Question: What was the term given to books that did not have a dominant motif and contained something to offend almost everyone in authority?
Answer: general works

Question: Who helped The Encyclopedie find its way into print using the French censorship law creatively?
Answer: Malesherbes

Question: The King and Clement XII condemned which literary work?
Answer: The Encyclopédie

Question: What percentage of books borrowed in England, Germany, and Norath America were novels?
Answer: 70

Question: What percentage of books borrowed were of a religious nature in England, Germany, and North America?
Answer: 1

Question: What did the Republic of Letters support?
Answer: free public examination of questions regarding religion or legislation

Question: Once everyone was a part of what group did Kant believe all of society would be enlightened?
Answer: the "reading public"

Question: Who were two of the figures that participated in the Republic of Letters?
Answer: Diderot and Voltaire

Question: What did Immanuel Kant consider essential to his conception of the public sphere?
Answer: written communication

Question: Who called the journals the most influential cultural innovation of European intellectual culture?
Answer: Jonathan Israel

Question: To what did the journals shift attention of the cultivated public away from and towards novelty and innovation?
Answer: established authorities

Question: What enlightened ideas were promoted by the journals?
Answer: toleration and intellectual objectivity

Question: The journals were a source of knowledge derived from what topics?
Answer: science and reason

Question: How did dictionaries and encyclopedias change in the 18th century?
Answer: from simply defining words in a long running list to far more detailed discussions of those words

Question: What movement were dictionaries and encyclopedias trying to promote?
Answer: to systematize knowledge and provide education to a wider audience than the elite

Question: How did the content of encyclopedias change in the 18th century?
Answer: tended to focus more strongly on secular affairs, particularly science and technology, rather than matters of theology

Question: Encyclopedias in the 18th century tended to focus more strongly on what topics, rather than theology?
Answer: secular affairs, particularly science and technology

Question: How was the Encyclopedie arranged?
Answer: according to a "tree of knowledge."

Question: The rise of empiricism caused a division between which two subjects?
Answer: the arts and sciences

Question: What was considered the trunk of the tree of knowledge?
Answer: philosophy

Question: Which editions of the Encyclopedie were less expensive and more accessible to the non-elite?
Answer: quarto and octavo

Question: How many copies of the Encyclopedie were estimated to be in circulation throughout France and Europe before the French Revolution?
Answer: 25 000

Question: Which society in England also played a significant role in the public sphere and spread of Enlightenment ideas?
Answer: Royal Society of London

Question: In what year was the Royal Society of London given a royal charter?
Answer: 1662

Question: Whose method based knowledge on experiementation, which had to be witnessed?
Answer: Robert Boyle

Question: Who were considered more reliable witnesses than the Oxfordshire peasants?
Answer: Oxford professors

Question: What two factors were taken into account in credibility in the Royal Society?
Answer: a witness's knowledge in the area; and a witness's "moral constitution"

Question: Before the Enlightenment, most intellectual debates revoled around what subject?
Answer: "confessional"

Question: Catholic, Lutheran, Reformed (Calvinist), or Anglican issues were called what?
Answer: "confessional"

Question: During what time period did a "general process of rationalization and secularization set in"?
Answer: second half of the 17th century and during the 18th century

Question: The aim of confessional debates was to establish which bloc of faith should have what?
Answer: the "monopoly of truth and a God-given title to authority"

Question: According to German historian Reinhart Koselleck, which two social structures left a decisive imprint on the Age of Enlightenment?
Answer: the Republic of Letters and the Masonic lodges

Question: Which Scottish professor believes that Masons were not a major radical or reformist network in their own right?
Answer: Thomas Munck

Question: Historian Margaret Jacob stresses the importance of the Masons in indirectly inspriting what type of thinking?
Answer: political thought

Question: Daniel Roche claims that Masonry promoted what idea by only attracting men of similar social background?
Answer: egalitarianism

Question: The presence of whom in the French "lodges of adoption" formed in the 1780s was die to the close ties shared with aristocratic society?
Answer: noble women

Question: What ordering scheme did readers prefer?
Answer: alphabetical

Question: Who believed the avoidance of thematic and heirarhical systems allowed free interpretation of the works and caused them to beomce an example of eglitarianism?
Answer: Charles Porset

Question: Why did Encyclopedias and dictionaries become more popular during the Age of Reason?
Answer: the number of educated consumers who could afford such texts began to multiply

Question: How many dictionaries and encyclopedias were published between 1760 and 1769?
Answer: 63

Question: How many dictionaries and encyclopedias were published in the decade preceding the French Revolution?
Answer: 148

Question: What caused an increasingly literate population to develop in the Enlightenment era?
Answer: a high rise in the availability of food

Question: Instead of paying more for food, on what did people spend their money?
Answer: education

Question: Which ideal endeavoured to make information available to the greatest number of people?
Answer: Popularization

Question: Who wrote the celebrated Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica?
Answer: Sir Isaac Newton

Question: Which work of Isaac Newton was published in Latin and remained inaccessible to readers without education until Enlightenment writers began to translate and analyze it in the vernacular?
Answer: Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica

Question: For what do Circadian rhythms let an organism prepare?
Answer: environmental changes

Question: What can an organism that uses circadian rhythms use to its advantage that others can not?
Answer: resources

Question: By better using resources, how does that improve an organism's chances of surviving?
Answer: selective advantage

Question: By improving what processes does the use of circadian rhythms serve to benefit the individual?
Answer: internal metabolic

Question: What insect has been studied concerning the inheritability of rhythms?
Answer: fruit flies

Question: What type of animals have been shown to have circadian rhythms only at certain times?
Answer: Arctic animals

Question: What daily feature do animals that show limited circadian rhythms need?
Answer: sunrises and sunsets

Question: In a study, when did reindeer at 70 degrees north only show circadian rhythms?
Answer: autumn, winter and spring

Question: At what degree north did reindeer show rhythms only in autumn and summer?
Answer: 78 degrees

Question: What aninmals  do researchers think might also show a variance in circadian rhythms in different seasons?
Answer: other Arctic animals

Question: What produces a self-sustaining rhythm?
Answer: central oscillator

Question: When do the CCA1  and LHY function?
Answer: morning

Question: Which loop that consists of GI and ELF4 functions?
Answer: evening

Question: What was the previous belief of feedback in the gene loop?
Answer: negative feedback loop

Question: What researcher showed that the gene  feedback loop serves as a repressor?
Answer: Andrew Millar