Divyanshu67/squad_v2 huggingface dataset:
Royal_Dutch_Shell

On 27 August 2007, Royal Dutch Shell and Reitan Group, the owner of the 7-Eleven brand in Scandinavia, announced an agreement to re-brand some 269 service stations across Norway, Sweden, Finland and Denmark, subject to obtaining regulatory approvals under the different competition laws in each country. On April 2010 Shell announced that the corporation is in process of trying to find a potential buyer for all of its operations in Finland and is doing similar market research concerning Swedish operations. On October 2010 Shell's gas stations and the heavy vehicle fuel supply networks in Finland and Sweden, along with a refinery located in Gothenburg, Sweden were sold to St1, a Finnish energy company, more precisely to its major shareholding parent company Keele Oy. Shell branded gas stations will be rebranded within maximum of five years from the acquisition and the number of gas stations is likely to be reduced. Until then the stations will operate under Shell brand licence.

Question: What company was the owner of the 7-Eleven brand in Scandinavia?
Answer: Reitan Group

Question: In what year did Royal Dutch Shell and Reitan Group announce an agreement?
Answer: 2007

Question: How many service stations did Royal Dutch Shell and Reitan Group agree to re-brand?
Answer: some 269

Question: Shell announced it was in the process of doing what in April 2010?
Answer: trying to find a potential buyer for all of its operations in Finland

Question: In October 2010, Shell sold what to St1?
Answer: gas stations and the heavy vehicle fuel supply networks in Finland and Sweden, along with a refinery located in Gothenburg, Sweden

Question: How many service stations did Royal Dutch Shell and Reitan Group re-brand in Norway alone?

Question: How long will it take to rebrand the service stations in Norway, Sweden, Finland, and Denmark?

Question: Who did Shell by gas stations and heavy vehicle supply networks from?

Question: When did St1 and Reitan Group announce an agreement?

Question: What parent company did Shell sell to in April 2010?
Royal_Dutch_Shell

Through most of Shell's early history, the Shell Oil Company business in the United States was substantially independent with its stock being traded on the NYSE and with little direct involvement from the group's central offices in the running of the American business. However, in 1984, Royal Dutch Shell made a bid to purchase those shares of Shell Oil Company it did not own (around 30%) and despite opposition from some minority shareholders, which led to a court case, Shell completed the buyout for a sum of $5.7 billion.

Question: Shell Oil Company's United States business throughout its early history is described as what?
Answer: substantially independent

Question: On which exchange was Shell Oil Company's U.S. stock historically traded?
Answer: the NYSE

Question: Shell Oil Company historically had little direct involvement from what entity in the running of its American businesses?
Answer: the group's central offices

Question: In what year did Royal Dutch Shell make a bid to purchase approximately 30% of Shell Oil Company's shares?
Answer: 1984

Question: What did Royal Dutch Shell's bid to purchase Shell Oil Company's shares lead to?
Answer: a court case

Question: Shell's early history involved a lot of involvement from what?

Question: What percentage of the Shell Oil Company did Royal Dutch Shell own in 1984?

Question: How much did the court case cost?

Question: When did Royal Dutch Shell try to sell its shares?

Question: Who approved of the Royal Dutch shell buyout?
Royal_Dutch_Shell

On 20 May 2011, Royal Dutch Shell's final investment decision for the world's first floating liquefied natural gas (FLNG) facility was finalized following the discovery of the remote offshore Prelude field—located off Australia's northwestern coast and estimated to contain about 3 trillion cubic feet of natural gas equivalent reserves—in 2007. FLNG technology is based on liquefied natural gas (LNG) developments that were pioneered in the mid-20th century and facilitates the exploitation of untapped natural gas reserves located in remote areas, often too small to extract any other way.

Question: The final investment decision for what was finalized by Royal Dutch Shell in May 2011?
Answer: the world's first floating liquefied natural gas (FLNG) facility

Question: The remote offshore Prelude field was discovered where?
Answer: off Australia's northwestern coast

Question: The Prelude field was estimated to contain how many cubic feet of natural gas reserves?
Answer: 3 trillion

Question: On what developments was FLNG technology based?
Answer: liquefied natural gas (LNG)

Question: FLNG technology faciliates what?
Answer: the exploitation of untapped natural gas reserves located in remote areas

Question: When did Royal Dutch Shell make its first investment into FLNG?

Question: When was FLNG technology created?

Question: What is located off Australia's southwestern coast?

Question: Where were FLNG technologies pioneered?

Question: When was the FLNG facility built?
Royal_Dutch_Shell

Shell sold 9.5% of its 23.1% stake in Woodside Petroleum in June 2014 and advised that it had reached an agreement for Woodside to buy back 9.5% of its shares at a later stage. Shell became a major shareholder in Woodside after a 2001 takeover attempt was blocked by then federal Treasurer Peter Costello and the corporation has been open about its intention to sell its stake in Woodside as part of its target to shed assets. At a general body meeting, held on 1 August 2014, 72 percent of shareholders voted to approve the buy-back, short of the 75 percent vote that was required for approval. A statement from Shell read: "Royal Dutch Shell acknowledges the outcome of Woodside Petroleum Limited's shareholders' negative vote on the selective buy-back proposal. Shell is reviewing its options in relation to its remaining 13.6 percent holding."

Question: What percent of its stake in Woodside Petroleum did Shell sell in June 2014?
Answer: 9.5%

Question: Shell became a major shareholder in Woodside after a takeover attempt was blocked in what year?
Answer: 2001

Question: Who blocked the takeover attempt?
Answer: then federal Treasurer Peter Costello

Question: What percentage of shareholders voted to approve the 2014 buy-back?
Answer: 72

Question: What percentage of shareholder votes was need to approve the 2014 buy-back?
Answer: 75

Question: How much Woodside stock in Shell sell in 2001?

Question: What Shell treasurer try to takeover Woodside in 2001?

Question: What percentage of shareholders approved the takeover attempt?

Question: What percentage of shareholders was required to block the Woodside takeover?

Question: When was the meeting to decide whether or not to sell 9.5% of its Woodside Petroleum stock?
Royal_Dutch_Shell

Following the purchase of an offshore lease in 2005, Shell initiated its US$4.5 billion Arctic drilling program in 2006, after the corporation purchased the "Kulluk" oil rig and leased the Noble Discoverer drillship. At inception, the project was led by Pete Slaiby, a Shell executive who had previously worked in the North Sea. However, after the purchase of a second offshore lease in 2008, Shell only commenced drilling work in 2012, due to the refurbishment of rigs, permit delays from the relevant authorities and lawsuits. The plans to drill in the Arctic led to protests from environmental groups, particularly Greenpeace; furthermore, analysts in the energy field, as well as related industries, also expressed skepticism due to perceptions that drilling in the region is "too dangerous because of harsh conditions and remote locations".

Question: Shell purchased what in 2005?
Answer: an offshore lease

Question: What did Shell initate after its 2005 purchase?
Answer: its US$4.5 billion Arctic drilling program

Question: What executive initially led the Artic drilling project?
Answer: Pete Slaiby

Question: What caused the delay in drilling after Shell's 2008 purchase?
Answer: the refurbishment of rigs, permit delays from the relevant authorities and lawsuits

Question: Shell's plans to drill in the Artic led to protests from which particular environmental group?
Answer: Greenpeace

Question: How much did the purchase of an offshore lease cost?

Question: What Greenpeace executive protested the Arctic drilling?

Question: What oil rig cost Shell $4.5bil?

Question: When was Pete Slaiby taken off of the Arctic drilling program?

Question: When was Pete Slaiby working in the North Sea?
Royal_Dutch_Shell

Further problems hampered the Arctic project after the commencement of drilling in 2012, as Shell dealt with a series of issues that involved air permits, Coast Guard certification of a marine vessel and severe damage to essential oil-spill equipment. Additionally, difficult weather conditions resulted in the delay of drilling during mid-2012 and the already dire situation was exacerbated by the "Kulluk" incident at the end of the year. Royal Dutch Shell had invested nearly US$5 billion by this stage of the project.

Question: What conditions caused the delay of drilling in mid-2012?
Answer: difficult weather

Question: What worsened the situation at the end of 2012?
Answer: the "Kulluk" incident

Question: What amount had Royal Dutch Shell invested in the project by the end of 2012?
Answer: nearly US$5 billion

Question: In what year did drilling in the Arctic region begin?
Answer: 2012

Question: When did the Arctic project end?

Question: Who damaged essential oil-spill equipment?

Question: How much was invested in the Kulluk incident?

Question: What caused the Kulluk incident?

Question: What certification was the Kulluk missing?
Royal_Dutch_Shell

As the Kulluk oil rig was being towed to the American state of Washington to be serviced in preparation for the 2013 drilling season, a winter storm on 27 December 2012 caused the towing crews, as well as the rescue service, to lose control of the situation. As of 1 January 2013, the Kulluk was grounded off the coast Sitkalidak Island, near the eastern end of Kodiak Island. Following the accident, a Fortune magazine contacted Larry McKinney, the executive director at the Harte Research Institute for Gulf of Mexico Studies at Texas A&M, and he explained that "A two-month delay in the Arctic is not a two-month delay ... A two-month delay could wipe out the entire drilling season."

Question: Why was the Kulluk oil rig being towed to Washington?
Answer: to be serviced in preparation for the 2013 drilling season

Question: What caused towing crews and rescue service to lose control while the Kulluk rig was in transport to Washington?
Answer: a winter storm

Question: On January 1, 2013, the Kulluk was grounded off the coast of which island?
Answer: Sitkalidak

Question: Following the incident, which magazine contacted Larry McKinney?
Answer: Fortune

Question: Larry McKinney explained that a two-month delay in drilling could do what?
Answer: wipe out the entire drilling season

Question: Where was the Kulluk oil rig being towed from?

Question: Where was the Kullug grounded in December?

Question: Who was the executive director of the Fortune magazine?

Question: What magazine did Larry McKinney contact?

Question: How long did it take to tow the Kulluk to Washington state?
Royal_Dutch_Shell

It was unclear if Shell would recommence drilling in mid-2013, following the "Kulluk" incident and, in February 2013, the corporation stated that it would "pause" its closely watched drilling project off the Alaskan coast in 2013, and will instead prepare for future exploration. In January 2014, the corporation announced the extension of the suspension of its drilling program in the Arctic, with chief executive van Beurden explaining that the project is "under review" due to both market and internal issues.

Question: Following what event was it uncertain if Shell would recommence drilling?
Answer: the "Kulluk" incident

Question: In February 2013, Shell Corporation announced that it would pause what?
Answer: its closely watched drilling project off the Alaskan coast

Question: Shell Corporation announced what in January 2014?
Answer: the extension of the suspension of its drilling program in the Arctic

Question: Which Shell Corporation executive explained the reason for the January 2014 announcement?
Answer: van Beurden

Question: What reason did the executive give for Shell's January 2014 announcement?
Answer: the project is "under review" due to both market and internal issues.

Question: What project was based in Alaska?

Question: When did van Beurden become the chief executive?

Question: When was the original suspension of the drilling program?

Question: When did shell announce it was resuming it Alaskan project?

Question: Why was van Beurden under review?
Royal_Dutch_Shell

In the 1990s, protesters criticised the company's environmental record, particularly the possible pollution caused by the proposed disposal of the Brent Spar platform into the North Sea. Despite support from the UK government, Shell reversed the decision under public pressure but maintained that sinking the platform would have been environmentally better. Shell subsequently published an unequivocal commitment to sustainable development, supported by executive speeches reinforcing this commitment.

Question: For what particular reason did protesters criticize the company's environmental record in the 1990s?
Answer: the possible pollution caused by the proposed disposal of the Brent Spar platform into the North Sea

Question: What entity supported Shell during the 1990s protests?
Answer: the UK government

Question: Following the reversal of its decision, Shell published what?
Answer: an unequivocal commitment to sustainable development

Question: When was the Brent Spar platform disposed into the North Sea?

Question: What government opposed the Brent Spar platform?

Question: What did Shell admit was a poor environmental decision?

Question: What commitment did executives condemn?

Question: What did protesters in the 1990s praise?
Royal_Dutch_Shell

In the beginning of 1996, several human rights groups brought cases to hold Shell accountable for alleged human rights violations in Nigeria, including summary execution, crimes against humanity, torture, inhumane treatment and arbitrary arrest and detention. In particular, Shell stood accused of collaborating in the execution of Ken Saro-Wiwa and eight other leaders of the Ogoni tribe of southern Nigeria, who were hanged in 1995 by Nigeria's then military rulers. The lawsuits were brought against Royal Dutch Shell and Brian Anderson, the head of its Nigerian operation. In 2009, Shell agreed to pay $15.5m in a legal settlement. Shell has not accepted any liability over the allegations against it.

Question: In 1996, multiple groups filed lawsuits to hold Shell accountable for what?
Answer: alleged human rights violations in Nigeria

Question: Shell was accused of participating in the execution of which southern Nigerian tribal leader?
Answer: Ken Saro-Wiwa

Question: In what year did Shell agree to settle the lawsuits filed in 1996?
Answer: 2009

Question: For what amount did Shell agree to settle the 1996 lawsuits?
Answer: $15.5m

Question: In contrast to its agreement to settle the 1996 lawsuits, Shell refused to do what?
Answer: accepted any liability over the allegations against it

Question: When was Brian Anderson hanged?

Question: Brian Anderson was the leader of what tribe?

Question: What was Ken Saro-Wiwa accused of?

Question: How much did Shell pay to the Ogoni tribe?

Question: When did Shell sue Nigeria?
Royal_Dutch_Shell

In 2010, a leaked cable revealed that Shell claims to have inserted staff into all the main ministries of the Nigerian government and know "everything that was being done in those ministries", according to Shell's top executive in Nigeria. The same executive also boasted that the Nigerian government had forgotten about the extent of Shell's infiltration. Documents released in 2009 (but not used in the court case) reveal that Shell regularly made payments to the Nigerian military in order to prevent protests.

Question: A 2010 leaked communication revealed that Shell claimed to have inserted what into which entities?
Answer: staff into all the main ministries of the Nigerian government

Question: The same leaked communication revealed Shell claimed to know what?
Answer: "everything that was being done in those ministries"

Question: About what did the Shell executive boast in relation to the leaked communication?
Answer: the Nigerian government had forgotten about the extent of Shell's infiltration

Question: Documents released in 2009 showed that Shell made regular payments to which entity?
Answer: the Nigerian military

Question: For what purpose did Shell make regular payments to the entity cited in the documents released in 2009?
Answer: to prevent protests

Question: When did Shell place informants in the Nigerian government?

Question: Who boasted that Shell had forgotten about the invasion?

Question: What year did the documents used in the court case come from?

Question: What source of information from 2010 was not used in the court case?

Question: Why did the Nigerian military regularly make payments to Shell?
Royal_Dutch_Shell

On 16 March 2012, 52 Greenpeace activists from five different countries boarded Fennica and Nordica, multipurpose icebreakers chartered to support Shell's drilling rigs near Alaska. Around the same time period, a reporter for Fortune magazine spoke with Edward Itta, an Inupiat Eskimo leader and the former mayor of the North Slope Borough, who expressed that he was conflicted about Shell's plans in the Arctic, as he was very concerned that an oil spill could destroy the Inupiat Eskimo's hunting-and-fishing culture, but his borough also received major tax revenue from oil and gas production; additionally, further revenue from energy activity was considered crucial to the future of the living standard in Itta's community.

Question: How many Greenpeace activists boarded Fennica and Nordica in March 2012?
Answer: 52

Question: How many countries did the group of Greenpeace activists represent?
Answer: five

Question: What types of vehicles were the Fennica and Nordica?
Answer: multipurpose icebreakers

Question: Why were the Fennica and Nordica chartered?
Answer: to support Shell's drilling rigs near Alaska

Question: What was the main concern of Edward Itta?
Answer: an oil spill could destroy the Inupiat Eskimo's hunting-and-fishing culture

Question: How many countries did the icebreakers support?

Question: What was the name of the Fortune magazine reporter?

Question: How many activists were on the Fennica alone?

Question: Who was the mayor of North Slope Borough in March 2012?

Question: What borough were the Greenpeace activists from?
Royal_Dutch_Shell

In response, Shell filed lawsuits to seek injunctions from possible protests, and Benjamin Jealous of the NAACP and Radford argued that the legal action was "trampling American's rights." According to Greenpeace, Shell lodged a request with Google to ban video footage of a Greenpeace protest action that occurred at the Shell-sponsored Formula One (F1) Belgian Grand Prix on 25 August 2013, in which "SaveTheArctic.org" banners appear at the winners' podium ceremony. In the video, the banners rise up automatically—activists controlled their appearance with the use of four radio car antennas—revealing the website URL, alongside an image that consists of half of a polar bear's head and half of the Shell logo.

Question: Why did Shell file lawsuits?
Answer: to seek injunctions from possible protests

Question: Jealous and Radford asserted that the legal action taken by Shell was what?
Answer: "trampling American's rights."

Question: Greenpeace claimed that Shell requested Google to ban what?
Answer: video footage of a Greenpeace protest action that occurred at the Shell-sponsored Formula One (F1) Belgian Grand Prix

Question: What banners appeared on the winners' podium at the August 2013 ceremony?
Answer: "SaveTheArctic.org"

Question: At the 2013 ceremony, activitsts controlled their appearance with what?
Answer: the use of four radio car antennas

Question: When did Shell ask google to ban video footage of the Greenpeace protests?

Question: What is the Greenpeace logo?

Question: Who filed the lawsuits against Shell?

Question: Who did SaveTheArctic partner with for the Belgian Grand Prix?

Question: How were the winners' podiums controlled?
Mammal

Mammals include the largest animals on the planet, the rorquals and other large whales, as well as some of the most intelligent, such as elephants, primates, including humans, and cetaceans. The basic body type is a four-legged land-borne animal, but some mammals are adapted for life at sea, in the air, in trees, or on two legs. The largest group of mammals, the placentals, have a placenta, which enables feeding the fetus during gestation. Mammals range in size from the 30–40 mm (1.2–1.6 in) bumblebee bat to the 33-meter (108 ft) blue whale.

Question: Which specific mammal is the largest today?
Answer: blue whale

Question: Which mammal is the smallest?
Answer: bumblebee bat

Question: Which four legged mammal is considered to be the smartest?
Answer: elephants

Question: About how small is the average bumble bee bat?
Answer: 30–40 mm (1.2–1.6 in)

Question: What do the largest group of mammals, elephants, have that helps the fetus during gestation?

Question: How small is the average fetus?

Question: What are some fetuses adapted for?

Question: What is another name for a large elephant?

Question: What does a placenta help bumblebee bats do?
Mammal

The word "mammal" is modern, from the scientific name Mammalia coined by Carl Linnaeus in 1758, derived from the Latin mamma ("teat, pap"). All female mammals nurse their young with milk, which is secreted from special glands, the mammary glands. According to Mammal Species of the World, 5,416 species were known in 2006. These were grouped in 1,229 genera, 153 families and 29 orders. In 2008 the IUCN completed a five-year, 1,700-scientist Global Mammal Assessment for its IUCN Red List, which counted 5,488 accepted species.

Question: Who coined the name "mammal" from the scientific name Mammalia?
Answer: Carl Linnaeus

Question: What do all female mammals have in common when they have children?
Answer: nurse their young with milk

Question: How many mammals were known to exist up to 2006?
Answer: 5,416

Question: How many families did mammals consist of as of 2006?
Answer: 153 families

Question: What term  did IUCN coin in 1758?

Question: In 1758 how many mammal species were known?

Question: What was completed by Carl Linnaeus in 2006?

Question: How was the IUCN Red List grouped?

Question: How many accepted species are there according to Carl Linnaeus?
Mammal

Except for the five species of monotremes (egg-laying mammals), all modern mammals give birth to live young. Most mammals, including the six most species-rich orders, belong to the placental group. The three largest orders in numbers, are first Rodentia: mice, rats, porcupines, beavers, capybaras, and other gnawing mammals; then Chiroptera: bats; and then Soricomorpha: shrews, moles and solenodons. The next three orders, depending on the biological classification scheme used, are the Primates including the humans; the Cetartiodactyla including the whales and the even-toed hoofed mammals; and the Carnivora, that is, cats, dogs, weasels, bears, seals, and their relatives.

Question: How many species of mammals do not have a live birth?
Answer: five species

Question: Which group consist of the most mammals?
Answer: Rodentia

Question: Which group do humans belong too?
Answer: Primates

Question: Which group do cats and dogs belong too?
Answer: Carnivora

Question: What do all modern monotremes give birth to?

Question: What group do the six species of monotremes belong to?

Question: Which monotreme consists of the most mammals?

Question: What is the monotreme that is second after Rodentia?

Question: What are some examples of monotremes that are part of the group Rodentia?
Mammal

The early synapsid mammalian ancestors were sphenacodont pelycosaurs, a group that produced the non-mammalian Dimetrodon. At the end of the Carboniferous period, this group diverged from the sauropsid line that led to today's reptiles and birds. The line following the stem group Sphenacodontia split-off several diverse groups of non-mammalian synapsids—sometimes referred to as mammal-like reptiles—before giving rise to the proto-mammals (Therapsida) in the early Mesozoic era. The modern mammalian orders arose in the Paleogene and Neogene periods of the Cenozoic era, after the extinction of the non-avian dinosaurs 66 million years ago.

Question: From which time period did birds and reptiles began to appear from?
Answer: Carboniferous period

Question: When did non-avian dinosaurs become extinct?
Answer: 66 million years ago

Question: Which early mammalian ancestor produced non-mammalian Dimetroden?
Answer: sphenacodont pelycosaurs

Question: When did sphenacodont pelycosaurs become extinct?

Question: What were the modern mammalian orders ancestors called?

Question: At the end of the synapsid period what non-mammal was produced?

Question: The Sphenacodontia arose in the Paleogene and Neogene periods of what era?

Question: At the end of the Carboniferous period what did the Neogene diverge from that led to today's reptiles and birds?
Mammal

In an influential 1988 paper, Timothy Rowe defined Mammalia phylogenetically as the crown group mammals, the clade consisting of the most recent common ancestor of living monotremes (echidnas and platypuses) and therian mammals (marsupials and placentals) and all descendants of that ancestor. Since this ancestor lived in the Jurassic period, Rowe's definition excludes all animals from the earlier Triassic, despite the fact that Triassic fossils in the Haramiyida have been referred to the Mammalia since the mid-19th century.

Question: Who defined mammalian as the crown group mammals?
Answer: Timothy Rowe

Question: By Rowe's definition, when did he start to exclude animals?
Answer: Triassic

Question: Which group do marsupials and placentals belong to?
Answer: therian mammals

Question: How did Timothy Rowe define Mammalia in the mid 19th century?

Question: What are two examples of the most recent ancestor of the Jurassic period?

Question: In what period did mammals live?

Question: For how long have Juassic fossils been referred to the Mammalia?

Question: What is one thing Triassic fossils are shown to consist of according to a 19th century paper?
Mammal

If Mammalia is considered as the crown group, its origin can be roughly dated as the first known appearance of animals more closely related to some extant mammals than to others. Ambondro is more closely related to monotremes than to therian mammals while Amphilestes and Amphitherium are more closely related to the therians; as fossils of all three genera are dated about 167 million years ago in the Middle Jurassic, this is a reasonable estimate for the appearance of the crown group. The earliest known synapsid satisfying Kemp's definitions is Tikitherium, dated 225 Ma, so the appearance of mammals in this broader sense can be given this Late Triassic date. In any case, the temporal range of the group extends to the present day.

Question: Which group are Ambondro's closely related to?
Answer: monotremes

Question: Which two groups are closely related to therian mammals?
Answer: Amphilestes and Amphitherium

Question: How many years do momotremes and therian mammals go back?
Answer: 167 million years

Question: About what year do synapsid date back to?
Answer: 225 Ma

Question: What is the earliest Ambondro that satisfies Kemp's definitions?

Question: What is Tikitherium more closely related to more than therian mammals?

Question: What time period are fossils of the ambondro dated to in the Middle Jurassic?

Question: About what year are ambondro dated to?

Question: What can the appearance of genera be broadly given?
Mammal

George Gaylord Simpson's "Principles of Classification and a Classification of Mammals" (AMNH Bulletin v. 85, 1945) was the original source for the taxonomy listed here. Simpson laid out a systematics of mammal origins and relationships that was universally taught until the end of the 20th century. Since Simpson's classification, the paleontological record has been recalibrated, and the intervening years have seen much debate and progress concerning the theoretical underpinnings of systematization itself, partly through the new concept of cladistics. Though field work gradually made Simpson's classification outdated, it remained the closest thing to an official classification of mammals.

Question: Who wrote the "Principles of Classification and a Classification of Mammals?
Answer: George Gaylord Simpson

Question: Simpson laid the systematics of mammal origins and was taught universally up until the end of what century?
Answer: 20th

Question: Which new concept has greatly taken over Simpsons much debated theoretical systematization?
Answer: cladistics

Question: What did Simpson lay out that was universally taught until 1945?

Question: What was the original source for the paleontoligical record?

Question: What happened since the classification by the AMNH?

Question: What taxonomy took over AMNH's debated systematization?

Question: Up until what century were cladistics universally taught?
Mammal

In 1997, the mammals were comprehensively revised by Malcolm C. McKenna and Susan K. Bell, which has resulted in the McKenna/Bell classification. Their 1997 book, Classification of Mammals above the Species Level, is the most comprehensive work to date on the systematics, relationships, and occurrences of all mammal taxa, living and extinct, down through the rank of genus, though recent molecular genetic data challenge several of the higher level groupings. The authors worked together as paleontologists at the American Museum of Natural History, New York. McKenna inherited the project from Simpson and, with Bell, constructed a completely updated hierarchical system, covering living and extinct taxa that reflects the historical genealogy of Mammalia.

Question: In 1997 who revised the classification of mammals?
Answer: Malcolm C. McKenna and Susan K. Bell

Question: Where did the two authors work together as paleontologist? 
Answer: American Museum of Natural History

Question: From whom did McKenna inherit the project from?
Answer: Simpson

Question: Who did Simpson inherit the project from?

Question: What happened to molecular genetic data in 1997?

Question: What was the book written by Simpson?

Question: What information about mammals does Simpson's book cover?

Question: What did Simpson help construct with Bell?
Mammal

Molecular studies based on DNA analysis have suggested new relationships among mammal families over the last few years. Most of these findings have been independently validated by retrotransposon presence/absence data. Classification systems based on molecular studies reveal three major groups or lineages of placental mammals- Afrotheria, Xenarthra, and Boreoeutheria- which diverged from early common ancestors in the Cretaceous. The relationships between these three lineages is contentious, and all three possible different hypotheses have been proposed with respect to which group is basal with respect to other placentals. These hypotheses are Atlantogenata (basal Boreoeutheria), Epitheria (basal Xenarthra), and Exafroplacentalia (basal Afrotheria). Boreoeutheria in turn contains two major lineages- Euarchontoglires and Laurasiatheria.

Question: Through Molecular studies, what was used to suggest new relationships among mammal families?
Answer: DNA analysis

Question: During these Molecular studies, which three major groups of mammals shared a common ancestors from the Cretaceous period?
Answer: Afrotheria, Xenarthra, and Boreoeutheria

Question: Afrotheria,Xenartha, and Boreoeutheria deprives from which two lineages?
Answer: Euarchontoglires and Laurasiatheria

Question: What have studies based on Boreoeutheria suggested?

Question: What have findings based on common ancestors in the Cretaceous been validated by?

Question: What are three major groups of Laurasiatheria?

Question: Where did Euarchontoglires and Laurasiatheria come from?

Question: What two major common ancestors does Alantogenata contain?
Mammal

The first amniotes apparently arose in the Late Carboniferous. They descended from earlier reptiliomorph amphibious tetrapods, which lived on land that was already inhabited by insects and other invertebrates as well as by ferns, mosses and other plants. Within a few million years, two important amniote lineages became distinct: the synapsids, which would later include the common ancestor of the mammals; and the sauropsids, which would eventually come to include turtles, lizards, snakes, crocodilians, dinosaurs and birds. Synapsids have a single hole (temporal fenestra) low on each side of the skull.

Question: From which period did the first known amniotes arise from?
Answer: Carboniferous

Question: From which group did amniotes descendents of?
Answer: reptiliomorph amphibious tetrapods

Question: Two important Amniotes  lineages became distinct, what was the name of that distinction?
Answer: the synapsids

Question: Sauropsids would later include which other animals into its group?
Answer: turtles, lizards, snakes, crocodilians, dinosaurs and birds

Question: What is a distinct trait of Synapsids?
Answer: single hole (temporal fenestra) low on each side of the skull

Question: From what period did the first insects come from?

Question: What already inhabited the synapsids?

Question: When did amphibious tetrapods become prominent?

Question: What do amniotes have on each side of the skull?

Question: What animals were later included in the carboniferous group?
Mammal

Therapsids descended from pelycosaurs in the Middle Permian, about 265 million years ago, and became the dominant land vertebrates. They differ from basal eupelycosaurs in several features of the skull and jaws, including: larger temporal fenestrae and incisors which are equal in size. The therapsid lineage leading to mammals went through a series of stages, beginning with animals that were very like their pelycosaur ancestors and ending with probainognathian cynodonts, some of which could easily be mistaken for mammals. Those stages were characterized by:

Question: From which dinosaur group did Therapsids descend from?
Answer: pelycosaurs

Question: Around what time did Therapsids become the dominant land animal?
Answer: 265 million years ago

Question: At which group did Therapsids end with?
Answer: probainognathian cynodonts

Question: When did basal eupelycosaurs descend from pelycosaurs?

Question: What did the therapsid lineage do in the Middle Permian, 265 million years ago?

Question: How do Probainognathian cynodonts differ from the therapsid lineage?

Question: What are some characteristics that show how mammals differ from pelycosaurs?

Question: What animal was at the end stage of the Middle Permian?
Mammal

The Permian–Triassic extinction event, which was a prolonged event due to the accumulation of several extinction pulses, ended the dominance of the carnivores among the therapsids. In the early Triassic, all the medium to large land carnivore niches were taken over by archosaurs which, over an extended period of time (35 million years), came to include the crocodylomorphs, the pterosaurs, and the dinosaurs. By the Jurassic, the dinosaurs had come to dominate the large terrestrial herbivore niches as well.

Question: What was the name of extinction level event that ended the dominance of the carnivores among therapsids?
Answer: Permian–Triassic

Question: During which time period did archosaurs begin to take over as the dominant carnivore?
Answer: Triassic

Question: Which three groups did the early Triassic period consist of?
Answer: crocodylomorphs, the pterosaurs, and the dinosaurs

Question: During the Jurassic period which group came out as the most dominate for both carnivores and herbivores?
Answer: dinosaurs

Question: Why was the Jurassic a prolonged event?

Question: What did the Jurassic period end?

Question: What was taken over by carnivores in the Permian-Triassic?

Question: What types of animals were included in the Permian-Triassic over 35 million years?

Question: What had archosaurs come to dominate by the Jurassic?
Mammal

The oldest known fossil among the Eutheria ("true beasts") is the small shrewlike Juramaia sinensis, or "Jurassic mother from China", dated to 160 million years ago in the Late Jurassic. A later eutherian, Eomaia, dated to 125 million years ago in the Early Cretaceous, possessed some features in common with the marsupials but not with the placentals, evidence that these features were present in the last common ancestor of the two groups but were later lost in the placental lineage. In particular:

Question: What is the oldest know fossil among the Eutheria group? 
Answer: shrewlike Juramaia sinensis

Question: How long ago does oldest know fossil date back to?
Answer: 160 million years ago

Question: In what time period did early animals share some features with marsupials?
Answer: 125 million years ago

Question: Which lineage were some of these early marsupial features were lost?
Answer: placental

Question: What is the oldest known feature among the marsupials?

Question: What time period is a marsupial dated to in the Early Cretaceous?

Question: What do Juramaia have in common with placentals?

Question: What lineage shows some early eutherian features were lost?

Question: When was the marsupial mother from the Cretaceous dated to?
Mammal

Recent molecular phylogenetic studies suggest that most placental orders diverged about 100 to 85 million years ago and that modern families appeared in the period from the late Eocene through the Miocene. But paleontologists object that no placental fossils have been found from before the end of the Cretaceous. The earliest undisputed fossils of placentals come from the early Paleocene, after the extinction of the dinosaurs. In particular, scientists have recently identified an early Paleocene animal named Protungulatum donnae as one of the first placental mammals. The earliest known ancestor of primates is Archicebus achilles from around 55 million years ago. This tiny primate weighed 20–30 grams (0.7–1.1 ounce) and could fit within a human palm.

Question: How long ago did most placental orders diverge from?
Answer: 100 to 85 million years ago

Question: Which two major time periods did placentals appear?
Answer: Eocene through the Miocene

Question: Which time period did early highly undisputed fossils of placental mammals appear?
Answer: Paleocene

Question: When is the earliest know primate thought to had exist?
Answer: 55 million years ago

Question: How much did the first primate weigh?
Answer: 20–30 grams (0.7–1.1 ounce)

Question: Where do the earliest fossils of the Miocene come from?

Question: What have scientists identified Eocene as?

Question: What is the earliest ancestor of humans from about 55 million years ago?

Question: How much did the Protungulatum donnae weigh?

Question: What do scientists object about primates before the end of the Paleocene?
Mammal

The earliest clear evidence of hair or fur is in fossils of Castorocauda, from 164 million years ago in the Middle Jurassic. In the 1950s, it was suggested that the foramina (passages) in the maxillae and premaxillae (bones in the front of the upper jaw) of cynodonts were channels which supplied blood vessels and nerves to vibrissae (whiskers) and so were evidence of hair or fur; it was soon pointed out, however, that foramina do not necessarily show that an animal had vibrissae, as the modern lizard Tupinambis has foramina that are almost identical to those found in the nonmammalian cynodont Thrinaxodon. Popular sources, nevertheless, continue to attribute whiskers to Thrinaxodon.

Question: When is it believed that the earliest know hair was said to exist?
Answer: 164 million years ago

Question: When was it suggested that foramina premaxillae could contain the first know hairs?
Answer: 1950s

Question: Which major time period were these suggested hairs from?
Answer: Jurassic

Question: What type of fossils showed the earliest evidence of cynodonts?

Question: What was suggested about the Tupinambis in the Thrinaxodon in the 1950's?

Question: What do popular sources attribute foramina to?

Question: At what time is it believed the earliest known foramina existed?

Question: What does the modern lizard Castorocauda have?
Mammal

When endothermy first appeared in the evolution of mammals is uncertain. Modern monotremes have lower body temperatures and more variable metabolic rates than marsupials and placentals, but there is evidence that some of their ancestors, perhaps including ancestors of the therians, may have had body temperatures like those of modern therians. Some of the evidence found so far suggests that Triassic cynodonts had fairly high metabolic rates, but it is not conclusive. For small animals, an insulative covering like fur is necessary for the maintenance of a high and stable body temperature.

Question: Which group of animal has a lower body temperature that marsupials and placentals?
Answer: monotremes

Question: Which time period is suggested that cynodonts had a high metabolic rate?
Answer: Triassic

Question: Why is it necessary for smaller animals to have an insulative covering?
Answer: maintenance of a high and stable body temperature

Question: What does evidence found suggest about monotremes?

Question: What do therians need to maintain a stable body temperature?

Question: What do small animals have compared to therians?

Question: What suggests that monotremes have high metabolic rates?

Question: What do placentals use their fur covering for?
Mammal

Breathing is largely driven by the muscular diaphragm, which divides the thorax from the abdominal cavity, forming a dome with its convexity towards the thorax. Contraction of the diaphragm flattens the dome, increasing the volume of the cavity in which the lung is enclosed. Air enters through the oral and nasal cavities; it flows through the larynx, trachea and bronchi and expands the alveoli. Relaxation of the diaphragm has the opposite effect, passively recoiling during normal breathing. During exercise, the abdominal wall contracts, increasing visceral pressure on the diaphragm, thus forcing the air out more quickly and forcefully. The rib cage itself also is able to expand and contract the thoracic cavity to some degree, through the action of other respiratory and accessory respiratory muscles. As a result, air is sucked into or expelled out of the lungs, always moving down its pressure gradient. This type of lung is known as a bellows lung as it resembles a blacksmith's bellows. Mammals take oxygen into their lungs, and discard carbon dioxide.

Question: When air enters both the oral and nasal cavities, where does it flow through?
Answer: larynx, trachea and bronchi

Question: Increasing pressure on the diaphragm thus increasing air output more frequently is usually caused by?
Answer: exercise

Question: A result of air being sucked into or blown out of the lung thats moving its pressure gradient is referred to?
Answer: bellows lung

Question: Where did the term Bellows Lung come from?
Answer: blacksmith's bellows

Question: When mammals take oxygen into their relaxed diaphragm, what happens to the abdominal wall?

Question: What is alveoli inspired by?

Question: What is the ribcage able to passively recoil?

Question: What does contraction of the thorax do while increasing the volume of the lung cavity?

Question: When air enters the nasal cavity, what does the rib cage expand?
Mammal

The epidermis is typically 10 to 30 cells thick; its main function is to provide a waterproof layer. Its outermost cells are constantly lost; its bottommost cells are constantly dividing and pushing upward. The middle layer, the dermis, is 15 to 40 times thicker than the epidermis. The dermis is made up of many components, such as bony structures and blood vessels. The hypodermis is made up of adipose tissue. Its job is to store lipids, and to provide cushioning and insulation. The thickness of this layer varies widely from species to species.

Question: What is the typical thickness of the epidermis?
Answer: 10 to 30 cells thick

Question: What is the main function of the epidermis?
Answer: to provide a waterproof layer

Question: How much more thicker is the dermis to the epidermis?
Answer: 15 to 40 times thicker

Question: What is the dermis mainly consist of?
Answer: bony structures and blood vessels

Question: What does the Hyperdermis consist of?
Answer: adipose tissue

Question: When the hypodermis is 10 to 30 cells thick, what is its main function?

Question: What happens to the outermost cells of the hypodermis?

Question: How do the bottommost cells of the hypodermis act?

Question: How much thicker is the hypodermis from the dermis?

Question: What are two components that make up the epidermis?
Mammal

Mammalian hair, also known as pelage, can vary in color between populations, organisms within a population, and even on the individual organism. Light-dark color variation is common in the mammalian taxa. Sometimes, this color variation is determined by age variation, however, in other cases, it is determined by other factors. Selective pressures, such as ecological interactions with other populations or environmental conditions, often lead to the variation in mammalian coloration. These selective pressures favor certain colors in order to increase survival. Camouflage is thought to be a major selection pressure shaping coloration in mammals, although there is also evidence that sexual selection, communication, and physiological processes may influence the evolution of coloration as well. Camouflage is the most predominant mechanism for color variation, as it aids in the concealment of the organisms from predators or from their prey. Coat color can also be for intraspecies communication such as warning members of their species about predators, indicating health for reproductive purposes, communicating between mother and young, and intimidating predators. Studies have shown that in some cases, differences in female and male coat color could indicate information nutrition and hormone levels, which are important in the mate selection process. One final mechanism for coat color variation is physiological response purposes, such as temperature regulation in tropical or arctic environments. Although much has been observed about color variation, much of the genetic that link coat color to genes is still unknown. The genetic sites where pigmentation genes are found are known to affect phenotype by: 1) altering the spatial distribution of pigmentation of the hairs, and 2) altering the density and distribution of the hairs. Quantitative trait mapping is being used to better understand the distribution of loci responsible for pigmentation variation. However, although the genetic sites are known, there is still much to learn about how these genes are expressed.

Question: What is another name used for mammalian hair?
Answer: pelage

Question: Which color of hair is most common among mammalian taxa?
Answer: Light-dark color

Question: Besides Camouflage being a reason for having certain hair colors, what other reasons have been discovered? 
Answer: sexual selection, communication, and physiological processes

Question: What is another name for camouflage?

Question: How does intraspecies communication vary?

Question: What is distribution of loci common in?

Question: Why do selective pressures favor arctic environments?

Question: What three examples show how hormone levels are important in the mate selection process?