Question: Under what circumstances do glaciers form?
Answer: where the accumulation of snow and ice exceeds ablation

Question: What is a cirque?
Answer: The area in which a glacier forms

Question: What shape is a cirque, generally?
Answer: armchair-shaped

Question: How much ice and snow is minimally necessary to begin to slide on steep glaciers?
Answer: 15 m (50 ft)

Question: What characteristics determine glacial zones?
Answer: surface snowpack and melt conditions

Question: Which glacial zone area reports a net-loss in glacial mass?
Answer: ablation zone

Question: What is the name of the line seperating the ablation zone from the accumulation zone?
Answer: equilibrium line

Question: How much glacial surface area is typically considered accumulation zone?
Answer: 60–70%

Question: Why are the tops of glaciers rigid?
Answer: they are under low pressure

Question: Which zone is the top of the glaciers?
Answer: fracture zone

Question: Why are glacial crevices formed?
Answer: differences in glacier velocity

Question: What are seracs?
Answer: isolated peaks in the ice

Question: Most crevices are no deeper than what measure?
Answer: 46 m (150 ft)

Question: Which crevasses form on the edge of the glacier?
Answer: Marginal crevasses

Question: Why do marginal crevasses form on the edge of a glacier?
Answer: reduction in speed caused by friction of the valley walls

Question: What do bergschrunds resemble?
Answer: crevasses

Question: How are bergschrunds different than crevasses?
Answer: singular features at a glacier's margins

Question: Where do transverse crevasses form?
Answer: where steeper slopes cause a glacier to accelerate

Question: In what area of Greenland can glaciers move 20-30m per day?
Answer: Jakobshavn Isbræ

Question: Increasing slope, thickness, snowfall, longitudinal confinement, basal temperature, and meltwater production result in increased what?
Answer: Velocity

Question: How far do glaciers generally move per day?
Answer: 1 m (3 ft)

Question: Why are some glaciers stagnant in Alaska?
Answer: trees can establish themselves on surface sediment deposits

Question: What is a glacial surge?
Answer: periods of very rapid advancement

Question: What failure causes surges?
Answer: failure of the underlying bedrock

Question: At what rate have glaciers travelled during surges?
Answer: 90 m (300 ft) per day

Question: How far does a glacier have to move to cause glacial earthquakes?
Answer: one km per year

Question: How high can the seismic magnitude be of a glacial earthquake?
Answer: 6.1

Question: Are Greenland's glacial earthquakes increasing or decreasing as time goes on?
Answer: increasing

Question: During which months do glacial earthquakes peak in Greenland?
Answer: July, August and September

Question: In what year were twice as many glacial earthquakes seen than in any other year in Greenland?
Answer: 2005

Question: What are ogives?
Answer: alternating wave crests and valleys that appear as dark and light bands of ice on glacier surfaces

Question: What does the width of one dark and one light band measure?
Answer: annual movement of the glacier

Question: How are ogives formed?
Answer: when ice from an icefall is severely broken up, increasing ablation surface area during summer

Question: Under what conditions are ogives called wave or band ogives?
Answer: consist only of undulations or color bands

Question: How many countries contain glaciers?
Answer: fifty

Question: Which continent contains glaciers?
Answer: every continent

Question: Which mountain ranges contain glaciers?
Answer: Andes, the Himalayas, the Rocky Mountains, the Caucasus, and the Alps

Question: Where are glaciers in Africa located?
Answer: Mount Kilimanjaro in Tanzania, on Mount Kenya and in the Rwenzori Mountains

Question: Which sub-antarctic islands have glaciers?
Answer: Marion, Heard, Grande Terre (Kerguelen) and Bouvet

Question: Do glaciers require permanent snow or only temporary coverage?
Answer: permanent snow cover

Question: Between which north latitudes are glaciers not found?
Answer: 20° to 27° north

Question: Between which latitudes to mountains tend to have permanent snow?
Answer: 19˚N and 19˚S

Question: Why do mountains between 19N and 19S tend to have snow?
Answer: precipitation is higher

Question: Which areas in Antartica are considered polar deserts?
Answer: Banks Island, and the McMurdo Dry Valleys

Question: Why can't glaciers form in polar deserts?
Answer: they receive little snowfall

Question: Does cold or warm air facilitate the transport of water vapor?
Answer: warm air

Question: What cause glacial stiations?
Answer: large boulders that carve long scratches in the bedrock

Question: What can scientists deduct from the direction of the striations?
Answer: direction of the glacier's movement

Question: What are chatter marks?
Answer: lines of crescent-shape depressions in the rock underlying a glacier

Question: How are chatter marks formed?
Answer: abrasion when boulders in the glacier are repeatedly caught and released

Question: When are glacial moraines visible?
Answer: after the glacier has retreated

Question: How are glacial moraines formed?
Answer: deposition of material from a glacier

Question: Where are lateral moraines found?
Answer: sides of the glacier

Question: How are medial moraines formed?
Answer: when two different glaciers merge and the lateral moraines of each coalesce to form a moraine in the middle of the combined glacier

Question: What are ground moraines also called?
Answer: glacial drift

Question: What shape do mountain valleys have pre-glacation?
Answer: characteristic "V" shape

Question: What gives mountain vallys their characteristic "V" shape before glacation?
Answer: eroding water

Question: How is a fjord formed?
Answer: a glacial valley runs into a large body of water

Question: What shape do glacial valleys have after being widened by glacation?
Answer: "U"-shaped

Question: On which side is a cirque opened?
Answer: the side that descends into the valley

Question: Where does ice start accululating in a glacier?
Answer: Cirques

Question: What is a narrow ridge formed by two cirques eroding back to back called?
Answer: arête

Question: What are extremely steep cirques called?
Answer: horns

Question: How many sides are closed in a typical cirque?
Answer: three sides

Question: What is another name for roche moutonnee?
Answer: "sheepback" rock

Question: What are roche moutonnee?
Answer: elongated, rounded, and asymmetrical bedrock knobs that can be produced by glacier erosion

Question: How large are roche moutonnee?
Answer: less than a meter to several hundred meters long

Question: What shape do roche moutonnee have on their "up" side?
Answer: gentle slope

Question: What shape do roche moutonnee have on their "down" side?
Answer: steep to vertical face

Question: Where is post-glacial rebound occuring most?
Answer: Scandinavia and the Great Lakes region of North America.

Question: What has the ability to depress the crust of the Earth into the mantle?
Answer: Large masses, such as ice sheets or glaciers

Question: With what speed does post-glacial rebound occur?
Answer: very slowly

Question: How much of a glacier's thickness is usually involved during crust depression into the mantle?
Answer: a third of the ice sheet or glacier's thickness

Question: What is considered the minimal energy increment of a hypothetical oscillator?
Answer: value E

Question: In what year was the value E associated by Einstein with quantum theories of energy?
Answer: 1905

Question: Who discovered an association between the value E and quantum energy?
Answer: Einstein

Question: What did the light quantum behave the same as in laboratory experiments?
Answer: neutral particle

Question: What type of charge did a particle have that behaved similarly to light quantum energy?
Answer: neutral

Question: What is energy abbreviated to in science?
Answer: E