber Command. Throughout 1933–39 none of the 16 Western Air Plans drafted mentioned morale as a target. The first three directives in 1940 did not mention civilian populations or morale in any way. Morale was not mentioned until the ninth wartime directive on 21 September 1940. The 10th directive in October 1940 mentioned morale by name. However, industrial cities were only to be targeted if weather denied strikes on Bomber Command's main concern, oil.

Question: What was the critical lesson Air Staff ignored?
Answer: Targeting German morale, as Bomber Command would do, was no more successful.

Question: Aviation strategists disputed over what? 
Answer: that morale was ever a major consideration for Bomber Command.

Question: What did 16 of the Western Air Plans not mention?
Answer: morale as a target.

Question: When was morale finally mentioned?
Answer: ninth wartime directive on 21 September 1940

Question: When were industrial cities to be targeted?
Answer: if weather denied strikes on Bomber Command's main concern, oil.
The_Blitz

AOC Bomber Command Arthur Harris did see German morale as a major objective. However, he did not believe that the morale-collapse could occur without the destruction of the German economy. The primary goal of Bomber Command's offensives was to destroy the German industrial base (economic warfare), and in doing so reduce morale. In late 1943, just before the Battle of Berlin, he declared the power of Bomber Command would enable it to achieve "a state of devastation in which surrender is inevitable." A summary of Harris' strategic intentions was clear:

Question: Without what could morale collapse occur according to Arthur Harris?
Answer: without the destruction of the German economy.

Question: What was the primary strategy for Bomber Command offensives?
Answer: to destroy the German industrial base (economic warfare), and in doing so reduce morale

Question: Arthur Harris announced that Bomber Command would enable economic warfare to achieve what?
Answer: "a state of devastation in which surrender is inevitable."
The_Blitz

A converse popular image arose of British people in the Second World War: a collection of people locked in national solidarity. This image entered the historiography of the Second World War in the 1980s and 1990s, especially after the publication of Angus Calder's book The Myth of the Blitz (1991). It was evoked by both the right and left political factions in Britain during the Falklands War when it was embedded in a nostalgic narrative in which the Second World War represented aggressive British patriotism successfully defending democracy. This imagery of people in the Blitz was and is powerfully portrayed in film, radio, newspapers and magazines. At the time it was a useful propaganda tool for home and foreign consumption. Historians' critical response to this construction focused on what were seen as over-emphasised claims of righteous nationalism and national unity. In the Myth of the Blitz, Calder exposed some of the counter-evidence of anti-social and divisive behaviours. What he saw as the myth—serene national unity—became "historical truth". In particular, class division was most evident.

Question: What view became popular of the British people in WWII?
Answer: people locked in national solidarity.

Question: When did this popular view come to be?
Answer: in the 1980s and 1990s, especially after the publication of Angus Calder's book The Myth of the Blitz (1991).

Question: Political factions in Britain supported what view of Britains in WWII?
Answer: aggressive British patriotism successfully defending democracy.

Question: What was the Historians' critical response to this view?
Answer: over-emphasised claims of righteous nationalism and national unity.

Question: What did Calder try to expose in his book?
Answer: some of the counter-evidence of anti-social and divisive behaviours
The_Blitz

In the wake of the Coventry Blitz, there was widespread agitation from the Communist Party over the need for bomb-proof shelters. Many Londoners, in particular, took to using the Underground railway system, without authority, for shelter and sleeping through the night there until the following morning. So worried were the Government over the sudden campaign of leaflets and posters distributed by the Communist Party in Coventry and London, that the Police were sent in to seize their production facilities. The Government, up until November 1940, was opposed to the centralised organisation of shelter. Home Secretary Sir John Anderson was replaced by Morrison soon afterwards, in the wake of a Cabinet reshuffle as the dying Neville Chamberlain resigned. Morrison warned that he could not counter the Communist unrest unless provision of shelters were made. He recognised the right of the public to seize tube stations and authorised plans to improve their condition and expand them by tunnelling. Still, many British citizens, who had been members of the Labour Party, itself inert over the issue, turned to the Communist Party. The Communists attempted to blame the damage and casualties of the Coventry raid on the rich factory owners, big business and landowning interests and called for a negotiated peace. Though they failed to make a large gain in influence, the membership of the Party had doubled by June 1941. The "Communist threat" was deemed important enough for Herbert Morrison to order, with the support of the Cabinet, the stoppage of the Daily Worker and The Week; the Communist newspaper and journal.

Question: What was the communist party agitated over?
Answer: the need for bomb-proof shelters.

Question: What did Londoners use for bomb-shelters?
Answer: Underground railway system

Question: What did Morrison warn he couldn't do?
Answer: that he could not counter the Communist unrest unless provision of shelters were made.

Question: Who did the Communists blame for the damage in the Conventry raids?
Answer: the rich factory owners, big business and landowning interests

Question: What was Morrison forced to do in response to the Communist Party?
Answer: the stoppage of the Daily Worker and The Week; the Communist newspaper and journal.
The_Blitz

The brief success of the Communists also fed into the hands of the British Union of Fascists (BUF). Anti-Semitic attitudes became widespread, particularly in London. Rumours that Jewish support was underpinning the Communist surge were frequent. Rumours that Jews were inflating prices, were responsible for the Black Market, were the first to panic under attack (even the cause of the panic), and secured the best shelters via underhanded methods, were also widespread. Moreover, there was also racial antagonism between the small Black, Indian and Jewish communities. However, the feared race riots did not transpire despite the mixing of different peoples into confined areas.

Question: The success of the Communists helped what political group?
Answer: British Union of Fascists (BUF)

Question: Where did anti-semitic attitude spread primarily?
Answer: particularly in London

Question: What was one the rumors that Jews were doing in regard to shelters?
Answer: secured the best shelters via underhanded methods

Question: What was feared would happen when different races were mixed in shelters?
Answer: race riots
The_Blitz

In other cities, class conflict was more evident. Over a quarter of London's population had left the city by November 1940. Civilians left for more remote areas of the country. Upsurges in population south Wales and Gloucester intimated where these displaced people went. Other reasons, including industry dispersal may have been a factor. However, resentment of rich self-evacuees or hostile treatment of poor ones were signs of persistence of class resentments although these factors did not appear to threaten social order. The total number of evacuees numbered 1.4 million, including a high proportion from the poorest inner-city families. Reception committees were completely unprepared for the condition of some of the children. Far from displaying the nation's unity in time of war, the scheme backfired, often aggravating class antagonism and bolstering prejudice about the urban poor. Within four months, 88% of evacuated mothers, 86% of small children, and 43% of school children had been returned home. The lack of bombing in the Phoney War contributed significantly to the return of people to the cities, but class conflict was not eased a year later when evacuation operations had to be put into effect again.

Question: How much of London's population left?
Answer: Over a quarter

Question: What locations saw an increase in populations?
Answer: south Wales and Gloucester

Question: What was another reason for populations moving?
Answer: industry dispersal may have been a factor

Question: How many evacuees were there?
Answer: 1.4 million

Question: How much of the population returned in four months?
Answer: 88% of evacuated mothers, 86% of small children, and 43% of school children
The_Blitz

In recent years a large number of wartime recordings relating to the Blitz have been made available on audiobooks such as The Blitz, The Home Front and British War Broadcasting. These collections include period interviews with civilians, servicemen, aircrew, politicians and Civil Defence personnel, as well as Blitz actuality recordings, news bulletins and public information broadcasts. Notable interviews include Thomas Alderson, the first recipient of the George Cross, John Cormack, who survived eight days trapped beneath rubble on Clydeside, and Herbert Morrison's famous "Britain shall not burn" appeal for more fireguards in December 1940.

Question: What are the audiobooks with wartime recordings?
Answer: The Blitz, The Home Front and British War Broadcasting

Question: What are some of the things included in these recordings?
Answer: period interviews with civilians, servicemen, aircrew, politicians and Civil Defence personnel, as well as Blitz actuality recordings

Question: What is one of the notable recordings included?
Answer: Thomas Alderson, the first recipient of the George Cross, John Cormack, who survived eight days trapped beneath rubble on Clydeside

Question: What is a second recording that is of note?
Answer: Herbert Morrison's famous "Britain shall not burn" appeal for more fireguards in December 1940.
Endangered_Species_Act

The Endangered Species Act of 1973 (ESA; 16 U.S.C. § 1531 et seq.) is one of the few dozens of United States environmental laws passed in the 1970s, and serves as the enacting legislation to carry out the provisions outlined in The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). The ESA was signed into law by President Richard Nixon on December 28, 1973, it was designed to protect critically imperiled species from extinction as a "consequence of economic growth and development untempered by adequate concern and conservation." The U.S. Supreme Court found that "the plain intent of Congress in enacting" the ESA "was to halt and reverse the trend toward species extinction, whatever the cost." The Act is administered by two federal agencies, the United States Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA).

Question: In what year did the Endangered Species Act become law?
Answer: 1973

Question: Which president signed the Act into law?
Answer: Richard Nixon

Question: Which two federal agencies administer the Act?
Answer: the United States Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)

Question: On what day was the Endangered Species Act signed?
Answer: December 28

Question: What did the Supreme Court cite as the intent of Congress in enacting the Endangered Species Act?
Answer: to halt and reverse the trend toward species extinction, whatever the cost

Question: When was CITES created?

Question: What did the Supreme Court sign into law in the 1970s?

Question: Who is the President of the FWS?

Question: What day did the Supreme Court rule on ESA?

Question: Who ruled on which agencies would administer the act?
Endangered_Species_Act

One species in particular received widespread attention—the whooping crane. The species' historical range extended from central Canada South to Mexico, and from Utah to the Atlantic coast. Unregulated hunting and habitat loss contributed to a steady decline in the whooping crane population until, by 1890, it had disappeared from its primary breeding range in the north central United States. It would be another eight years before the first national law regulating wildlife commerce was signed, and another two years before the first version of the endangered species act was passed. The whooping crane population by 1941 was estimated at about only 16 birds still in the wild.

Question: What was the historical range of the whooping crane?
Answer: central Canada South to Mexico, and from Utah to the Atlantic coast

Question: What two issues caused steady decline in the whooping crane population?
Answer: Unregulated hunting and habitat loss

Question: What was the estimated population of the whooping crane in 1941?
Answer: 16 birds

Question: How many years after the noted absence of the whooping crane from its breeding range did the first law regulating wildlife commerce pass
Answer: eight years

Question: What species is found ranging from Canada to Utah?

Question: How many years did it take for the whooping crane to disappear?

Question: How many whooping cranes were there in 1890?

Question: What was passed in 1941?

Question: What year did the whooping crane begin to get attention?
Endangered_Species_Act

The Lacey Act of 1900 was the first federal law that regulated commercial animal markets. It prohibited interstate commerce of animals killed in violation of state game laws, and covered all fish and wildlife and their parts or products, as well as plants. Other legislation followed, including the Migratory Bird Conservation Act of 1929, a 1937 treaty prohibiting the hunting of right and gray whales, and the Bald Eagle Protection Act of 1940. These later laws had a low cost to society–the species were relatively rare–and little opposition was raised.

Question: What was the first federal law that regulated wildlife commerce?
Answer: Lacey Act of 1900

Question: What did the first federal wildlife commerce law prohibit?
Answer: interstate commerce of animals killed in violation of state game laws

Question: What wildlife was covered by the first federal wildlife commerce regulation?
Answer: all fish and wildlife and their parts or products, as well as plants

Question: What law passed in 1940 regarding the population of the U.S. national bird?
Answer: Bald Eagle Protection Act of 1940

Question: What legislation was considered costly?

Question: What was the first federal treaty?

Question: What did the first federal law on wildlife allow regarding interstate commerce?

Question: What was the name of the 1937 treaty?

Question: Which laws faced significant opposition?
Endangered_Species_Act

It authorized the Secretary of the Interior to list endangered domestic fish and wildlife and allowed the United States Fish and Wildlife Service to spend up to $15 million per year to buy habitats for listed species. It also directed federal land agencies to preserve habitat on their lands. The Act also consolidated and even expanded authority for the Secretary of the Interior to manage and administer the National Wildlife Refuge System. Other public agencies were encouraged, but not required, to protect species. The act did not address the commerce in endangered species and parts.

Question: What did the Endangered Species Act authorize the Secretary of the Interior to do?
Answer: list endangered domestic fish and wildlife

Question: The Endangered Species Act permitted how much annual expenditure by the US Fish and Wildlife Service for habitat purchase?
Answer: $15 million per year

Question: The Endangered Species Act gave the Secretary of the Interior administrative power of what organization?
Answer: the National Wildlife Refuge System

Question: How did the Endangered Species Act impact wildlife commerce?
Answer: The act did not address the commerce in endangered species and parts

Question: How did the Endangered Species Act impact other agencies not specifically mentioned in the Act?
Answer: Other public agencies were encouraged, but not required, to protect species

Question: How much could the Act spend per year?

Question: Who runs the United States Fish and Wildlife Service?

Question: What commerce did the ESA affect?

Question: What animals could not be listed as endangered due to this act?

Question: What did the National Wildlife Refuge System preserve?
Endangered_Species_Act

This first list is referred to as the "Class of '67" in The Endangered Species Act at Thirty, Volume 1, which concludes that habitat destruction, the biggest threat to those 78 species, is still the same threat to the currently listed species. It included only vertebrates because the Department of Interior's definition of "fish and wildlife" was limited to vertebrates. However, with time, researchers noticed that the animals on the endangered species list still were not getting enough protection, thus further threatening their extinction. The endangered species program was expanded by the Endangered Species Act of 1969.

Question: What is the nickname given to the first listing of endangered species?
Answer: "Class of '67"

Question: What was concluded to be the biggest threat to the listed species?
Answer: habitat destruction

Question: How was the first listing limited in what species were listed?
Answer: It included only vertebrates

Question: How did being listed initially impact species?
Answer: the animals on the endangered species list still were not getting enough protection, thus further threatening their extinction

Question: How many species are currently listed?

Question: What type of animal was not included in Volume 1?

Question: What volume was published in 1969?

Question: What threat towards species has been neutralized?

Question: What is the Endangered Species Act of 1969 referred to as?
Endangered_Species_Act

The Endangered Species Conservation Act (P. L. 91-135), passed in December, 1969, amended the original law to provide additional protection to species in danger of "worldwide extinction" by prohibiting their importation and subsequent sale in the United States. It expanded the Lacey Act's ban on interstate commerce to include mammals, reptiles, amphibians, mollusks and crustaceans. Reptiles were added mainly to reduce the rampant poaching of alligators and crocodiles. This law was the first time that invertebrates were included for protection.

Question: When was the Endangered Species Conservation Act passed?
Answer: December, 1969

Question: How did the Endangered Species Conservation Act benefit endangered species?
Answer: by prohibiting their importation and subsequent sale in the United States

Question: What did the Endangered Species Conservation Act add to the wildlife definition of the Lacey Act?
Answer: mammals, reptiles, amphibians, mollusks and crustaceans

Question: What two reptiles were particularly of interest for the inclusion of "reptiles" in the Endangered Species Conservation Act?
Answer: alligators and crocodiles

Question: What important precedent did this set for invertebrates?
Answer: This law was the first time that invertebrates were included for protection

Question: What repealed the Lacey Act?

Question: What is the identification number for the Lacey Act?

Question: Why were mammals added to the protected species list?

Question: When was the Lacey Act passed?

Question: What was excluded in the 1969 law?
Endangered_Species_Act

President Richard Nixon declared current species conservation efforts to be inadequate and called on the 93rd United States Congress to pass comprehensive endangered species legislation. Congress responded with a completely rewritten law, the Endangered Species Act of 1973 which was signed by Nixon on December 28, 1973 (Pub.L. 93–205). It was written by a team of lawyers and scientists, including the first appointed head of the Council on Environmental Quality (CEQ),an outgrowth of NEPA (The "National Environmental Policy Act of 1969") Dr. Russell E. Train. Dr. Train was assisted by a core group of staffers, including Dr. Earl Baysinger at EPA (currently Assistant Chief, Office of Endangered Species and International. Activities), Dick Gutting (U.S. Commerce Dept. lawyer, currently joined NOAA the previous year (1972), and Dr. Gerard A. "Jerry" Bertrand, a marine biologist (Ph.D, Oregon State University) by training, who had transferred from his post as the Scientific Adviser to the U.S Army Corps of Engineers, office of the Commandant of the Corp. to join the newly formed White House office. The staff, under Dr. Train's leadership, incorporated dozens of new principles and ideas into the landmark legislation; crafting a document that completely changed the direction of environmental conservation in the United States. Dr. Bertrand is credited with writing the most challenged section of the Act, the "takings" clause - Section 2.

Question: Who led the team of lawyers and scientists who crafted the Endangered Species Act of 1973?
Answer: Dr. Russell E. Train

Question: The team leader was the first appointed head of what organization?
Answer: the Council on Environmental Quality

Question: Who wrote the most challenged section of the Act?
Answer: Dr. Gerard A. "Jerry" Bertrand

Question: Who was the core staffer to the legislation that worked for the EPA and continued to work in the Office of Endangered Species?
Answer: Dr. Earl Baysinger

Question: What Congress called for the drafting of the Endangered Species Act of 1973?
Answer: the 93rd United States Congress

Question: What did the 93rd Congress declare inadequate?

Question: Who was the 93rd US President?

Question: What law did Nixon rewrite?

Question: What section of the act did Dr. Train write?

Question: What grew out of CEQ?
Endangered_Species_Act

A species can be listed in two ways. The United States Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) or NOAA Fisheries (also called the National Marine Fisheries Service) can directly list a species through its candidate assessment program, or an individual or organizational petition may request that the FWS or NMFS list a species. A "species" under the act can be a true taxonomic species, a subspecies, or in the case of vertebrates, a "distinct population segment." The procedures are the same for both types except with the person/organization petition, there is a 90-day screening period.

Question: How many different ways can a species be added to the endangered list?
Answer: two ways

Question: What federal program is used to list a species?
Answer: candidate assessment program

Question: How long is the screening period of an individual's or organization's petition to add a species to the list
Answer: 90-day screening period

Question: In the case of vertebrates, what is the most lenient interpretation of "species"?
Answer: a "distinct population segment."

Question: How many ways FWS list a species?

Question: Who does the FWS or NMFS have to petition to list a species?

Question: How long does an individual have to petition the FWS?

Question: In what case does a distinct population segment not count?

Question: What is another name for the United States Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS)?
Endangered_Species_Act

During the listing process, economic factors cannot be considered, but must be " based solely on the best scientific and commercial data available." The 1982 amendment to the ESA added the word "solely" to prevent any consideration other than the biological status of the species. Congress rejected President Ronald Reagan's Executive Order 12291 which required economic analysis of all government agency actions. The House committee's statement was "that economic considerations have no relevance to determinations regarding the status of species."

Question: What word was added to the Endangered Species Act in 1982?
Answer: "solely"

Question: Because of the change to the Endangered Species Act in 1982, what is the only consideration for being listed as endangered?
Answer: the biological status of the species

Question: Which president issued an Executive Order that required financial consideration of all government actions?
Answer: Ronald Reagan

Question: What did Congress do to the Executive Order that would have included financial considerations as a factor for a species to be listed?
Answer: Congress rejected

Question: When are economic factors considered?

Question: When was Executive Order 12291 put into place?

Question: Which president added the word "solely" to the ESA?

Question: What was Reagan's statement regarding economic considerations in species status?

Question: Whose order did President Reagan reject?
Endangered_Species_Act

Public notice is given through legal notices in newspapers, and communicated to state and county agencies within the species' area. Foreign nations may also receive notice of a listing. A public hearing is mandatory if any person has requested one within 45 days of the published notice. "The purpose of the notice and comment requirement is to provide for meaningful public participation in the rulemaking process." summarized the Ninth Circuit court in the case of Idaho Farm Bureau Federation v. Babbitt.

Question: How is public notice given regarding a listing?
Answer: through legal notices in newspapers, and communicated to state and county agencies within the species' area

Question: How long after a published notice of the listing may a public hearing regarding the listing be requested?
Answer: 45 days

Question: Do listing notices cross international soil?
Answer: Foreign nations may also receive notice of a listing

Question: How are policy changes communicated to state and counties?

Question: How long does a public hearing last?

Question: What case took 45 days to be heard?

Question: Which court publishes legal notices?

Question: What is not given to foreign nations?
Endangered_Species_Act

The provision of the law in Section 4 that establishes critical habitat is a regulatory link between habitat protection and recovery goals, requiring the identification and protection of all lands, water and air necessary to recover endangered species. To determine what exactly is critical habitat, the needs of open space for individual and population growth, food, water, light or other nutritional requirements, breeding sites, seed germination and dispersal needs, and lack of disturbances are considered.

Question: What section of the Endangered Species Act establishes critical habitat regulations?
Answer: Section 4

Question: Critical habitat regulation links what two topics?
Answer: habitat protection and recovery goals

Question: What does critical habitat regulation require?
Answer: the identification and protection of all lands, water and air necessary to recover endangered species

Question: What is an example of a critical habitat consideration that would apply to plant wildlife?
Answer: seed germination and dispersal needs

Question: What section establishes recovery goals?

Question: What type of link is formed between identification and protection?

Question: What are cataloguing disturbances are not necessary for determining?

Question: What are water and air unnecessary for?

Question: What does Section 4 separate?
Endangered_Species_Act

All federal agencies are prohibited from authorizing, funding or carrying out actions that "destroy or adversely modify" critical habitats (Section 7(a) (2)). While the regulatory aspect of critical habitat does not apply directly to private and other non-federal landowners, large-scale development, logging and mining projects on private and state land typically require a federal permit and thus become subject to critical habitat regulations. Outside or in parallel with regulatory processes, critical habitats also focus and encourage voluntary actions such as land purchases, grant making, restoration, and establishment of reserves.

Question: What does the Endangered Species Act detail about government action regarding critical habitats?
Answer: federal agencies are prohibited from authorizing, funding or carrying out actions that "destroy or adversely modify" critical habitats

Question: How are non-federal government activities that might impact critical habitat often subject to the Endangered Species Act?
Answer: require a federal permit

Question: What are some non-regulation actions that critical habitats encourage?
Answer: land purchases, grant making, restoration, and establishment of reserves

Question: What are federal agencies allowed to do to critical habitats?

Question: Which section applies to private landowners?

Question: What does not require a federal permit?

Question: What requires voluntary actions?

Question: Which aspect applies to non-federal landowners?
Endangered_Species_Act

The ESA requires that critical habitat be designated at the time of or within one year of a species being placed on the endangered list. In practice, most designations occur several years after listing. Between 1978 and 1986 the FWS regularly designated critical habitat. In 1986 the Reagan Administration issued a regulation limiting the protective status of critical habitat. As a result, few critical habitats were designated between 1986 and the late 1990s. In the late 1990s and early 2000s, a series of court orders invalidated the Reagan regulations and forced the FWS and NMFS to designate several hundred critical habitats, especially in Hawaii, California and other western states. Midwest and Eastern states received less critical habitat, primarily on rivers and coastlines. As of December, 2006, the Reagan regulation has not yet been replaced though its use has been suspended. Nonetheless, the agencies have generally changed course and since about 2005 have tried to designate critical habitat at or near the time of listing.

Question: What is the time limit for designating a species critical habitat after the species has been added to the endangered list?
Answer: within one year

Question: Which presidential adminstration limited the protective status of critical habitat in 1986?
Answer: the Reagan Administration

Question: After the limitations placed on critical habitat were lifted by the courts, where were critical habitats established primarily?
Answer: Hawaii, California and other western states

Question: Where have the majority of critical habitats in the Midwest and Eastern states been located geographically?
Answer: primarily on rivers and coastlines

Question: What has to be designated after a waiting period of 1 year?

Question: What entity caused an increase of critical habitats in between 1986 and the 1990s?

Question: What did the Reagan regulations invalidate?

Question: How many critical habitats were built between 1978 and 1986?

Question: Which two states in the Midwest and Eastern states received fewer habitats?
Endangered_Species_Act

Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) and National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) are required to create an Endangered Species Recovery Plan outlining the goals, tasks required, likely costs, and estimated timeline to recover endangered species (i.e., increase their numbers and improve their management to the point where they can be removed from the endangered list). The ESA does not specify when a recovery plan must be completed. The FWS has a policy specifying completion within three years of the species being listed, but the average time to completion is approximately six years. The annual rate of recovery plan completion increased steadily from the Ford administration (4) through Carter (9), Reagan (30), Bush I (44), and Clinton (72), but declined under Bush II (16 per year as of 9/1/06).

Question: What four topics are required in an Endangered Species Recovery Plan?
Answer: goals, tasks required, likely costs, and estimated timeline to recover endangered species

Question: What is the time limit for completing an Endangered Species Recovery Plan?
Answer: The ESA does not specify when a recovery plan must be completed.

Question: What Recovery Plan duration the does Fish and Wildlife Service plan for in their policies?
Answer: completion within three years

Question: What is the average time of completion of an Endangered Species Recovery Plan?
Answer: approximately six years

Question: Which president had the most completed Recovery Plans during their administration?
Answer: Clinton (72)

Question: What does FWS require NMFS to create?

Question: What length of time does the NMFS policy say plans must be completed by?

Question: What was the average completion time for an FWS plan?

Question: Who requires the FWS to have a completion policy?

Question: What organizations are not required to have a recovery plan?
Endangered_Species_Act

The question to be answered is whether a listed species will be harmed by the action and, if so, how the harm can be minimized. If harm cannot be avoided, the project agency can seek an exemption from the Endangered Species Committee, an ad hoc panel composed of members from the executive branch and at least one appointee from the state where the project is to occur. Five of the seven committee members must vote for the exemption to allow taking (to harass, harm, pursue, hunt, shoot, wound, kill, trap, capture, or collect, or significant habitat modification, or to attempt to engage in any such conduct) of listed species.

Question: What is the primary consideration for determining if projects may be carried out in areas with endangered species?
Answer: whether a listed species will be harmed by the action and, if so, how the harm can be minimized

Question: If a species may be harmed, who holds final say on whether the project may proceed?
Answer: the Endangered Species Committee

Question: How many members are on the ad hoc panel that allows project exemptions for cases where a species may harmed?
Answer: seven

Question: How many votes must be in favor of the exemption in order to award the exemption?
Answer: Five

Question: What is one specific requirement regarding the make-up of the exmeption panel?
Answer: at least one appointee from the state where the project is to occur

Question: Who does the Endangered Species Committee get an exemption from?

Question: How many members must vote against the exemption?

Question: How many members must a project agency have?

Question: What do project agencies vote on?

Question: What happens if the harm can be minimized?
Endangered_Species_Act

Long before the exemption is considered by the Endangered Species Committee, the Forest Service, and either the FWS or the NMFS will have consulted on the biological implications of the timber harvest. The consultation can be informal, to determine if harm may occur; and then formal if the harm is believed to be likely. The questions to be answered in these consultations are whether the species will be harmed, whether the habitat will be harmed and if the action will aid or hinder the recovery of the listed species.

Question: Who reviews exemption considerations before the Endangered Species committee?
Answer: the Forest Service, and either the FWS or the NMFS

Question: During informal consultation, what is the goal?
Answer: to determine if harm may occur

Question: What prompts the need for formal consultation?
Answer: if the harm is believed to be likely

Question: What considerations are weighed during the consultations?
Answer: whether the species will be harmed, whether the habitat will be harmed and if the action will aid or hinder the recovery

Question: Who is consulted after the Endangered Species Committee?

Question: What implications does the Endangered Species Committee consider?

Question: What type of consultation is used if harm is not going to occur?

Question: What kind of consultation does the Endangered Species use when harm is likely?

Question: Who is consulted before going to the FWS and Forest Service?
Endangered_Species_Act

There have been six instances as of 2009 in which the exemption process was initiated. Of these six, one was granted, one was partially granted, one was denied and three were withdrawn. Donald Baur, in The Endangered Species Act: law, policy, and perspectives, concluded," ... the exemption provision is basically a nonfactor in the administration of the ESA. A major reason, of course, is that so few consultations result in jeopardy opinions, and those that do almost always result in the identification of reasonable and prudent alternatives to avoid jeopardy."

Question: How many times has the exemption process been used, as of 2009?
Answer: six

Question: What were the results of those exemption petitions?
Answer: one was granted, one was partially granted, one was denied and three were withdrawn

Question: Why is this exemption provision often considered a nonfactor?
Answer: few consultations result in jeopardy opinions

Question: How can jeopardy opinions be dissuaded?
Answer: in the identification of reasonable and prudent alternatives to avoid jeopardy.

Question: How many exemptions were granted in 2009?

Question: What is a key factor for the ESA?

Question: What did Donald Baur write in 2009?

Question: How many exemptions were withdrawn in 2009?

Question: How many exemptions has Donald Baur ruled on?
Endangered_Species_Act

More than half of habitat for listed species is on non-federal property, owned by citizens, states, local governments, tribal governments and private organizations. Before the law was amended in 1982, a listed species could be taken only for scientific or research purposes. The amendment created a permit process to circumvent the take prohibition called a Habitat Conservation Plan or HCP to give incentives to non-federal land managers and private landowners to help protect listed and unlisted species, while allowing economic development that may harm ("take") the species.

Question: Who owns the majority of critical habitat?
Answer: non-federal property, owned by citizens, states, local governments, tribal governments and private organizations

Question: What program gives incentives to private landowners to protect species on their land?
Answer: Habitat Conservation Plan

Question: Before the amendment in 1982, under what situations could a listed species be displaced?
Answer: only for scientific or research purposes

Question: What fraction of habitat for listed species is owned by citizens?

Question: Who created the 1982 amendment?

Question: When was it decided species could be taken for scientific purposes?

Question: What purpose does the HCP state listed species cannot be taken for?

Question: What can economic development not do under HCP?
Endangered_Species_Act

The person or organization submits a HCP and if approved by the agency (FWS or NMFS), will be issued an Incidental Take Permit (ITP) which allows a certain number of "takes" of the listed species. The permit may be revoked at any time and can allow incidental takes for varying amounts of time. For instance, the San Bruno Habitat Conservation Plan/ Incidental Take Permit is good for 30 years and the Wal-Mart store (in Florida) permit expires after one year. Because the permit is issued by a federal agency to a private party, it is a federal action-which means other federal laws can apply, such as the National Environmental Policy Act or NEPA. A notice of the permit application action is published in the Federal Register and a public comment period of 30 to 90 days begins.

Question: An approved HCP results in what being issued for the species?
Answer: an Incidental Take Permit (ITP)

Question: How long do ITPs last?
Answer: allow incidental takes for varying amounts of time

Question: How is the public made aware of ITP applications?
Answer: A notice of the permit application action is published in the Federal Register

Question: How long does the public have to comment on ITP applications?
Answer: 30 to 90 days

Question: What is issued if an HCP is rejected?

Question: How long does an HCP last for?

Question: What state is San Bruno in?

Question: What do not apply when a permit is issued?

Question: What entity publishes the HCP for public comment?
Endangered_Species_Act

The US Congress was urged to create the exemption by proponents of a conservation plan on San Bruno Mountain, California that was drafted in the early 1980s and is the first HCP in the nation. In the conference report on the 1982 amendments, Congress specified that it intended the San Bruno plan to act "as a model" for future conservation plans developed under the incidental take exemption provision and that "the adequacy of similar conservation plans should be measured against the San Bruno plan". Congress further noted that the San Bruno plan was based on "an independent exhaustive biological study" and protected at least 87% of the habitat of the listed butterflies that led to the development of the HCP.

Question: What location held the first HCP?
Answer: San Bruno Mountain, California

Question: What percentage of the critical habitat was protected for the area that received the first HCP?
Answer: 87%

Question: What type of animal was being protected in the area that received the first HCP?
Answer: butterflies

Question: Who did the US Congress ask to create an exemption?

Question: When was the last permit given out?

Question: What was the San Bruno plan compared to during its creation?

Question: How many of the listed butterfly habitats were in San Bruno?

Question: Who ran the biological study for the San Bruno plan?
Endangered_Species_Act

Growing scientific recognition of the role of private lands for endangered species recovery and the landmark 1981 court decision in Palila v. Hawaii Department of Land and Natural Resources both contributed to making Habitat Conservation Plans/ Incidental Take Permits "a major force for wildlife conservation and a major headache to the development community", wrote Robert D.Thornton in the 1991 Environmental Law article, Searching for Consensus and Predictability: Habitat Conservation Planning under the Endangered Species Act of 1973.

Question: What 1981 court decision added to the power of HCPs and ITPs for conservation?
Answer: Palila v. Hawaii Department of Land and Natural Resources

Question: Who wrote the article "Searching for Consensus and Predictability: Habitat Conservation Planning under the Endangered Species Act of 1973."
Answer: Robert D.Thornton

Question: What did Thornton compare the scientific and legal advances to, from the viewpoint of the development community?
Answer: a major headache

Question: When did private lands start to have more recognition?

Question: Who ruled on the Palila v. Hawaii Department of Land and Natural Resources?

Question: What did Thornton say the role of private lands was like for the development community?

Question: When was the Environmental Law magazine started?

Question: What case limited ITP power?