# Human Physiology/The gastrointestinal system

## Introduction

Which organ is the most important organ in the body? Most people would
say the heart or the brain, completely overlooking the gastrointestinal
tract (*GI tract*). Though definitely not the most attractive organs in
the body, they are certainly among the most important. The 30+ foot long
tube that goes from the mouth to the anus is responsible for the many
different body functions which will be reviewed in this chapter. The GI
tract is imperative for our well being and our lifelong health. A
non-functioning or poorly functioning GI tract can be the source of many
chronic health problems that can interfere with your quality of life. In
many instances the death of a person begins in the intestines.

The old saying \"you are what you eat\" perhaps would be more accurate
if worded \"you are what you absorb and digest\". Here we will be
looking at the importance of these two functions of the digestive
system: digestion and absorption.

The **Gastrointestinal System** is responsible for the breakdown and
absorption of various foods and liquids needed to sustain life. Many
different organs have essential roles in the digestion of food, from the
mechanical disrupting by the teeth to the creation of bile (an
emulsifier) by the liver. Bile production of
the liver plays an important role in digestion: from being stored and
concentrated in the gallbladder during fasting stages to being
discharged to the small intestine.

In order to understand the interactions of the different components we
shall follow the food on its journey through the human body. During
digestion, two main processes occur at the same time;

-   **Mechanical Digestion**: larger pieces of food get broken down into
    smaller pieces while being prepared for chemical digestion.
    Mechanical digestion starts in the mouth and continues into the
    stomach.
-   **Chemical Digestion**: starts in the mouth and continues into the
    intestines. Several different enzymes break down macromolecules into
    smaller molecules that can be absorbed.

The GI tract starts with the mouth and proceeds to the esophagus,
stomach, small intestine (duodenum, jejunum, ileum), and then to the
large intestine (colon), rectum, and terminates at the anus. You could
probably say the human body is just like a big donut. The GI tract is
the donut hole. We will also be discussing the pancreas and liver, and
accessory organs of the gastrointestinal system that contribute
materials to the small intestine.

## Layers of the GI Tract

The GI tract is composed of four layers also known as Tunics. Each layer
has different tissues and functions. From the inside out they are
called: mucosa, submucosa, muscularis, and serosa.

**Mucosa**: The mucosa is the absorptive and secretory layer. It is
composed of simple epithelium cells and a thin connective tissue. There
are specialized goblet cells that secrete mucus throughout the GI tract
located within the mucosa. On the mucosa layer there are Villi and Micro
Villi.

**Submucosa**: The submucosa is relatively thick, highly vascular, and
serves the mucosa. The absorbed elements that pass through the mucosa
are picked up from the blood vessels of the submucosa. The submucosa
also has glands and nerve plexuses.

**Muscularis**: The muscularis is responsible for segmental contractions
and peristaltic movement in the GI tract. The muscularis is composed of
two layers of muscle: an inner circular and outer longitudinal layer of
smooth muscle. These muscles cause food to move and churn with digestive
enzymes down the GI tract.

**Serosa**: The last layer is a protective layer. It is composed of
avascular connective tissue and simple squamous epithelium. It secretes
lubricating serous fluid. This is the visible layer on the outside of
the organs.

## Accessory Organs

!Teeth, Tongue, and Salivary
Glands

1\. Salivary glands

-   Parotid gland, submandibular gland, sublingual gland
-   Exocrine gland that produces saliva which begins the process of
    digestion with amylase

2\. Tongue

-   Manipulates food for chewing/swallowing
-   Main taste organ, covered in taste buds

3\. Teeth

-   For chewing food up

4\. Liver

-   Produces and excretes bile required for emulsifying fats. Some of
    the bile drains directly into the duodenum and some is stored in the
    gall bladder.
-   Helps metabolize proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates.
-   Urea, chief end product of mammalian metabolism, is formed in liver
    from amino acids and compounds of ammonia.
-   Breaks down insulin and other hormones.
-   Produces coagulation factors.

5\. Gallbladder

-   Bile storage.

6\. Pancreas

-   Exocrine functions: Digestive enzyme secretion.
    -   Stores zymogens (inactive enzymes) that will be activated by the
        brush border membrane in the small intestine when a person eats
        protein (amino acids).
    -   Trypsinogen -- Trypsin: digests protein.
    -   Chymotypsinogen -- Chymotrypsin: digests proteins.
    -   Carboxypeptidases: digests proteins.
    -   Lipase-lipid: digests fats.
    -   Amylase: digests carbohydrates.
-   Endocrine functions: Hormone secretion.
    -   Somatostatin: inhibits the function of insulin. Produced if the
        body is getting too much glucose.
    -   Glucagon: stimulates the stored glycogen in the liver to convert
        to glucose. Produced if the body does not have enough glucose.
    -   Insulin: made in the beta cells of the Islets of Langerhans of
        the pancreas. Insulin is a hormone that regulates blood glucose.

7\. Vermiform appendix

-   There are a few theories on what the appendix does.
    -   Vestigal organ
    -   Immune function
    -   Helps maintain gut flora

## The Digestive System

!300 px

The first step in the digestive system can actually begin before the
food is even in your mouth. When you smell or see something that you
just have to eat, you start to salivate in anticipation of eating, thus
beginning the digestive process.

Food is the body\'s source of fuel. Nutrients in food give the body\'s
cells the energy they need to operate. Before food can be used it has to
be broken down into tiny little pieces so it can be absorbed and used by
the body. In humans, proteins need to be broken down into amino acids,
starches into sugars, and fats into fatty acids and glycerol.

During digestion two main processes occur at the same time:

-   **Mechanical Digestion**: larger pieces of food get broken down into
    smaller pieces while being prepared for chemical digestion.
    Mechanical digestion starts in the mouth and continues in to the
    stomach.
-   **Chemical Digestion**: several different enzymes break down
    macromolecules into smaller molecules that can be more efficiently
    absorbed. Chemical digestion starts with saliva and continues into
    the intestines.

The digestive system is made up by the alimentary canal, or the
digestive tract, and other abdominal organs that play a part in
digestion such as the liver and the pancreas. The alimentary canal is
the long tube of organs that runs from the mouth (where the food enters)
to the anus (where indigestible waste leaves). The organs in the
alimentary canal include the mouth( for mastication),esophagus, stomach
and the intestines. The average adult digestive tract is about thirty
feet (30\') long. While in the digestive tract the food is really
passing `<i>`{=html}through`</i>`{=html} the body rather than being
`<i>`{=html}in`</i>`{=html} the body. The smooth muscles of the tubular
digestive organs move the food efficiently along as it is broken down
into absorb-able atoms and molecules. During absorption, the nutrients
that come from food (such as proteins, fats, carbohydrates, vitamins,
and minerals) pass through the wall of the small intestine and into the
bloodstream and lymph. In this way nutrients can be distributed
throughout the rest of the body. In the large intestine there is re
absorption of water and absorption of some minerals as feces are formed.
The parts of the food that the body passes out through the anus is known
as feces.

**Mastication**

Digestion begins in the mouth. A brain reflex triggers the flow of
saliva when we see or even think about food. Saliva moistens the food
while the teeth chew it up and make it easier to swallow. Amylase, which
is the digestive enzyme found in saliva, starts to break down starch
into simpler sugars before the food even leaves the mouth. The nervous
pathway involved in salivary excretion requires stimulation of receptors
in the mouth, sensory impulses to the brain stem, and parasympathetic
impulses to salivary glands.

Swallowing your food happens when the muscles in your tongue and mouth
move the food into your **pharynx**. The pharynx, which is the
passageway for food and air, is about five inches (5\") long. A small
flap of skin called the epiglottis closes over the pharynx to prevent
food from entering the trachea and thus choking. For swallowing to
happen correctly a combination of 25 muscles must all work together at
the same time. Salivary glands also produce an estimated three liters of
saliva per day.

  Enzyme                                                                      Produced In       Site of Release   pH Level
  --------------------------------------------------------------------------- ----------------- ----------------- ----------
  `<span style="color:red;">`{=html}Carbohydrate Digestion:`</span>`{=html}
  Salivary amylase                                                            Salivary glands   Mouth             Neutral
  Pancreatic amylase                                                          Pancreas          Small intestine   Basic
  Maltase                                                                     Small intestine   Small intestine   Basic
  `<span style="color:red;">`{=html}Protein Digestion:`</span>`{=html}
  Pepsin                                                                      Gastric glands    Stomach           Acidic
  Trypsin                                                                     Pancreas          Small intestine   Basic
  Peptidases                                                                  Small intestine   Small intestine   Basic
  `<span style="color:red;">`{=html}Nucleic Acid Digestion:`</span>`{=html}
  Nuclease                                                                    Pancreas          Small intestine   Basic
  align''left''\|Nucleosidases                                                Pancreas          Small intestine   Basic
  `<span style="color:red;">`{=html}Fat Digestion:`</span>`{=html}
  Lipase                                                                      Pancreas          Small intestine   Basic

## Esophagus

!300 px

The **esophagus** (also spelled oesophagus/esophagus) or gullet is the
muscular tube in vertebrates through which ingested food passes from the
throat to the stomach. The esophagus is continuous with the laryngeal
part of the pharynx at the level of the C6 vertebra. It connects the
pharynx, which is the body cavity that is common to both the digestive
and respiratory systems behind the mouth, with the stomach, where the
second stage of digestion is initiated (the first stage is in the mouth
with teeth and tongue masticating food and mixing it with saliva).

After passing through the throat, the food moves into the esophagus and
is pushed down into the stomach by the process of *peristalsis*
(involuntary wavelike muscle contractions along the G.I. tract). At the
end of the esophagus there is a sphincter that allows food into the
stomach then closes back up so the food cannot travel back up into the
esophagus.

**Histology**

The esophagus is lined with mucus membranes, and uses peristaltic action
to move swallowed food down to the stomach.

The esophagus is lined by a *stratified squamous epithelium*, which is
rapidly turned over, and serves a protective effect due to the high
volume transit of food, saliva, and mucus into the stomach. The *lamina
propria* of the esophagus is sparse. The mucus secreting glands are
located in the submucosa, and are connective structures called
*papillae*.

The muscularis propria of the esophagus consists of *striated* *muscle*
in the upper third (superior) part of the esophagus. The middle third
consists of a combination of *smooth muscle* and striated muscle, and
the bottom (inferior) third is only smooth muscle. The distal end of the
esophagus is slightly narrowed because of the thickened circular
muscles. This part of the esophagus is called the lower esophageal
sphincter. This aids in keeping food down and not being regurgitated.

The esophagus has a rich *lymphatic* drainage as well.

## Stomach

The **stomach** is a thick walled organ that lies between the esophagus
and the first part of the small intestine (the duodenum). It is on the
left side of the abdominal cavity, the fundus of the stomach lying
against the diaphragm. Lying beneath the stomach is the pancreas. The
greater omentum hangs from the greater curvature.

A mucous membrane lines the stomach which contains glands (with *chief
cells*) that secrete gastric juices, up to three quarts of this
digestive fluid is produced daily. The gastric glands begin secreting
before food enters the stomach due to the parasympathetic impulses of
the vagus nerve, making the stomach also a storage vat for that acid.

The secretion of gastric juices occurs in three phases: cephalic,
gastric, and intestinal. The cephalic phase is activated by the smell
and taste of food and swallowing. The gastric phase is activated by the
chemical effects of food and the distension of the stomach. The
intestinal phase blocks the effect of the cephalic and gastric phases.
Gastric juice also contains an enzyme named **pepsin**, which digests
proteins, hydrochloric acid and mucus. Hydrochloric acid causes the
stomach to maintain a pH of about 2, which helps kill off bacteria that
comes into the digestive system via food.

The gastric juice is highly acidic with a pH of 1-3. It may cause or
compound damage to the stomach wall or its layer of mucus, causing a
peptic ulcer. On the inside of the stomach there are folds of skin call
the gastric rugae. Gastric rugae make the stomach very extendable,
especially after a very big meal.

!350 px

The stomach is divided into four sections, each of which has different
cells and functions. The sections are: 1) Cardiac region, where the
contents of the esophagus empty into the stomach, 2) Fundus, formed by
the upper curvature of the organ, 3) Body, the main central region, and
4) Pylorus or atrium, the lower section of the organ that facilitates
emptying the contents into the small intestine. Two smooth muscle
valves, or sphincters, keep the contents of the stomach contained. They
are the: 1) Cardiac or esophageal sphincter, dividing the tract above,
and 2) Pyloric sphincter, dividing the stomach from the small intestine.

After receiving the **bolus** (chewed food) the process of peristalsis
is started; mixed and churned with gastric juices the bolus is
transformed into a semi-liquid substance called **chyme**. Stomach
muscles mix up the food with enzymes and acids to make smaller
digestible pieces. The pyloric sphincter, a walnut shaped muscular tube
at the stomach outlet, keeps chyme in the stomach until it reaches the
right consistency to pass into the small intestine. The food leaves the
stomach in small squirts rather than all at once.

Water, alcohol, salt, and simple sugars can be absorbed directly through
the stomach wall. However, most substances in our food need a little
more digestion and must travel into the intestines before they can be
absorbed. When the stomach is empty it is about the size of one fifth of
a cup of fluid. When stretched and expanded, it can hold up to eight
cups of food after a big meal.

**Gastric Glands**

There are many different gastric glands and they secrete many different
chemicals. Parietal cells secrete hydrochloric acid and intrinsic
factor; chief cells secrete pepsinogen; goblet cells secrete mucus;
argentaffin cells secrete serotonin and histamine; and G cells secrete
the hormone gastrin.

**Vessels and nerves**

!`Nerves in the lower abdomen.`

:   **Arteries:** The arteries supplying the stomach are the left
    gastric, the right gastric and right gastroepiploic branches of the
    hepatic, and the left gastroepiploic and short gastric branches of
    the lineal. They supply the muscular coat, ramify in the submucous
    coat, and are finally distributed to the mucous membrane.

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:   **Capillaries:** The arteries break up at the base of the gastric
    tubules into a plexus of fine capillaries, which run upward between
    the tubules, anatomizing with each other, and ending in a plexus of
    larger capillaries, which surround the mouths of the tubes, and also
    form hexagonal meshes around the ducts.

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:   **Veins:** From these the veins arise, and pursue a straight course
    downward, between the tubules, to the submucous tissue; they end
    either in the lineal and superior mesenteric veins, or directly in
    the portal vein.

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:   **Lymphatics:** The lymphatics are numerous: They consist of a
    superficial and a deep set, and pass to the lymph glands found along
    the two curvatures of the organ.

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:   **Nerves:** The nerves are the terminal branches of the right and
    left urethra and other parts, the former being distributed upon the
    back, and the latter upon the front part of the organ. A great
    number of branches from the celiac plexus of the sympathetic are
    also distributed to it. Nerve plexuses are found in the submucous
    coat and between the layers of the muscular coat as in the
    intestine. From these plexuses fibrils are distributed to the
    muscular tissue and the mucous membrane.

**Disorders of the Stomach**

Disorders of the stomach are common. There can be a lot of different
causes with a variety of symptoms. The strength of the inner lining of
the stomach needs a careful balance of acid and mucus. If there is not
enough mucus in the stomach, ulcers, abdominal pain, indigestion,
heartburn, nausea and vomiting could all be caused by the extra acid.

Erosions, ulcers, and tumors can cause bleeding. When blood is in the
stomach it starts the digestive process and turns black. When this
happens, the person can have black stool or vomit. Some ulcers can bleed
very slowly so the person won\'t recognize the loss of blood. Over time,
the iron in your body will run out, which in turn, will cause anemia.

There isn\'t a known diet to prevent against getting ulcers. A balanced,
healthy diet is always recommended. Smoking can also be a cause of
problems in the stomach. Tobacco increases acid production and damages
the lining of the stomach. It is not a proven fact that stress alone can
cause an ulcer.

**Histology of the human stomach**

Like the other parts of the gastrointestinal tract, the stomach walls
are made of a number of layers.

From the inside to the outside, the first main layer is the mucosa. This
consists of an epithelium, the lamina propria underneath, and a thin bit
of smooth muscle called the muscularis mucosa.

The submucosa lies under this and consists of fibrous connective tissue,
separating the mucosa from the next layer, the muscularis externa. The
muscularis in the stomach differs from that of other GI organs in that
it has three layers of muscle instead of two. Under these muscle layers
is the adventitia, layers of connective tissue continuous with the
omenta.

The epithelium of the stomach forms deep pits, called fundic or oxyntic
glands. Different types of cells are at different locations down the
pits. The cells at the base of these pits are chief cells, responsible
for production of pepsinogen, an inactive precursor of pepsin, which
degrades proteins. The secretion of pepsinogen prevents self-digestion
of the stomach cells.

Further up the pits, parietal cells produce gastric acid and a vital
substance, intrinsic factor. The function of gastric acid is twofold 1)
it kills most of the bacteria in food, stimulates hunger, and activates
pepsinogen into pepsin, and 2) denatures the complex protein molecule as
a precursor to protein digestion through enzyme action in the stomach
and small intestines. Near the top of the pits, closest to the contents
of the stomach, there are mucous-producing cells called goblet cells
that help protect the stomach from self-digestion.

The muscularis externa is made up of three layers of smooth muscle. The
innermost layer is obliquely-oriented: this is not seen in other parts
of the digestive system: this layer is responsible for creating the
motion that churns and physically breaks down the food. The next layers
are the square and then the longitudinal, which are present as in other
parts of the GI tract. The pyloric antrum which has thicker skin cells
in its walls and performs more forceful contractions than the fundus.
The pylorus is surrounded by a thick circular muscular wall which is
normally tonically constricted forming a functional (if not anatomically
discrete) pyloric sphincter, which controls the movement of chyme.

**Control of secretion and motility**

The movement and the flow of chemicals into the stomach are controlled
by both the nervous system and by the various digestive system hormones.

The hormone gastrin causes an increase in the secretion of HCL,
pepsinogen and intrinsic factor from parietal cells in the stomach. It
also causes increased motility in the stomach. Gastrin is released by
G-cells into the stomach. It is inhibited by pH normally less than 4
(high acid), as well as the hormone somatostatin.

Cholecystokinin (CCK) has most effect on the gall bladder, but it also
decreases gastric emptying. In a different and rare manner, secretin,
produced in the small intestine, has most effects on the pancreas, but
will also diminish acid secretion in the stomach.

Gastric inhibitory peptide (GIP) and enteroglucagon decrease both
gastric motility and secretion of pepsin. Other than gastrin, these
hormones act to turn off the stomach action. This is in response to food
products in the liver and gall bladder, which have not yet been
absorbed. The stomach needs only to push food into the small intestine
when the intestine is not busy. While the intestine is full and still
digesting food, the stomach acts as a storage for food.

## Small Intestine

framed\|Diagram showing the small
intestine

The small intestine is the site where most of the chemical and
mechanical digestion is carried out. Tiny projections called **villi**
line the small intestine which absorbs digested food into the
capillaries. Most of the food absorption takes place in the jejunum and
the ileum.

The functions of a small intestine is, the digestion of proteins into
peptides and amino acids principally occurs in the stomach but some also
occurs in the small intestine. Peptides are degraded into amino acids;
lipids (fats) are degraded into fatty acids and glycerol; and
carbohydrates are degraded into simple sugars.

The three main sections of the small intestine are *the duodenum, the
jejunum, the ileum.*

:   **The duodenum**

In anatomy of the digestive system, the **duodenum** is a hollow jointed
tube connecting the stomach to the jejunum. It is the first and shortest
part of the small intestine. It begins with the duodenal bulb and ends
at the ligament of Treitz. The duodenum is almost entirely retro
peritoneal. The duodenum is also where the bile and pancreatic juices
enter the intestine.

:   **The jejunum**

The *jejunum* is a part of the small bowel, located between the distal
end of duodenum and the proximal part of ileum. The jejunum and the
ileum are suspended by an extensive mesentery giving the bowel great
mobility within the abdomen. The inner surface of the jejunum, its
mucous membrane, is covered in projections called villi, which increase
the surface area of tissue available to absorb nutrients from the gut
contents. It is different from the ileum due to fewer goblet cells and
generally lacks Peyer\'s patches.

:   **The ileum**

Its function is to absorb vitamin B12 and bile salts. The wall itself is
made up of folds, each of which has many tiny finger-like projections
known as villi, on its surface. In turn, the epithelial cells which line
these villi possess even larger numbers of micro villi. The cells that
line the ileum contain the protease and carbohydrate enzymes responsible
for the final stages of protein and carbohydrate digestion. These
enzymes are present in the cytoplasm of the epithelial cells. The villi
contain large numbers of capillaries which take the amino acids and
glucose produced by digestion to the hepatic portal vein and the liver.

The terminal ileum continues to absorb bile salts, and is also crucial
in the absorption of fat-soluble vitamins (Vitamin A, D, E and K). For
fat-soluble vitamin absorption to occur, bile acids must be present.

## Large Intestine

!Large Intestinal Tract

The large intestine (colon) extends from the end of the ileum to the
anus. It is about 5 feet long, being one-fifth of the whole extent of
the intestinal canal. It\'s caliber is largest at the commencement at
the cecum, and gradually diminishes as far as the rectum, where there is
a dilatation of considerable size just above the anal canal. It differs
from the small intestine in by the greater caliber, more fixed position,
sacculated form, and in possessing certain appendages to its external
coat, the appendices epiploicæ. Further, its longitudinal muscular
fibers do not form a continuous layer around the gut, but are arranged
in three longitudinal bands or tæniæ.

The large intestine is divided into the cecum, colon, rectum, and anal
canal. In its course, describes an arch which surrounds the convolutions
of the small intestine. It commences in the right iliac region, in a
dilated part, the cecum. It ascends through the right lumbar and
hypochondriac regions to the under surface of the liver; here it takes a
bend, the right colic flexure, to the left and passes transversely
across the abdomen on the confines of the epigastric and umbilical
regions, to the left hypochondriac region; it then bends again, the left
colic flexure, and descends through the left lumbar and iliac regions to
the pelvis, where it forms a bend called the sigmoid flexure; from this
it is continued along the posterior wall of the pelvis to the anus.

There are trillions of bacteria, yeasts, and parasites living in our
intestines, mostly in the colon. Over 400 species of organisms live in
the colon. Most of these are very helpful to our health, while the
minority are harmful. Helpful organisms *synthesize* vitamins, like
*B12*, *biotin*, and *vitamin K*. They breakdown toxins and stop
proliferation of harmful organisms. They stimulate the immune system and
produce short chain fatty acids (SCFAs) that are required for the health
of colon cells and help prevent colon cancer. There are many beneficial
bacteria but some of the most common and important are *Lactobacillus
Acidophilus* and various species of *Bifidobacterium.* These are
available as \"probiotics\" from many sources.

## Pancreas, Liver, and Gallbladder

The pancreas, liver, and gallbladder are essential for digestion. The
pancreas produces enzymes that help digest proteins, fats, and
carbohydrates, the liver produces bile that helps the body absorb fat,
and the gallbladder stores the bile until it is needed. The enzymes and
bile travel through special channels called ducts and into the small
intestine where they help break down the food.

**Pancreas**

The pancreas is located posterior to the stomach and in close
association with the duodenum.

In humans, the pancreas is a 6-10 inch elongated organ in the abdomen
located retro peritoneal. It is often described as having three regions:
a head, body and tail. The pancreatic head abuts the second part of the
duodenum while the tail extends towards the spleen. The pancreatic duct
runs the length of the pancreas and empties into the second part of the
duodenum at the ampulla of Vater. The common bile duct commonly joins
the pancreatic duct at or near this point.

The pancreas is supplied arterially by the pancreaticoduodenal arteries,
themselves branches of the superior mesenteric artery of the hepatic
artery (branch of celiac trunk from the abdominal aorta). The superior
mesenteric artery provides the inferior pancreaticoduodenal arteries
while the gastroduodenal artery (one of the terminal branches of the
hepatic artery) provides the superior pancreaticoduodenal artery. Venous
drainage is via the pancreatic duodenal veins which end up in the portal
vein. The splenic vein passed posterior to the pancreas but is said to
not drain the pancreas itself. The portal vein is formed by the union of
the superior mesenteric vein and splenic vein posterior to the body of
the pancreas. In some people (as many as 40%) the inferior mesenteric
vein also joins with the splenic vein behind the pancreas, in others it
simply joins with the superior mesenteric vein instead.

The function of the pancreas is to produce enzymes that break down all
categories of digestible foods (exocrine pancreas) and secrete hormones
that affect carbohydrates metabolism (endocrine pancreas).

-   **Exocrine**

The pancreas is composed of pancreatic exocrine cells, whose ducts are
arranged in clusters called acini (singular acinus). The cells are
filled with secretory granules containing the precursor digestive
enzymes (mainly trypsinogen, chymotrypsinogen, pancreatic lipase, and
amylase) that are secreted into the lumen of the acinus. These granules
are termed zymogen granules (zymogen referring to the inactive precursor
enzymes.) It is important to synthesize inactive enzymes in the pancreas
to avoid auto degradation, which can lead to pancreatitis.

The pancreas is near the liver, and is the main source of enzymes for
digesting fats (lipids) and proteins - the intestinal walls have enzymes
that will digest polysaccharides. Pancreatic secretions from ductal
cells contain bicarbonate ions and are alkaline in order to neutralize
the acidic chyme that the stomach churns out. Control of the exocrine
function of the pancreas are via the hormone gastrin, cholecystokinin
and secretin, which are hormones secreted by cells in the stomach and
duodenum, in response to distension and/or food and which causes
secretion of pancreatic juices.

The two major proteases which the pancreas are trypsinogen and
chymotrypsinogen. These zymogens are inactivated forms of trypsin and
chymotrypsin. Once released in the intestine, the enzyme enterokinase
present in the intestinal mucosa activates trypsinogen by cleaving it to
form trypsin. The free trypsin then cleaves the rest of the trypsinogen
and chymotrypsinogen to their active forms.

Pancreatic secretions accumulate in intralobular ducts that drain the
main pancreatic duct, which drains directly into the duodenum.

Due to the importance of its enzyme contents, injuring the pancreas is a
very dangerous situation. A puncture of the pancreas tends to require
careful medical intervention.

-   **Endocrine**

Scattered among the acini are the endocrine cells of the pancreas, in
groups called the islets of Langerhans. They are:

Insulin-producing beta cells (50-80% of the islet cells)
Glucagon-releasing alpha cells (15-20%) Somatostatin-producing delta
cells (3-10%) Pancreatic polypeptide-containing PP cells (remaining %)

The islets are a compact collection of endocrine cells arranged in
clusters and cords and are crisscrossed by a dense network of
capillaries. The capillaries of the islets are lined by layers of
endocrine cells in direct contact with vessels, and most endocrine cells
are in direct contact with blood vessels, by either cytoplasmic
processes or by direct apposition.

**Liver**

The liver is an organ in vertebrates, including human. It plays a major
role in metabolism and has a number of functions in the body including
glycogen storage, plasma protein synthesis, and drug detoxification. It
also produces bile, which is important in digestion. It performs and
regulates a wide variety of high-volume biochemical reaction requiring
specialized tissues.

The liver normally weighs between 1.3 - 3.0 kilograms and is a soft,
pinkish-brown \"boomerang shaped\" organ. It is the second largest organ
(the largest being the skin) and the largest gland within the human
body. Its anatomical position in the body is immediately under the
diaphragm on the right side of the upper abdomen, The liver lies on the
right side of the stomach and makes a kind of bed for the gallbladder.

The liver is supplied by two main blood vessels on its right lobe: the
hepatic artery and the portal vein. The hepatic artery normally comes
off the celiac trunk. The portal vein brings venous blood from the
spleen, pancreas, and small intestine, so that the liver can process the
nutrients and byproducts of food digestion. The hepatic veins drain
directly into the inferior vena cava.

The bile produced in the liver is collected in bile canaliculi, which
merge from bile ducts. These eventually drain into the right and left
hepatic ducts, which in turn merge to form the common hepatic duct. The
cystic duct (from the gallbladder) joins with the common hepatic duct to
form the common bile duct. Bile can either drain directly into the
duodenum via the common bile duct or be temporarily stored in the
gallbladder via the cystic duct. The common bile duct and the pancreatic
duct enter the duodenum together at the ampulla of Vater. The
branching\'s of the bile ducts resemble those of a tree, and indeed term
\"biliary tree\" is commonly used in this setting.

The liver is among the few internal human organs capable of natural
regeneration of lost tissue: as little as 25% of remaining liver can
regenerate into a whole liver again. This is predominantly due to
hepatocytes acting as unipotential stem cells. There is also some
evidence of bio potential stem cells, called oval cell, which can
differentiate into either hepatocytes or cholangiocytes (cells that line
bile ducts).

The various functions of the liver are carried out by the liver cells or
hepatocytes.

-   The liver produces and excretes bile, required for dissolving fats.
    Some of the bile drains directly into the duodenum, and some is
    stored in the gallbladder
-   The liver performs several roles in carbohydrate metabolism:
-   gluconeogenesis (the formation of glucose from certain amino acids,
    lactate or glycerol)
-   Glycogenolysis (the formation of glucose from glycogen)
-   Glycogenesis (the formation of glycogen from glucose)
-   The breakdown of insulin and other hormones
-   The liver is responsible for the mainstay of protein metabolism.
-   The liver also performs several roles in lipid metabolism:
-   cholesterol synthesis
-   The production of triglycerides (fats)
-   The liver produces coagulation factors I (fibrinogen), II
    (prothrombin), V, VII, IX, X and XI, as well as protein C, Protein S
    and antithrombin.
-   The liver breaks down hemoglobin, creating metabolites that are
    added to bile as pigment
-   The liver breaks down toxic substances and most medicinal products
    in a process called drug metabolism. This sometimes results in
    toxication, when the metabolite is more toxic than its precursor.
-   The liver converts ammonia to urea.
-   The liver stores a multitude of substances, including glucose in the
    form of glycogen, vitamin B12, iron, and copper.
-   In the first trimester fetus, the liver is the main site of red
    blood cell production. By the 32nd weeks of gestation, the bone
    marrow has almost completely taken over that task.
-   The liver is responsible for immunological effects; the
    reticuloendothelial system of the liver contains many
    immunologically active cells, acting as a \'sieve\' for antigens
    carried to it via the portal system.

**Gallbladder**

The gallbladder is a pear shaped organ that stores about 50 ml of bile
(or \"gall\") until the body needs it for digestion. The gallbladder is
about 7-10cm long in humans and is dark green in appearance due to its
contents (bile), not its tissue. It is connected to the liver and the
duodenum by the biliary tract.

The gallbladder is connected to the main bile duct through the
gallbladder duct (cystic duct). The main biliary tract runs from the
liver to the duodenum, and the cystic duct is effectively a \"cul de
sac\", serving as entrance and exit to the gallbladder. The surface
marking of the gallbladder is the intersection of the midclavicular line
(MCL) and the trans pyloric plane, at the tip of the ninth rib. The
blood supply is by the cystic artery and vein, which runs parallel to
the cystic duct. The cystic artery is highly variable, and this is of
clinical relevance since it must be clipped and cut during a
cholecystectomy.

The gallbladder has an epithelial lining characterized by recesses
called Aschoff\'s recesses, which are pouches inside the lining. Under
the epithelium there is a layer of connective tissue, followed by a
muscular wall that contracts in response to cholecystokinin, a peptide
hormone synthesized in the duodenum.

The gallbladder stores bile, which is released when food containing fat
enters the digestive tract, stimulating the secretion of cholecystokinin
(CCK). The bile emulsifies fats and neutralizes acids in partly digested
food. After being stored in the gallbladder, the bile becomes more
concentrated than when it left the liver, increasing its potency and
intensifying its effect on fats.

## Anus

![](Gray1078.png "Gray1078.png")

The human anus is situated between the buttocks, posterior to the
perineum. It has two anal sphincters, one internal, the other external.
These hold the anus closed until defecation occurs. One sphincter
consists of smooth muscle and its action is involuntary; the other
consists of striated muscle and its action is voluntary. In many
animals, the anus is surrounded by anal sacs. Role of the anus is when
the rectum is full, the increase in intra-rectal pressure forces the
walls of the anal canal apart allowing the fecal matter to enter the
canal. The rectum shortens as material is forced into the anal canal and
peristaltic waves propel the feces out of the rectum. The internal and
external sphincters of the anus allow the feces to be passed by muscles
pulling the anus up over the exiting feces.

## Conditions Affecting the Esophagus

There are two different types of conditions that may affect the
esophagus. The first type is called congenital: meaning a person is born
with it. The second type is called non-congenital: meaning the person
develops it after birth. Some examples of these are:

**Tracheoesophageal fistula and esophageal atresia**

Both of these conditions are congenital. In *Tracheoesophageal fistula*
there is a connection between the esophagus and the wind pipe (trachea)
where there shouldn\'t be one. In *Esophageal atresia* the esophagus of
a newborn does not connect to the stomach but comes to a dead end right
before the stomach. Both conditions require corrective surgery and are
usually detected right after the baby is born. In some cases, it can be
detected before the baby is born.

**Esophagitis**

Esophagitis is inflammation of the esophagus and is a non-congenital
condition. Esophagitis can be caused by certain medications or by
infections. It can also be caused by gastroesophageal reflux disease
(gerd), a condition where the esophageal sphincter allows the acidic
contents of the stomach to move back up into the esophagus.
Gastroesophageal reflux disease can be treated with medications, but it
can also be corrected by changing what you eat.

## Conditions Affecting the Stomach and Intestines

Everybody has experienced constipation or diarrhea in their lifetime.
With constipation, the contents of the large intestines don\'t move
along fast enough and waste material stays in the large intestines so
long that almost all water is extracted out of the waste and it becomes
hard. With diarrhea you get the exact opposite reaction: waste moves
along too fast and the large intestines can\'t absorb the water before
the waste is pushed through. Common flora bacteria assists in the
prevention of many serious problems. Here are some more examples of
common stomach and intestinal disorders:

!Acute Appendicitis: An exemplary case of acute appendicitis in a
10-year-old boy. The organ is enlarged and sausage-like (botuliform).
This longitudinal section shows the angry red inflamed mucosa with its
irregular luminal surface. Diagnosed and removed early in the course of
the disease, this appendix does not show late complications, like
transmural necrosis, perforation, and abscess
formation.. This longitudinal section shows the angry red inflamed mucosa with its irregular luminal surface. Diagnosed and removed early in the course of the disease, this appendix does not show late complications, like transmural necrosis, perforation, and abscess formation.")

**Appendicitis**

Appendicitis is the inflammation of the appendix, the finger-like pouch
that extends from the cecum. The most common symptoms are abdominal
pain, loss of appetite, fever, and vomiting. Children and teenagers are
the most common victims of appendicitis, which must be corrected by
surgery. While mild cases may resolve without treatment, most require
removal of the inflamed appendix, either by laparotomy or laparoscopy.
Untreated, mortality is high, mainly due to peritonitis and shock.

**Celiac Disease**

Celiac disease is a disorder in which a person\'s digestive system is
damaged by the response of the immune system to a protein called gluten,
which is found in rye, wheat, and barley, and also in foods like
breakfast cereal and pizza crust. People who have celiac disease
experience abdominal pain, diarrhea, bloating, exhaustion, and
depression when they eat foods with gluten in them. They also have
difficulty digesting their food. Celiac disease runs in families and
becomes active after some sort of stress, like viral infections or
surgery. The symptoms can be managed by following a gluten free diet.
Doctors can diagnose this condition by taking a full medical history or
with a blood test.

**Diverticulitis** !Benign gastric
ulcer

Diverticulitis is a common disease of the bowel, in particular the large
intestine. Diverticulitis develops from diverticulosis, which involves
the formation of pouches (diverticula) on the outside of the colon.
Diverticulitis results if one of these diverticula becomes inflamed. In
complicated diverticulitis, bacteria may subsequently infect the outside
of the colon if an inflamed diverticula bursts open. If the infection
spreads to the lining of the abdominal cavity (peritoneum), this can
cause a potentially fatal peritonitis. Sometimes inflamed diverticula
can cause narrowing of the bowel, leading to an obstruction. Also, the
affected part of the colon could adhere to the bladder or other organ in
the pelvic cavity, causing a fistula, or abnormal communication between
the colon and an adjacent organ.

**Gastritis and Peptic ulcers**

Usually the stomach and the duodenum are resistant to irritation because
of the strong acids produced by the stomach. But sometimes a bacteria
called Helicobacter pylori or the chronic use of drugs or certain
medications, weakens the mucous layer that coats the stomach and the
duodenum, allowing acid to get through the sensitive lining beneath.
This can cause irritation and inflammation of the lining of the stomach,
which is called gastritis, or cause peptic ulcers, which are holes or
sores that form in the lining of the stomach and duodenum and cause pain
and bleeding. Medications are the best way to treat this condition.

**Gastrointestinal Infections**

Gastrointestinal infections can be caused by bacteria such as
Campylobacter, Salmonella, E. coli, or Shigella. They can also be caused
by viruses or by intestinal parasites like amebiasis and Giardiasis. The
most common symptoms of gastrointestinal infections are abdominal pain
and cramps, diarrhea, and vomiting. These conditions usually go away on
their own and don\'t need medical attention.

**Inflammatory Bowel Disease**

Inflammatory bowel disease is the chronic inflammation of the
intestines, which usually affects older children, teens and adults.
There are two major types, *ulcerative colitis* and *Crohn\'s* *disease*
and indeterminate colitis, which occurs in 10-15% of patients.
Ulcerative colitis usually affects just the rectum and large intestine,
while Crohn\'s disease can affect the whole gastrointestinal tract from
mouth to anus along with some other parts of the body. Patients with
these diseases also suffer from extraintestinal symptoms including joint
pain and red eye, which can signal a flare of the disease. These
diseases are treated with medications and if necessary, Intravenous or
IV feeding, or in the more serious cases, surgery to remove the damaged
areas of the intestines.

**Polyp**

A polyp is an abnormal growth of tissue (tumor) projecting from a mucous
membrane. If it is attached to the surface by a narrow elongated stalk
it is said to be pedunculated. If no stalk is present it is said to be
sessile. Polyps are commonly found in the colon, stomach, nose, urinary
bladder and uterus. They may also occur elsewhere in the body where
mucous membranes exist like the cervix and small intestine.

## Disorders of the Pancreas, Liver, and Gallbladder

Disorders of the pancreas, liver, and gallbladder affect the ability to
produce enzymes and acids that aid in digestion. examples of these
disorders are.

**Cystic Fibrosis**

Cystic fibrosis is a chronic, inherited illness where the production of
abnormally thick mucous blocks the duct or passageways in the pancreas
and prevents the digestive fluids from entering the intestines, making
it difficult for the person with the disorder to digest protein and
fats, which cause important nutrients to pass through without being
digested. People with this disorder take supplements and digestive
enzymes to help manage their digestive problems.

**Hepatitis**

Hepatitis is a viral condition that inflames a person\'s liver which can
cause it to lose its ability to function. Viral hepatitis, like
hepatitis A, B, and C, is extremely contagious. Hepatitis A, which is a
mild form of hepatitis, can be treated at home, but more serious cases
that involve liver damage, might require hospitalization.

**Cholecystitis**

Acute or chronic inflammation if the gallbladder causes abdominal pain.
90% of cases of acute cholecystitis are caused by the presence of
gallstones. The actual inflammation is due to secondary infection with
bacteria of an obstructed gallbladder, with the obstruction caused by
the gallstones. Gallbladder conditions are very rare in kids and
teenagers but can occur when the kid or teenager has sickle cell anemia
or in kids being treated with long term medications.

**Cholestasis**

Cholestasis is the blockage in the supply of bile into the digestive
tract. It can be \"intrahepatic\" (the obstruction is in the liver) or
\"extrahepatic\" (outside the liver). It can lead to jaundice, and is
identified by the presence of elevated bilirubin level that is mainly
conjugated.

**Biliary colic**

This is when a gallstone blocks either the common bile duct or the duct
leading into it from the gallbladder. This condition causes severe pain
in the right upper abdomen and sometimes through to the upper back. It
is described by many doctors as the most severe pain in existence,
between childbirth and a heart attack. Other symptoms are nausea,
vomiting, diarrhea, bleeding caused by continual vomiting, and
dehydration caused by the nausea and diarrhea. Another more serious
complication is total blockage of the bile duct which leads to jaundice,
which if it is not corrected naturally or by surgical procedure can be
fatal, as it causes liver damage. The only long term solution is the
removal of the gallbladder.

## Gastrointestinal Dysfunctions

As we age, the amount of digestive enzymes produced by the body drops
way down. This leads to decreased and slower digestion, slower
absorption of nutrients and increased accumulation of fecal mater in the
intestinal tract. Undigested food material and metabolic waste can also
build up due to slow elimination, starting a series of health problems.

When digestion slows, it turns the intestines into a toxic environment.
Helpful organisms cannot live in toxic environments. When the beneficial
organisms die they are replaced by harmful organisms, such as yeasts and
parasites, the most common being *Candida albicans*. This leads to
changes in the intestinal wall which produce *leaky gut syndrome*, which
allows many toxic chemicals to be introduced into the bloodstream. As a
result, the entire toxic load of the body is increased, causing a bigger
burden on the liver, kidneys and other body organs. When this happens
the organs that are normally used for eliminating waste and supplying
nutrients to the GI tract become a large dump for waste. This problem
can be made worse by the use of prescriptions and over-the-counter
medications, antibiotics, and a diet that is too low in fiber or
contains \'junk food\'.

Most people never think about their GI tract. We are concerned about
what the outside of our bodies look like, but we completely ignore the
inside. Because our bodies a very resilient, deterioration of the
digestive system can go on for years with no symptoms or side-effects.
When symptoms finally do appear they are usually very non-specific, and
include: decreased energy, headaches, diarrhea, constipation, heartburn,
and acid reflux. Over the years these symptoms become more serious,
including: asthma, food allergies, arthritis, and cancer.

Poor digestion, poor absorption, and bacterial imbalance can be traced
to many chronic conditions. Every organ in the body receives nutrients
from the GI tract; if the GI tract is malfunctioning then the whole body
suffers.

It is possible to return good health to your GI tract by improving
digestion, consuming the right amount of fiber, and cutting out junk
food and refined sugars.

You can improve the function of the intestines by taking fiber
supplements and vitamins (especially B12 and vitamin K). Some doctors
suggest herbal or vitamin enemas to cleanse and relieve constipation and
to help stimulate *peristaltic movement* which will help to move the
bowels.

**Irritable Bowel Syndrome**

Irritable Bowel Syndrome (IBS) is a disorder with symptoms that are most
commonly bloating, abdominal pain, cramping, constipation, and diarrhea.
IBS causes a lot of pain and discomfort. It does not cause permanent
damage to the intestines and does not lead to serious diseases such as
cancer. Most of the people affected with IBS can control their symptoms
with stress management, diet, and prescription medication. For others
IBS can be debilitating, they may be unable to go to work, travel,
attend social events or leave home for even short periods of time.

About 20 percent of the adult population has some symptoms of IBS,
making it one of the most common intestinal disorders diagnosed by
physicians. It is more common in men than women and in about 50 percent
of people affected it starts at about age 35.

Researchers have not found out what exactly causes IBS. One idea is that
people with IBS have a large intestine (colon) that is sensitive to
certain foods and stress. The immune system may also be involved. It has
also been reported that *serotonin* is linked with normal GI
functioning. 95 percent of the body\'s serotonin is located in the GI
tract (the other 5 percent is in the brain). People with IBS have
diminished receptor activity, causing abnormal levels of serotonin in
the GI tract. Because of this, IBS patients experience problems with
bowel movement, motility, and the sensation having more sensitive pain
receptors in their GI tract. Many IBS patients suffer from depression
and anxiety which can make symptoms worse.

There is no cure for IBS, but medications are an important part of
relieving symptoms. Fiber supplements or laxatives are helpful for
constipation. Anti diarrhoeals such as Imodium can help with diarrhea.
An antispasmodic is commonly prescribed for colon muscle spasms.
Antidepressants and pain medication are also commonly prescribed. \[12\]

**Gastrointestinal Stromal Tumor**

Gastrointestinal Stromal Tumors or GIST is an uncommon type of cancer in
the GI tract (esophagus, stomach, small intestine, and colon). These
types of cancers begin in the connective tissue like fat, muscles,
nerves, cartilage, etc.

GIST originates in the stroma cells. Stroma cells are strung along the
GI tract and are part of the system that helps the body to know when to
move food through the digestive system. Over half of GISTs occur in the
stomach. Most cases occur in people between the ages of forty and
eighty, but they can also occur in a person of any age.

All GISTs of any size or location have the ability to spread. Even if a
GIST is removed, it can reappear in the same area, or may even spread
outside of the GI tract.

In the early stages, GIST is hard to diagnose because early-stage
symptoms cannot be recognized. In the later stages a person can have
vague abdominal pain, vomiting, abdominal bleeding that shows up in
stool or vomit, low blood counts causing anemia, and having an early
feeling of being full, causing a decrease in appetite.

GIST is now recognized as an aggressive cancer that is able to spread to
other parts of the body. People who have been diagnosed with GIST should
get treatment as soon as possible.

**Food Allergies**

Food allergies occur when the immune system thinks that a certain
protein in any kind of food is a foreign substance and will try to fight
against it.

Only about eight percent of children and two percent of adults actually
have a food allergy. A person can be allergic to any kind of food, but
the most common food allergies are to nuts, cow\'s milk, eggs, soy,
fish, and shellfish. Most people who have a food allergy are allergic to
fewer than four different foods.

The most common signs of food allergies are hives, swelling, itchy skin,
itchiness, tingling or swelling in the mouth, coughing, trouble
breathing, diarrhea, and vomiting. The two most common chronic illness
that are associated with food allergies are eczema and asthma.

Food allergies can be fatal if they cause the reaction called
anaphylaxis. This reaction makes it hard for the person to breathe. This
can be treated by an epinephrine injection.

**GERD, Heartburn, Acid Reflux**

GERD, or Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease occurs when the lower
esophageal sphincter is not able to close properly. When this happens,
contents from the stomach, called reflux, leak back into the esophagus
and the stomach.

When the stomach refluxes, stomach acid touches the lining of the
esophagus and causes it to have a burning feeling in the throat or the
chest. This is what heartburn is. When you taste the fluid in the back
of your throat, it is called acid indigestion. It is common for a person
to get occasional heartburn, but when it occurs more than twice a week
it can be considered to be GERD. GERD can occur in people of all ages
including infants.

Some symptoms of GERD include having a pain in your chest, hoarseness,
having trouble swallowing, or having the feeling of food being stuck in
your throat. The main symptoms are having persistent heartburn and acid
regurgitation. GERD can also cause bad breath and a dry cough.

No one knows why people get GERD. Some things that could contribute to
GERD are alcohol use, pregnancy, being overweight and smoking. Certain
foods might also contribute like citrus fruits, caffeine, spicy, fatty,
and dried foods, and also mint flavorings.

Over-the-counter antacids or medications that help stop acid production
and help the muscles empty the stomach are commonly used to treat GERD.

**Constipation**

Not everyone is on the same schedule for having a bowel movement.
Depending on the person, a \"normal\" schedule can range anywhere from
three times a day to three times a week. If you start having bowel
movements less than your own personal schedule, then you might be
getting the signs of constipation.

Constipation is when you have trouble having bowel movements. The stool
is very hard, making it difficult to pass and causing a person to
strain. You may even feel like you have to have a bowel movement even
after you have already had one.

When you digest food, the waste products go through your intestines by
the muscles contracting. When in the large intestine, most of the water
and salt from the waste products are reabsorbed because they are needed
by the body for our everyday functions. You can become constipated if
too much water is absorbed, or if waste products move too slowly.

Not getting enough fluids, a low fiber diet, age, not being physically
active, depression, stress and pregnancy can all contribute to
constipation. Medications and narcotics can also cause a person to get
constipated. Chronic constipation may be a symptom of a liver problem
such as a urea cycle disorder.

The best way for a person to treat constipation is to make sure that
they are getting enough fluids as well as fiber in their diet. By doing
this, the bulk of their stool is increased and made softer, so that it
can move through the intestines more easily. Being more active and
increasing daily exercise also helps keep bowel movements regulated.

**Hemorrhoids**

Hemorrhoids (also known as haemorrhoids, emerods, or piles) are
varicosities or swelling and inflammation of veins in the rectum and
anus.

Two of the most common types of hemorrhoids are external and internal
hemorrhoids.

-   **External hemorrhoids** are those that occur outside of the anal
    verge (the distal end of the anal canal). They are sometimes
    painful, and can be accompanied by swelling and irritation. Itching,
    although often thought to be a symptom from external hemorrhoids, is
    more commonly due to skin irritation.
    -   If the vein ruptures and a blood clot develops, the hemorrhoid
        becomes a **thrombosed hemorrhoid**.

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-   **Internal hemorrhoids** are those that occur inside the rectum. As
    this area lacks pain sensory receptor\|receptors, internal
    hemorrhoids are usually not painful and most people are not aware
    that they have them. Internal hemorrhoids, however, may bleed when
    irritated.

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-   Untreated internal hemorrhoids can lead to two severe forms of
    hemorrhoids: prolapsed and strangulated hemorrhoids.
    -   **Prolapsed hemorrhoids** are internal hemorrhoids that are so
        distended that they are pushed outside of the anus.
    -   If the anal sphincter muscle goes into spasm and traps a
        prolapsed hemorrhoid outside of the anal opening, the supply of
        blood is cut off, and the hemorrhoid becomes a **strangulated
        hemorrhoid**.

## Bleeding in the Gastrointestinal tract

Bleeding in the gastrointestinal tract doesn\'t always mean you have a
disease, it\'s usually a symptom of a digestive problem. The cause of
the bleeding may not be that serious, it could be something that can be
cured or controlled such as hemorrhoids. However, locating the source of
the bleeding is very important. The gastrointestinal tract contains many
important organs like the esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large
intestine or colon, rectum, and anus. Bleeding can come from one or more
of these area from a small ulcer in the stomach, or a large surface like
the inflammation of the colon. Sometimes a person doesn\'t even know
they are bleeding. When this happens, it is called hidden, or occult
bleeding. Simple tests can detect hidden blood in the stool.

**What Causes Bleeding in the Digestive Tract**

Esophageal bleeding may be caused by Mallory-Weiss syndrome which is a
tear in the esophagus. Mallory-Weiss syndrome is usually caused by
excessive vomiting or may be caused by childbirth, a hiatal hernia, or
increased pressure in the abdomen caused by coughing. Various
medications can cause stomach ulcers or inflammations. Medications
containing aspirin or alcohol, and various other medications(mainly
those used for arthritis) are some examples of these.

Benign tumors or cancer of the stomach may also cause bleeding. These
disorders don\'t usually produce massive bleeding. The most common
source of bleeding usually occurs from ulcers in the duodenum.
Researchers believe that these ulcers are caused by excessive stomach
acid and a bacteria called Helicobacter Pylori.

In the lower digestive tract, the most common source of bleeding is in
the large intestine, and the rectum. Hemorrhoids are the most common
cause of bleeding in the digestive tract. Hemorrhoids are enlarged veins
in the anal area which produces bright red blood that you see in the
toilet or on the toilet paper.

**How do you Recognize Bleeding in the Digestive Tract**

The signs of bleeding in the digestive tract vary depending on the site
and severity of the bleeding. If the blood is coming from the rectum, it
would be bright red blood. If it was coming from higher up in the colon
or from the small intestine, the blood would be darker. When the blood
is coming from the stomach, esophagus, or the duodenum, the stool would
be black and tarry.

If the bleeding is hidden, or occult, a person may not notice changes in
the stool color. If extensive bleeding occurs, a person may feel dizzy,
faint, weak, short of breath, have diarrhea or cramp abdominal pain.
Shock can also occur along with rapid pulse, drop in blood pressure, and
difficulty urinating. Fatigue, lethargy, and pallor from anemia will
settle in if the bleeding is slow. Anemia is when the bloods iron-rich
substance, hemoglobin, is diminished.

**Common Causes of Bleeding in the Digestive Tract**

-   Hemorrhoids
-   Gastritis (inflammation)
-   Inflammation (ulcerative colitis)
-   Colo rectal Polyps
-   Colo rectal Cancer
-   Duodenal Ulcer
-   Enlarged Veins
-   Esophagitis (inflammation of the esophagus)
-   Mallory-Weiss Syndrome
-   Ulcers

Iron and beets can also turn the blood red or black giving a false
indication of blood in the stool.

**How Bleeding in the Digestive Tract is Diagnosed**

To diagnose bleeding in the digestive tract the bleeding must be located
and a complete history and physical are very important. Here are some of
the procedures that diagnose the cause of bleeding.

**Endoscopy**

An endoscopy is a common diagnostic technique that allows direct viewing
of the bleeding site. Since the endoscope can detect lesions and confirm
the absence or presence of bleeding, doctors often use this method to
diagnose acute bleeding, the endoscope can also be used to treat the
cause of bleeding as well.

The endoscope is a flexible instrument that can be inserted through the
mouth or rectum. The instrument allows the doctors to see inside the
esophagus, stomach, duodenum(esophagoduodenoscopy), sigmoid
colon(sigmoidoscopy), and rectum(rectoscopy, to collect small samples of
tissues, take pictures, and stop the bleeding. There is a new procedure
out using a long endoscope that can be inserted during surgery to locate
a source of bleeding in the small intestine.

**Capsule Endoscopy**

Capsule endoscopy helps doctors to see and examine the lining of the
middle part of the gastrointestinal tract, which includes the three
parts of the small intestine (duodenum, jejunum, ileum). The capsule is
a small pill sized video camera called an endoscope. It has its own lens
and light that transfers the images to a monitor so the doctor can view
them outside of the body. This process is also referred to as small
bowel endoscopy, capsule endoscopy, or wireless endoscopy.

The most common reason for doing a capsule endoscopy is to look for the
causes of bleeding that is coming from the small intestine. It is also
able to help detect ulcers, tumors, and Crohn\'s disease.

**Angiography**

Angiography is a technique that uses dye to highlight blood vessels.
This procedure is used when the patient is bleeding badly enough that it
allows the dye to leak out of the blood vessels and identifies the
bleeding site. In some situations, Angiography allows the patient to
have medication injections that may stop the bleeding.

**Radionuclide Scanning**

Radionuclide scanning is a non-invasive screening technique used for
locating sites of acute bleeding, especially in the lower GI tract. This
procedure injects small amounts of radioactive material that either
attach to the persons red blood cells or are suspended in the blood.
Special pictures are taken that allows doctors to see the blood
escaping. Barium x-rays, angiography, and radionuclide scans can be used
to locate sites of chronic occult bleeding.

**How to Recognize Blood in the Stool and Vomit**

-   Bright red blood coating the stool
-   Dark blood mixed with the stool
-   Black or tarry stool
-   Bright red blood in the vomit
-   Grainy appearance in vomit

**Symptoms of Acute Bleeding**

-   Weakness
-   Shortness of breath
-   Dizziness
-   Cramp abdominal pain
-   Feeling light headed
-   Diarrhea

**Symptoms of Chronic Bleeding**

-   Fatigue
-   Shortness of breath
-   Lethargy
-   Pallor

## Colonoscopy

A colonoscopy is a test to look at the inside of your colon. Everyone
should have a colonoscopy by the time they are 50 to check for diseases
of the colon. Colonoscopy is best known for its use in early detection
of colorectal cancer, the second leading cause of cancer deaths in the
United States. Colon cancer develops from growths like polyps within the
intestinal wall. These growths often take 5-10 years to develop usually
without symptoms. You are at a higher risk to have this disease if you
have a close relative who has had it. If you are going to develop a
polyp, you will probably do so after age 50. So the American College of
Gastroenterology (the digestive specialists) recommends screening
examinations every 5 years for early detection and removal of these
cancer-causing growths after that age. Don\'t make excuses! It\'s not so
bad and it may save your life!

## Case Study

Bob had a history of chronic pain in his intestinal area, and wasn\'t
sure what it was. His doctor suspected what it was and gave Bob
antibiotics, which helped. It so happened that whenever Bob ate popcorn
or nuts he would get this pain. Sometimes it would just go away\...
other times he had to go on antibiotics. The doctor ordered some tests,
and told Bob he would have to stay away from nuts, popcorn, tomatoes,
strawberries, and anything else with seeds or hard parts; something in
his bowels couldn\'t tolerate those foods. Bob ate a pretty healthy diet
so he couldn\'t understand what was happening. A few years later, Bob
had another series of painful episodes. The pain was so great Bob could
hardly stand, let alone go to work. This time the doctor did more tests
and found out that his lower intestine was almost blocked. Surgery was
ordered. What did Bob have?

## Glossary

Amebiasis : An inflammation if the intestines caused by infestation with Entameba histolytica (a type of ameba) and characterized by frequent loose stools flecked with blood and mucus

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Amylase : An enzyme produces in the pancreas and salivary glands that help in the digestions of starches.

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Bile : A bitter, alkaline, brownish-yellow or greenish-yellow fluid that is secreted by the liver, stored in the gallbladder, and discharged into the duodenum and aids in the emulsification, digestion, and absorption of fats. Also called gall.

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Biotin : Biotin is used in cell growth, the production of fatty acids, metabolism of fats, and amino acids. It plays a role in the Krebs Cycle. Biotin is also helpful in maintaining a steady blood sugar level. It is often recommended for strengthening hair and nails.

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B12 : A vitamin important for the normal formation of red blood cells and the health of the nerve tissues. Undetected and untreated B12 deficiency can lead to anemia and permanent nerve and brain damage

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Candida Albicans : Found in animals and in man. Has been isolated from the skin and mucosa of man, but has also been recovered from leaves, flowers, water, and soil. Reported to be allergenic. A common cause of superficial infection, oral and vaginal infection, sepsis, and disseminated disease. Cells from the organism are usually not airborne and are considered to be normal component of the flora of the mouth and other mucous membranes on the body.

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Chemical digestion: Is a chemical breakdown of food when being in the mouth (oral cavity). Is the digestive secretions of saliva that moistens food and introduces gastric juices and enzymes that are produced in the stimulation to certain macronutrients, such as, carbohydrates. In this, the mouth saliva carries an enzyme called amylase for breaking down carbohydrates.

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Cholecystokinin (CCK) : Cholecystokinin (also called pancreozymin), this is a hormone in the small intestinal cells (intestinal mucosa) that is produced in response to food. This hormone regulates the release of secretions of many organs that aid digestion, such as, bicarbonate from the pancreas to reduce the acidity of digestive juices like the chyme that enters the small intestine form the stomach that contains hydrochloric acid (HCL).

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Chylomicrons : The lipoproteins first formed after absorption of lipids form food.

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Chyme : The thick semi fluid mass of partly digested food that is passed from the stomach to the duodenum.

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Crohn\'s Disease : Described as skip lessions in the large and small bowel it is a malabsorption disorder that can affect the gastrointestinal tract for the mouth to the anus.

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Deamination: When an amino acid group breaks off an amino acid that makes a molecule of ammonia and keto acid.

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Emulsifier : A mixture of two immiscible (unblendable) substances.

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Gastrin : The stomach mucosa secretes a hormone gastrin that increases the release of gastric juices.

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GI tract : Gastrointestinal Tract, The tube that extends from the mouth to the anus in which the movement of muscles and release of hormones and enzymes digest food.

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Hydrochloric : The chemical substance hydrochloric acid is the water-based solution of hydrogen chloride (HCI) gas. It is a strong acid, the major component of stomach acid and of wide industrial use.

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Lactobacillus Acidophilus : Important resident inhabitant of the human small and large intestines, mouth, and vagina. Secretes natural antibiotic substances which strengthen the body against various disease-causing microbes

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Leaky gut syndrome : Abnormal level of intestinal permeability

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Lingual lipase : An enzyme produced only in infancy to aid digestion of long-chain fatty acids.

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Lipase : An enzyme produced by microorganisms that split the fat molecules into fatty acids which create flavor

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Mechanical digestion: The crushing of the teeth and rhythms made by the movement of the tongue, the teeth aid in tearing and pulverizing food, while the tongue helps with peristalsis (movement), of food down the esophagus.

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Micelles : A product of lipids and bile assist in lipid absorption.

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Microvilli : On the villi in the small intestine is mivrovilli, these projections called brush border microvilli secrete specific enzymes for disaccharide hydrolysis, these further aid the absorption of the carbohydrate by yielding a monosaccharide that then can go through portal circulation to liver circulation to be further processed into immediate use for energy or glycogen storage.

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Peristalsis : The wavelike muscular contractions of the intestine or other tubular structure that propel the contents onward by alternate contraction and relaxation.

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Pharynx :

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Proliferation : The process of reproduction or division of cells

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Proteases : Protein enzyme

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Rennin : Only produced during infancy and is a gastric protease and functions with calcium to clot with milk proteins casein, to slow the movement of milk so that digestion is prolonged.

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Serotonin : chemical messenger in the brain that affects emotions, behavior, and thought

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Synthesize : To create something, such as chemicals in the body, from simpler, raw materials

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Ulcerative Colitis :

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Villi : A minute projection arising from a mucous membrane, especially one of the vascular projections of the small intestine.

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Vitamin K : A substance that promotes the clotting of blood

**Case Study Answer** Bob has diverticulitis. The doctor was afraid that
if he had another bad infection that scar tissue would eventually block
his colon completely and burst, which would necessitate a colostomy. Bob
ended up having to have surgery to remove the damaged part of his colon.
The doctor removed almost 18 inches of Bob\'s large intestine. Bob is
doing fine now and most importantly, he can now eat his favorite food -
nuts! Note: Sometimes a diet rich in fiber can help you avoid this
dreaded problem. Sometimes, like in Bob\'s case, the predisposition to
have this problem runs in the family. All of his siblings and his father
suffered from this same ailment. Stress is another factor that can
exacerbate this disease. So.. don\'t worry, be happy and eat fiber!

## External links

-   Appendicitis Update Review, An
    updated Issue on Appendicitis

## References

1: Chen Ts, Chen PS. Intestinal autointoxication: A gastrointestinal
leitmotive: Journal Clinical Gastroenterology

2: Ernst E. Colonic irrigation and the theory of autointoxication: A
triumph of ignorance over science. Journal of Gastroenterology

3: Alvarez WC. Origin of the so-called auto-intoxication symptoms.

4: Donaldson AN. Relation of constipation to intestinal intoxication.

5: Kenney JJ. Fit for Life: Some notes on the book and its roots.
Nutrition Forum

6: Use of enemas is limited. FDA consumer

7: Amebiasis associated with colonic irrigation - Colorado. Morbidity
and Mortality Weekly Report

8: Istre GR and others. An outbreak of amebiasis spread by colonic
irrigation at a chiropractic clinic

9: Benjamin R and others. The case against colonic irrigation

10: Eisele JW, Reay DT. Deaths related to coffee enemas

11: Jarvis WT. Colonic Irrigation. National Council Against Health
Fraud.

12: National Digestive Disease Information Clearinghouse (NDDIC)