# English in Use/Syntax

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**Syntax** treats of the relation, agreement, government, and
arrangement, of words in sentences.

The **relation** of words is their reference to other words, or their
dependence according to the sense.

The **agreement** of words is their similarity in person, number,
gender, case, mood, tense, or form.

The **government** of words is that power which one word has over
another, to cause it to assume some particular modification.

The **arrangement** of words is their collocation, or relative position,
in a sentence.

A **sentence** is an assemblage of words, making complete sense, and
always containing a nominative and a verb: as,

-   \"Reward sweetens labour.\"

The principal parts of a sentence are usually three; namely, the
**subject**, or **nominative**; the **finite verb**; and the **object**
governed by the verb: as,

-   \"Crimes deserve punishment.\"

A **predicate** is the part of the sentence (or clause) which states
something about the subject.

The other or subordinate parts depend on these, either as primary or as
secondary **adjuncts**: as,

-   \"High crimes justly deserve very severe punishments.\"

Sentences are usually said to be of two kinds, simple and compound.

A **simple sentence** is a sentence which consists of one single
assertion, supposition, command, question, or exclamation: as,

-   \"David and Jonathan loved each other.\"
-   \"If your enemy hunger.\"
-   \"Do violence to no man.\"
-   \"Am I not an apostle?\"---1 Cor., ix, 1.
-   \"What immortal glory shall I have acquired!\"---Hooke: Mur. Seq.,
    p. 71.

A **compound sentence** is a sentence which consists of two or more
simple ones either expressly or tacitly connected: as,

-   \"Send men to Joppa, and call for Simon, whose surname is Peter; who
    shall tell you words, whereby you and all your house shall be
    saved.\"---Acts, xi, 13.
-   \"The more the works of Cowper are read, the more his readers will
    find reason to admire the variety and the extent, the graces and the
    energy, of his literary talents.\"---Hayley: Mur. Seq., p. 250.

A **clause**, or **member**, is a subdivision of a compound sentence;
and is itself a sentence, either simple or compound: as,

-   \"If your enemy be hungry, give him bread to eat; if he be thirsty,
    give him water to drink.\"---Prov., xxv, 21.

A **phrase** is two or more words which express some relation of
different ideas, but no entire proposition: as,

-   \"By the means appointed.\"
-   \"To be plain with you.\"
-   \"Having loved his own.\"

Words that are omitted by **ellipsis**, and that are necessarily
understood in order to complete the construction, must be supplied in
**parsing**.

The leading principles to be observed in the construction of sentences,
are embraced in the following rules, which are arranged, as nearly as
possible, in the order of the **parts of speech**.

## Articles

Articles relate to the nouns which they limit: as,

-   \"At a little distance from the ruins of the abbey, stands an aged
    elm.\"
-   \"See the blind beggar dance, the cripple sing, the sot a hero,
    lunatic a king.\"---Pope\'s Essay, Ep. ii, l. 268.

### The comparative or superlative degree

The definite article may relate to an adjective or adverb of the
comparative or the superlative degree: as,

-   \"A land which was the mightiest.\"---Byron.
-   \"The farther they proceeded, the greater appeared their
    alacrity.\"---Dr. Johnson.
-   \"He chooses it the rather.\"---Cowper.

### An unstressed numeral

The indefinite article is sometimes used to give a collective meaning to
an unstressed numeral (a plural adjective of number): as,

-   \"You have a few names even in Sardis.\"---Rev., iii, 4.
-   \"There are a thousand things which crowd into my
    memory.\"---Spectator, No. 468.
-   \"The centurion commanded a hundred men.\"---Webster.

## Nouns

### The subject or nominative

A noun or a pronoun which is the subject of a finite verb, must be in
the nominative case: as,

-   \"The Pharisees also, who were covetous, heard all these things; and
    they derided him.\"---Luke, xvi, 14.
-   \"But where the meekness of self-knowledge veils the front of
    self-respect, there look you for the man whom none can know but they
    will honour.\"---Book of Thoughts, p. 66.
-   \"Do you mourn Philander\'s fate? I know you say it: says your life
    the same?\"---Young, N. ii, l. 22.

The subject, or nominative, is generally placed before the verb: as,

-   \"Peace dawned on his mind.\"---Johnson.
-   \"What is written in the law?\"---Bible.

But, in the following nine cases, the subject of the verb is usually
placed after it, or after the first auxiliary:

#### A question

When a question is asked without an interrogative pronoun in the
nominative case: as,

-   \"Shall mortals be implacable?\"---Hooke.
-   \"What are you doing?\"---Id.
-   \"How many loaves have you?\"---Bible.
-   \"Are they Israelites? So am I.\"---Ib.

#### The imperative mood

When the verb is in the imperative mood: as,

-   \"Go you,\"
-   \"Come you.\"

But, with this mood, the pronoun is very often omitted and understood:
as,

-   \"Philip said to him, Come and see.\"---John, i, 46.
-   \"And he said to them, Be not afraid.\"---Mark, xvi, 5.

#### An earnest wish or strong feeling

When an earnest wish, or other strong feeling, is expressed: as,

-   \"May she be happy!\"
-   \"How were we struck!\"---Young.
-   \"Not as the world gives, give I to you.\"---Bible.

#### A supposition without if

When a supposition is made without the conjunction if: as,

-   \"Had they known it;\" for, \"If they had known it.\"
-   \"Were it true;\" for, \"If it were true.\"
-   \"Could we draw by the covering of the grave;\" for, \"If we could
    draw,\" etc.

#### Neither or nor

When neither or nor, signifying and not, precedes the verb: as,

-   \"This was his fear; nor was his apprehension groundless.\"
-   \"You shall not eat of it, neither shall you touch it.\"---Gen.,
    iii, 3.

#### Emphasis

When, for the sake of emphasis, some word or words are placed before the
verb, which more naturally come after it: as,

-   \"Here am I,\"
-   \"Narrow is the way,\"
-   \"Silver and gold have I none; but such as I have, give I
    you.\"---Bible.

#### No regimen

When the verb has no regimen, and is itself emphatical: as,

-   \"Echo the mountains round.\"---Thomson.
-   \"After the light infantry marched the grenadiers, then followed the
    horse.\"---Buchanan\'s Syntax, p. 71.

#### A dialogue

When the verbs, say, answer, reply, and the like, introduce the parts of
a dialogue: as,

-   \"\'Son of affliction,\' said Omar, \'who are you?\' \'My name,\'
    replied the stranger, \'is Hassan.\'\"---Dr. Johnson.

#### The adverb there

When the adverb *there* precedes the verb: as,

-   \"There lived a man.\"---Montgomery.
-   \"In all worldly joys, there is a secret wound.\"---Owen.

This use of *there*, is idiomatic, and somewhat different from the use
of the same word in reference to a particular locality: as,

-   \"Because there was not much water there.\"---John, iii, 23.

### Apposition or appositive

A noun or a personal pronoun used to explain a preceding noun or
pronoun, is put, by **apposition**, in the same case: as,

-   \"But it is really I, your old friend and neighbour, Piso, late a
    dweller on the Coelian hill, who am now basking in the warm skies of
    Palmyra.\"---Zenobia.
-   \"But he, our gracious Master, kind as just, knowing our frame,
    remembers we are dust.\"---Barbauld.

An apposition or **appositive** is an interjection into a sentence.
Appositive renames, or adds to the description of another noun. The
thought expressed by the sentence will stand fully on its own without
the appositive. In the following sentence, \"My best friend\'s collie\"
is an appositive:

-   \"The dog, my best friend\'s collie, caught the frisbee every
    time.\"

### A possessive noun

A noun or a pronoun in the possessive case, is governed by the name of
the thing possessed: as,

-   \"God\'s mercy prolongs man\'s life.\"---Allen.
-   \"Theirs is the vanity, the learning yours; touched by your hand,
    again Rome\'s glories shine.\"---Pope.

The possessive case generally comes immediately before the governing
noun, expressed or understood: as,

-   \"All nature\'s difference keeps all nature\'s peace.\"---Pope.
-   \"Lady! be yours (i. e., your walk) the Christian\'s walk.\"---Chr.
    Observer.
-   \"Some of Aeschylus\'s \[plays\] and Euripides\'s plays are opened
    in this manner.\"---Blair\'s Rhet., p. 459.

And in this order one possessive sometimes governs another: as,

-   \"Peter\'s wife\'s mother,\"
-   \"Paul\'s sister\'s son.\"---Bible.

But, to this general principle of arrangement, there are some
exceptions: as,

#### An adjective

When the governing noun has an adjective, this may intervene: as,

-   \"Flora\'s earliest smells.\"---Milton.
-   \"Of man\'s first disobedience.\"---Id.

In the following phrase from the Spectator,

-   \"Of Will\'s last night\'s lecture,\"

it is not very clear, whether Will\'s is governed by night\'s or by
lecture; yet it violates a general principle of our grammar, to suppose
the latter; because, on this supposition, two possessives, each having
the sign, will be governed by one noun.

#### The affirmed or denied possessive

When the possessive is affirmed or denied: as,

-   \"The book is mine, and not John\'s.\"

But here the governing noun may be supplied in its proper place; else a
pronoun or the verb will be the only governing word: as,

-   \"You are Christ\'s \[disciples, or people\]; and Christ is God\'s
    \[son\].\"---St. Paul.

Whether this phraseology is thus elliptical or not, is questionable.

#### The case without the sign

When the case occurs without the sign, either by apposition or by
connection: as,

-   \"In her brother Absalom\'s house.\"---Bible.
-   \"David and Jonathan\'s friendship.\"---Allen.
-   \"Adam and Eve\'s morning hymn.\"---Dr. Ash.
-   \"Behold the heaven, and the heaven of heavens, is the Lord\'s your
    God.\"---Deut., x, 14.
-   \"For peace and quiet\'s sake.\"---Cowper.
-   \"To the beginning of King James the First\'s
    reign.\"---Bolingbroke, on Hist., p. 32.

### The object of predicate

A noun or a pronoun made the object of an active **transitive** verb or
participle, is governed by it in the objective case: as,

-   \"I found her assisting him,\"
-   \"Having finished the work, I submit it,\"
-   \"Preventing fame, misfortune lends him wings, and Pompey\'s self
    his own sad story brings.\" ---Rowe\'s Lucan, B. viii, l. 66.

### An intransitive verb

A noun or a pronoun put after an **intransitive** verb or participle,
agrees in case with a preceding noun or pronoun referring to the same
thing: as,

-   \"It is I,\"
-   \"These are they,\"
-   \"The child was named John,\"
-   \"It could not be he,\"
-   \"The Lord sits King forever.\"---Psalms, xxix, 10.
-   \"What war could ravish, commerce could bestow, and he returned a
    friend, who came a foe.\"---Pope, Ep. iii, l. 206.

### An absolute noun

A noun or a pronoun is put **absolute** in the nominative, when its case
depends on no other word: as,

-   \"He failing, who shall meet success?\"
-   \"Your fathers, where are they? and the prophets, do they live
    forever?\"---Zech., i, 5.
-   \"Or I only and Barnabas, have not we power to forbear
    working?\"---1 Cor., ix, 6.
-   \"Nay but, O man, who are you that replies against God?\"---Rom.,
    ix, 20.
-   \"O rare we!\"---Cowper.
-   \"Miserable they!\"---Thomson.

## Adjectives

### An adjective relates to nouns

Adjectives relate to nouns or pronouns: as,

-   \"Miserable comforters are you all.\"---Job, xvi, 2.
-   \"No worldly enjoyments are adequate to the high desires and powers
    of an immortal spirit.\"---Blair.
-   \"Whatever faction\'s partial notions are, no hand is wholly
    innocent in war.\"---Rowe\'s Lucan, B. vii, l. 191.

#### An intervening verb

An adjective sometimes relates to a phrase or sentence which is made the
subject of an intervening verb: as,

-   \"To insult the afflicted, is impious.\"---Dillwyn.
-   \"That he should refuse, is not strange.\"
-   \"To err is human.\"

#### Combined arithmetical numbers

In combined arithmetical numbers, one adjective often relates to
another, and the whole phrase, to a subsequent noun: as,

-   \"One thousand four hundred and fifty-six men,\"
-   \"Six dollars and eighty-seven and a half cents for every five
    days\' service,\"
-   \"In the one hundred and twenty-second year,\"
-   \"One seven times more than it was wont to be heated.\"---Daniel,
    iii, 19.

#### A being or action in the abstract

With an infinitive or a participle denoting being or action in the
abstract, an adjective is sometimes also taken abstractly; that is,
without reference to any particular noun, pronoun, or other subject: as,

-   \"To be sincere, is to be wise, innocent, and safe.\"---Hawkesworth.
-   \"Capacity marks the abstract quality of being able to receive or
    hold.\"---Crabb\'s Synonymes.
-   \"Indeed, the main secret of being sublime, is to say great things
    in few and plain words.\"---Hiley\'s Gram., p. 215.
-   \"Concerning being free from sin in heaven, there is no
    question.\"---Barclay\'s Works, iii, 437.
-   Better, \"Concerning freedom from sin,\" etc.

#### Abstract nouns

Adjectives are sometimes substituted for their corresponding abstract
nouns; perhaps, in most instances, elliptically: as,

-   \"The sensations of sublime and beautiful are not always
    distinguished by very distant boundaries.\"---Blair\'s Rhet., p. 47.
-   \"The faults opposite to the sublime are chiefly two: the frigid,
    and the bombast.\"---Ib., p. 44.
-   Better, \"The faults opposite to sublimity, are chiefly two;
    frigidity and bombast.\"
-   \"Yet the ruling character of the nation was that of barbarous and
    cruel.\"---Brown\'s Estimate, ii, 26.
-   \"In a word, agreeable and disagreeable are qualities of the objects
    we perceive.\"---Kames, El. of Crit., i, 99.
-   \"Polished, or refined, was the idea which the author had in
    view.\"---Blair\'s Rhet., p. 219.

### An adjective placed before noun

The adjective is generally placed immediately before its noun: as,

-   \"Vain man! is grandeur given to gay attire?\"---Beattie.

Adjectives can also come before the subject:

-   \"The red dog likes chocolate.\"
-   \"The tiny man had a height problem.\"

In the following instances the adjective is placed after the word to
which it relates:

#### Pronouns

Those adjectives which relate to pronouns, most commonly follow them:
as,

-   \"They left me weary on a grassy turf.\"---Milton.

But to both these general rules there are many exceptions; for the
position of an adjective may be varied by a variety of circumstances,
not excepting the mere convenience of emphasis: as,

-   \"And Jehu said, to which of all us?\"---2 Kings, ix, 5.

#### Words which depend on the adjective

When other words depend on the adjective, or stand before it to qualify
it: as,

-   \"A mind conscious of right,\"
-   \"A wall three feet thick,\"
-   \"A body of troops fifty thousand strong.\"

#### The quality which results from action

When the quality results from an action, or receives its application
through a verb or participle: as,

-   \"Virtue renders life happy.\"
-   \"He was in Tirzah, drinking himself drunk in the house of
    Arza.\"---1 Kings, xvi, 9.
-   \"All men agree to call vinegar sour, honey sweet, and aloes
    bitter.\"---Burke, on Taste, p. 38.
-   \"God made you perfect, not immutable.\"---Milton.

#### The quality which excites admiration

When the quality excites admiration, and the adjective would thus be
more clearly distinctive: as,

-   \"Goodness infinite,\"
-   \"Wisdom unsearchable.\"---Murray.

#### A verb

When a verb comes between the adjective and the noun: as,

-   \"Truth stands independent of all external things.\"---Burgh.
-   \"Honour is not seemly for a fool.\"---Solomon.

#### The adjective formed by prefix

When the adjective is formed by means of the prefix a: as, afraid,
alert, alike, alive, alone, asleep, awake, aware, averse, ashamed,
askew. To these may be added a few other words: as, else, enough,
extant, extinct, fraught, pursuant.

#### The nature of a participle

When the adjective has the nature, but not the form, of a participle:
as,

-   \"A queen regnant,\"
-   \"The prince regent,\"
-   \"The heir apparent,\"
-   \"A lion, not rampant, but couchant or dormant,\"
-   \"For the time then present.\"

#### Poetry

In some instances, the adjective may either precede or follow its noun;
as, in poetry, provided the sense be obvious: as,

-   \"Will you to the isles atlantic, to the rich hesperian clime, fly
    in the train of Autumn?\"---Akenside, P. of I., Book i, p. 27.
-   \"Will you fly with laughing Autumn to the atlantic isles, and range
    with him the hesperian field?\"---Id. Bucke\'s Gram., p. 120.

#### Technical usage

When technical usage favours one order, and common usage another: as,

-   \"A notary public,\" or, \"A public notary;\"
-   \"The heir presumptive,\" or, \"The presumptive heir.\"

#### An adverb

When an adverb precedes the adjective: as,

-   \"A Being infinitely wise,\" or,
-   \"An infinitely wise Being.\"

Murray, Comly, and others, here approve only the former order; but the
latter is certainly not ungrammatical.

#### Belonging to the same noun

When several adjectives belong to the same noun: as,

-   \"The red, hungry dog ate the chocolate.\"
-   \"The car is red, slow and very old.\"
-   \"A woman, modest, sensible, and virtuous,\" or, \"A modest,
    sensible, and virtuous woman.\"

#### An emphatic adjective

When the adjective is emphatic, it may be foremost in the sentence,
though the natural order of the words would bring it last: as,

-   \"Weighty is the anger of the righteous.\"---Bible.
-   \"Blessed are the pure in heart.\"---Ib.
-   \"Great is the earth, high is the heaven, swift is the sun in his
    course.\"---1 Esdras, iv, 34.
-   \"The more laborious the life is, the less populous is the
    country.\"---Goldsmith\'s Essays, p. 151.

#### A part of the object or predicate

When the adjective and its noun both follow a verb as parts of the
predicate, either may possibly come before the other, yet the
arrangement is fixed by the sense intended. Thus, there is a great
difference between the following assertions:

-   \"We call the boy good,\"
-   \"We call the good boy.\"

#### An equivalent to an adverb

By an ellipsis of the noun, an adjective with a preposition before it,
is sometimes equivalent to an adverb: as,

-   \"In particular;\" that is, \"In a particular manner;\" equivalent
    to \"Particularly\".
-   So \"In general\" is equivalent to \"Generally\".

## Pronoun antecedents

A pronoun must agree with its **antecedent**, or the noun or pronoun
which it represents, in person, number, and gender: as,

-   \"This is the friend of whom I spoke; he has just arrived.\"
-   \"This is the book which I bought; it is an excellent work.\"
-   \"You, therefore, who love mercy, teach your sons to love it
    too.\"---Cowper.
-   \"Speak you, whose thoughts at humble peace repine, shall Wolsey\'s
    wealth with Wolsey\'s end be yours?\"---Dr. Johnson.

### Something indefinite

When a pronoun stands for some person or thing **indefinite**, or
unknown to the speaker, the person, number, and gender, are rather
assumed in the pronoun, than regulated by an antecedent: as,

-   \"I do not care who knows it.\"---Steele.
-   \"Who touched me? Tell me who it was.\"
-   \"We have no knowledge how, or by whom, it is inhabited.\"---Abbot:
    Joh. Dict.

### The neuter pronoun

The neuter pronoun may be applied to a young child, or to other
creatures masculine or feminine by nature, when they are not obviously
distinguishable with regard to sex: as,

-   \"Which is the real friend to the child, the person who gives it the
    sweetmeats, or the person who, considering only its health, resists
    its importunities?\"---Opis.
-   \"He loads the animal he is showing me, with so many trappings and
    collars, that I cannot distinctly view it.\"---Murray\'s Gram.,
    p. 301.
-   \"The nightingale sings most sweetly when it sings in the
    night.\"---Bucke\'s Gram., p. 52.

### The pronoun it

The pronoun it is often used without a definite reference to any
antecedent, and is sometimes a mere expletive, and sometimes the
representative of an action expressed afterwards by a verb: as,

-   \"Whether she grapple it with the pride of philosophy.\"---Chalmers.
-   \"Seeking to lord it over God\'s heritage.\"---The Friend, vii, 253.
-   \"It is not for kings, O Lemuel, it is not for kings to drink wine,
    nor for princes strong drink.\"---Prov., xxxi, 4.
-   \"Having no temptation to it, God cannot act unjustly without
    defiling his nature.\"---Brown\'s Divinity, p. 11.
-   \"Come, and trip it as you go, on the light fantastic
    toe.\"---Milton.

### The adjective many

A singular antecedent with the adjective many, sometimes admits a plural
pronoun, but never in the same clause: as,

-   \"Hard has been the fate of many a great genius, that while they
    have conferred immortality on others, they have wanted themselves
    some friend to embalm their names to posterity.\"---Welwood\'s Pref.
    to Rowe\'s Lucan.
-   \"In Hawick twinkled many a light, behind him soon they set in
    night.\"---W. Scott.

### Enallage

When a plural pronoun is put by **enallage** for the singular, it does
not agree with its noun in number, because it still requires a plural
verb: as,

-   \"We \[Lindley Murray\] have followed those authors, who appear to
    have given them the most natural and intelligible
    distribution.\"---Murray\'s Gram., 8vo, p. 29.
-   \"We shall close our remarks on this subject, by introducing the
    sentiments of Dr. Johnson respecting it.\"---Ib.
-   \"My lord, you know I love you.\"---Shakespeare.

### The antecedent taken in another sense

The pronoun sometimes disagrees with its antecedent in one sense,
because it takes it in another: as,

-   \"I have perused Mr. Johnson\'s Grammatical Commentaries, and find
    it a very laborious, learned, and useful work.\"---Tho. Knipe, D. D.
-   \"Lamps is of the plural number, because it means more than
    one.\"---Smith\'s New Gram., p. 8.
-   \"Man is of the masculine gender, because it is the name of a
    male.\"---Ib.
-   \"The Utica Sentinel says it has not heard whether the wounds are
    dangerous.\"---Evening Post.
-   Better, \"The editor of the Utica Sentinel says, he has not heard,\"
    etc.
-   \"There is little Benjamin with their ruler.\"---Psalms, lxviii, 27.
-   \"Her end when emulation misses, she turns to envy, stings, and
    hisses.\"---Swift\'s Poems, p. 415.

### Nominatives

Nominatives: (i.e., words parsed as nominatives after the verbs, though
mostly transposed:)

-   \"Who are you?\"---Bible.
-   \"What were we?\"---Ib.
-   \"Do not tell them who I am.\"
-   \"Let him be who he may, he is not the honest fellow that he
    seemed.\"
-   \"The general conduct of mankind is neither what it was designed,
    nor what it ought to be.\"

### Absolute nominatives

This construction of the relative is a latinism, and very seldom used by
the best writers.

-   \"There are certain bounds to imprudence, which being transgressed,
    there remains no place for repentance in the natural course of
    things.\"---Bp. Butler.
-   \"Which being so, it need not be any wonder, why I
    should.\"---Walker\'s Particles, Pref., p. xiv.
-   \"He offered an apology, which not being admitted, he became
    submissive.\"---Murray\'s Key, p. 202.

### Possessives

-   \"The chief man of the island, whose name was Publius.\"---Acts.
-   \"Despair, a cruel tyrant, from whose prisons none can
    escape.\"---Dr. Johnson.
-   \"To contemplate on Him whose yoke is easy and whose burden is
    light.\"---Steele.

### Objectives

-   \"Those whom she persuaded.\"---Dr. Johnson.
-   \"The cloak that I left at Troas.\"---St. Paul.
-   \"By the things which he suffered.\"---Id.
-   \"A man whom there is reason to suspect.\"
-   \"What are we to do?\"---Burke.
-   \"Love refuses nothing that love sends.\"---Gurnall.
-   \"The first thing, says he, is, to choose some maxim or point of
    morality; to inculcate which, is to be the design of his
    work.\"---Blair\'s Rhet., p. 421.
-   \"Whomsoever you please to appoint.\"---Lowth.
-   \"Whatsoever he does, shall prosper.\"---Bible.
-   \"What we are afraid to do before men, we should be afraid to think
    before God.\"---Sibs.
-   \"Shall I hide from Abraham that thing which I do?\"---Gen., xviii,
    32.
-   \"Shall I hide from Abraham what I am going to do?\"
-   \"Call imperfection what you fancy such.\"---Pope.

### Neuter verbs

Pronouns parsed as objectives after **neuter verbs**, though they stand
before them:

-   \"He is not the man that I took him to be.\"
-   \"Whom did you suppose me to be?\"
-   \"If the lad ever become what you wish him to be.\"
-   \"To whom shall we go?\"---Bible.
-   \"The laws by which the world is governed, are general.\"---Bp.
    Butler.
-   \"Whom he looks on as his defender.\"---Addison.
-   \"That secret heaviness of heart which unthinking men are subject
    to.\"---Id.
-   \"I cannot but think the loss of such talents as the man of whom I
    am speaking was master of, a more melancholy instance.\"---Steele.
-   \"Grammar is the solid foundation on which all other science
    rests.\"---Buchanan\'s Eng. Synt., p. xx.

### Familiar language

In familiar language, the relative of the objective case is frequently
understood: as,

-   \"The man \[whom\] I trust.\"---Cowper.
-   \"Here is the letter \[which\] I received.\"
-   \"This is the man they hate. These are the goods they bought. Are
    these the Gods they worship? Is this the woman you saw?\"---Ash\'s
    Gram., p. 96.

In grave writing, or deliberate discourse, it is much better to express
the relative. The omission of it is often attended with some obscurity:
as,

-   \"The next error \[that\] I shall mention \[,\] is a capital
    one.\"---Kames, El. of Crit., ii, 157.
-   \"It is little \[that\] we know of the divine
    perfections.\"---Scougal, p. 94.
-   \"The faith \[which\] we give to memory, may be thought, on a
    superficial view, to be resolvable into consciousness, as well as
    that \[which\] we give to the immediate impressions of
    sense.\"---Campbell\'s Rhet., p. 53.
-   \"We speak that \[which\] we do know, and testify that \[which\] we
    have seen.\"---John, iii, 11.

### A relative in the nominative case

The omission of a relative in the nominative case, is almost always
inelegant: as,

-   \"This is the worst thing \[that\] could happen.\"
-   \"There were several things \[which\] brought it on
    me.\"---Pilgrim\'s Progress, p. 162.

This ellipsis may occur after but or than, and it is sometimes allowed
in poetry: as,

-   \"\[There is\] No person of reflection but \[who\] must be sensible,
    that an incident makes a stronger impression on an eyewitness, than
    when heard at second hand.\"---Kames, El. of Crit., ii, 257.
-   \"In this it is God directs, in that it is man.\"---Pope, on Man.
-   \"Abuse on all he loved, or loved him, spread.\"---Id., to
    Arbuthnot.
-   \"There\'s nothing blackens like the ink of fools.\"---Id., to
    Augustus.

### A collective noun

When the antecedent is a collective noun conveying the idea of
plurality, the pronoun must agree with it in the plural number: as,

-   \"The council were divided in their sentiments.\"
-   \"The Christian world are beginning to awake out of their
    slumber.\"---C. Simeon.
-   \"Whatever Adam\'s posterity lost through him, that and more they
    gain in Christ.\"---J. Phipps.
-   \"To this, one pathway gently-winding leads, where march a train
    with baskets on their heads.\"---Pope, Iliad, B. xviii, l. 657.

### Antecedents connected by or

When a pronoun has two or more antecedents connected by or or nor, it
must agree with them singly, and not as if taken together: as,

-   \"James or John will favour us with his company.\"
-   \"Neither wealth nor honour can secure the happiness of its
    votaries.\"
-   \"What virtue or what mental grace, but men unqualified and base
    will boast it their possession?\"---Cowper, on Friendship.

### Antecedents connected by and

When a pronoun has two or more antecedents connected by and, it must
agree with them jointly in the plural, because they are taken together:
as,

-   \"Minos and Thales sung to the lyre the laws which they
    composed.\"---Strabo: Blair\'s Rhet., p. 379.
-   \"Saul and Jonathan were lovely and pleasant in their lives, and in
    their death they were not divided.\"---2 Sam., i, 23.
-   \"Rhesus and Rhodius then unite their rills, Caresus roaring down
    the stony hills.\"---Pope, Il., B. xii, l. 17.

#### One person or thing

When two or more antecedents connected by and serve merely to describe
one person or thing, they are either in apposition or equivalent to one
name, and do not require a plural pronoun: as,

-   \"This great philosopher and statesman continued in public life till
    his eighty-second year.\"
-   \"The same Spirit, light, and life, which enlightens, also
    sanctifies, and there is not another.\"---Penington.
-   \"My Constantius and Philetus confesses me two years older when I
    wrote it.\"---Cowley\'s Preface.
-   \"Remember these, O Jacob and Israel! for you are my
    servant.\"---Isaiah, xliv, 21.
-   \"In that strength and cogency which renders eloquence
    powerful.\"---Blair\'s Rhet., p. 252.

#### Emphatically distinguished

When two antecedents connected by and are emphatically distinguished,
they belong to different propositions, and, if singular, do not require
a plural pronoun: as,

-   \"The butler, and not the baker, was restored to his office.\"
-   \"The good man, and the sinner too, shall have his reward.\"
-   \"Truth, and truth only, is worth seeking for its own sake.\"
-   \"It is the sense in which the word is used, and not the letters of
    which it is composed, that determines what is the part of speech to
    which it belongs.\"---Cobbett\'s Gram., 130.

#### Each, every, or no

When two or more antecedents connected by and are preceded by the
adjective each, every, or no, they are taken separately, and do not
require a plural pronoun: as,

-   \"Every plant and every tree produces others after its own kind.\"
-   \"It is the cause of every reproach and distress which has attended
    your government.\"---Junius, Let. xxxv.

But if the latter be a collective noun, the pronoun may be plural: as,

-   \"Each minister and each church act according to their own
    impressions.\"---Dr. M\'Cartee.

## The finite verb

Every finite verb must agree with its subject, or nominative, in person
and number: as,

-   \"I know; You know; He knows;\"
-   \"The bird flies; The birds fly.\"
-   \"Our fathers\' fertile fields by slaves are tilled, and Rome with
    dregs of foreign lands is filled.\"---Rowe\'s Lucan, B. vii, l. 600.

When the nominative is a collective noun conveying the idea of
plurality, the verb must agree with it in the plural number: as,

-   \"The council were divided.\"
-   \"The college of cardinals are the electors of the
    pope.\"---Murray\'s Key, p. 176.
-   \"Quintus Curtius relates, that a number of them were drowned in the
    river Lycus.\"---Home\'s Art of Thinking, p. 125.
-   \"Yon host come learned in academic rules.\"---Rowe\'s Lucan, vii,
    401.
-   \"While heaven\'s high host on hallelujahs live.\"---Young\'s N.
    Th., iv, 378.

### Nominatives connected by and

When a verb has two or more nominatives connected by and, it must agree
with them jointly in the plural, because they are taken together: as,

-   \"True rhetoric and sound logic are very nearly allied.\"---Blair\'s
    Rhet., p. 11.
-   \"Aggression and injury in no case justify
    retaliation.\"---Wayland\'s Moral Science, p. 406.
-   \"Judges and senates have been bought for gold, esteem and love were
    never to be sold.\"---Pope.

#### One person or thing

When two nominatives connected by and serve merely to describe one
person or thing, they are either in apposition or equivalent to one
name, and do not require a plural verb: as,

-   \"Immediately comes a hue and cry after a gang of
    thieves.\"---L\'Estrange.
-   \"The hue and cry of the country pursues him.\"---Junius, Letter
    xxiii.
-   \"Flesh and blood \[i.e. man, or man\'s nature,\] has not revealed
    it to you.\"---Matt., xvi, 17.
-   \"Descent and fall to us is adverse.\"---Milton, P. L., ii, 76.
-   \"This philosopher and poet was banished from his country.\"
-   \"Such a Saviour and Redeemer is actually provided for
    us.\"---Gurney\'s Essays, p. 386.
-   \"Let us then declare what great things our God and Saviour has done
    for us.\"---Dr. Scott, on Luke viii.
-   \"Toll, tribute, and custom, was paid to them.\"---Ezra, iv, 20.
-   \"Whose icy current and compulsive course never feels retiring ebb,
    but keeps due on.\"---Shakespeare.

#### Emphatically distinguished

When two nominatives connected by and, are emphatically distinguished,
they belong to different propositions, and, if singular, do not require
a plural verb: as,

-   \"Ambition, and not the safety of the state, was
    concerned.\"---Goldsmith.
-   \"Consanguinity, and not affinity, is the ground of the
    prohibition.\"---Webster\'s Essays, p. 324.
-   \"But a modification, and oftentimes a total change, takes
    place.\"---Maunder.
-   \"Somewhat, and, in many circumstances, a great deal too, is put on
    us.\"---Butler\'s Analogy, p. 108.
-   \"Disgrace, and perhaps ruin, was the certain consequence of
    attempting the latter.\"---Robertson\'s America, i, 434.
-   \"Ay, and no too, was no good divinity.\"---Shakespeare.
-   \"Love, and love only, is the loan for love.\"---Young.

#### Each, every, or no

When two or more nominatives connected by and are preceded by the
adjective each, every, or no, they are taken separately, and do not
require a plural verb: as,

-   \"When no part of their substance, and no one of their properties,
    is the same.\"---Bp. Butler.
-   \"Every limb and feature appears with its respective
    grace.\"---Steele.
-   \"Every person, and every occurrence, is beheld in the most
    favourable light.\"---Murray\'s Key, p. 190.
-   \"Each worm, and each insect, is a marvel of creative power.\"
-   \"Whose every look and gesture was a joke to clapping theatres and
    shouting crowds.\"---Young.

When the verb separates its nominatives, it agrees with that which
precedes it, and is understood to the rest: as,

-   \"The earth is the Lord\'s, and the fullness thereof.\"---Murray\'s
    Exercises, p. 36.
-   \"Disdain forbids me, and my dread of shame.\"---Milton.
-   \"Forth in the pleasing spring, your beauty walks, your tenderness,
    and love.\"---Thomson.

### Nominatives connected by or

When a verb has two or more nominatives connected by or or nor, it must
agree with them singly, and not as if taken together: as,

-   \"Fear or jealousy affects him.\"---W. Allen\'s Gram., p. 133.
-   \"Nor eye, nor listening ear, an object finds: creation
    sleeps.\"---Young.
-   \"Neither character nor dialogue was yet understood.\"---L.
    Murray\'s Gram., p. 151.
-   \"The wife, where danger or dishonour lurks, safest and seemliest by
    her husband stays.\"---Milton, P. L., ix, 267.

## Infinitives

### The infinitive mood

The infinitive mood is governed in general by the preposition to, which
commonly connects it to a finite verb: as,

-   \"I desire to learn.\"---Dr. Adam.
-   \"Of me the Roman people have many pledges, which I must strive,
    with my utmost endeavours, to preserve, to defend, to confirm, and
    to redeem.\"---Duncan\'s Cicero, p. 41.
-   \"What if the foot, ordained the dust to tread, or hand to toil,
    aspired to be the head?\"---Pope.

The active verbs, bid, dare, feel, hear, let, make, need, see, and their
participles, usually take the infinitive after them without the
preposition to: as,

-   \"If he bade you depart, how dare you stay?\"
-   \"I dare not let my mind be idle as I walk in the
    streets.\"---Cotton Mather.
-   \"Your Hector, wrapt in everlasting sleep, shall neither hear you
    sigh, nor see you weep.\" ---Pope\'s Homer.

Though the infinitive is commonly made an adjunct to some finite verb,
yet it may be connected to almost all the other parts of speech. The
preposition to being its only and almost universal index; unless the
word about, in such a situation, is a preposition.

Anciently, the infinitive was sometimes preceded by for as well as to:
as,

-   \"I went up to Jerusalem for to worship.\"---Acts, xxiv, 11.
-   \"What went you out for to see?\"---Luke, vii, 26.
-   \"And stood up for to read.\"---Luke, iv, 16.

It seems practicable to subjoin the infinitive to every one of the ten
parts of speech, except the article: as,

#### Noun

-   \"If there is any precept to obtain felicity.\"---Hawkesworth.
-   \"It is high time to awake out of sleep.\"---Rom., xiii, 11.
-   \"To flee from the wrath to come.\"---Matt., iii, 7.

#### Adjective

-   \"He seemed desirous to speak, yet unwilling to
    offend.\"---Hawkesworth.
-   \"He who is the slowest to promise, is the quickest to
    perform.\"---Art of Thinking, p. 35.

#### Pronoun

-   \"I discovered him to be a scholar.\"---W. Allen\'s Gram., p. 166.
-   \"Is it lawful for us to give tribute to Caesar?\"---Luke, xx, 22.
-   \"Let me desire you to reflect impartially.\"---Blair: Murray\'s
    Eng. Reader, p. 77.
-   \"Whom have you then or what to accuse?\"---Milton, P. L., iv, 67.

#### Finite verb

-   \"Then Peter began to rebuke him.\"---Matt., xvi, 22.
-   \"The Son of man is come to seek and to save that which was
    lost.\"---Luke, xix, 10.

#### Another infinitive

-   \"To go to enter into Egypt.\"---Jer., xli, 17.
-   \"We are not often willing to wait to consider.\"---J. Abbott.
-   \"For what had he to do to chide at me?\"---Shak.

#### Participle

-   \"Still threatening to devour me.\"---Milton.
-   \"Or as a thief bent to unhoard the cash of some rich
    burgher.\"---Id.

#### Adverb

-   \"She is old enough to go to school.\"
-   \"I know not how to act.\"---Nutting\'s Gram., p. 106.
-   \"Tell me when to come, and where to meet you.\"
-   \"He has not where to lay his head.\"

#### Conjunction

-   \"He knows better than to trust you.\"
-   \"It was so hot as to melt these ornaments.\"
-   \"Many who praise virtue, do no more than praise it.\"---Dr.
    Johnson.

#### Preposition

-   \"I was about to write.\"---Rev., x, 4.
-   \"Not for to hide it in a hedge.\"---Burns\'s Poems, p. 42.
-   \"Amatum iri, to be about to be loved.\"---Adam\'s Gram., p. 95.

#### Interjection

-   \"O to forget her!\"---Young\'s Night Thoughts.

### The uses of the infinitive

The infinitive is a verb, without affirmation, without person or number,
and therefore without the agreement peculiar to a finite verb. But, in
most instances, it is not without limitation of the being, action, or
passion, to some persons or things, that are said, supposed, or denied,
to be, to act, or to be acted on. Whenever it is not thus limited, it is
taken abstractly, and has some resemblance to a noun. Even then, the
active infinitive may govern the objective case. The uses of the
infinitive are many and various. The following are the chief of the
things for which it may stand:

#### Supplement to another verb

For the supplement to another verb, to complete the sense: as,

-   \"Loose him, and let him go.\"---John, xi, 44.
-   \"They that go to seek mixed wine.\"---Prov., xxiii, 30.
-   \"His hands refuse to labour.\"---Ib., xxi, 25.
-   \"If you choose to have those terms.\"---Tooke\'s D. P., ii, 374.
-   \"How our old translators first struggled to express this.\"---Ib.,
    ii, 456.
-   \"To any one who will please to examine our language.\"---Ib., ii,
    444.
-   \"They are forced to give up at last.\"---Ib., ii, 375.
-   \"Which ought to be done.\"---Ib., ii, 451.
-   \"Which came to pass.\"---Acts, xi, 28.
-   \"I dare engage to make it out.\"---Swift.

#### A purpose

For the purpose, or end, of that to which it is added: as,

-   \"Each has employed his time and pains to establish a
    criterion.\"---Tooke\'s D. P., ii, 374.
-   \"I shall not stop now, to assist in their elucidation.\"---Ib., ii,
    75.
-   \"Our purposes are not endowed with words to make them
    known.\"---Ib., ii, 74.
-   \"A tool is some instrument taken up to work with.\"---Ib., ii, 145.
-   \"Labour not to be rich.\"---Prov., xxiii, 4.
-   \"I flee to you to hide me.\"---Ps., cxliii, 9.
-   \"Evil shall hunt the violent man to overthrow him.\"---Ib., cxl,
    11.

#### Object of an affection or passion

For the object of an affection or passion: as,

-   \"He loves to ride.\"
-   \"I desire to hear her speak again.\"---Shale.
-   \"If we wish to avoid important error.\"---Tooke\'s D. P., ii, 3.
-   \"Who rejoice to do evil.\"---Prov., ii, 14.
-   \"All agreeing in earnestness to see him.\"---Shak.
-   \"Our curiosity is raised to know what lies beyond.\"---Kames, El.
    of Crit., ii, 335.

#### Cause of an affection or passion

For the cause of an affection or passion: as,

-   \"I rejoice to hear it.\"
-   \"By which I hope to have laid a foundation.\"---Blair\'s Rhet.,
    p. 34.
-   \"For he made me mad, to see him shine so brisk, and smell so
    sweet.\"---Beauties of Shak., p. 118.
-   \"You did eat strange flesh, which some did die to look on.\"---Ib.,
    p. 182.
-   \"They grieved to see their best allies at variance.\"---Rev. W.
    Allen\'s Gram., p. 165.

#### Subject of a proposition

For the subject of a proposition, or the chief term in such subject: as,

-   \"To steal is sinful.\"
-   \"To do justice and judgement, is more acceptable to the Lord than
    sacrifice.\"---Prov., xxi, 3.
-   \"To do right, is, to do that which is ordered to be
    done.\"---Tooke\'s D. P., ii, 7.
-   \"To go to law to plague a neighbour, has in it more of malice, than
    of love to justice.\"---Seattle\'s Mor. Sci., i, 177.

#### Predicate or object of a proposition

For the predicate of a proposition, or the chief term in such predicate:
as,

-   \"To enjoy is to obey.\"---Pope.
-   \"The property of rain is to wet, and fire, to burn.\"---Beauties of
    Shak., p. 15.
-   \"To die is to be banished from myself.\"---Ib., p. 82.
-   \"The best way is, to slander Valentine.\"---Ib., p. 83.
-   \"The highway of the upright is to depart from evil.\"---Prov., xvi,
    17.

#### A coming event

For a coming event, or what will be: as,

-   \"A mutilated structure soon to fall.\"---Cowper.
-   \"He being dead, and I speedily to follow him.\"---Tooke\'s D. P.,
    ii, 111.
-   \"She shall rejoice in time to come.\"---Prov., xxxi, 25.
-   \"Things present, or things to come.\"---1 Cor., iii, 22.

#### A necessary event

For a necessary event, or what ought to be: as,

-   \"It is to be remembered.\"
-   \"It is never to be forgotten.\"---Tooke\'s D. P., ii, 2.
-   \"An oversight much to be deplored.\"---Ib., ii, 460.
-   \"The sign is not to be used by itself, or to stand alone; but is to
    be joined to some other term.\"---Ib., ii, 372.
-   \"The Lord\'s name is to be praised.\"---Ps., cxiii, 3.

#### Something previously suggested

For what is previously suggested by another word: as,

-   \"I have faith to believe.\"
-   \"The glossarist did well here not to yield to his
    inclination.\"---Tooke\'s D. P., ii, 329.
-   \"It is a good thing to give thanks to the Lord.\"---Ps., xcii, 1.
-   \"It is as sport to a fool to do mischief.\"---Prov., x, 23.
-   \"They have the gift to know it.\"---Shak.
-   \"We have no remaining occupation but to take care of the
    public.\"---Art of Thinking, p. 52.

#### Term of comparison or measure

For a term of comparison or measure: as,

-   \"He was so much affected as to weep.\"
-   \"Who could do no less than furnish him.\"---Tooke\'s D. P., ii,
    408.
-   \"I shall venture no farther than to explain the nature and
    convenience of these abbreviations.\"---Ib., ii, 439.
-   \"I have already said enough to show what sort of operation that
    is.\"---Ib., ii, 358.

## Participles

The regular syntax of the participle, is twofold; being sometimes that
of simple relation to a noun or a pronoun that precedes it, and
sometimes that of government, or the state of being governed by a
preposition. In the former construction, the participle resembles an
adjective; in the latter, it is more like a noun, or like the infinitive
mood. To these constructions, some add others less regular: using the
participle as the subject of a finite verb, as the object of a
transitive verb, or as a nominative after a neuter verb.

Participles relate to nouns or pronouns, or else are governed by
prepositions: as,

-   \"Elizabeth\'s tutor, at one time paying her a visit, found her
    employed in reading Plato.\"---Hume.
-   \"I have no more pleasure in hearing a man attempting wit and
    failing, than in seeing a man trying to leap over a ditch and
    tumbling into it.\"---Dr. Johnson.
-   \"Now, raised on Tyre\'s sad ruins, Pharaoh\'s pride soared high,
    his legions threatening far and wide.\"---Dryden.

### A preceding phrase

A participle sometimes relates to a preceding phrase or sentence, of
which it forms no part: as,

-   \"I then quit the society; to withdraw and leave them to themselves,
    appearing to me a duty.\"
-   \"It is almost exclusively on the ground we have mentioned, that we
    have heard his being continued in office defended.\"---Professors\'
    Reasons, p. 23.
-   Better, \"His continuance in office,\" or, \"The continuing of him
    in office.\"
-   \"But ever to do ill our sole delight, as being the contrary to his
    high will.\"---Milton.

### A being or action in the abstract

With an infinitive denoting being or action in the abstract, a
participle is sometimes also taken abstractly; that is, without
reference to any particular noun, pronoun, or other subject: as,

-   \"To seem compelled, is disagreeable.\"
-   \"To keep always praying aloud, is plainly impossible.\"
-   \"It must be disagreeable to be left pausing on a word which does
    not, by itself, produce any idea.\"---Murray\'s Gram., 8vo, p. 323.
-   \"To praise him is to serve him, and fulfill, doing and suffering,
    his unquestioned will.\"---Cowper, Vol. i, p. 88.

### Substitute for the infinitive mood

The participle is often used irregularly, as a substitute for the
infinitive mood, to which it is sometimes equivalent without
irregularity: as,

-   \"I saw him enter, or entering.\"---Grant\'s Lat. Gram., p. 230.
-   \"He is afraid of trying, or to try.\"---Ibid.
-   \"Sir, said I, if the case stands thus, it is dangerous
    drinking.\"---Collier\'s Tablet of Cebes.
-   \"It will be but ill venturing your soul on that.\"---Bunyan\'s Law
    and Grace, p. 27.
-   \"Describing a past event as present, has a fine effect in
    language.\"---Kames, El. of Crit., i, 93.
-   \"In English likewise it deserves remarking.\"---Harris\'s Hermes,
    p. 232.
-   \"Bishop Atterbury deserves being particularly
    mentioned.\"---Blair\'s Rhet., p. 291.
-   \"This, however, is in effect no more than enjoying the sweet that
    predominates.\"---Campbell\'s Rhet., p. 43.
-   \"Habits are soon assumed; but when we strive to strip them off, it
    is being flayed alive.\"---Cowper, Vol. i, p. 44

### A participle which is treated as a noun

Another frequent irregularity in the construction of participles, is the
practice of treating them essentially as nouns, without taking from them
the regimen and adjuncts of participles: as,

-   \"Your having been well educated will be a great
    recommendation.\"---W. Allen\'s Gram., p. 171.
-   Better, \"Your excellent education,\" or \"That you have been well
    educated, will be,\" etc.
-   \"It arises from sublimity\'s expressing grandeur in its highest
    degree.\"---Blair\'s Rhet., p. 29.
-   \"Concerning the separating by a circumstance, words intimately
    connected.\"---Kames, El. of Crit., Vol. ii, p. 104.
-   \"As long as there is any hope of their keeping pace with
    them.\"---Literary Convention, p. 114.
-   \"Which could only arise from his knowing the secrets of all
    hearts.\"---West\'s Letters to a Young Lady, p. 180.
-   \"But this again is talking quite at random.\"---Butler\'s Analogy,
    p. 146.
-   \"My being here it is, that holds you hence.\"---Shak.
-   \"Such, but by foils, the clearest lustre see, and deem aspersing
    others, praising you.\"---Savage, to Walpole.

## Adverbs

The syntax of an adverb consists in its simple relation to a verb, a
participle, an adjective, or whatever else it qualifies.

Adverbs relate to verbs, participles, adjectives, or other adverbs: as,

-   \"Any passion that habitually discomposes our temper, or unfits us
    for properly discharging the duties of life, has most certainly
    gained a very dangerous ascendency.\"---Blair.
-   \"How blessed this happy hour, should he appear, dear to us all, to
    me supremely dear!\"---Pope\'s Homer.

### Independent adverbs

The adverbs yes, ay, and yea, expressing a simple affirmation, and the
adverbs no and nay, expressing a simple negation, are always
independent. They generally answer a question, and are equivalent to a
whole sentence. Is it clear, that they ought to be called adverbs? No.

-   \"Can honour set to a leg? No. Or an arm? No. Or take away the grief
    of a wound? No. Honour has no skill in surgery then? No.\"---Shak.:
    First Part of Hen. IV, Act v, 1.

### The word amen

The word amen, which is commonly called an adverb, is often used
independently at the beginning or end of a declaration or a prayer: as,

-   \"Surely, I come quickly. Amen: even so, come Lord Jesus.\"---Rev.,
    xxii, 20.

When it does not stand thus alone, it seems in general to be used
substantively: as,

-   \"The strangers among them stood on Gerizim, and echoed amen to the
    blessings.\"---Wood\'s Dict.
-   \"These things say the amen.\"---Rev., iii, 14

### An adverb before a preposition

An adverb before a preposition seems sometimes to relate to the latter,
rather than to the verb or participle to which the preposition connects
its object: as,

-   \"This mode of pronunciation runs considerably beyond ordinary
    discourse.\"---Blair\'s Rhet., p. 334.
-   \"Yea, all along the times of the apostasy, this was the thing that
    preserved the witnesses.\"---Penington\'s Works, Vol. iv, p. 12.
-   \"Right against the eastern gate, where the great sun begins his
    state.\"---Milton, L\'Allegro.

### Much, little, far, and all

The words much, little, far, and all, being originally adjectives, are
sometimes preceded by the negative not, or (except the last) by such an
adverb as too, how, thus, so, or as, when they are taken substantively:
as,

-   \"Not all that glitters, is gold.\"
-   \"Too much should not be offered at once.\"---Murray\'s Gram.,
    p. 140.
-   \"Thus far is consistent.\"---Ib., p. 161.
-   \"Thus far is right.\"---Lowth\'s Gram., p. 101.

## Conjunctions

The syntax of conjunctions consists in the simple fact, that they link
together such and such terms, and thus \"Mark the connections of human
thought.\"---Beattie.

Conjunctions connect words, sentences, or parts of sentences: as,

-   \"Let there be no strife, I pray you, between me and you, and
    between my herdmen and your herdmen; for we are brethren.\"---Gen.,
    xiii, 8.
-   \"Ah! if she lend not arms as well as rules. What can she more than
    tell us we are fools?\"---Pope.

### Introducing a sentence

The conjunction that sometimes serves merely to introduce a sentence
which is made the subject or the object of a finite verb: as,

-   \"That mind is not matter, is certain.\"
-   \"That you have wronged me, does appear in this.\"---Shak.
-   \"That time is mine, O Mead! to you, I owe.\"---Young.

### Two corresponding conjunctions

When two corresponding conjunctions occur, in their usual order, the
former should generally be parsed as referring to the latter, which is
more properly the connecting word: as,

-   \"Neither sun nor stars in many days appeared.\"---Acts, xxvii, 20.
-   \"Whether that evidence has been afforded \[or not,\] is a matter of
    investigation.\"---Keith\'s Evidences, p. 18.

### Either and neither

Either, corresponding to or, and neither, corresponding to nor or not,
are sometimes transposed, so as to repeat the disjunction or negation at
the end of the sentence: as,

-   \"Where then was their capacity of standing, or his
    either?\"---Barclay\'s Works, iii, 359.
-   \"It is not dangerous neither.\"---Bolingbroke, on Hist., p. 135.
-   \"He is very tall, but not too tall neither.\"---Spect., No. 475.

## Prepositions

The syntax of prepositions consists, not solely or mainly in their power
of governing the objective case, but in their adaptation to the other
terms between which they express certain relations.

Prepositions show the relations of words, and of the things or thoughts
expressed by them: as,

-   \"He came from Rome to Paris, in the company of many eminent men,
    and passed with them through many cities.\"---Analectic Magazine.
-   \"Ah! who can tell the triumphs of the mind, by truth illumined, and
    by taste refined?\"---Rogers.

### The object

A noun or a pronoun made the object of a preposition, is governed by it
in the objective case: as,

-   \"The temple of fame stands on the grave: the flame that burns on
    its altars, is kindled from the ashes of great men.\"---Hazlitt.
-   \"Life is his gift, from whom whatever life needs, with every good
    and perfect gift, proceeds.\"---Cowper, Vol. i, p. 95.

### The preposition to

The preposition to, before an abstract infinitive, and at the head of a
phrase which is made the subject of a verb, has no proper antecedent
term of relation: as,

-   \"To learn to die, is the great business of life.\"---Dillwyn.
-   \"Nevertheless, to abide in the flesh, is more needful for
    you.\"---St. Paul: Phil., i, 24.
-   \"To be reduced to poverty, is a great affliction.\"
-   \"Too much to know, is, to know nought but fame; and every godfather
    can give a name.\"---Shakespeare.

### The preposition for

The preposition for, when it introduces its object before an infinitive,
and the whole phrase is made the subject of a verb, has properly no
antecedent term of relation: as,

-   \"For us to learn to die, is the great business of life.\"
-   \"Nevertheless, for me to abide in the flesh, is more needful for
    you.\"
-   \"For an old man to be reduced to poverty is a very great
    affliction.\"
-   \"For man to tell how human life began, is hard; for who himself
    beginning knew?\"---Milton.

## Interjections

Interjections have no dependent construction; they are put absolute,
either alone, or with other words: as,

-   \"O! let not your heart despise me.\"---Dr. Johnson.
-   \"O cruel you!\"---Pope, Odys., B. xii, l. 333.
-   \"Ah wretched we, poets of earth!\"---Cowley,
-   \"Ah Dennis! Gildon ah! what ill-starred rage divides a friendship
    long confirmed by age?\"---Pope, Dunciad, B. iii,

## General rules

In the formation of sentences, the **consistency** and adaptation of all
the words should be observed; and a regular, clear, and correspondent
construction should be preserved throughout.

Words that may constitute different **parts of speech**, must not be
left doubtful as to their classification.

The **reference** of words to other words, or their syntactical relation
according to the sense, should never be left doubtful.

A **definition** must include the whole class of things, which it
pretends to define, and exclude everything which comes not under the
name.

A **comparison** is a form of speech which requires some similarity or
common property in the things compared; without which, it becomes a
solecism.

Sentences that convey a meaning manifestly **false**, should be changed,
rejected, or contradicted. They distort language from its only worthy
use; which is, to state facts, and to tell the truth.

Every writer should be careful not to **contradict** himself; for what
is self-contradictory, is both null in argument, and bad in style.

Words that are entirely **needless**, and especially such as encumber
the expression, ought in general to be omitted.

Words **necessary** to the sense, or even to the melody or beauty of a
sentence, ought seldom, if ever, to be omitted.

## References

-   A part of the text in this article, was taken from the public domain
    English grammar \"The Grammar of English
    Grammars\" by Goold Brown,
    1851.
-   Wiktionary, the free
    dictionary


# English in Use/Conversation Pieces

## Apologizing

-   Excuse me, \...
-   Sorry!
-   Sorry to interrupt.
-   I\'m sorry!
-   I\'m so sorry!
-   I\'m afraid so.
-   I\'m afraid not.
-   I apologize.
-   I do apologize.
-   Please forgive me!

## Expressing Surprise

-   Wow!
-   You\'ve got to be kidding me!
-   I don't believe it!
-   That\'s incredible!
-   Is that right?
-   You\'re joking!
-   Really?
-   Seriously?
-   My goodness!
-   Oh my!
-   Gosh!
-   What a surprise!
-   Good heavens! (Use sparingly)
-   Well, well, well! (Use sparingly)

## Goodbyes

-   Good-bye!
-   So long!
-   See you!
-   See you later!
-   See you soon!
-   See you tomorrow!
-   Cheerio!
-   Ta-ta!
-   Ta-ra!
-   I\'ll be seeing you.
-   Good evening.
-   Good night.
-   Have a good evening!
-   Have a good afternoon!
-   Come back soon!
-   Keep safe!
-   Have a safe trip.
-   Bye bye
-   Toodles!

## Meeting People

-   Hello there!
-   Pleased to meet you. *informal*
-   Pleased to meet you, {sir **or** madam}. *formal*
-   It\'s nice meeting you.
-   Finally, we meet!

**The following greetings are typically used in formal environments,
however, they can also be used for informal environments but be sure not
to use sir or ma\'am if you know the person well or else it makes the
conversation seem a bit too impersonal.**

-   Good afternoon, {name **or** sir **or** madam}
-   Good morning, {name **or** sir **or** madam}
-   Good evening, {name **or** sir **or** madam}

## Responding to News or Information

-   Good for you!
-   I'm sorry to hear that.
-   Oh, how lovely!
-   Sounds great.
-   Yes, I suppose you must be.
-   Wow! That sounds exciting.

## Responding to Thanks

-   You are welcome
-   Don\'t mention it
-   No problem
-   It\'s okay
-   It\'s a pleasure

## Saying: That\'s Life

-   It was just one of those things.
-   That's the way it goes.
-   These things happen.
-   You know how it is.

## Telephoning

**To ask about someone on the telephone**

-   *May I speak to \... , please? (formal)*
-   *Is \... there? (informal)*

**To leave a message**

-   *Can I leave a message?* (informal)
-   *May I leave a message?* (formal)
-   *Can you ask \... to call me?*

**To ask someone to repeat something**

-   *Could you repeat that, please?* (formal)
-   *Would you repeat that, please?* (formal)
-   *Pardon?*
-   *Excuse me?*
-   *I\'m sorry, I didn\'t catch that.*

**Some alternative forms to say \"yes\"**

-   *Of course.*
-   *Sure.*
-   *Yep.*
-   *Yup.*
-   *Yeah.* (informal)
-   *Uh-huh.* (informal)

## Thanking

-   Thank you!
-   Thanks! (informal)
-   Thank you so much!
-   Thanks a lot! (if not said with a rising tone, it will often come
    across as sarcastic, so be careful with this phrase)
-   I don\'t know how to thank you. (extremely thankful, almost always
    used after a large gift or favor is given)

{{English in Use/Navigation}}


# English in Use/Glossary

------------------------------------------------------------------------

Absolute --- Not immediately dependent on the other parts of the
sentence in government.

Abstract --- Considered apart from any application to a particular
object.

Abstract noun --- A noun that denotes an idea, emotion, feeling, quality
or other abstract or intangible concept.

Active verb --- A verb that expresses action as distinct from mere
existence or state.

Adjective --- A word that modifies a noun or describes a noun's
referent.

Adjunct --- A clause in a sentence that amplifies its meaning.

Adverb --- A word that modifies a verb, adjective, or various other
types of words, phrases, and clauses.

Adverb of cause --- Adverbs of cause are *why, wherefore* and
*therefore*.

Adverb of degree --- Adverbs of degree are those which answer to the
question, how much? how little? or to the idea of more or less.

Adverb of manner --- Adverbs of manner are those which answer to the
question, how? or, by affirming, denying, or doubting, show how a
subject is regarded.

Adverb of place --- Adverbs of place indicate where something happens.

Adverb of time --- Adverbs of time are those which answer to the
question, when? how long? how soon? or how often?

Affirmative --- An answer that shows agreement or acceptance.

Agreement --- Rules that exist in many languages that force some parts
of a sentence to be used or inflected differently depending on certain
attributes of other parts.

Antecedent --- A word, phrase or clause referred to by a pronoun.

Aorist --- A temporal feature of the verb which denotes the speaker\'s
standpoint of the event described by the verb, as from outside of the
event and seeing it as a completed whole.

Aphaeresis --- The loss of letters or sounds from the beginning of a
word, such as the development of special from especial.

Apocope --- The loss or omission of a sound or syllable from the end of
a word.

Apposition --- A construction in which one noun or noun phrase is placed
with another as an explanatory equivalent, both having the same
syntactic function in the sentence.

Appositive --- Of or being in apposition.

Archaism --- The adoption or imitation of archaic words or style.

Arrangement --- Relative position of words in a sentence.

Article --- A part of speech that indicates, specifies and limits a noun
(*a*, *an*, or *the* in English).

Attribute --- A word that qualifies a noun.

Auxiliary --- A verb that accompanies the main verb in a clause in order
to make distinctions in tense, mood, voice or aspect.

Capital --- An uppercase letter.

Cardinal adjective --- A cardinal number used as an adjective.

Case --- A category of nouns, pronouns, or adjectives, specialized
(usually by inflection) to indicate a particular syntactic relation to
other words in a sentence.

Clause --- A word or group of words ordinarily consisting of a subject
and a predicate.

Collective noun --- A noun which, though singular, refers to a group of
things or animals.

Common adjective --- A common adjective is any ordinary epithet, or
adjective denoting quality or situation: as, *good, bad, peaceful,
warlike, eastern, western, outer, inner*.

Common noun --- A noun that can be preceded by an indefinite article,
and denotes any member, or all members of a class; an ordinary noun such
as *dog* or *city*.

Comparative degree --- Adverbial or adjectival forms modified by *more*
or ending in *er*, used when comparing two things.

Comparison --- The ability of adjectives and adverbs to form three
degrees.

Compound --- A lexeme that consists of more than one stem; for example
*laptop*, formed from *lap* and *top*.

Compound adjective --- A compound adjective is one that consists of two
or more words joined together, either by the hyphen or solidly: as,
*nut-brown, laughter-loving, four-footed; threefold, lordlike,
lovesick*.

Compound personal --- A compound personal pronoun. compound personal
pronouns are *myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself*.

Compound relative --- Compound relatives are *whoever, whosoever,
whichever, whichsoever, whatever, whatsoever*.

Compound sentence --- A compound sentence is a sentence which is
composed of at least two independent clauses.

Conjugation --- In some languages, one of several classifications of
verbs according to what inflections they take.

Conjunction --- A word used to join other words or phrases together into
sentences.

Conjunctive adverb --- An adverb that connects two clauses.

Consonant --- A sound that results from the passage of air through
restrictions of the oral cavity; any sound that is not the dominant
sound of a syllable, the dominant sound generally being a vowel.

Continuous tense --- Expressing an ongoing action or state.

Declension --- A way of categorizing nouns, pronouns, or adjectives
according to the inflections they receive.

Defective verb --- A verb with an incomplete conjugation; for example,
one that can only be conjugated in certain persons and numbers.

Definite article --- An article that introduces a noun and specifies it
as the particular noun that is being considered; in English, the only
definite article is the.

Diaeresis --- A diacritic placed over a vowel letter indicating that it
is sounded separately, usually forming a distinct syllable, as in
*naïve, Noël, Brontë*.

Ellipsis --- The omission of a grammatically required word or phrase
that can be implied.

Enallage --- The substitution of one grammatical form for another one.

Finite verb --- A verb that is inflected for person and for tense
according to the rules and categories of the languages in which it
occurs.

First-future tense --- The first-future tense is that which expresses
what will take place hereafter.

Gender --- A division of nouns and pronouns (and sometimes of other
parts of speech), such as masculine, feminine, neuter or common.

Gerund --- A verbal form that functions as a verbal noun. In English, a
gerund has the same spelling as a present participle, but functions
differently.

Government --- That power which one word has over another, to cause it
to assume some particular modification.

Grammar --- A system of rules and principles for speaking and writing a
language.

Hyperbaton --- An inversion of the usual or logical order of words or
phrases, for emphasis or poetic effect.

Imperative mood --- The grammatical mood expressing an order.

Indefinite article --- A word preceding a noun to indicate that the noun
is new or unknown. In English it can be a (before a consonant sound) or
an (before a vowel sound) in the singular; in the plural an article
isn\'t used at all, or the pronoun some is used instead.

Independent clause --- A clause that can stand by itself as a
grammatically viable simple sentence.

Indicative mood --- The mood of a verb used in ordinary factual or
objective statements.

Infinitive --- The uninflected form of a verb. In English, this is
usually formed with the verb stem preceded by \'to\'.

Infinitive mood --- The infinitive of a verb is its basic form with or
without the particle *to*.

Inflection --- A change in the form of a word that reflects a change in
grammatical function.

Interjection --- An exclamation or filled pause; a word or phrase with
no particular grammatical relation to a sentence, often an expression of
emotion.

Interrogative --- A word (pronoun, pronominal adjective, or adverb)
implying interrogation, or used for asking a question: *why, who, when*,
etc.

Introductory phrase --- A phrase or clause that introduces a sentence.

Irregular comparison --- Comparison of adjectives which cannot be
compared regularly.

Irregular verb --- A verb that does not follow the normal rules for its
conjugation.

Italic characters --- A typeface in which the letters slant to the
right.

Letter --- A symbol in an alphabet.

Liquid --- An *l* or *r* sound.

Mimesis --- The representation of aspects of the real world, especially
human actions, in literature and art.

Mood --- A verb form that depends on how its containing clause relates
to the speaker's or writer's wish, intent, or assertion about reality.

Morphology --- The forms of word formation.

Multiplicative adjective --- An adjective which expresses the
multiplicity.

Mute --- A letter that, in a particular word, does not correspond to any
sound in the word\'s pronunciation.

Neuter verb --- A verb that expresses neither action nor passion, but
simply being, or a state of being.

Nominative --- Giving a name; naming; designating; said of that case or
form of a noun which stands as the subject of a finite verb.

Non-finite verb --- A verb form that is not limited by a subject and,
more generally, is not fully inflected by categories that are marked
inflectionally in language, such as tense, aspect, mood, number, gender,
and person.

Note of exclamation --- Punctuation used to denote excitement, surprise
or shock; exclamation point.

Note of interrogation --- The punctuation mark \"?\", used at the end of
a sentence to indicate a question.

Noun --- A word that can be used to refer to a person, place, thing,
quality, or idea; one of the basic parts of speech in many languages,
including English.

Number --- Of a word or phrase, the state of being singular, dual or
plural, shown by inflection.

Numeral --- A numeral adjective.

Numeral adjective --- An adjective that expresses a definite number: as,
*one, two, three, four, five, six*.

Object --- The noun phrase which is an internal complement of a verb
phrase or a prepositional phrase. In a verb phrase with a transitive
action verb, it is typically the receiver of the action.

Objective --- Of, or relating to a noun or pronoun used as the object of
a verb.

Ordinal adjective --- An ordinal number used as an adjective.

Paragoge --- The addition of a sound, syllable or letter to the end of a
word, either through natural development or as a grammatical function.

Parenthetical phrase --- A phrase in the sentence which is not essential
to the meaning of the sentence.

Parsing --- To resolve into its elements, as a sentence, pointing out
the several parts of speech, and their relation to each other by
government or agreement; to analyze and describe grammatically.

Participial adjective --- A participle used as an adjective, such as
drowning in the drowning man and drowned in the drowned man.

Participle --- A form of a verb that may function as an adjective or
noun.

Part of speech --- The function a word or phrase performs in a sentence
or phrase.

Passive voice --- A grammatical voice in which the subject receives the
action of a transitive verb.

Past participle --- A past participle is usually identical to the
verb\'s past tense form, though in irregular verbs the two usually
differ.

Past perfect tense --- Tense of verb conjugated by adding had before the
past participle of a verb.

Perfect tense --- A tense that expresses action completed at the present
time; in English it is formed by using the present tense of have with a
past participle.

Period --- The punctuation mark (".") indicating the end of a sentence
or marking an abbreviation.

Person --- A linguistic category used to distinguish between the speaker
of an utterance and those to whom or about whom he is referring;
implemented in most languages by a variety of pronouns.

Personal --- Denoting person; as, a personal pronoun.

Personification --- A figure of speech, prosopopeia, in which an
inanimate object or an abstraction is given human qualities.

Phrase --- A word or group of words that functions as a single unit in
the syntax of a sentence, usually consisting of a head, or central word,
and elaborating words.

Pleonasm --- A phrase in which one or more words are redundant as their
meaning is expressed elsewhere in the phrase.

Plural --- A word in the form in which it potentially refers to
something other than one person or thing; and other than two things if
the language has a dual form.

Possessive --- A pronoun in the possessive case.

Potential mood --- A verbal construction or form stating something is
possible or probable.

Predicate --- The part of the sentence (or clause) which states
something about the subject.

Prefix --- That which is prefixed; especially one or more letters or
syllables added to the beginning of a word to modify its meaning; as,
*pre* in *prefix*, *con* in *conjure*.

Preposition --- A closed class of non-inflecting words typically
employed to connect a noun or a pronoun, in an adjectival or adverbial
sense, with some other word.

Propositional phrase --- A phrase that has both a preposition and its
object or complement; may be used as an adjunct or a modifier.

Present participle --- The present participle is identical in form to
the gerund.

Present tense --- The form of language used to refer to an event,
transaction, or occurrence which is happening now (or at the present
time), or an object that currently exists.

Preterit --- The preterite tense, simple past tense: the grammatical
tense that determines the specific initiation or termination of an
action in the past.

Progressive form --- A form of a verb in which its gerund (or present
participle) is used with any form of the verb *to be*. Examples: I am
defining. It had been snowing.

Pronominal --- Of, pertaining to, resembling, or functioning as a
pronoun.

Pronominal compound --- An adjective *herein, therein, wherein*.

Pronoun --- A type of noun that refers anaphorically to another noun or
noun phrase, but which cannot ordinarily be preceded by a determiner and
rarely takes an attributive adjective.

Proper adjective --- An adjective derived from a proper noun, such as
*British* derived from *Britain*.

Proper noun --- The name of a particular person, place, organization or
other individual entity.

Prosthesis --- The prepending of phonemes at the beginning of a word
without changing its morphological structure, as in *nother* from
*other*.

Quotation --- A fragment of a human expression that is being referred to
by somebody else.

Radical --- Of or pertaining to the root of a word.

Redundant verb --- A verb which has two forms for past tense.

Regimen --- A syntactical relation between words, as when one depends on
another and is regulated by it in respect to case or mood; government.

Regular comparison --- Adjectives are regularly compared, when the
comparative degree is expressed by adding *er*, and the superlative, by
adding *est* to them.

Regular verb --- A verb which conjugates regularly. In English, a verb
which uses an *ed* suffix to form its past participle.

Relation --- Reference of word to other words.

Relative --- A relative pronoun. Relative pronouns are *who, which,
what, that, whoever, whosoever, whichever, whichsoever, whatever,
whatsoever*.

Remote --- Not directly related.

Roman characters --- A serifed style of typeface. Upright, as opposed to
italic.

Second-future tense --- The second-future tense is that which expresses
what will have taken place at some future time mentioned.

Semivowel --- A sound in speech which has some qualities of a consonant
and some qualities of a vowel. A letter which represents a semivowel
sound, such as *w* or *y* in English.

Sentence --- A grammatically complete series of words consisting of a
subject and predicate, even if one or the other is implied, and
typically beginning with a capital letter and ending with a full stop.

Sign --- An auxiliary, suffix, etc. that modifies a word.

Small letters --- The minuscule or small letters (*a*, *b*, *c*, as
opposed to the uppercase or capital letters, *A*, *B*, *C*).

Subject --- The word or word group (usually a noun phrase) that is dealt
with. In active clauses with verbs denoting an action, the subject and
the actor are usually the same.

Subjunctive mood --- A verb inflected to indicate that an act or state
of being is possible, contingent or hypothetical, and not a fact.

Superlative degree --- The form of an adjective that expresses which of
more than two items has the highest degree of the quality expressed by
the adjective; in English, formed by appending *est* to the end of the
adjective (for some short adjectives only) or putting *most* before it.

Supposition --- An assumption, conjecture, speculation or something
supposed.

Syllepsis --- A figure of speech in which one word simultaneously
modifies two or more other words such that the modification must be
understood differently with respect to each modified word; often causing
humorous incongruity.

Synaeresis --- The contraction of two vowels into a diphthong or a long
vowel.

Syncope --- A missing sound from the interior of a word, for example by
changing *cannot* to *can\'t* or *Hawai\'i* from the root name
*Hawaiki*.

Syntax --- A set of rules that govern how words are combined to form
phrases and sentences.

Tense --- Any of the forms of a verb which distinguish when an action or
state of being occurs or exists.

Thing sui generis --- In a class of its own; one of a kind.

Tmesis --- The insertion of one or more words between the components of
a compound word.

Understood words --- Words that are omitted by ellipsis.

Unstressed numeral --- A numeral in which *one* is replaced with
indefinite article.

Verb --- A word that indicates an action, an event, or a state.

Verbal --- A verb form which does not function as a predicate, or a word
derived from a verb.

Voice --- A particular mode of inflecting or conjugating verbs, or a
particular form of a verb, by means of which is indicated the relation
of the subject of the verb to the action which the verb expresses.

Vowel --- A sound produced by the vocal cords with relatively little
restriction of the oral cavity, forming the prominent sound of a
syllable. A letter representing the sound of vowel; in English, the
vowels are *a*, *e*, *i*, *o*, *u*, and sometimes *y*.

## References

-   Wiktionary, the free
    dictionary
-   Wikipedia, the free
    encyclopedia
-   \"The Grammar of English
    Grammars\"


# English in Use/Q&A

```{=html}
<div style="border: 2px solid SlateBlue; background: #F7F7FF; margin: 0em 1em 0em 1em; text-align: center; padding:5px; clear: both">
```
Welcome to the English questions and answers page.\
Feel free to post any questions you have while learning or encountering
English. Please sign and date your entries by inserting **\-- \~\~\~\~**
at the end.\
If you have questions about this book, post them on the English
discussion page.

------------------------------------------------------------------------

`<big>`{=html} **Ask a
question!**
`</big>`{=html}

```{=html}
</div>
```
## Open or Opened

When do you use \'open\' and when do you use \'opened\'?

For example in sentences like : The door was open. The door was opened.

`                               The box is open or The box is opened.`

:   Following is/am/are, etc., \'open\' is used as an adjective,
    describing the state of the object. \'To be opened\' is always a
    passive verb, which means someone performed an action on the object.
    For example, \"The store is opened at 7AM (by the owner); the store
    is open from 7:00-10:00. Depending on the characteristics of the
    object, \"is opened\" can be replaced by the active form \"opens\"
    (\"The store opens (itself) at 7:00.\"). This can also be done with
    another object: \"The owner opens the store. I open the box.\" \"The
    door was opened.\" means that someone performed the action of
    opening the door in the past. \"The door was open.\" means that the
    door was in that open state in the past, but was not necessarily
    opened or closed by anybody. \--hagindaz
    15:26, 3 August 2006 (UTC)

```{=html}
<!-- -->
```

:

    :   A good example of the difference is that if the store opens at
        7AM and closes at 10PM, then it is *open* at 8AM, but it isn\'t
        *opened* at 8AM. NeonMerlin
        (discuss •
        contribs) 20:12,
        6 August 2014 (UTC)

## Unanswered

how to make sentence with 2 noun and a pronoun and 2 adjective and a
verb and a adverb and a conjunction and a preposition?

grammar based sentences

I HAVE TO KNOW THAT WHAT IS FUTUTRE TIME REFERENCE

Hi, can you tell me how you would describe the phrase \"in common
with\"? Is it an adjective phrase, a comparative or what? thanks -

Analysis of this sentence depends on how one sees it. Lets begin with
the word common, there are many uses to the word common, and as well,
there many definitions. The problem with the word is it can be used to
describe \"common decency - something all should follow, or share\", or
it can be used to define the way \"people share one thing, be it an
object, an interest\". To answer your question, I truthfully would agree
it is a comparative, because you are comparing two \'things\' but, also
stating that these two things share one common purpose.

## The use of the gerund : \"being\"

Is the following correct or incorrect technically and why. (It does not
sound right to me)

A. \"The design margin is one metre, assuming the liquid being at
boiling point.\"

compared to

B. \"The design margin is one metre, assuming the liquid is at boiling
point.\" Is the following correct or incorrect technically and why.

be: verb and auxiliary verb, is: present singular 3rd person being:
present participle

Thank-you

Douglas Murray

## The use of the gerund : \"being\"

Is the following correct or incorrect technically and why. (It does not
sound right to me).

A. \"The design margin is one metre, assuming the liquid being at
boiling point.\"

compared to

B. \"The design margin is one metre, assuming the liquid is at boiling
point.\" Is the following correct or incorrect technically and why.

be: verb and auxiliary verb, is: present singular 3rd person being:
present participle

Thanks

Douglas Murray

11 January 2007

## a list of good interesting phrases for english composition.

could i have a list of good interesting phrases for English
compositions?

## Language

`       "No language, no society".Justify the truism or otherwise of this assertion.`

## What is the difference between revise and review?

They are two different usages.

The author \"revises\" the document. - making changes to the document

The reviewer \"reviews\" the author\'s document. - read and comment the
document

![](Example.jpg "Example.jpg")

## verbs.

what are the types of verbs in the following sentence? It\'s beginning
to look a lot like Christmas.


# English in Use/Hard C and soft C guide

The letter \"C\" can make two different sounds based on the rules of
English pronunciation. It can make the \"hard\" sound, as in \"cake\"
and \"cut\", and it can make the \"soft\" sound as in \"cell\" and
\"cinder\". This is going to be your guide, an in-depth guide, for how
to tell when to use the hard sound, and when to use the soft sound.
Despite being a multi-sound letter, the letter \"C\" is typically quite
well-behaved. Much of this information should be quite familiar to you.
We as educated, sane, rational adults don\'t, in the right mind, see a
word like \"Congress\" and expect it to have a soft C, because that\'s
not how CO words are pronounced. \"Congress\", like billions of other
words with a \"C\" followed by \"O\", has a hard C, just like the \"C\"
in \"cat\". In many dictionaries, \"C\" is the second most common letter
for a word to begin with, behind only the letter \"S\".

## Rules

-   The sound of the letter \"C\" depends on the letter that follows it.
-   If the letter \"C\" is followed by \"E\", \"I\", or \"Y\", it makes
    the soft sound. The soft C sounds like the letter \"S\" as in
    \"salad\". Examples include \"cell\", \"cider\", and \"Cynthia\".
-   If the letter \"C\" is followed by H, then this consonant cluster
    makes its own sound, as in \"chair\" and \"chill\".
-   In some words, \"CH\" makes the hard C sound. Examples include
    \"chorus\", \"chord\", \"chasm\", and all words starting with
    \"Christ\", including the name of a very popular day of the year,
    Christmas.
-   If the letter \"C\" is followed by \"A\", \"L\", \"O\", \"R\", or
    \"U\", it makes the hard sound. The hard C sounds like the letter
    \"K\" as in \"king\". Examples include \"card\", \"clam\", \"coat\",
    \"crate\", and \"cut\".
-   If a word has a \"double C\", it helps to view this word as a
    composite. The first \"C\" is hard, and the second \"C\" is hard or
    soft based on the above rules. Words like \"accuse\" have two hard
    C\'s back-to-back, so they have the hard C sound. In the word
    \"accident\", the second C is soft because it is followed by \"I\",
    and the hard and soft C\'s together form the \"X\" sound.


# Special Relativity/Mathematical approach2

## Four vectors

A four vector represents a displacement in spacetime.

![](relfourvector.gif "relfourvector.gif")

If the spacetime has a metric given by:

$ds^2 = dt^2 - dx^2 - dy^2 - dz^2$

and if the space-time is flat the magnitude of the four vector is
calculated from:

$\mathbf{S}^2 = A^2 - B^2 - C^2 - D^2$

Where A, B, C, D are the projections of the vector on the corresponding
coordinate axes (t,x,y,z). The magnitude of a four vector is given by:

$S = | \mathbf{S}^2 |^{1/2} = \sqrt{A^2 - B^2 - C^2 - D^2}$

The scalar product of a four vector (also known as the \"dot product\"
or \"inner product\") can be derived in the same way as the scalar
product for an ordinary vector (a three vector, see scalar
product).
So the scalar product of two four vectors, $\mathbf{A.B}$ is:

$\mathbf{A.B} = A_tB_t - A_xB_x - A_yB_y - A_zB_z$

This can also be derived easily from the metric tensor of Minkowski
spacetime. The scalar product of two four-vectors *x* and *y* is defined
(using indicial notation) as:

$$x \cdot y
= x^a \eta_{ab} y^b
= \left( \begin{matrix}x^0 & x^1 & x^2 & x^3 \end{matrix} \right)
\left( \begin{matrix} -1 & 0 & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & 1 & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & 1 & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & 0 & 1 \end{matrix} \right)
\left( \begin{matrix}y^0 \\ y^1 \\ y^2 \\ y^3 \end{matrix} \right)
= - x^0 y^0 + x^1 y^1 + x^2 y^2 + x^3 y^3$$

The scalar product of four vectors is independent of the coordinate
system:

$$\begin{matrix}
A'_x & = & \gamma \left( A_x - \frac{v}{c} A_t \right)
\\ A'_y & = & A_y \\ A'_z & = & A_z \\
A'_t & = & \gamma \left( -\frac{v}{c} A_x + A_t \right)
\end{matrix}$$

The scalar product in this frame is:

$$\underline{A'} \cdot \underline{B'} =
 A'_x B'_x + A'_y B'_y + A'_z B'_z - A'_t B'_t$$

Simplifying, we get:

$$\begin{matrix}
\underline{A'} \cdot \underline{B'} & = &
\gamma^2 \left( A_x B_x -\frac{v}{c} (A_x B_t + A_t B_x) + \frac{v^2}{c^2} A_t B_t \right) \\
 & & +  A_y B_y + A_z B_z &\\
 & & - \gamma^2 \left( \frac{v^2}{c^2}A_x B_x -\frac{v}{c} (A_x B_t + A_t B_x) + A_t B_t \right) \\
 & = & \left(1- \frac{v^2}{c^2} \right)^{-1} \left( A_x B_x  + \frac{v^2}{c^2} A_t B_t \right) \\
& & +  A_y B_y + A_z B_z \\
& & - \left(1- \frac{v^2}{c^2} \right)^{-1} \left( \frac{v^2}{c^2} A_x B_x  - A_t B_t \right) \\
 & = & A_x B_x  +  A_y B_y + A_z B_z   - A_t B_t
\end{matrix}$$

Which is the same as the scalar product in the original frame of
reference.

Properties:

1\. Distributivity for vector addition
$\mathbf{A}.(\mathbf{B}+\mathbf{C})$

2\. Symmetry $\mathbf{A.B} = \mathbf{B.A}$

3\. Leibniz rule of differentiation applies ie:
$d (\mathbf{A.B}) = d\mathbf{A}.\mathbf{B} + \mathbf{A}.d\mathbf{B}$

4\. Orthogonality $\mathbf{A.B} = 0$ if $\mathbf{A}$ is perpendicular to
$\mathbf{B}$

5\. $\mathbf{A.A} = \mathbf{A}^2$

We now know that the dot product of two four-vectors is a
`<i>`{=html}scalar`</i>`{=html} result, i. e., its value is independent
of coordinate system. This can be used to advantage on occasion.

In the odd geometry of spacetime it is not obvious what *perpendicular*
means. We therefore `<i>`{=html}define`</i>`{=html} two four-vectors
$\underline{A}$ and $\underline{B}$ to be perpendicular if their dot
product is zero, in the same way as with three-vectors.

$$\underline{A} \cdot \underline{B} = 0$$

Because the dot product is a scalar, if vectors are perpendicular in one
frame, they will be perpendicular in all frames.

We can also consider the dot product of a four-vector $\underline{A}$
which resolves into $(A_x , A_t )$ in the unprimed frame. Let us further
suppose that the spacelike component is zero in some primed frame, so
that the components in this frame are (0, *A*~t\'~ ) The fact that the
dot product is independent of coordinate system means that

$$\underline{A} \cdot \underline{A} = A_x^2 - A_t^2 = - A_t'^2$$

This constitutes an extension of the spacetime Pythagorean theorem to
four-vectors other then the position four-vector. Thus, for instance,
the wavenumber for some wave may be zero in the primed frame, which
means that the wavenumber and frequency in the unprimed frame are
related to the frequency in the primed frame by
$k^2 - \omega^2 / c^2 = - \omega'^2 / c^2$.

We indicate a four-vector by underlining and write the components in the
following way: $\underline{k} = (k , \omega /c )$, where $\underline{k}$
is the wave four-vector, $k$ is its spacelike component, and $\omega /c$
is its timelike component. For three space dimensions, where we have a
wave vector rather than just a wavenumber, we write
$\underline{k} = (k , \omega /c )$.

Another example of a four-vector is simply the position vector in
spacetime, $\underline{x} = ( x, ct )$, or
$\underline{x} = ( \mathbf{x}, ct )$ in three space dimensions. The $c$
*multiplies* the timelike component in this case, because that is what
is needed to give it the same dimensions as the spacelike component.

### Proper time

Classically, the temporal derivative, *d*/*dt* acts like a scalar so we
can multiply a vector by it, and get another vector.

In relativity *t* is part of a four-vector, which means *d*/*dt* also
is, so we can\'t simply differentiate vectors with respect to *t* and
expect to get vectors.

For example, the position of a stationary particle is (0, *ct*).

Viewed from a frame moving at *v* to the right, its position becomes
(-*v*τ, *c*τ), where τ=γ*t* is the time as measured in the moving frame.

If we differentiate with respect to τ the velocity would be (-*v*, *c*)

If we differentiate with respect to *t*, we get (0, *c*) in the
stationary frame, which would be (using the Lorentz transform) (-γ*v*,
-γ*c*) in the moving frame, if this were a four vector.

These two expressions differ by a factor of γ, when measured in the same
frame, so this can not be a four vector.

However, if the moving observer divides by γ, which is the time
dilation, they will get the same vector as the stationary observer.

Doing this is equivalent to differentiating by the time *in the
particles own rest frame*. Since this works for the position vector, we
can expect it to work for all vectors.

The time measured in a particle\'s rest frame is called its *proper
time*.

Differentiating a vector with respect to proper time gives another
vector, which is the relativistic equivalent of the temporal derivative.


# Special Relativity/Mathematical Appendix#Mathematics of the Lorentz Transformation Equations

## Mathematics of the Lorentz Transformation Equations

Consider two observers $O$ and $O^'$, moving at velocity $v \,$ relative
to each other who synchronise their clocks so that $t=t^'=0$ as they
pass each other. They both observe the same event as a flash of light.
How will the coordinates recorded by the observers of the event that
produced the light be interrelated?

The relationship between the coordinates can be derived using linear
algebra on the basis of the postulates of relativity and an extra
homogeneity and isotropy assumption.

**The homogeneity and isotropy assumption**: space is uniform and
homogeneous in all directions. If this were not the case then when
comparing lengths between coordinate systems the lengths would depend
upon the position of the measurement. For instance, if $x^' = a x^2 \,$
the distance between two points would depend upon position.

The linear equations relating coordinates in the primed and unprimed
frames are:

:   $x^' = a_{11} x + a_{12} y + a_{13} z  + a_{14} t \,$
:   $y^' = a_{21} x + a_{22} y + a_{23} z  + a_{24} t \,$
:   $z^' = a_{31} x + a_{32} y + a_{33} z  + a_{34} t \,$
:   $t^' = a_{41} x + a_{42} y + a_{43} z  + a_{44} t \,$

There is no relative motion in the $y$ or $z$ directions so, according
to the \'relativity\' postulate:

:   $z^' = z \,$
:   $y^' = y \,$

Hence:

:   $a_{22} = 1 \,$ and $a_{21} = a_{23} = a_{24} = 0 \,$
:   $a_{33} = 1 \,$ and $a_{31} = a_{32} = a_{34} = 0 \,$

So the following equations remain to be solved:

:   $x^' = a_{11} x + a_{12} y + a_{13} z  + a_{14} t \,$
:   $t^' = a_{41} x + a_{42} y + a_{43} z  + a_{44} t \,$

If space is isotropic (the same in all directions) then the motion of
clocks should be independent of the y and z axes (otherwise clocks
placed symmetrically around the x-axis would appear to disagree). Hence:

:   $a_{42} = a_{43} = 0 \,$

so:

:   $t^' = a_{41} x + a_{44} t \,$

Events satisfying $x^' = 0 \,$ must also satisfy $x = vt \,$. So:

:   $0 = a_{11} vt + a_{12} y + a_{13} z  + a_{14} t \,$

and

:   $-a_{11} vt = a_{12} y + a_{13} z  + a_{14} t \,$

Given that the equations are linear then $a_{12} y + a_{13} z = 0 \,$
and:

:   $-a_{11} vt = a_{14} t \,$

and

:   $-a_{11} v = a_{14} \,$

Therefore the correct transformation equation for $x^' \,$ is:

:   $x^' = a_{11} (x - vt) \,$

The analysis to date gives the following equations:

:   $x^' = a_{11} (x - vt) \,$
:   $y^' = y \,$
:   $z^' = z \,$
:   $t^' = a_{41} x + a_{44} t \,$

Assuming that the speed of light is constant, the coordinates of a flash
of light that expands as a sphere will satisfy the following equations
in each coordinate system:

:   $x^2 + y^2 + z^2 = c^2t^2 \,$
:   $x^{'2} + y^{'2} + z^{'2} = c^2t^{'2} \,$

Substituting the coordinate transformation equations into the second
equation gives:

:   $a_{11}^2(x - vt)^2 + y^2 + z^2 = c^2(a_{41}x + a_{44}t)^2 \,$

rearranging:

:   $(a_{11}^2 - c^2 a_{41}^2)x^2 + y^2 + z^2 - 2(va_{11}^2 + c^2a_{41} a_{44}) xt = (c^2 a_{44}^2 - v^2 a_{11}^2)t^2 \,$

We demand that this is equivalent with

:   $x^2 + y^2 + z^2 = c^2t^2 \,$

So we get:

:   $c^2 a_{44}^2 - v^2 a_{11}^2 = c^2 \,$
:   $a_{11}^2 - c^2 a_{41}^2 = 1 \,$
:   $va_{11}^2 + c^2a_{41} a_{44} = 0 \,$

Solving these 3 simultaneous equations gives:

:   $a_{44} = \frac{1}{\sqrt{(1 - v^2/c^2)}} \,$
:   $a_{11} = \frac{1}{\sqrt{(1 - v^2/c^2)}} \,$
:   $a_{41} = -\frac{v/c^2}{\sqrt{(1 - v^2/c^2)}} \,$

Substituting these values into:

:   $x^' = a_{11} (x - vt) \,$
:   $y^' = y \,$
:   $z^' = z \,$
:   $t^' = a_{41} x + a_{44} t \,$

gives:

:   $x^' = \frac{x - vt}{\sqrt{(1 - v^2/c^2)}} \,$
:   $y^' = y \,$
:   $z^' = z \,$
:   $t^' = \frac{t - (v/c^2)x}{\sqrt{(1 - v^2/c^2)}} \,$

The inverse transformation is:

:   $x = \frac{x^' + vt^'}{\sqrt{(1 - v^2/c^2)}} \,$
:   $y = y^' \,$
:   $z = z^' \,$
:   $t = \frac{t^' + (v/c^2)x^'}{\sqrt{(1 - v^2/c^2)}} \,$

### Einstein\'s original approach

How would two observers measure the position and timing of an event by
using light rays if the speed of light were constant? The modern
analysis of this problem, exposing the assumptions involved, is given
above but Einstein\'s original reasoning (Einstein 1905,1920) is as
follows.

Light is transmitted along the positive x axis according to the equation
$x = ct$ where $c$ is the velocity of light. This can be rewritten as:

$$x - ct = 0$$

Another observer, moving relatively to the first may find different
values for x and t but the same equation will apply:

$$x^' - ct^' = 0$$

A simple relationship between these formulae, which apply to the same
event is:

$$(x^' - ct^') = \lambda (x - ct)$$

Light is transmitted along the negative x axis according to the equation
$x = -ct$ where $c$ is the velocity of light. This can be rewritten as:

$$x + ct = 0$$

$$x^' + ct^' = 0$$

And:

$$(x^' + ct^') = \mu (x + ct)$$

Adding the equations and substituting $a = \frac{\lambda + \mu}{2}$ and
$b = \frac{\lambda - \mu}{2}$:

:   \(1\) $x' = ax - bct$
:   \(2\) $ct' = act - bx$

The origin of one set of coordinates can be set so that $x^' = 0$ hence:

$$x = \frac{bc}{a} t$$

If $v$ is the velocity of one observer relative to the other then
$v = \frac{x}{t}$ and:

:   \(3\) $v = \frac{bc}{a}$

At $t = 0$:

:   \(4\) $x^' = ax$

Therefore two points separated by unit distance in the primed frame of
reference ie: when $x^' = 1$ have the following separation in the
unprimed frame:

:   \(5\) $\Delta x = \frac{1}{a}$

Now $t$ can be eliminated from equations (1) and (2) and combined with
$v = \frac{bc}{a}$ and (4) to give in the case where $x=1$ and
$t^' = 0$:

:   \(6\) $x^' = a (1 -\frac{v^2}{c^2}) x$

And, if $\Delta x = 1$:

:   \(7\) $\Delta x^' = a (1 -\frac{v^2}{c^2})$

Now if the two moving systems are identical and the situation is
symmetrical a measurement in the unprimed system of a division showing
one metre on a measuring rod in the primed system is going to be
identical to a measurement in the primed system of a division showing
one metre on a measuring rod in the unprimed system. Thus (5) and (7)
can be combined so that:

$$\frac {1}{a} = a (1 -\frac{v^2}{c^2})$$

So:

$$a^2 = \frac {1}{(1 -\frac{v^2}{c^2})}$$

Inserting this value for $a$ into equations (1) and (2) and solving for
$b$ gives:

$$x^' = \frac {x - vt}{\sqrt {1 -\frac{v^2}{c^2}}}$$

$$t^' = \frac {t - (v/c^2)x}{\sqrt {1 -\frac{v^2}{c^2}}}$$

These are the **Lorentz Transformation Equations** for events on the x
axis.

Einstein, A. (1920). Relativity. The Special and General Theory. Methuen
& Co Ltd 1920. Written December, 1916. Robert W. Lawson (Authorised
translation). <http://www.bartleby.com/173/>