Divyanshu67/squad_v2 huggingface dataset:
Emotion

A common way in which emotions are conceptualized in sociology is in terms of the multidimensional characteristics including cultural or emotional labels (e.g., anger, pride, fear, happiness), physiological changes (e.g., increased perspiration, changes in pulse rate), expressive facial and body movements (e.g., smiling, frowning, baring teeth), and appraisals of situational cues. One comprehensive theory of emotional arousal in humans has been developed by Jonathan Turner (2007: 2009). Two of the key eliciting factors for the arousal of emotions within this theory are expectations states and sanctions. When people enter a situation or encounter with certain expectations for how the encounter should unfold, they will experience different emotions depending on the extent to which expectations for Self, other and situation are met or not met. People can also provide positive or negative sanctions directed at Self or other which also trigger different emotional experiences in individuals. Turner analyzed a wide range of emotion theories across different fields of research including sociology, psychology, evolutionary science, and neuroscience. Based on this analysis, he identified four emotions that all researchers consider being founded on human neurology including assertive-anger, aversion-fear, satisfaction-happiness, and disappointment-sadness. These four categories are called primary emotions and there is some agreement amongst researchers that these primary emotions become combined to produce more elaborate and complex emotional experiences. These more elaborate emotions are called first-order elaborations in Turner's theory and they include sentiments such as pride, triumph, and awe. Emotions can also be experienced at different levels of intensity so that feelings of concern are a low-intensity variation of the primary emotion aversion-fear whereas depression is a higher intensity variant.

Question: Along with anger, pride and happiness, what is an example of an emotional label?
Answer: fear

Question: Aside from increased perspiration, what is a physiological change related to emotions?
Answer: changes in pulse rate

Question: Along with smiling and frowning, what is an example of a facial or body movement caused by emotion?
Answer: baring teeth

Question: Who developed a comprehensive theory related to human emotional arousal?
Answer: Jonathan Turner

Question: How many emotional categories did Turner recognize as being founded on human neurology?
Answer: four

Question: Along with anger, pride and happiness, what isn't an example of an emotional label?

Question:  Aside from decreased perspiration, what is a physiological change related to emotions?

Question: Along with smiling and frowning, what is not an example of a facial or body movement caused by emotion?

Question: Who didn't develop a comprehensive theory related to human emotional arousal?

Question:  How many emotional categories did Turner recognize as not being founded on human neurology?
Emotion

In the late 19th century, the most influential theorists were William James (1842–1910) and Carl Lange (1834–1900). James was an American psychologist and philosopher who wrote about educational psychology, psychology of religious experience/mysticism, and the philosophy of pragmatism. Lange was a Danish physician and psychologist. Working independently, they developed the James–Lange theory, a hypothesis on the origin and nature of emotions. The theory states that within human beings, as a response to experiences in the world, the autonomic nervous system creates physiological events such as muscular tension, a rise in heart rate, perspiration, and dryness of the mouth. Emotions, then, are feelings which come about as a result of these physiological changes, rather than being their cause.

Question: Along with William James, who was an influential 19th century theorist?
Answer: Carl Lange

Question: What was William James' nationality?
Answer: American

Question: What was the nationality of Carl Lange?
Answer: Danish

Question: What was the name of the theory that Lange and James developed independently?
Answer: the James–Lange theory

Question: In what year did Lange die?
Answer: 1900

Question: Along with William James, who wasn't an influential 19th century theorist?

Question:  What was William James' religion?

Question:  What was the age of Carl Lange?

Question: What was the name of the theory that Lange and James developed dependently?
Emotion

Research on emotion has increased significantly over the past two decades with many fields contributing including psychology, neuroscience, endocrinology, medicine, history, sociology, and even computer science. The numerous theories that attempt to explain the origin, neurobiology, experience, and function of emotions have only fostered more intense research on this topic. Current areas of research in the concept of emotion include the development of materials that stimulate and elicit emotion. In addition PET scans and fMRI scans help study the affective processes in the brain. It also is influenced by hormones and neurotransmitters such as dopamine, noradrenaline, serotonin, oxytocin, cortisol and GABA.

Question: Along with psychology, neuroscience, endocrinology, medicine, history and sociology, what field has engaged in research on emotion?
Answer: computer science

Question: Along with dopamine, noradrenaline, serotonin, cortisol and oxytocin, what neurotransmitter or hormone influences emotion?
Answer: GABA

Question: Along with the experience, function and origin of emotion, what aspect of emotion does current research attempt to explain?
Answer: neurobiology

Question: Along with psychology, neuroscience, endocrinology, medicine, history and sociology, what field has disengaged in research on emotion?

Question: Besides dopamine, noradrenaline, serotonin, cortisol and oxytocin, what neurotransmitter or hormone do not influence emotion?

Question: Along with the experience, function and origin of emotion, what aspect of emotion does current research not attempt to explain?
Emotion

A distinction can be made between emotional episodes and emotional dispositions. Emotional dispositions are also comparable to character traits, where someone may be said to be generally disposed to experience certain emotions. For example, an irritable person is generally disposed to feel irritation more easily or quickly than others do. Finally, some theorists place emotions within a more general category of "affective states" where affective states can also include emotion-related phenomena such as pleasure and pain, motivational states (for example, hunger or curiosity), moods, dispositions and traits.

Question: What are emotional episodes defined in contrast to?
Answer: emotional dispositions

Question: What other traits are emotional dispositions similar to?
Answer: character traits

Question: What category is defined to contain pleasure, pain, motivation, moods and dispositions?
Answer: affective states

Question:  What are unemotional episodes defined in contrast to?

Question:  What other traits are emotional dispositions not similar to?

Question: What category is not defined to contain pleasure, pain, motivation, moods and dispositions?
Emotion

The idea that core affect is but one component of the emotion led to a theory called “psychological construction.” According to this theory, an emotional episode consists of a set of components, each of which is an ongoing process and none of which is necessary or sufficient for the emotion to be instantiated. The set of components is not fixed, either by human evolutionary history or by social norms and roles. Instead, the emotional episode is assembled at the moment of its occurrence to suit its specific circumstances. One implication is that all cases of, for example, fear are not identical but instead bear a family resemblance to one another.

Question: What theory sees an emotional episode as consisting of components?
Answer: psychological construction

Question: At what point does psychological construction theory believe the components of an emotion are put together?
Answer: at the moment of its occurrence

Question: What is an example of an emotion that, under psychological construction theory, is not the same from one case to another?
Answer: fear

Question: What theory sees an non-emotional episode as consisting of components?

Question: At what point does psychological construction theory believe the components of a non-emotion are put together?

Question: What is an example of an emotion that, under psychological construction theory, is the same from one case to another?
Emotion

Walter Bradford Cannon agreed that physiological responses played a crucial role in emotions, but did not believe that physiological responses alone could explain subjective emotional experiences. He argued that physiological responses were too slow and often imperceptible and this could not account for the relatively rapid and intense subjective awareness of emotion. He also believed that the richness, variety, and temporal course of emotional experiences could not stem from physiological reactions, that reflected fairly undifferentiated fight or flight responses. An example of this theory in action is as follows: An emotion-evoking event (snake) triggers simultaneously both a physiological response and a conscious experience of an emotion.

Question: Who argued that physiological responses were insufficient to explain emotional experiences?
Answer: Walter Bradford Cannon

Question: Along with the physiological response, what did Cannon believe was triggered by an emotional event?
Answer: a conscious experience of an emotion

Question: Why did Cannon believe that physiological responses were insufficient cause for emotions?
Answer: too slow and often imperceptible

Question: Who argued that physiological responses were sufficient to explain emotional experiences?

Question: Along with the physiological response, what did Cannon believe wasn't triggered by an emotional event?

Question: Why did Cannon believe that physiological responses weren't insufficient cause for emotions?
Emotion

A situated perspective on emotion, developed by Paul E. Griffiths and Andrea Scarantino , emphasizes the importance of external factors in the development and communication of emotion, drawing upon the situationism approach in psychology. This theory is markedly different from both cognitivist and neo-Jamesian theories of emotion, both of which see emotion as a purely internal process, with the environment only acting as a stimulus to the emotion. In contrast, a situationist perspective on emotion views emotion as the product of an organism investigating its environment, and observing the responses of other organisms. Emotion stimulates the evolution of social relationships, acting as a signal to mediate the behavior of other organisms. In some contexts, the expression of emotion (both voluntary and involuntary) could be seen as strategic moves in the transactions between different organisms. The situated perspective on emotion states that conceptual thought is not an inherent part of emotion, since emotion is an action-oriented form of skillful engagement with the world. Griffiths and Scarantino suggested that this perspective on emotion could be helpful in understanding phobias, as well as the emotions of infants and animals.

Question: Who developed a situated perspective on emotion along with Andrea Scarantino?
Answer: Paul E. Griffiths

Question: What factors did the situated perspective believe to be most important?
Answer: external

Question: The situated perspective was influenced by what school of thought?
Answer: situationism

Question: Along with infant and animal emotion, what did Scarantino and Griffiths believe the situated perspective could help to explain?
Answer: phobias

Question: Who didn't develop a situated perspective on emotion along with Andrea Scarantino?

Question:  What factors did the situated perspective believe not to be most important?

Question: The situated perspective was not influenced by what school of thought?

Question: Along with infant and animal emotion, what did Scarantino and Griffiths believe the situated perspective could not help to explain?
Emotion

Emotions are thought to be related to certain activities in brain areas that direct our attention, motivate our behavior, and determine the significance of what is going on around us. Pioneering work by Broca (1878), Papez (1937), and MacLean (1952) suggested that emotion is related to a group of structures in the center of the brain called the limbic system, which includes the hypothalamus, cingulate cortex, hippocampi, and other structures. More recent research has shown that some of these limbic structures are not as directly related to emotion as others are while some non-limbic structures have been found to be of greater emotional relevance.

Question: When did Broca publish his pioneering work?
Answer: 1878

Question: Who published a work in 1937 on the relationship between emotion and the limbic system?
Answer: Papez

Question: Along with the cingulate cortex and hippocampi, what structure is a notable part of the limbic system?
Answer: hypothalamus

Question:  When did Broca publish his non-pioneering work?

Question: Who published a work in 1937 on the relationship between non-emotional and the limbic system?

Question: Along with the cingulate cortex and hippocampi, what structure is not a notable part of the limbic system?
Emotion

In philosophy, emotions are studied in sub-fields such as ethics, the philosophy of art (for example, sensory–emotional values, and matters of taste and sentimentality), and the philosophy of music (see also Music and emotion). In history, scholars examine documents and other sources to interpret and analyze past activities; speculation on the emotional state of the authors of historical documents is one of the tools of interpretation. In literature and film-making, the expression of emotion is the cornerstone of genres such as drama, melodrama, and romance. In communication studies, scholars study the role that emotion plays in the dissemination of ideas and messages. Emotion is also studied in non-human animals in ethology, a branch of zoology which focuses on the scientific study of animal behavior. Ethology is a combination of laboratory and field science, with strong ties to ecology and evolution. Ethologists often study one type of behavior (for example, aggression) in a number of unrelated animals.

Question: Along with the philosophies of music and art, what field of philosophy studies emotions?
Answer: ethics

Question: Along with drama and melodrama, in what filmmaking genre does emotion play an important role?
Answer: romance

Question: Of what discipline is ethology a branch?
Answer: zoology

Question: Along with laboratory work, what does an ethologist engage in?
Answer: field science

Question: Along with evolution, what area of study is ethology tied to?
Answer: ecology

Question: Along with the philosophies of music and art, what field of philosophy doesn't study emotions?

Question: Along with drama and melodrama, in what filmmaking genre does emotion not play an important role?

Question:  Of what discipline is ethology not a branch?

Question: Along with laboratory work, what doesn't an ethologist engage in?
Emotion

Sociological attention to emotion has varied over time. Emilé Durkheim (1915/1965) wrote about the collective effervescence or emotional energy that was experienced by members of totemic rituals in Australian aborigine society. He explained how the heightened state of emotional energy achieved during totemic rituals transported individuals above themselves giving them the sense that they were in the presence of a higher power, a force, that was embedded in the sacred objects that were worshipped. These feelings of exaltation, he argued, ultimately lead people to believe that there were forces that governed sacred objects.

Question: Who discussed the idea of a collective effervescence?
Answer: Emilé Durkheim

Question: What society was studied to describe the notion of collective effervescence?
Answer: Australian aborigine society

Question: Durkheim saw collective effervescence in what Australian aboriginal activity?
Answer: totemic rituals

Question: What is another term for collective effervescence?
Answer: emotional energy

Question: Who didn't discuss the idea of a collective effervescence?

Question: What society was studied to describe the notion of collective non-effervescence?

Question: Durkheim saw collective effervescence in what Australian non-aboriginal activity?

Question: What is another term for collective non-effervescence?
Emotion

Some of the most influential theorists on emotion from the 20th century have died in the last decade. They include Magda B. Arnold (1903–2002), an American psychologist who developed the appraisal theory of emotions; Richard Lazarus (1922–2002), an American psychologist who specialized in emotion and stress, especially in relation to cognition; Herbert A. Simon (1916–2001), who included emotions into decision making and artificial intelligence; Robert Plutchik (1928–2006), an American psychologist who developed a psychoevolutionary theory of emotion; Robert Zajonc (1923–2008) a Polish–American social psychologist who specialized in social and cognitive processes such as social facilitation; Robert C. Solomon (1942–2007), an American philosopher who contributed to the theories on the philosophy of emotions with books such as What Is An Emotion?: Classic and Contemporary Readings (Oxford, 2003); Peter Goldie (1946–2011), a British philosopher who specialized in ethics, aesthetics, emotion, mood and character; Nico Frijda (1927–2015), a Dutch psychologist who advanced the theory that human emotions serve to promote a tendency to undertake actions that are appropriate in the circumstances, detailed in his book The Emotions (1986).

Question: What theory was developed by Arnold?
Answer: the appraisal theory of emotions

Question: When did Richard Lazarus die?
Answer: 2002

Question: Who wrote 'What Is An Emotion?'?
Answer: Robert C. Solomon

Question: Who published What Is An Emotion?: Classic and Contemporary Readings?
Answer: Oxford

Question: What is Nico Frijda's nationality?
Answer: Dutch

Question: What theory wasn't developed by Arnold?

Question: When did Richard Lazarus work?

Question:  Who wrote 'What Isn't An Emotion?'?

Question: Who published What Isn't An Emotion?: Classic and Contemporary Readings?
Emotion

The word "emotion" dates back to 1579, when it was adapted from the French word émouvoir, which means "to stir up". The term emotion was introduced into academic discussion to replace passion. According to one dictionary, the earliest precursors of the word likely dates back to the very origins of language. The modern word emotion is heterogeneous In some uses of the word, emotions are intense feelings that are directed at someone or something. On the other hand, emotion can be used to refer to states that are mild (as in annoyed or content) and to states that are not directed at anything (as in anxiety and depression). One line of research thus looks at the meaning of the word emotion in everyday language and this usage is rather different from that in academic discourse. Another line of research asks about languages other than English, and one interesting finding is that many languages have a similar but not identical term

Question: When did the word emotion enter the English language?
Answer: 1579

Question: From what French word is emotion derived?
Answer: émouvoir

Question: What does émouvoir mean in English?
Answer: to stir up

Question: Prior to the introduction of the word emotion, what word was used in its place?
Answer: passion

Question: Along with anxiety, what is an example of directionless emotion?
Answer: depression

Question: When did the word emotion leave the English language?

Question: From what English word is emotion derived?

Question:  What does émouvoir mean in Italian?

Question: Prior to the introduction of the word emotion, what word wasn't used in its place?

Question:  Along with anxiety, what is not an example of directionless emotion?
Emotion

Phillip Bard contributed to the theory with his work on animals. Bard found that sensory, motor, and physiological information all had to pass through the diencephalon (particularly the thalamus), before being subjected to any further processing. Therefore, Cannon also argued that it was not anatomically possible for sensory events to trigger a physiological response prior to triggering conscious awareness and emotional stimuli had to trigger both physiological and experiential aspects of emotion simultaneously.

Question: What is the thalamus a part of?
Answer: the diencephalon

Question: Who argued that an emotional stimulus triggered experiential and physiological responses to emotions at the same time?
Answer: Cannon

Question: What creatures did Bard experiment on?
Answer: animals

Question: Along with sensory and motor information, what information had to pass through the diencephalon before being processed?
Answer: physiological

Question: What is the thalamus not a part of?

Question: Who argued that an unemotional stimulus triggered experiential and physiological responses to emotions at the same time?

Question:  What creatures did Bard never experiment on?

Question:  Along with sensory and motor information, what information had to pass through the diencephalon after being processed?
Emotion

There are some theories on emotions arguing that cognitive activity in the form of judgments, evaluations, or thoughts are necessary in order for an emotion to occur. A prominent philosophical exponent is Robert C. Solomon (for example, The Passions, Emotions and the Meaning of Life, 1993). Solomon claims that emotions are judgments. He has put forward a more nuanced view which response to what he has called the ‘standard objection’ to cognitivism, the idea that a judgment that something is fearsome can occur with or without emotion, so judgment cannot be identified with emotion. The theory proposed by Nico Frijda where appraisal leads to action tendencies is another example.

Question: Who wrote The Passions, Emotions and the Meaning of Life?
Answer: Robert C. Solomon

Question: In what year was The Passions, Emotions and the Meaning of Life published?
Answer: 1993

Question: What does Solomon believe emotions to be?
Answer: judgments

Question: Whose theory discussed action tendencies?
Answer: Nico Frijda

Question: The idea that judgment can't be identified with emotion is an objection to what school of thought?
Answer: cognitivism

Question:  Who sang The Passions, Emotions and the Meaning of Life?

Question: In what year was The Passions, Emotions and the Meaning of Life rejected?

Question:  What does Solomon believe emotions not to be?

Question:  Whose theory didn't discuss action tendencies?

Question: The idea that judgment can be identified with emotion is an objection to what school of thought?
Emotion

Emotions can motivate social interactions and relationships and therefore are directly related with basic physiology, particularly with the stress systems. This is important because emotions are related to the anti-stress complex, with an oxytocin-attachment system, which plays a major role in bonding. Emotional phenotype temperaments affect social connectedness and fitness in complex social systems (Kurt Kortschal 2013). These characteristics are shared with other species and taxa and are due to the effects of genes and their continuous transmission. Information that is encoded in the DNA sequences provides the blueprint for assembling proteins that make up our cells. Zygotes require genetic information from their parental germ cells, and at every speciation event, heritable traits that have enabled its ancestor to survive and reproduce successfully are passed down along with new traits that could be potentially beneficial to the offspring. In the five million years since the linages leading to modern humans and chimpanzees split, only about 1.2% of their genetic material has been modified. This suggests that everything that separates us from chimpanzees must be encoded in that very small amount of DNA, including our behaviors. Students that study animal behaviors have only identified intraspecific examples of gene-dependent behavioral phenotypes. In voles (Microtus spp.) minor genetic differences have been identified in a vasopressin receptor gene that corresponds to major species differences in social organization and the mating system (Hammock & Young 2005). Another potential example with behavioral differences is the FOCP2 gene, which is involved in neural circuitry handling speech and language (Vargha-Khadem et al. 2005). Its present form in humans differed from that of the chimpanzees by only a few mutations and has been present for about 200,000 years, coinciding with the beginning of modern humans (Enard et al. 2002). Speech, language, and social organization are all part of the basis for emotions.

Question: Who researched the role of emotional phenotype temperaments on social connectedness?
Answer: Kurt Kortschal

Question: From where do zygotes derive their genetic information?
Answer: their parental germ cells

Question: What percentage of difference is there between the genetic material of humans and the genetic material of chimpanzees?
Answer: 1.2%

Question: How many million years ago did the evolution of chimpanzees and humans diverge?
Answer: five

Question: About how long ago did modern human beings first come into existence?
Answer: 200,000 years

Question: Who rejected the research on the role of emotional phenotype temperaments on social connectedness?

Question:  From where don't zygotes derive their genetic information?

Question:  What percentage of similarity is there between the genetic material of humans and the genetic material of chimpanzees?

Question:  How many hundred years ago did the evolution of chimpanzees and humans diverge?

Question:  About how long ago did modern human beings not come into existence?
Emotion

Emotion, in everyday speech, is any relatively brief conscious experience characterized by intense mental activity and a high degree of pleasure or displeasure. Scientific discourse has drifted to other meanings and there is no consensus on a definition. Emotion is often intertwined with mood, temperament, personality, disposition, and motivation. In some theories, cognition is an important aspect of emotion. Those acting primarily on emotion may seem as if they are not thinking, but mental processes are still essential, particularly in the interpretation of events. For example, the realization of danger and subsequent arousal of the nervous system (e.g. rapid heartbeat and breathing, sweating, muscle tension) is integral to the experience of fear. Other theories, however, claim that emotion is separate from and can precede cognition.

Question: Along with mood, temperament, disposition and motivation, what is emotion often tied to?
Answer: personality

Question: What do some theories see as an important part of emotion?
Answer: cognition

Question: Along with sweating and muscle tension, what might be a physiological response to danger?
Answer: rapid heartbeat and breathing

Question: Sweating is a product of the arousal of what system?
Answer: nervous

Question: Along with mood, temperament, disposition and motivation, what is emotion never tied to?

Question:  What do some theories see as an unimportant part of emotion?

Question: Along with sweating and muscle tension, what might be a non-physiological response to danger?

Question:  Sweating is a not product of the arousal of what system?
Emotion

Emotions have been described by some theorists as discrete and consistent responses to internal or external events which have a particular significance for the organism. Emotions are brief in duration and consist of a coordinated set of responses, which may include verbal, physiological, behavioural, and neural mechanisms. Psychotherapist Michael C. Graham describes all emotions as existing on a continuum of intensity. Thus fear might range from mild concern to terror or shame might range from simple embarrassment to toxic shame. Emotions have also been described as biologically given and a result of evolution because they provided good solutions to ancient and recurring problems that faced our ancestors. Moods are feelings that tend to be less intense than emotions and that often lack a contextual stimulus.

Question: Who described the concept of a continuum of intensity?
Answer: Michael C. Graham

Question: What is Michael Graham's profession?
Answer: Psychotherapist

Question: What is an example of an extreme form of fear?
Answer: terror

Question: What would be an example of mild shame?
Answer: embarrassment

Question: What are non-intense feelings that lack a contextual stimulus called?
Answer: Moods

Question: Who described the concept of a non-continuum of intensity?

Question:  What is Michael Graham's interest?

Question:  What is not an example of an extreme form of fear?

Question:  What would be an example of middle shame?

Question:  What are intense feelings that lack a contextual stimulus called?
Emotion

For more than 40 years, Paul Ekman has supported the view that emotions are discrete, measurable, and physiologically distinct. Ekman's most influential work revolved around the finding that certain emotions appeared to be universally recognized, even in cultures that were preliterate and could not have learned associations for facial expressions through media. Another classic study found that when participants contorted their facial muscles into distinct facial expressions (e.g. disgust), they reported subjective and physiological experiences that matched the distinct facial expressions. His research findings led him to classify six emotions as basic: anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness and surprise.

Question: Who has argued that emotions are discrete?
Answer: Paul Ekman

Question: How many basic emotions did Ekman recognize?
Answer: six

Question: Along with anger, disgust, happiness, sadness and fear, what is one of Ekman's basic emotions?
Answer: surprise

Question: Who has agreed that emotions are discrete?

Question:  How many non-basic emotions did Ekman recognize?

Question: Along with anger, disgust, happiness, sadness and fear, what isn't one of Ekman's basic emotions?
Emotion

Western philosophy regarded emotion in varying ways. In stoic theories it was seen as a hindrance to reason and therefore a hindrance to virtue. Aristotle believed that emotions were an essential component of virtue. In the Aristotelian view all emotions (called passions) corresponded to appetites or capacities. During the Middle Ages, the Aristotelian view was adopted and further developed by scholasticism and Thomas Aquinas in particular. There are also theories of emotions in the works of philosophers such as René Descartes, Niccolò Machiavelli, Baruch Spinoza and David Hume. In the 19th century emotions were considered adaptive and were studied more frequently from an empiricist psychiatric perspective.

Question: What school of thought saw emotion as an impediment to virtue?
Answer: stoic

Question: What thinker believed that emotions were necessary for virtue?
Answer: Aristotle

Question: What did the Aristotelians call emotions?
Answer: passions

Question: Who was a notable scholastic thinker?
Answer: Thomas Aquinas

Question: Along with Descartes, Machiavelli and Hume, what notable philosopher developed a theory of emotions?
Answer: Baruch Spinoza

Question: What school of thought saw emotion as not an impediment to virtue?

Question:  What thinker believed that emotions weren't necessary for virtue?

Question:  What did the Aristotelians not call emotions?

Question:  Who wasn't a notable scholastic thinker?
Emotion

In his 1884 article William James argued that feelings and emotions were secondary to physiological phenomena. In his theory, James proposed that the perception of what he called an "exciting fact" directly led to a physiological response, known as "emotion." To account for different types of emotional experiences, James proposed that stimuli trigger activity in the autonomic nervous system, which in turn produces an emotional experience in the brain. The Danish psychologist Carl Lange also proposed a similar theory at around the same time, and therefore this theory became known as the James–Lange theory. As James wrote, "the perception of bodily changes, as they occur, is the emotion." James further claims that "we feel sad because we cry, angry because we strike, afraid because we tremble, and neither we cry, strike, nor tremble because we are sorry, angry, or fearful, as the case may be."

Question: Who wrote that exciting facts lead to emotions?
Answer: William James

Question: What did James believe a stimulus act upon to produce emotion?
Answer: the autonomic nervous system

Question: What did James believe emotion was synonymous with?
Answer: the perception of bodily changes

Question: Who developed a theory similar to that of James?
Answer: Carl Lange

Question: What was the profession of Lange?
Answer: psychologist

Question: Who wrote that exciting facts don't lead to emotions?

Question:  What didn't James believe a stimulus act upon to produce emotion?

Question:  What did James believe emotion wasn't synonymous with?

Question:  Who didn't develop a theory similar to that of James?
Emotion

The history of emotions has become an increasingly popular topic recently, with some scholars arguing that it is an essential category of analysis, not unlike class, race, or gender. Historians, like other social scientists, assume that emotions, feelings and their expressions are regulated in different ways by both different cultures and different historical times, and constructivist school of history claims even that some sentiments and meta-emotions, for example Schadenfreude, are learnt and not only regulated by culture. Historians of emotion trace and analyse the changing norms and rules of feeling, while examining emotional regimes, codes, and lexicons from social, cultural or political history perspectives. Others focus on the history of medicine, science or psychology. What somebody can and may feel (and show) in a given situation, towards certain people or things, depends on social norms and rules. It is thus historically variable and open to change. Several research centers have opened in the past few years in Germany, England, Spain, Sweden and Australia.

Question: What historical school claims that sentiments and meta-emotions can be learned?
Answer: constructivist

Question: According to the constructivists, what is an example of a learned meta-emotion?
Answer: Schadenfreude

Question: Along with Germany, England, Spain and Australia, where has a research center on the history of emotions recently opened?
Answer: Sweden

Question: Along with class and race, what is regarded as an essential category of historical analysis?
Answer: gender

Question: What historical school claims that sentiments and meta-emotions can't be learned?

Question: According to the constructivists, what isn't an example of a learned meta-emotion?

Question: Along with Germany, England, Spain and Australia, where hasn't a research center on the history of emotions recently opened?

Question: Along with class and race, what isn't regarded as an essential category of historical analysis?
Emotion

Stanley Schachter formulated his theory on the earlier work of a Spanish physician, Gregorio Marañón, who injected patients with epinephrine and subsequently asked them how they felt. Interestingly, Marañón found that most of these patients felt something but in the absence of an actual emotion-evoking stimulus, the patients were unable to interpret their physiological arousal as an experienced emotion. Schachter did agree that physiological reactions played a big role in emotions. He suggested that physiological reactions contributed to emotional experience by facilitating a focused cognitive appraisal of a given physiologically arousing event and that this appraisal was what defined the subjective emotional experience. Emotions were thus a result of two-stage process: general physiological arousal, and experience of emotion. For example, the physiological arousal, heart pounding, in a response to an evoking stimulus, the sight of a bear in the kitchen. The brain then quickly scans the area, to explain the pounding, and notices the bear. Consequently, the brain interprets the pounding heart as being the result of fearing the bear. With his student, Jerome Singer, Schachter demonstrated that subjects can have different emotional reactions despite being placed into the same physiological state with an injection of epinephrine. Subjects were observed to express either anger or amusement depending on whether another person in the situation (a confederate) displayed that emotion. Hence, the combination of the appraisal of the situation (cognitive) and the participants' reception of adrenaline or a placebo together determined the response. This experiment has been criticized in Jesse Prinz's (2004) Gut Reactions.

Question: Whose work did the theory of Stanley Schachter build on?
Answer: Gregorio Marañón

Question: What did Gregorio Marañón inject his patients with?
Answer: epinephrine

Question: What was the nationality of Gregorio Marañón?
Answer: Spanish

Question: Who was a notable student of  Stanley Schachter?
Answer: Jerome Singer

Question: In what year was the book Gut Reactions by Jesse Prinz published?
Answer: 2004

Question:  Whose work didn't the theory of Stanley Schachter build on?

Question:  What did Gregorio Marañón not inject his patients with?

Question:  What wasn't the nationality of Gregorio Marañón?

Question:  Who was a notable teacher of Stanley Schachter?
Emotion

In the 1990s, sociologists focused on different aspects of specific emotions and how these emotions were socially relevant. For Cooley (1992), pride and shame were the most important emotions that drive people to take various social actions. During every encounter, he proposed that we monitor ourselves through the "looking glass" that the gestures and reactions of others provide. Depending on these reactions, we either experience pride or shame and this results in particular paths of action. Retzinger (1991) conducted studies of married couples who experienced cycles of rage and shame. Drawing predominantly on Goffman and Cooley's work, Scheff (1990) developed a micro sociological theory of the social bond. The formation or disruption of social bonds is dependent on the emotions that people experience during interactions.

Question: In what decade did sociologists focus on the social relevance of emotion?
Answer: 1990s

Question: What emotions did Cooley regard as of paramount social importance?
Answer: pride and shame

Question: Who studied rage and shame cycles in married couples?
Answer: Retzinger

Question: Who developed the social bond theory?
Answer: Scheff

Question: Along with Cooley, from whose work did Scheff derive social bond theory?
Answer: Goffman

Question: In what decade didn't sociologists focus on the social relevance of emotion?

Question: What emotions didn't Cooley regard as of paramount social importance?

Question:  Who studied rage and shame cycles in un-married couples?

Question:  Who rejected the social bond theory?

Question: Along with Cooley, from whose work did Scheff not derive social bond theory?
Emotion

Emotion regulation refers to the cognitive and behavioral strategies people use to influence their own emotional experience. For example, a behavioral strategy in which one avoids a situation to avoid unwanted emotions (e.g., trying not to think about the situation, doing distracting activities, etc.). Depending on the particular school's general emphasis on either cognitive components of emotion, physical energy discharging, or on symbolic movement and facial expression components of emotion, different schools of psychotherapy approach the regulation of emotion differently. Cognitively oriented schools approach them via their cognitive components, such as rational emotive behavior therapy. Yet others approach emotions via symbolic movement and facial expression components (like in contemporary Gestalt therapy).

Question: What is the term for the strategies used by people to influence their emotional experiences?
Answer: Emotion regulation

Question: What type of strategy involves avoiding a situation where unwanted emotions might be experienced?
Answer: behavioral

Question: Rational emotive behavior therapy is an approach used by what psychotherapy schools?
Answer: Cognitively oriented schools

Question: What sort of therapy might examine emotions based on components of facial expressions?
Answer: Gestalt therapy

Question: What is the term for the strategies not used by people to influence their emotional experiences?

Question: What type of strategy involves avoiding a situation where wanted emotions might be experienced?

Question: Rational emotive behavior therapy is not an approach used by what psychotherapy schools?

Question:  What sort of therapy might not examine emotions based on components of facial expressions?
Emotion

Based on discoveries made through neural mapping of the limbic system, the neurobiological explanation of human emotion is that emotion is a pleasant or unpleasant mental state organized in the limbic system of the mammalian brain. If distinguished from reactive responses of reptiles, emotions would then be mammalian elaborations of general vertebrate arousal patterns, in which neurochemicals (for example, dopamine, noradrenaline, and serotonin) step-up or step-down the brain's activity level, as visible in body movements, gestures and postures. Emotions can likely be mediated by pheromones (see fear).

Question: What system was examined to develop the neurobiological explanation of human emotion?
Answer: limbic

Question: What classification of chemicals do dopamine, serotonin and noradrenaline belong to?
Answer: neurochemicals

Question: What chemicals may mediate emotions?
Answer: pheromones

Question: Reactive responses are present in the brains of what animals?
Answer: reptiles

Question: The neurobiological explanation is specific to what types of brains?
Answer: mammalian

Question: What system wasn't examined to develop the neurobiological explanation of human emotion?

Question: What classification of chemicals do dopamine, serotonin and noradrenaline not belong to?

Question:  What chemicals do not mediate emotions?

Question:  Reactive responses aren't present in the brains of what animals?

Question:  The neurobiological explanation isn't specific to what types of brains?
Emotion

Many different disciplines have produced work on the emotions. Human sciences study the role of emotions in mental processes, disorders, and neural mechanisms. In psychiatry, emotions are examined as part of the discipline's study and treatment of mental disorders in humans. Nursing studies emotions as part of its approach to the provision of holistic health care to humans. Psychology examines emotions from a scientific perspective by treating them as mental processes and behavior and they explore the underlying physiological and neurological processes. In neuroscience sub-fields such as social neuroscience and affective neuroscience, scientists study the neural mechanisms of emotion by combining neuroscience with the psychological study of personality, emotion, and mood. In linguistics, the expression of emotion may change to the meaning of sounds. In education, the role of emotions in relation to learning is examined.

Question: What discipline studies the role of emotions in neural mechanisms?
Answer: Human sciences

Question: What fields studies the role of emotions in the treatment of human mental disorders?
Answer: psychiatry

Question: What profession studies the role of emotions in providing holistic health care?
Answer: Nursing

Question: What is affective neuroscience a sub-field of?
Answer: neuroscience

Question: What field studies the relationship between emotion and learning?
Answer: education

Question: What discipline doesn't study the role of emotions in neural mechanisms?

Question: What fields studies the role of emotions in the treatment of non-human mental disorders?

Question: What profession studies the role of emotions in providing non-holistic health care?

Question:  What is affective neuroscience not a sub-field of?

Question:  What field doesn't study the relationship between emotion and learning?
Emotion

Subsequent to these developments, Randall Collins (2004) formulated his interaction ritual theory by drawing on Durkheim's work on totemic rituals that was extended by Goffman (1964/2013; 1967) into everyday focused encounters. Based on interaction ritual theory, we experience different levels or intensities of emotional energy during face-to-face interactions. Emotional energy is considered to be a feeling of confidence to take action and a boldness that one experiences when they are charged up from the collective effervescence generated during group gatherings that reach high levels of intensity.

Question: Who came up with the interaction ritual theory?
Answer: Randall Collins

Question: From what work of Durkheim's was interaction ritual theory derived?
Answer: totemic rituals

Question: In addition to Durkheim, whose work influenced the development of interaction ritual theory?
Answer: Goffman

Question: What is the term for a feeling of confidence to take action?
Answer: Emotional energy

Question: What is the term for the energy generated during group gatherings, such as totemic rituals?
Answer: collective effervescence

Question: Who rejected the interaction ritual theory?

Question: From what work of Durkheim's wasn't interaction ritual theory derived?

Question: In addition to Durkheim, whose work didn't influence the development of interaction ritual theory?

Question:  What is the term for a feeling of confidence to not take action?

Question: What is the term for the energy not generated during group gatherings, such as totemic rituals?
Emotion

In the 2000s, research in computer science, engineering, psychology and neuroscience has been aimed at developing devices that recognize human affect display and model emotions. In computer science, affective computing is a branch of the study and development of artificial intelligence that deals with the design of systems and devices that can recognize, interpret, and process human emotions. It is an interdisciplinary field spanning computer sciences, psychology, and cognitive science. While the origins of the field may be traced as far back as to early philosophical enquiries into emotion, the more modern branch of computer science originated with Rosalind Picard's 1995 paper on affective computing. Detecting emotional information begins with passive sensors which capture data about the user's physical state or behavior without interpreting the input. The data gathered is analogous to the cues humans use to perceive emotions in others. Another area within affective computing is the design of computational devices proposed to exhibit either innate emotional capabilities or that are capable of convincingly simulating emotions. Emotional speech processing recognizes the user's emotional state by analyzing speech patterns. The detection and processing of facial expression or body gestures is achieved through detectors and sensors.

Question: Of what discipline is affective computing a branch?
Answer: computer science

Question: What is the foundational document of affective computing?
Answer: Rosalind Picard's 1995 paper

Question: In affective computing, what devices are used to collect data about the physical state of a user?
Answer: passive sensors

Question: How does emotional speech processing determine a user's emotional state?
Answer: analyzing speech patterns

Question:  Of what discipline isn't affective computing a branch?

Question:  What isn't the foundational document of affective computing?

Question: In affective computing, what devices aren't used to collect data about the physical state of a user?

Question: How does emotional speech processing determine a user's non-emotional state?