Divyanshu67/squad_v2 huggingface dataset:
Middle_Ages

Chivalry and the ethos of courtly love developed in royal and noble courts. This culture was expressed in the vernacular languages rather than Latin, and comprised poems, stories, legends, and popular songs spread by troubadours, or wandering minstrels. Often the stories were written down in the chansons de geste, or "songs of great deeds", such as The Song of Roland or The Song of Hildebrand. Secular and religious histories were also produced. Geoffrey of Monmouth (d. c. 1155) composed his Historia Regum Britanniae, a collection of stories and legends about Arthur. Other works were more clearly history, such as Otto von Freising's (d. 1158) Gesta Friderici Imperatoris detailing the deeds of Emperor Frederick Barbarossa, or William of Malmesbury's (d. c. 1143) Gesta Regum on the kings of England.

Question: What does chansons de geste mean in English?
Answer: songs of great deeds

Question: Along with The Song of Ronald, what is a notable chanson de geste?
Answer: The Song of Hildebrand

Question: Who wrote Historia Regum Britanniae?
Answer: Geoffrey of Monmouth

Question: What legendary figure was featured in the Historia Regum Britanniae?
Answer: Arthur

Question: Who was the subject of Gesta Friderici Imperatoris?
Answer: Emperor Frederick Barbarossa
Middle_Ages

Legal studies advanced during the 12th century. Both secular law and canon law, or ecclesiastical law, were studied in the High Middle Ages. Secular law, or Roman law, was advanced greatly by the discovery of the Corpus Juris Civilis in the 11th century, and by 1100 Roman law was being taught at Bologna. This led to the recording and standardisation of legal codes throughout Western Europe. Canon law was also studied, and around 1140 a monk named Gratian (fl. 12th century), a teacher at Bologna, wrote what became the standard text of canon law—the Decretum.

Question: What is another name for canon law?
Answer: ecclesiastical law

Question: What is another name for Roman law?
Answer: Secular law

Question: Where could one study Roman law in 1100?
Answer: Bologna

Question: In what century was the Corpus Juris Civilis rediscovered?
Answer: 11th

Question: Who wrote the Decretum?
Answer: Gratian
Middle_Ages

Among the results of the Greek and Islamic influence on this period in European history was the replacement of Roman numerals with the decimal positional number system and the invention of algebra, which allowed more advanced mathematics. Astronomy advanced following the translation of Ptolemy's Almagest from Greek into Latin in the late 12th century. Medicine was also studied, especially in southern Italy, where Islamic medicine influenced the school at Salerno.

Question: What invention led to advances in mathematics?
Answer: algebra

Question: What influential astronomy text did Ptomely author?
Answer: Almagest

Question: In what language was Almagest originally written?
Answer: Greek

Question: In what city was a medical school located that was notably influenced by Islamic medicine?
Answer: Salerno

Question: Into what language was Almagest translated in the 12th century?
Answer: Latin
Middle_Ages

In the 12th and 13th centuries, Europe produced economic growth and innovations in methods of production. Major technological advances included the invention of the windmill, the first mechanical clocks, the manufacture of distilled spirits, and the use of the astrolabe. Concave spectacles were invented around 1286 by an unknown Italian artisan, probably working in or near Pisa.

Question: Along with the astrolabe, windmill and distilled spirits, what was a notable technological advancement of the 12th and 13th centuries?
Answer: mechanical clocks

Question: What was invented in approximately 1286?
Answer: Concave spectacles

Question: Near what city were concave spectacles invented?
Answer: Pisa
Middle_Ages

The development of a three-field rotation system for planting crops[AA] increased the usage of land from one half in use each year under the old two-field system to two-thirds under the new system, with a consequent increase in production. The development of the heavy plough allowed heavier soils to be farmed more efficiently, aided by the spread of the horse collar, which led to the use of draught horses in place of oxen. Horses are faster than oxen and require less pasture, factors that aided the implementation of the three-field system.

Question: What fraction of land was under cultivation using the two-field system?
Answer: one half

Question: What fraction of land was under cultivate using the three-field system?
Answer: two-thirds

Question: What invention allowed horses rather than oxen to be used to plow?
Answer: the horse collar

Question: What invention led to an increase in efficiency in the farming of heavy soils?
Answer: the heavy plough

Question: In addition to requiring less pasture, what distinguishes horses from oxen?
Answer: faster
Middle_Ages

The construction of cathedrals and castles advanced building technology, leading to the development of large stone buildings. Ancillary structures included new town halls, houses, bridges, and tithe barns. Shipbuilding improved with the use of the rib and plank method rather than the old Roman system of mortise and tenon. Other improvements to ships included the use of lateen sails and the stern-post rudder, both of which increased the speed at which ships could be sailed.

Question: Along with bridges, tithe barns and town halls, what notable new structures were built during this period?
Answer: houses

Question: What method, derived from the Romans, was traditionally used to build ships?
Answer: mortise and tenon

Question: What new shipbuilding method was invented in this period?
Answer: rib and plank

Question: What type of rudder was introduced during this period?
Answer: stern-post

Question: What type of sails were first used during this era?
Answer: lateen
Middle_Ages

In military affairs, the use of infantry with specialised roles increased. Along with the still-dominant heavy cavalry, armies often included mounted and infantry crossbowmen, as well as sappers and engineers. Crossbows, which had been known in Late Antiquity, increased in use partly because of the increase in siege warfare in the 10th and 11th centuries.[AB] The increasing use of crossbows during the 12th and 13th centuries led to the use of closed-face helmets, heavy body armour, as well as horse armour. Gunpowder was known in Europe by the mid-13th century with a recorded use in European warfare by the English against the Scots in 1304, although it was merely used as an explosive and not as a weapon. Cannon were being used for sieges in the 1320s, and hand-held guns were in use by the 1360s.

Question: In what century did Europeans become aware of gunpowder?
Answer: 13th

Question: Who was recorded as using gunpowder in 1304?
Answer: the English

Question: Against whom was gunpowder used in 1304?
Answer: the Scots

Question: In what decade were siege cannon known to have been used?
Answer: 1320s

Question: What led to the increased use of armor in the 12th century?
Answer: The increasing use of crossbows
Middle_Ages

In the 10th century the establishment of churches and monasteries led to the development of stone architecture that elaborated vernacular Roman forms, from which the term "Romanesque" is derived. Where available, Roman brick and stone buildings were recycled for their materials. From the tentative beginnings known as the First Romanesque, the style flourished and spread across Europe in a remarkably homogeneous form. Just before 1000 there was a great wave of building stone churches all over Europe. Romanesque buildings have massive stone walls, openings topped by semi-circular arches, small windows, and, particularly in France, arched stone vaults. The large portal with coloured sculpture in high relief became a central feature of façades, especially in France, and the capitals of columns were often carved with narrative scenes of imaginative monsters and animals. According to art historian C. R. Dodwell, "virtually all the churches in the West were decorated with wall-paintings", of which few survive. Simultaneous with the development in church architecture, the distinctive European form of the castle was developed, and became crucial to politics and warfare.

Question: In what century was Romanesque architecture first used?
Answer: 10th

Question: What feature of Romanesque architecture was especially prevalent in France?
Answer: arched stone vaults

Question: Who noted the prevalence of wall-paintings in Western churches of this era?
Answer: C. R. Dodwell

Question: What non-church architectural structure developed in the 10th century?
Answer: the castle

Question: Around what year did the great wave of church-building in stone occur?
Answer: 1000
Middle_Ages

Romanesque art, especially metalwork, was at its most sophisticated in Mosan art, in which distinct artistic personalities including Nicholas of Verdun (d. 1205) become apparent, and an almost classical style is seen in works such as a font at Liège, contrasting with the writhing animals of the exactly contemporary Gloucester Candlestick. Large illuminated bibles and psalters were the typical forms of luxury manuscripts, and wall-painting flourished in churches, often following a scheme with a Last Judgement on the west wall, a Christ in Majesty at the east end, and narrative biblical scenes down the nave, or in the best surviving example, at Saint-Savin-sur-Gartempe, on the barrel-vaulted roof.

Question: Who was a noted figure in Mosan art?
Answer: Nicholas of Verdun

Question: What year saw the death of Nicholas of Verdun?
Answer: 1205

Question: On what wall of a church was the Last Judgment typically painted?
Answer: west

Question: Where are narrative biblical scenes painted in the church at Saint-Savin-sur-Gartempe?
Answer: on the barrel-vaulted roof

Question: What notable Romanesque metalwork is named for Gloucester?
Answer: Gloucester Candlestick
Middle_Ages

From the early 12th century, French builders developed the Gothic style, marked by the use of rib vaults, pointed arches, flying buttresses, and large stained glass windows. It was used mainly in churches and cathedrals, and continued in use until the 16th century in much of Europe. Classic examples of Gothic architecture include Chartres Cathedral and Reims Cathedral in France as well as Salisbury Cathedral in England. Stained glass became a crucial element in the design of churches, which continued to use extensive wall-paintings, now almost all lost.

Question: In what century did the Gothic style first flourish?
Answer: 12th

Question: In what century did the Gothic style cease to be used?
Answer: 16th

Question: Along with Reims, where is a notable Gothic cathedral in France located?
Answer: Chartres

Question: What is a notable English Gothic cathedral?
Answer: Salisbury Cathedral

Question: Among which builders was the Gothic style first used?
Answer: French
Middle_Ages

During this period the practice of manuscript illumination gradually passed from monasteries to lay workshops, so that according to Janetta Benton "by 1300 most monks bought their books in shops", and the book of hours developed as a form of devotional book for lay-people. Metalwork continued to be the most prestigious form of art, with Limoges enamel a popular and relatively affordable option for objects such as reliquaries and crosses. In Italy the innovations of Cimabue and Duccio, followed by the Trecento master Giotto (d. 1337), greatly increased the sophistication and status of panel painting and fresco. Increasing prosperity during the 12th century resulted in greater production of secular art; many carved ivory objects such as gaming-pieces, combs, and small religious figures have survived.

Question: Who noted that 14th century monks bought books in shops?
Answer: Janetta Benton

Question: What form of art had the most prestige in this era?
Answer: Metalwork

Question: When did Giotto die?
Answer: 1337

Question: What were many pieces of secular art carved from in this period?
Answer: ivory

Question: Along with Duccio, what Italian artist was a noted innovator in this period?
Answer: Cimabue
Middle_Ages

Monastic reform became an important issue during the 11th century, as elites began to worry that monks were not adhering to the rules binding them to a strictly religious life. Cluny Abbey, founded in the Mâcon region of France in 909, was established as part of the Cluniac Reforms, a larger movement of monastic reform in response to this fear. Cluny quickly established a reputation for austerity and rigour. It sought to maintain a high quality of spiritual life by placing itself under the protection of the papacy and by electing its own abbot without interference from laymen, thus maintaining economic and political independence from local lords.

Question: In what century was thought given to monastic reform?
Answer: 11th

Question: In what year was Cluny Abbey founded?
Answer: 909

Question: In what part of France was Cluny Abbey founded?
Answer: Mâcon

Question: Along with rigor, what did Cluny have a reputation for?
Answer: austerity

Question: What reforms were named for the abbey at Cluny?
Answer: Cluniac Reforms
Middle_Ages

Monastic reform inspired change in the secular church. The ideals that it was based upon were brought to the papacy by Pope Leo IX (pope 1049–1054), and provided the ideology of the clerical independence that led to the Investiture Controversy in the late 11th century. This involved Pope Gregory VII (pope 1073–85) and Emperor Henry IV, who initially clashed over episcopal appointments, a dispute that turned into a battle over the ideas of investiture, clerical marriage, and simony. The emperor saw the protection of the Church as one of his responsibilities as well as wanting to preserve the right to appoint his own choices as bishops within his lands, but the papacy insisted on the Church's independence from secular lords. These issues remained unresolved after the compromise of 1122 known as the Concordat of Worms. The dispute represents a significant stage in the creation of a papal monarchy separate from and equal to lay authorities. It also had the permanent consequence of empowering German princes at the expense of the German emperors.

Question: During what century did the Investiture Controversy occur?
Answer: 11th

Question: When did the reign of Pope Leo IX begin?
Answer: 1049

Question: What pope was involved in the Investiture Controversy?
Answer: Pope Gregory VII

Question: In what year was the Concordat of Worms agreed to?
Answer: 1122

Question: What secular rulers did the Concordat of Worms increase the power of?
Answer: German princes
Middle_Ages

The High Middle Ages was a period of great religious movements. Besides the Crusades and monastic reforms, people sought to participate in new forms of religious life. New monastic orders were founded, including the Carthusians and the Cistercians. The latter especially expanded rapidly in their early years under the guidance of Bernard of Clairvaux (d. 1153). These new orders were formed in response to the feeling of the laity that Benedictine monasticism no longer met the needs of the laymen, who along with those wishing to enter the religious life wanted a return to the simpler hermetical monasticism of early Christianity, or to live an Apostolic life. Religious pilgrimages were also encouraged. Old pilgrimage sites such as Rome, Jerusalem, and Compostela received increasing numbers of visitors, and new sites such as Monte Gargano and Bari rose to prominence.

Question: What monastic order did Bernard of Clairvaux belong to?
Answer: Cistercians

Question: When did Bernard of Clairvaux die?
Answer: 1153

Question: Along with Bari, what was a notable new pilgrimage site in this era?
Answer: Monte Gargano

Question: Along with Rome and Jerusalem, what traditional pilgrimage site saw a greater number of visitors in the High Middle Ages?
Answer: Compostela

Question: Along with the Cistercians, what new monastic order was founded in the High Middle Ages?
Answer: Carthusians
Middle_Ages

In the 13th century mendicant orders—the Franciscans and the Dominicans—who swore vows of poverty and earned their living by begging, were approved by the papacy. Religious groups such as the Waldensians and the Humiliati also attempted to return to the life of early Christianity in the middle 12th and early 13th centuries, but they were condemned as heretical by the papacy. Others joined the Cathars, another heretical movement condemned by the papacy. In 1209, a crusade was preached against the Cathars, the Albigensian Crusade, which in combination with the medieval Inquisition, eliminated them.

Question: Along with the Dominicans, what mendicant order was founded in the 13th century?
Answer: Franciscans

Question: What notable vow was sworn by the mendicant orders?
Answer: poverty

Question: How did the mendicant orders make a living?
Answer: begging

Question: What was the crusade against the Cathars called?
Answer: the Albigensian Crusade

Question: Along with the Cathars and Humiliati, what group was notably condemned as heretics in this period?
Answer: the Waldensians
Middle_Ages

The first years of the 14th century were marked by famines, culminating in the Great Famine of 1315–17. The causes of the Great Famine included the slow transition from the Medieval Warm Period to the Little Ice Age, which left the population vulnerable when bad weather caused crop failures. The years 1313–14 and 1317–21 were excessively rainy throughout Europe, resulting in widespread crop failures. The climate change—which resulted in a declining average annual temperature for Europe during the 14th century—was accompanied by an economic downturn.

Question: In what years did the Great Famine occur?
Answer: 1315–17

Question: What period resulted in poor weather that increased crop failures?
Answer: the Little Ice Age

Question: What period preceded the Little Ice Age?
Answer: the Medieval Warm Period

Question: Along with 1317–21, what span saw extreme rains in Europe?
Answer: 1313–14

Question: In what century did the European average annual temperature decrease?
Answer: 14th
Middle_Ages

These troubles were followed in 1347 by the Black Death, a pandemic that spread throughout Europe during the following three years.[AC] The death toll was probably about 35 million people in Europe, about one-third of the population. Towns were especially hard-hit because of their crowded conditions.[AD] Large areas of land were left sparsely inhabited, and in some places fields were left unworked. Wages rose as landlords sought to entice the reduced number of available workers to their fields. Further problems were lower rents and lower demand for food, both of which cut into agricultural income. Urban workers also felt that they had a right to greater earnings, and popular uprisings broke out across Europe. Among the uprisings were the jacquerie in France, the Peasants' Revolt in England, and revolts in the cities of Florence in Italy and Ghent and Bruges in Flanders. The trauma of the plague led to an increased piety throughout Europe, manifested by the foundation of new charities, the self-mortification of the flagellants, and the scapegoating of Jews. Conditions were further unsettled by the return of the plague throughout the rest of the 14th century; it continued to strike Europe periodically during the rest of the Middle Ages.

Question: When did the Black Death start?
Answer: 1347

Question: How many million people died from the Black Death?
Answer: 35

Question: What popular uprising occurred in France during this period?
Answer: the jacquerie

Question: What English popular revolt took place during this period?
Answer: the Peasants' Revolt

Question: What Italian city experienced a popular revolt?
Answer: Florence
Middle_Ages

Society throughout Europe was disturbed by the dislocations caused by the Black Death. Lands that had been marginally productive were abandoned, as the survivors were able to acquire more fertile areas. Although serfdom declined in Western Europe it became more common in Eastern Europe, as landlords imposed it on those of their tenants who had previously been free. Most peasants in Western Europe managed to change the work they had previously owed to their landlords into cash rents. The percentage of serfs amongst the peasantry declined from a high of 90 to closer to 50 per cent by the end of the period. Landlords also became more conscious of common interests with other landholders, and they joined together to extort privileges from their governments. Partly at the urging of landlords, governments attempted to legislate a return to the economic conditions that existed before the Black Death. Non-clergy became increasingly literate, and urban populations began to imitate the nobility's interest in chivalry.

Question: By the end of this period, about what percentage of Western Europeans were serfs?
Answer: 50

Question: At serfdom's greatest extent, what percentage of Western Europeans were serfs?
Answer: 90

Question: In what part of Europe did serfdom increase in this period?
Answer: Eastern

Question: Instead of work, how did most Western European peasants pay their landlords in this period?
Answer: cash rents

Question: What noble interest did city-dwellers start to mimic in this period?
Answer: chivalry
Middle_Ages

Jewish communities were expelled from England in 1290 and from France in 1306. Although some were allowed back into France, most were not, and many Jews emigrated eastwards, settling in Poland and Hungary. The Jews were expelled from Spain in 1492, and dispersed to Turkey, France, Italy, and Holland. The rise of banking in Italy during the 13th century continued throughout the 14th century, fuelled partly by the increasing warfare of the period and the needs of the papacy to move money between kingdoms. Many banking firms loaned money to royalty, at great risk, as some were bankrupted when kings defaulted on their loans.[AE]

Question: In what year were the Jews expelled from England?
Answer: 1290

Question: What year saw the expulsion of the French Jewish community?
Answer: 1306

Question: Along with Hungary, where did many expelled French Jews relocate to?
Answer: Poland

Question: In what year were Jews kicked out of Spain?
Answer: 1492

Question: Along with Turkey, France and Italy, where did expelled Spanish Jews travel to?
Answer: Holland
Middle_Ages

Strong, royalty-based nation states rose throughout Europe in the Late Middle Ages, particularly in England, France, and the Christian kingdoms of the Iberian Peninsula: Aragon, Castile, and Portugal. The long conflicts of the period strengthened royal control over their kingdoms and were extremely hard on the peasantry. Kings profited from warfare that extended royal legislation and increased the lands they directly controlled. Paying for the wars required that methods of taxation become more effective and efficient, and the rate of taxation often increased. The requirement to obtain the consent of taxpayers allowed representative bodies such as the English Parliament and the French Estates General to gain power and authority.

Question: Along with Aragon and Castile, what Christian kingdom was present on the Iberian Peninsula?
Answer: Portugal

Question: Why did kings increase the tax rate during this period?
Answer: Paying for the wars

Question: What English representative body provided consent for royal taxation?
Answer: Parliament

Question: What French body was similar in purpose to the English Parliament?
Answer: Estates General

Question: What social class was harmed by the lengthy wars of this era?
Answer: the peasantry
Middle_Ages

Throughout the 14th century, French kings sought to expand their influence at the expense of the territorial holdings of the nobility. They ran into difficulties when attempting to confiscate the holdings of the English kings in southern France, leading to the Hundred Years' War, waged from 1337 to 1453. Early in the war the English under Edward III (r. 1327–77) and his son Edward, the Black Prince (d. 1376),[AF] won the battles of Crécy and Poitiers, captured the city of Calais, and won control of much of France.[AG] The resulting stresses almost caused the disintegration of the French kingdom during the early years of the war. In the early 15th century, France again came close to dissolving, but in the late 1420s the military successes of Joan of Arc (d. 1431) led to the victory of the French and the capture of the last English possessions in southern France in 1453. The price was high, as the population of France at the end of the Wars was likely half what it had been at the start of the conflict. Conversely, the Wars had a positive effect on English national identity, doing much to fuse the various local identities into a national English ideal. The conflict with France also helped create a national culture in England separate from French culture, which had previously been the dominant influence. The dominance of the English longbow began during early stages of the Hundred Years' War, and cannon appeared on the battlefield at Crécy in 1346.

Question: When did the Hundred Years' War begin?
Answer: 1337

Question: What was the nickname of Edward III's son Edward?
Answer: the Black Prince

Question: When did the reign of Edward III begin?
Answer: 1327

Question: Along with Poitiers, what was the site of a notable victory by Edward III's England over the French?
Answer: Crécy

Question: What decade saw the victories of Joan of Arc?
Answer: 1420s
Middle_Ages

In modern-day Germany, the Holy Roman Empire continued to rule, but the elective nature of the imperial crown meant there was no enduring dynasty around which a strong state could form. Further east, the kingdoms of Poland, Hungary, and Bohemia grew powerful. In Iberia, the Christian kingdoms continued to gain land from the Muslim kingdoms of the peninsula; Portugal concentrated on expanding overseas during the 15th century, while the other kingdoms were riven by difficulties over royal succession and other concerns. After losing the Hundred Years' War, England went on to suffer a long civil war known as the Wars of the Roses, which lasted into the 1490s and only ended when Henry Tudor (r. 1485–1509 as Henry VII) became king and consolidated power with his victory over Richard III (r. 1483–85) at Bosworth in 1485. In Scandinavia, Margaret I of Denmark (r. in Denmark 1387–1412) consolidated Norway, Denmark, and Sweden in the Union of Kalmar, which continued until 1523. The major power around the Baltic Sea was the Hanseatic League, a commercial confederation of city states that traded from Western Europe to Russia. Scotland emerged from English domination under Robert the Bruce (r. 1306–29), who secured papal recognition of his kingship in 1328.

Question: Along with Poland and Hungary, what Eastern European state grew in power?
Answer: Bohemia

Question: During what century did Portugal devote itself to overseas expansion?
Answer: 15th

Question: What nation lost the Hundred Years' War?
Answer: England

Question: What was the regnal name of Henry Tudor?
Answer: Henry VII

Question: Along with Denmark and Sweden, what country was part of the Union of Kalmar?
Answer: Norway
Middle_Ages

Although the Palaeologi emperors recaptured Constantinople from the Western Europeans in 1261, they were never able to regain control of much of the former imperial lands. They usually controlled only a small section of the Balkan Peninsula near Constantinople, the city itself, and some coastal lands on the Black Sea and around the Aegean Sea. The former Byzantine lands in the Balkans were divided between the new Kingdom of Serbia, the Second Bulgarian Empire and the city-state of Venice. The power of the Byzantine emperors was threatened by a new Turkish tribe, the Ottomans, who established themselves in Anatolia in the 13th century and steadily expanded throughout the 14th century. The Ottomans expanded into Europe, reducing Bulgaria to a vassal state by 1366 and taking over Serbia after its defeat at the Battle of Kosovo in 1389. Western Europeans rallied to the plight of the Christians in the Balkans and declared a new crusade in 1396; a great army was sent to the Balkans, where it was defeated at the Battle of Nicopolis. Constantinople was finally captured by the Ottomans in 1453.

Question: Emperors from what dynasty recaptured Constantinople in 1261?
Answer: Palaeologi

Question: Along with the Second Bulgarian Empire and the Kingdom of Serbia, what polity controlled the former Byzantine Balkan lands?
Answer: Venice

Question: What tribe of Turks emerged in 13th century Anatolia?
Answer: Ottomans

Question: In what year did Bulgaria become a vassal of the Ottomans?
Answer: 1366

Question: Who was defeated at the Battle of Kosovo?
Answer: Serbia
Middle_Ages

During the tumultuous 14th century, disputes within the leadership of the Church led to the Avignon Papacy of 1305–78, also called the "Babylonian Captivity of the Papacy" (a reference to the Babylonian captivity of the Jews), and then to the Great Schism, lasting from 1378 to 1418, when there were two and later three rival popes, each supported by several states. Ecclesiastical officials convened at the Council of Constance in 1414, and in the following year the council deposed one of the rival popes, leaving only two claimants. Further depositions followed, and in November 1417 the council elected Martin V (pope 1417–31) as pope.

Question: During what years did the Avignon Papacy occur?
Answer: 1305–78

Question: What is another term for the Avignon Papacy?
Answer: Babylonian Captivity of the Papacy

Question: When did the Great Schism end?
Answer: 1418

Question: How many popes existed simultaneously after the Council of Constance?
Answer: two

Question: Who was made pope in 1417?
Answer: Martin V
Middle_Ages

Besides the schism, the western church was riven by theological controversies, some of which turned into heresies. John Wycliffe (d. 1384), an English theologian, was condemned as a heretic in 1415 for teaching that the laity should have access to the text of the Bible as well as for holding views on the Eucharist that were contrary to church doctrine. Wycliffe's teachings influenced two of the major heretical movements of the later Middle Ages: Lollardy in England and Hussitism in Bohemia. The Bohemian movement initiated with the teaching of Jan Hus, who was burned at the stake in 1415 after being condemned as a heretic by the Council of Constance. The Hussite church, although the target of a crusade, survived beyond the Middle Ages. Other heresies were manufactured, such as the accusations against the Knights Templar that resulted in their suppression in 1312 and the division of their great wealth between the French King Philip IV (r. 1285–1314) and the Hospitallers.

Question: Of what nationality was John Wycliffe?
Answer: English

Question: In what year was Wycliffe declared a heretic?
Answer: 1415

Question: Who did Wycliffe believe should read the Bible?
Answer: the laity

Question: What Bohemian movement was influenced by Wycliffe?
Answer: Hussitism

Question: How did Jan Hus die?
Answer: burned at the stake
Middle_Ages

The papacy further refined the practice in the Mass in the Late Middle Ages, holding that the clergy alone was allowed to partake of the wine in the Eucharist. This further distanced the secular laity from the clergy. The laity continued the practices of pilgrimages, veneration of relics, and belief in the power of the Devil. Mystics such as Meister Eckhart (d. 1327) and Thomas à Kempis (d. 1471) wrote works that taught the laity to focus on their inner spiritual life, which laid the groundwork for the Protestant Reformation. Besides mysticism, belief in witches and witchcraft became widespread, and by the late 15th century the Church had begun to lend credence to populist fears of witchcraft with its condemnation of witches in 1484 and the publication in 1486 of the Malleus Maleficarum, the most popular handbook for witch-hunters.

Question: In the Late Middle Ages, who was allowed to drink wine at Mass?
Answer: the clergy

Question: When did Thomas à Kempis die?
Answer: 1471

Question: In what year did the Church condemn witches?
Answer: 1484

Question: In what year was the Malleus Maleficarum published?
Answer: 1486

Question: What was the Malleus Maleficarum?
Answer: handbook for witch-hunters
Middle_Ages

During the Later Middle Ages, theologians such as John Duns Scotus (d. 1308)[AH] and William of Ockham (d. c. 1348), led a reaction against scholasticism, objecting to the application of reason to faith. Their efforts undermined the prevailing Platonic idea of "universals". Ockham's insistence that reason operates independently of faith allowed science to be separated from theology and philosophy. Legal studies were marked by the steady advance of Roman law into areas of jurisprudence previously governed by customary law. The lone exception to this trend was in England, where the common law remained pre-eminent. Other countries codified their laws; legal codes were promulgated in Castile, Poland, and Lithuania.

Question: What school of thought was Duns Scotus opposed to?
Answer: scholasticism

Question: Before Roman law, what were areas of jurisprudence traditionally decided by?
Answer: customary law

Question: What country did not see the increasing influence of Roman law?
Answer: England

Question: Along with Castile and Poland, what country developed a law code in the Later Middle Ages?
Answer: Lithuania

Question: What Platonic idea lost influence as a result of the work of Ockham and Duns Scotus?
Answer: universals
Middle_Ages

Education remained mostly focused on the training of future clergy. The basic learning of the letters and numbers remained the province of the family or a village priest, but the secondary subjects of the trivium—grammar, rhetoric, logic—were studied in cathedral schools or in schools provided by cities. Commercial secondary schools spread, and some Italian towns had more than one such enterprise. Universities also spread throughout Europe in the 14th and 15th centuries. Lay literacy rates rose, but were still low; one estimate gave a literacy rate of ten per cent of males and one per cent of females in 1500.

Question: What was the main purpose of education in this period?
Answer: training of future clergy

Question: Along with rhetoric and logic, what constituted the trivium?
Answer: grammar

Question: About what percentage of European men were literate in 1500?
Answer: ten

Question: In 1500, approximately what percent of European women could read?
Answer: one

Question: Along with their family, who typically taught a child letters and numbers?
Answer: a village priest
Middle_Ages

The publication of vernacular literature increased, with Dante (d. 1321), Petrarch (d. 1374) and Giovanni Boccaccio (d. 1375) in 14th-century Italy, Geoffrey Chaucer (d. 1400) and William Langland (d. c. 1386) in England, and François Villon (d. 1464) and Christine de Pizan (d. c. 1430) in France. Much literature remained religious in character, and although a great deal of it continued to be written in Latin, a new demand developed for saints' lives and other devotional tracts in the vernacular languages. This was fed by the growth of the Devotio Moderna movement, most prominently in the formation of the Brethren of the Common Life, but also in the works of German mystics such as Meister Eckhart and Johannes Tauler (d. 1361). Theatre also developed in the guise of miracle plays put on by the Church. At the end of the period, the development of the printing press in about 1450 led to the establishment of publishing houses throughout Europe by 1500.

Question: Along with Dante and Boccaccio, who was a notable Italian author of the 14th century?
Answer: Petrarch

Question: When did Chaucer die?
Answer: 1400

Question: Who was a notable female French author of this period?
Answer: Christine de Pizan

Question: In what language was most religious literature of this period written?
Answer: Latin

Question: Along with Johannes Tauler, who was a prominent German mystic of this period?
Answer: Meister Eckhart
Middle_Ages

In the early 15th century, the countries of the Iberian peninsula began to sponsor exploration beyond the boundaries of Europe. Prince Henry the Navigator of Portugal (d. 1460) sent expeditions that discovered the Canary Islands, the Azores, and Cape Verde during his lifetime. After his death, exploration continued; Bartolomeu Dias (d. 1500) went around the Cape of Good Hope in 1486 and Vasco da Gama (d. 1524) sailed around Africa to India in 1498. The combined Spanish monarchies of Castile and Aragon sponsored the voyage of exploration by Christopher Columbus (d. 1506) in 1492 that discovered the Americas. The English crown under Henry VII sponsored the voyage of John Cabot (d. 1498) in 1497, which landed on Cape Breton Island.

Question: Explorers in the employ of what nation discovered the Azores?
Answer: Portugal

Question: What leader sponsored the expedition that discovered Cape Verde?
Answer: Prince Henry the Navigator

Question: What Portuguese explorer visited India in 1498?
Answer: Vasco da Gama

Question: What did Christopher Columbus discover in 1492?
Answer: the Americas

Question: What English monarch financed John Cabot?
Answer: Henry VII
Middle_Ages

One of the major developments in the military sphere during the Late Middle Ages was the increased use of infantry and light cavalry. The English also employed longbowmen, but other countries were unable to create similar forces with the same success. Armour continued to advance, spurred by the increasing power of crossbows, and plate armour was developed to protect soldiers from crossbows as well as the hand-held guns that were developed. Pole arms reached new prominence with the development of the Flemish and Swiss infantry armed with pikes and other long spears.

Question: Along with light cavalry, what military arm was used with increasing frequency in the Late Middle Ages?
Answer: infantry

Question: What troops were uniquely successful in English service?
Answer: longbowmen

Question: What influenced the increasing development of armor?
Answer: the increasing power of crossbows

Question: What weapons were notably employed by the Swiss infantry?
Answer: pikes

Question: Along with crossbows, what was plate armor designed to defend against?
Answer: hand-held guns
Middle_Ages

In agriculture, the increased usage of sheep with long-fibred wool allowed a stronger thread to be spun. In addition, the spinning wheel replaced the traditional distaff for spinning wool, tripling production.[AI] A less technological refinement that still greatly affected daily life was the use of buttons as closures for garments, which allowed for better fitting without having to lace clothing on the wearer. Windmills were refined with the creation of the tower mill, allowing the upper part of the windmill to be spun around to face the direction from which the wind was blowing. The blast furnace appeared around 1350 in Sweden, increasing the quantity of iron produced and improving its quality. The first patent law in 1447 in Venice protected the rights of inventors to their inventions.

Question: What was replaced by the spinning wheel?
Answer: the traditional distaff

Question: What invention replaced laces on clothing?
Answer: buttons

Question: What new type of windmill was invented in this period?
Answer: the tower mill

Question: In what country did the blast furnace first appear?
Answer: Sweden

Question: Where did patent law originate?
Answer: Venice
Middle_Ages

The Late Middle Ages in Europe as a whole correspond to the Trecento and Early Renaissance cultural periods in Italy. Northern Europe and Spain continued to use Gothic styles, which became increasingly elaborate in the 15th century, until almost the end of the period. International Gothic was a courtly style that reached much of Europe in the decades around 1400, producing masterpieces such as the Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry. All over Europe secular art continued to increase in quantity and quality, and in the 15th century the mercantile classes of Italy and Flanders became important patrons, commissioning small portraits of themselves in oils as well as a growing range of luxury items such as jewellery, ivory caskets, cassone chests, and maiolica pottery. These objects also included the Hispano-Moresque ware produced by mostly Mudéjar potters in Spain. Although royalty owned huge collections of plate, little survives except for the Royal Gold Cup. Italian silk manufacture developed, so that western churches and elites no longer needed to rely on imports from Byzantium or the Islamic world. In France and Flanders tapestry weaving of sets like The Lady and the Unicorn became a major luxury industry.

Question: Around what year did the International Gothic style flourish?
Answer: 1400

Question: What is a notable masterpiece of the International Gothic style?
Answer: the Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry

Question: Along with the Trecento, what period occurred in Italy during the Late Middle Ages?
Answer: Early Renaissance

Question: Who produced most of the Hispano-Moresque pottery?
Answer: Mudéjar potters

Question: What is a notable piece of surviving Late Middle Age royal plate?
Answer: the Royal Gold Cup
Middle_Ages

The large external sculptural schemes of Early Gothic churches gave way to more sculpture inside the building, as tombs became more elaborate and other features such as pulpits were sometimes lavishly carved, as in the Pulpit by Giovanni Pisano in Sant'Andrea. Painted or carved wooden relief altarpieces became common, especially as churches created many side-chapels. Early Netherlandish painting by artists such as Jan van Eyck (d. 1441) and Rogier van der Weyden (d. 1464) rivalled that of Italy, as did northern illuminated manuscripts, which in the 15th century began to be collected on a large scale by secular elites, who also commissioned secular books, especially histories. From about 1450 printed books rapidly became popular, though still expensive. There were around 30,000 different editions of incunabula, or works printed before 1500, by which time illuminated manuscripts were commissioned only by royalty and a few others. Very small woodcuts, nearly all religious, were affordable even by peasants in parts of Northern Europe from the middle of the 15th century. More expensive engravings supplied a wealthier market with a variety of images.

Question: Who carved the Pulpit in Sant'Andrea?
Answer: Giovanni Pisano

Question: Along with being carved, how were altarpieces often decorated in this period?
Answer: Painted

Question: When did Rogier van der Weyden die?
Answer: 1464

Question: Of what nationality was Jan van Eyck?
Answer: Netherlandish

Question: What does incunabula refer to?
Answer: works printed before 1500
Middle_Ages

The medieval period is frequently caricatured as a "time of ignorance and superstition" that placed "the word of religious authorities over personal experience and rational activity." This is a legacy from both the Renaissance and Enlightenment, when scholars contrasted their intellectual cultures with those of the medieval period, to the detriment of the Middle Ages. Renaissance scholars saw the Middle Ages as a period of decline from the high culture and civilisation of the Classical world; Enlightenment scholars saw reason as superior to faith, and thus viewed the Middle Ages as a time of ignorance and superstition.

Question: Along with the Renaissance, during what period were the Middle Ages disparaged?
Answer: Enlightenment

Question: What era did Renaissance scholars negatively compare the Middle Ages to?
Answer: the Classical world

Question: How did scholars of the Enlightenment see the Middle Ages?
Answer: as a time of ignorance and superstition

Question: What did Enlightenment scholars consider to be inferior to reason?
Answer: faith
Middle_Ages

Others argue that reason was generally held in high regard during the Middle Ages. Science historian Edward Grant writes, "If revolutionary rational thoughts were expressed [in the 18th century], they were only made possible because of the long medieval tradition that established the use of reason as one of the most important of human activities". Also, contrary to common belief, David Lindberg writes, "the late medieval scholar rarely experienced the coercive power of the church and would have regarded himself as free (particularly in the natural sciences) to follow reason and observation wherever they led".

Question: What is Edward Grant a historian of?
Answer: Science

Question: Who argued that scholars in the Middle Ages were rarely coerced by the Church?
Answer: David Lindberg

Question: According to Grant, the medieval use of reason was the forerunner the revolutionary rationalism of what century?
Answer: 18th
Middle_Ages

The caricature of the period is also reflected in some more specific notions. One misconception, first propagated in the 19th century and still very common, is that all people in the Middle Ages believed that the Earth was flat. This is untrue, as lecturers in the medieval universities commonly argued that evidence showed the Earth was a sphere. Lindberg and Ronald Numbers, another scholar of the period, state that there "was scarcely a Christian scholar of the Middle Ages who did not acknowledge [Earth's] sphericity and even know its approximate circumference". Other misconceptions such as "the Church prohibited autopsies and dissections during the Middle Ages", "the rise of Christianity killed off ancient science", or "the medieval Christian church suppressed the growth of natural philosophy", are all cited by Numbers as examples of widely popular myths that still pass as historical truth, although they are not supported by current historical research.

Question: During what century was it first proposed that people in the Middle Ages thought the Earth was flat?
Answer: 19th

Question: Along with autopsies, what is it erroneously believed that the medieval Church forbade?
Answer: dissections

Question: According to a misconception, what did the rise of Christianity destroy?
Answer: ancient science

Question: According to another misconception, what field of study was the medieval Church opposed to?
Answer: natural philosophy

Question: Along with Lindberg, who is a notable scholar of the Middle Ages?
Answer: Ronald Numbers
Phonology

Phonology is a branch of linguistics concerned with the systematic organization of sounds in languages. It has traditionally focused largely on the study of the systems of phonemes in particular languages (and therefore used to be also called phonemics, or phonematics), but it may also cover any linguistic analysis either at a level beneath the word (including syllable, onset and rime, articulatory gestures, articulatory features, mora, etc.) or at all levels of language where sound is considered to be structured for conveying linguistic meaning. Phonology also includes the study of equivalent organizational systems in sign languages.

Question: What is phonology a branch of?
Answer: linguistics

Question: What kind of systems are the traditional focus of phonology? 
Answer: phonemes

Question: The study of sign language is a part of what?
Answer: Phonology

Question: What is articulator a branch of?

Question: What kind of systems are the traditional focus of linguistics?

Question: What is the study of branches a part of?

Question: What is a branch of levels?

Question: What kind of systems did branches focus on?
Phonology

The word phonology (as in the phonology of English) can also refer to the phonological system (sound system) of a given language. This is one of the fundamental systems which a language is considered to comprise, like its syntax and its vocabulary.

Question: What part of a language can phonology as a word also refer to?
Answer: the phonological system

Question: What is another term for phonological system?
Answer: sound system

Question: Aside from syntax and the phonological system, what else comprises a language?
Answer: vocabulary

Question: What sort of language system is phonology?
Answer: fundamental

Question: What part of a language can vocabulary as a word also refer to?

Question: What is another term for vocabulary?

Question: Aside from syntax and the phonological system what else comprises words?

Question: What sort of language system is vocabulary?

Question: What is an example of vocabulary?