Question: What languages do the authors experiment with?
Evidence: Encoding of words is perhaps the most important step towards a successful end-to-end natural language processing application. Although word embeddings have been shown to provide benefit to such models, they commonly treat words as the smallest meaning bearing unit and assume that each word type has its own vector representation. This assumption has two major shortcomings especially for languages with rich morphology: (1) inability to handle unseen or out-of-vocabulary (OOV) word-forms (2) inability to exploit the regularities among word parts. The limitations of word embeddings are particularly pronounced in sentence-level semantic tasks, especially in languages where word parts play a crucial role. Consider the Turkish sentences “Köy+lü-ler (villagers) şehr+e (to town) geldi (came)” and “Sendika+lı-lar (union members) meclis+e (to council) geldi (came)”. Here the stems köy (village) and sendika (union) function similarly in semantic terms with respect to the verb come (as the origin of the agents of the verb), where şehir (town) and meclis (council) both function as the end point. These semantic similarities are determined by the common word parts shown in bold. However ortographic similarity does not always correspond to semantic similarity. For instance the ortographically similar words knight and night have large semantic differences. Therefore, for a successful semantic application, the model should be able to capture both the regularities, i.e, morphological tags and the irregularities, i.e, lemmas of the word.
Morphological analysis already provides the aforementioned information about the words. However access to useful morphological features may be problematic due to software licensing issues, lack of robust morphological analyzers and high ambiguity among analyses. Character-level models (CLM), being a cheaper and accessible alternative to morphology, have been reported as performing competitively on various NLP tasks BIBREF0 , BIBREF1 , BIBREF2 . However the extent to which these tasks depend on morphology is small; and their relation to semantics is weak. Hence, little is known on their true ability to reveal the underlying morphological structure of a word and their semantic capabilities. Furthermore, their behaviour across languages from different families; and their limitations and strengths such as handling of long-range dependencies, reaction to model complexity or performance on out-of-domain data are unknown. Analyzing such issues is a key to fully understanding the character-level models.
To achieve this, we perform a case study on semantic role labeling (SRL), a sentence-level semantic analysis task that aims to identify predicate-argument structures and assign meaningful labels to them as follows:
 $[$ Villagers $]$ comers came $[$ to town $]$ end point
We use a simple method based on bidirectional LSTMs to train three types of base semantic role labelers that employ (1) words (2) characters and character sequences and (3) gold morphological analysis. The gold morphology serves as the upper bound for us to compare and analyze the performances of character-level models on languages of varying morphological typologies. We carry out an exhaustive error analysis for each language type and analyze the strengths and limitations of character-level models compared to morphology. In regard to the diversity hypothesis which states that diversity of systems in ensembles lead to further improvement, we combine character and morphology-level models and measure the performance of the ensemble to better understand how similar they are.
We experiment with several languages with varying degrees of morphological richness and typology: Turkish, Finnish, Czech, German, Spanish, Catalan and English. Our experiments and analysis reveal insights such as:
We experiment with several languages with varying degrees of morphological richness and typology: Turkish, Finnish, Czech, German, Spanish, Catalan and English.
Answer: Turkish, Finnish, Czech, German, Spanish, Catalan and English.