Question: Many Enlightenment writers and thinkers had backgrounds in the sciences and associated scientific advancement with overthrow of religion and traditional authority in favor of what?
Answer: the development of free speech and thought

Question: Who discovered carbon dioxide or fixed air?
Answer: chemist Joseph Black

Question: Who created the argument for deep time?
Answer: geologist James Hutton

Question: Who invented the steam engine?
Answer: James Watt

Question: Who launched the first manned flight in a hot-air balloon in November 1783?
Answer: the Montgolfier Brothers

Question: For which masterpiece did Cesare Beccaria become famous?
Answer: Crimes and Punishments (1764)

Question: Into how many languages was Cesare Beccaria's Crimes and Punishments (1764) translated?
Answer: 22

Question: Which work established Francesco Mario Pagano as an international authority on criminal law?
Answer: Considerazioni sul processo criminale (Considerations on the criminal trial, 1787)

Question: In what year did Francesco Mario Pagano publish Saggi Politici?
Answer: 1783

Question: What did contemporary sources claim was the purpose of the universiity in contrast to the societies?
Answer: transmission of knowledge

Question: Contemporary sources considered societies functioned for what purpose in contrast to universities?
Answer: to create knowledge

Question: By what year were there over seventy official scientific societies?
Answer: 1789

Question: Who coined the term "the Age of Academies" to describe the 18th century?
Answer: Bernard de Fontenelle

Question: The Enlightenment is frequently linked to the French Revolution of what year?
Answer: 1789

Question: Who delineated the "consent of the governed" in Two Treatises of Government (1689)?
Answer: Locke

Question: The "divine right of kings" was in direct conflict with which of Locke's philosophies?
Answer: "consent of the governed"

Question: According to Locke, the revolutions of the late 1700s and early 1800s were caused when what could not be resolved peacefully?
Answer: governance paradigm shift

Question: In what work did Ferguson explain how humans advanced from a hunting and gathering society to a commercial and civil society without "signing" a social contract?
Answer: An Essay on the History of Civil Society

Question: In what year did Ferguson publish An Essay on the History of Civil Society?
Answer: 1767

Question: How many stages of progress did Ferguson theorize?
Answer: four

Question: Who, along with Adam Ferguson, criticized the idea of social contract theorists?
Answer: David Hume

Question: What century produced the first Russian univeristy, library, theatre, public museum, and independent press?
Answer: 18th century

Question: What did the Russian enlightenment focus on instead of societal enlightenment?
Answer: the individual

Question: From whom did Catherine the Great receive assistance in her Enlightenment ideals via correspondence?
Answer: Voltaire

Question: Which philosopher believed that the Enlightenment was ultimately born out of Protestant reaction against the Catholic counter-reformation?
Answer: Bertrand Russell

Question: Where did Betrand Russell believe views such as affinity for democracy against monarachy originated from?
Answer: 16th-century Protestants

Question: Who does Betrand Russell started the schism that lead to the Enlightenment?
Answer: Martin Luther

Question: How did Alexis de Tocqueville describe the French Revolution?
Answer: the inevitable result of the radical opposition created in the 18th century between the monarchy and the men of letters of the Enlightenment

Question: Which group was considered "a substitute aristocracy that was both all-powerful and without real power" according to Tocqueville?
Answer: men of letters

Question: From where did Tocqueville believe the illusory power of the men of letters came from?
Answer: the rise of "public opinion"

Question: Which Jewish philosopher referred to Enlightenment as a process by which man was educated in the use of reason?
Answer: Moses Mendelssohn

Question: How did Immanuel Kant describe the Enlightenment?
Answer: "man's release from his self-incurred tutelage"

Question: For whom was Enlightenment mankind's final coming of age, the emancipation of the human consciousness from an immature state of ignorance?"
Answer: Immanuel Kant

Question: According to historian Roy Porter, what was the Age of Enlightenment trying to capture?
Answer: the liberation of the human mind from a dogmatic state of ignorance

Question: John Locke, Francis Bacon, and Isaac Newton where considered the the greatest men who ever lived by which American colonist?
Answer: Thomas Jefferson

Question: Religious tolerance and the importance of individual conscience was particularly influential in the drafting of which American document?
Answer: the United States Constitution

Question: Whom, along with Francis Bacon and John Locke, did Thomas Jefferson consider to be one of the three greatest men that ever lived?
Answer: Isaac Newton

Question: From a historical standpoint, what was one of the most important features of the debating society?
Answer: openness to the public

Question: Were debates only open to certain economic classes, or could all attend?
Answer: all classes providing they could pay the entrance fee

Question: What were some of the issues discussed in addition to debates on religion?
Answer: politics and the role of women

Question: What aspect of the Enlightenment did Robert Darnton and Jurgen Habermas focus on within the Enlightenment?
Answer: social conditions

Question: How did Habermas describe the public sphere?
Answer: bourgeois, egalitarian, rational, and independent from the state

Question: The new venues and modes of communication allowing for rational exchange were given what term by Habermas in 18th century Europe?
Answer: the "bourgeois public sphere"

Question: What do Jonathon Israel claim caused the change that eventually led to the revolutions of the latter half of the 18th centure and early 19th century?
Answer: the ideas themselves

Question: What does Israel argue Western civilization was based on until the 1650s?
Answer: largely shared core of faith, tradition and authority

Question: Jonathon Israel rejects the notion that the revolutionary ideas were by products of what transformations?
Answer: social and economic

Question: What time period does Johnathon Israel focus on?
Answer: 1650 to the end of the 18th century

Question: How was the public sphere defined?
Answer: realm of communication marked by new arenas of debate, more open and accessible forms of urban public space and sociability, and an explosion of print culture

Question: During what centuries was the rise of the public sphere?
Answer: late 17th century and 18th century

Question: What term did Habermas give to describe the areas of political/social knowledge and discussion that were previously exlusive territory of the state and religious authorities?
Answer: common concern

Question: The argument of the public sphere was founded on what?
Answer: reason

Question: The values of the bourgeois public sphere included holding reason to the supreme, considering everything open to criticism, and the opposition of what?
Answer: secrecy of all sorts

Question: Book sellers and publishers had to negotiate censorship laws of varying strictness in what country, especially?
Answer: France

Question: Which work narrowly escaped seizure and had to be saved by Malesherbes?
Answer: The Encyclopédie

Question: Many publishing companies were located outside of which country to avoid overzealous censors?
Answer: France

Question: Readers were more interested in sensationalist stories about what topics than they were in political theory itself?
Answer: criminals and political corruption