# Managing Groups and Teams/How Do You Manage Global Virtual Teams?

## Introduction

The rise of the Internet, the creation of a global fiber-optic network,
and the rapid development of long distance communication technologies
has made it very easy for people all over the world to work together. It
created a global platform that has allowed more people to plug and play,
collaborate and compete, share knowledge and share work, than anything
we have ever seen in the history of the world (Friedman, 2005). The new
communication technology gives teams a great advantage by providing many
options that didn't exist before, such as allowing employees to work
from their homes locally or by working together in teams across the
continents.

The nature of work has begun to shift from a production-based to service
related business spawning a new generation of knowledge worker no longer
bound to a physical work location. Taken together, these factors suggest
that firms are faced with increasing challenges to coordinate tasks
across time zones, physical boundaries, cultures, and organizational
contexts. The increasing globalization of trade and corporate activity
increases the pressure to innovate and provide quality services to
worldwide markets. Over time, this has led organizations to choose the
most qualified people, a "dream-team," regardless of their physical
location (Kerber, 2004:4). These remotely connected dream teams are
known as global virtual teams (GVTs).

Global virtual teams are different from intra-national virtual teams in
that they are "not only separated by time and space, but differ in
national, cultural, and linguistic attributes (Zakaria, 2004:17)."
According to Wheatley and Wilemon (1999), global team members "differ in
their functionality, which adds complexity to group dynamics." Global
virtual teams can be formed quickly and are agile by their nature. They
can help organizations decrease their response time to changes in
today's hyper-competitive markets by taking advantage of round the clock
work by team members dispersed around the world.

A global virtual team possesses some similarities to traditional teams
who are co-located. The same fundamental ideas, as stated in Chapter 6.1
of this Wikibook, that are necessary for the success of a traditional
team still apply to global virtual team. The approach however, requires
modification to focus extra effort to exploit the benefits that global
virtual teams bring while minimizing the disadvantages that exist from
communication difficulties and a lack of physical contact. This paper
investigates the benefits, challenges, and best practices of managing
global virtual teams while keeping in mind the fact that global virtual
teams are still teams requiring the same ideals to ensure success.

## Building Virtual Teams

![](Virtual_Teams_blocks.jpg "Virtual_Teams_blocks.jpg")

**Introduction**

Because of the unique challenges confronting virtual teams, it is
especially important at their formation that they build upon a strong
foundation. Some of the ideas in this chapter are expanded and explored
in the following chapter. Among others, building blocks for successful
virtual teams include the following:

-   Creating a mission, goals, and ground rules
-   Identifying stakeholders and their expectations
-   Complementary roles and responsibilities
-   Building relationships, trust, and rewarding experiences

**Creating a mission, goals, and ground rules**

An often overlooked exercise in any team situation is the discussion of
processes and rules which should govern team meetings and projects.
Virtual teams are no exception. In reality, establishing and adhering to
goals and ground rules is more complicated in virtual teams than in
those where members have the frequent opportunity to meet face-to-face.
The inability to have face time with one another makes it difficult for
team members to \"touch base\" and maintain a unified purpose. The need
to do this, however, is clear. If the individuals of a team do not have
a clear and shared understanding of where they are going, they will
never get there. Virtual teams should hold an orientation meeting
(face-to-face if possible) where team members acknowledge not only the
purpose of the team, but the significance of their team\'s purpose for
the organization in which it operates. Understanding their purpose,
members of the team should then set goals and assign tasks toward the
fulfilling of that purpose. Each team member should come away from the
orientation meeting with a clear understanding of the team\'s purpose as
well as their individual role.

**Identifying stakeholders and their expectations**

The purpose of a virtual team should be very closely tied to the
expectations of stakeholders. Therefore, stakeholders or stakeholder
representatives should be actively involved in the formation of the
virtual team. Clarifying the needs and expectations of stakeholders in
the beginning will help the team to avoid unnecessary work, confusion,
and conflict. A documentation of stakeholder\'s expectations should be
made for reference throughout the project. Future communication between
stakeholders and team representatives will further ensure that the
team\'s purpose is on track and being fulfilled.

**Complementary roles and responsibilities**

It is important that every member of a virtual team has a full
understanding of the capabilities and roles of individual team members.
Each must know his or her role, the role of others, and to who they may
look for resources and support. Without this knowledge, the team will
not achieve its performance potential. If the responsibilities of team
members are clearly defined and documented, each team member will be
accountable to each other and to the group for the fulfilling of their
responsibilities. The ground rules established in the formation of the
group should address responsibilities and tasks and likewise identify
remedies and protocol when individual and group responsibilities are not
fulfilled. In order for team members to \"own\" their role and
responsibilities, they should document their perceptions of their role
within the team. Only when team members have fully bought into the
team\'s purpose and their role within it can they be held fully
accountable.

Naturally, it is important that the roles and responsibilities of team
members compliment one another and represent a unique and useful asset
to the team. Selecting individuals to take part in a virtual team
requires thoughtful consideration. Depending on the size of the team and
scope of its purpose, teams may include a core group which is fully
accountable for the results, as well as extended or ancillary members
who bring unique knowledge to the team. Flexibility and adaptability are
necessary in new virtual teams as their purpose and needs evolve.

**Building relationships, trust, and rewarding experiences**

The ideal way of building relationships with team members is to spend
time together face-to-face. As mentioned earlier, this can be difficult
in virtual teams whose members may reside continents away. LaFasto and
Larson suggest that it is even more important for virtual teams to
connect in person on a regular basis: \"For a group of regional managers
spread across the country or around the world, ensuring adequate face
time might mean meeting together every quarter to calibrate major
activities, explore common challenges, and *confirm relationships\"*
(181).

When relationships between team members are built and confirmed on an
ongoing basis, a culture of trust will exist even when members are
working virtually with one another. The way a group behaves and performs
affects individual members. When trust is present and group behavior is
positive, so too will be team member\'s evaluation of the experience. An
individual\'s positive evaluation of the team leads to greater trust and
ongoing participation. The collaborative participation of team\'s
members translates into group behavior in a cyclical pattern as shown
below.

![](Group_behaviour.svg "Group_behaviour.svg")

**Opportunities**

There are many benefits of using global virtual teams due to the
increased number of options and resources they provide. Jarvenpaa and
Leidner explain that \"Virtual teams promise the flexibility,
responsiveness, lower costs, and improved resource utilization necessary
to meet ever-changing task requirements in highly turbulent and dynamic
global business environments (1999:791).\" Moreover, the use of global
virtual teams provides an opportunity to coordinate complex business
tasks across a potentially far-flung confederation of organizations.
This allows companies to better communicate and coordinate even though
vast distances separate the different team members, making it easier to
expand internationally and removing other location and distance-based
restrictions.

Flexibility : The required expertise for a given task or project can be dispersed by multiple locations throughout the world. However, a global virtual team may facilitate the pooling of this talent to provide focused attention to a particular problem without having to physically relocate individuals. "Virtual teams allow organizations to bring together critical contributors who might not otherwise be able to work together due to time, travel, and cost restrictions (Kerber, 2004: 4)." This allows workers to be located anywhere and allows companies the opportunity to work virtually with team members in geographic areas that were previously considered too distant to be considered a viable work location

```{=html}
<!-- -->
```

Responsiveness : Companies can be more responsive to their customers through diversity. "Virtual teams may allow organizations to unify the varying perspectives of different cultures and business customs to avoid counterproductive ethno-centric biases (Kayworth, 2000:184)." Global virtual teams composed of members with different cultural visions may be less likely to experience "groupthink" and are more likely to develop innovative solutions to problems. In addition, the ability to respond to the specific and varied needs of a global audience can be addressed quickly and effectively with a global virtual team. Members of a global virtual team can immediately respond to specific geographic and cultural requirements previously ignored or missed by collocated teams.

```{=html}
<!-- -->
```

Lower costs : Global virtual teams can help corporations lower their labor and overhead costs. There are pools of inexpensive, highly skilled labor forces in various locations around the world who can't or do not want to be relocated. Access by communication to these labor forces leads many organizations to offshore certain functions traditionally performed in-house or by contractors. This is an appealing option to many organizations looking to reduce overall project and maintenance costs. By outsourcing the development of an application to India, for example, an organization can reduce the cost of a project. This is because India, in addition to many other countries, has a large population of highly educated people who can be accessed with today's advanced communications technology. This allows the company to pay someone in India much less to do the same work compared to someone working locally in the U.S. Global virtual teams also reduce travel, accommodations, and other miscellaneous expenses for team members.

```{=html}
<!-- -->
```

Improved resource utilization : Global virtual teams can improve resource utilization by leveraging time to their advantage. Performing work asynchronously helps global organizations effectively bridge different time zones so that teams can be more productive during a work period. "For example, London team members of a global virtual team of software developers at Tandem Services Corporation initially coded the project and transmitted their code each evening to U.S. team members for testing. U.S. members forwarded the code they tested to Tokyo for debugging. London team members started their next day with the code debugged by their Japanese colleagues, and another cycle was initiated. This is only one example of how GVTs can increase team-member productivity and reduce development time (Saunders, 2004:19)."

**Pitfalls**

The pitfalls that virtual teams face in their early stages stem simply
from the antitheses of the building blocks described above. As with
water, teams tend to follow the \"path of least resistance.\" This is
because the pitfalls of virtual team building are due to omissions and
inactivity. A common pitfall is setting out without a clear goal or
purpose. If team members understand little more than the routine tasks
they are to perform day-to-day, a lack of common understanding will lead
to misdirected work and wasted time and resources. A related pitfall is
misaligning the purpose of the team with the needs and expectations of
stakeholders and the organization as a whole. Virtual teams further
damage themselves when they neglect to take opportunities for building
strong communication and trust in their relationships.

**Solutions**

-   Hold an orientation meeting where team members participate in team
    building activities and document the team\'s purpose. Each team
    member should document his or her understanding of the team\'s
    purpose and their perceived role. These descriptions should be
    circulated within the group.
-   Prepare a questionnaire for each stakeholder to complete and return
    to the group. The questions should illicit a response which helps
    the team in the formation of goals and confirmation of the team\'s
    purpose.
-   Whenever possible, team members should meet face-to-face to confirm
    relationships and participate in activities which build trust and
    encourage communication.

## Culture

Introduction : Cultural differences add value and diversity to teams, but can cause problems as well. The two main cultural issues that appear in global virtual teams are: false perception of similarity and differing perceptions of teamwork.

```{=html}
<!-- -->
```

Opportunities :

-   Diversity: It has been proven through many studies of successful
    teams that diversity can reduce the occurrence of \"groupthink\" and
    allow a team to make better and more creative decisions. Team
    members from different cultures automatically bring diversity to the
    group. This diversity should not be ignored or minimized; rather it
    should be embraced and utilized. Effective ideas from one country or
    market can be adapted successfully for others.

Pitfalls :

-   False perception of similarity: There is often a false assumption
    among immigrants from English-speaking countries that they will have
    an easier time assimilating than those coming from non-English
    speaking countries. In actuality, foreign nationals from
    English-speaking countries experience higher rates of culture shock
    than those from non-English-speaking countries. This is due to a
    perception that the cultures will be similar because there is a
    shared language. This perception also plagues global virtual teams.
    "Welch, and Marschan-Piekkari (2001:197) and Usunier (1993) show
    that because of perceived familiarity and similarity across
    English-speaking countries, individuals can be lured into a false
    sense of confidence and fail to perceive that they are not
    culturally close. This can have a negative impact on business
    communication processes and personal relationships (Henderson,
    2005:75)."

```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
-   Differing perceptions of teamwork: The concept of teamwork varies
    between cultures. "Members from different cultures will, in all
    probability, describe a team's objectives, membership criteria, and
    activities in very different terms (Zakaria, 2004:20)." The value of
    individual work as opposed to teamwork differs greatly between
    countries. Individuals born and raised in Great Britain, Canada
    (excluding Quebec), and the United States tend to be more
    individualistic. Chinese and Indian individuals, on the other hand,
    are more focused on collective efforts. As Jarvenpaa & Leidner
    (1999:793) explain, \"Individuals from individualistic cultures tend
    to be less concerned with self-categorizing, are less influenced by
    group membership, have greater skills in entering and leaving new
    groups, and engage in more open and precise communication than
    individuals from collectivist cultures.\" Additionally, "individuals
    from individualistic cultures might be more ready to trust others
    than individuals from collectivist cultures in computer-mediated
    communication environments (Jarvenpaa, 1999:794)." These differences
    make it difficult to determine what the cause of a problem may be
    with team members because it's difficult to distinguish between
    cultural and personal factors. This makes diagnosing and solving
    problems more difficult than in traditional teams.

Solutions :

-   A good way to approach cultural differences is to learn as much as
    possible about the culture. This includes background research or
    meeting with consultants to learn how best to behave before the
    initial meeting. Any attention spent in this area will go a long way
    toward team success. Being prepared and making a good first
    impression will send positive signals to members of the other
    culture and will signify intentions of commitment. Knowing that
    Aussie's can be very direct in their communication will assist an
    American in not taking it personally when being told to "mind your
    own business (Sabath, 1999:24)." It is also helpful to know that is
    it not uncommon for Japanese to "wait 10 to 15 seconds before
    responding" to a question or comment (Sabath, 1999: 93). This type
    of cultural information will reduce tension among team members.

## Trust

Introduction : Trust in global virtual teams is both important and difficult to build because team members are limited in their physical interaction. In addition to the lack of social context, language barriers and a reliance on stereotypes complicate the building of trust in global virtual team.

```{=html}
<!-- -->
```

Opportunities : In other cultures, relationships and trust are paramount in business. If virtual team members from the United States manage to gain the trust of foreign associates, that trust could very well translate into a lifetime of profitable business interactions.

```{=html}
<!-- -->
```

Pitfalls :

-   Language: A major challenge for teams composed of speakers of
    different languages is that the building of trust and relationships
    is largely language dependent. Based on published research and
    illustrative empirical data, findings indicate that language
    diversity has a significant impact on socialization processes and
    team building, influencing both communication acts and mutual
    perceptions. Results of investigations into multilingual teams using
    English to communicate have shown that many obstacles are
    encountered by native as well as nonnative speakers (Henderson,
    2005:79). "Research has shown that language-related issues can
    impact negatively on interpersonal relations, trust, and the working
    atmosphere (Henderson, 2005:67)."

```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
-   Reliance on stereotypes: One of the difficulties international teams
    experience is the tendency to resort to national stereotypes that
    can lead to misinterpretations of the behavior of team members,
    leading to tensions and mistrust. "These are expressed in the form
    of judgments of others who may be labeled as being, for example,
    'reserved,' 'silent,' or 'direct,' based on the stereotypical
    linguistic attributes of the language community to which they belong
    (Henderson, 2005:74)." It is important to address these hurdles to
    building trust in global virtual teams because "the inability to
    develop these relationships within a social context may negatively
    impact such outcomes as creativity, morale, decision-making quality,
    and process loss (Kayworth, 2000:189)."

Solutions :

-   One way to promote trust is to have smaller groupings and make their
    tenure together a longer period of time. This permits the team
    members to know each other better in comparison to a system in which
    the teams are constantly shifting. If the team members know that
    they'll be around each other for a long time into the future, they
    will have an incentive to put more effort into building lasting
    relationships. The prospect of spending more time together in the
    future discourages negative behavior, such as not returning an
    email, because sometime in the future this will have negative
    consequences. In a rapidly shifting team, however, building
    relationships is not as important because the team won't be together
    for much longer. If the team members know they'll be working
    together for a long time they'll have an incentive to work together
    and trust each other much more than they otherwise would. Having the
    same team together for a long time opens the possibility that the
    team will become outdated and obsolete. Therefore the team must be
    flexible, innovative, explore new technologies, and be capable of
    learning so that the team continues to be effective during their
    long tenure together.

```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
-   Stereotype Breakdown: Another way to build trust in global virtual
    teams is to breakdown these stereotypes and allow people to realize
    that we are all humans with similar problems, despite the vast
    cultural differences. Majchrzak (2004, 7) tells of a successful
    example of this form of trust building: The leader of one team, a
    retired military officer, started his conference calls by asking
    each person to spend 30 seconds describing "where the member is at."
    During a conference call in 2002, when snipers were terrorizing the
    Washington, DC, area, a team member living there said she didn't
    feel so alone after she heard her fears echoed by another member in
    the Philippines, where insurgents were shooting people on their way
    to and from work. By using this simple technique, team leaders can
    assist their team members in realizing they share many similar
    experiences as do their co-workers on the other side of the world.
    This will create closeness and facilitate the building of trust.

```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
-   Structure: Management must also pay strong attention to facilitate
    the proper balance between the level of structure and trust
    developed among team members. A strong structure, which translates
    into clear and shared goals, norms, task and process descriptions,
    hierarchy, roles, personal interaction and relationship, reduces the
    ambiguity that typically exists in global virtual teams (Jarvenpaa,
    2004:251). Working on a global virtual team makes it more difficult
    to specifically identify exactly what you should be working on
    because of its solitary nature. This increases the need for
    specifying the process because of the lack of social interaction
    which would normally allow someone to double check their work and
    direction with other team members.

```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
-   Social Interaction: A kick-off meeting is a good way to promote the
    social interaction and relationship building necessary in teams. The
    team's tasks involve highly complex messages as well as high levels
    of reciprocity and interdependency, which require a rich
    communication media and long team duration (Maznevsky, 2000:488). It
    is therefore recommended that whenever this context of reciprocity
    and interdependency is present, kick-off meetings should be held
    face-to-face and with plenty of opportunities for social interaction
    and relationship building (Anawati, 2006:50) . If a face-to-face
    kickoff meeting is not feasible, the team can always replicate one
    virtually. The initial meeting or communication is a critical time
    because that's when first impressions are set and when the tone and
    cadence of the team's work is determined. If the initial meeting is
    sloppy and unorganized, it is expected that the team's success will
    be a reflection of this. However, if the initial virtual meeting is
    well organized, structured, and conveys a clear goal, the
    probability of team success will be higher.

```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
-   Specified Normative Behaviors: Structure can be added to teams by
    formalizing normative behaviors. Because global virtual teams lack
    the social interaction which would normally determine the normative
    behaviors in the group, normative behaviors should be specified. The
    management of the team should also pay additional attention to the
    clarity and direction of the team. This is a consequence to the lack
    of communication and interaction that normally exists in collocated
    teams. A clear and defining goal will help to align the team
    member's efforts so that everyone is working in the same direction.

```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
-   Work Postings: Another way to make sure all members of the global
    virtual team are working in the right direction is to post the work
    virtually so that all the members can see what everyone else is
    doing. While they made regular use of conference calls, team members
    did not report on the status of assignments during them. Instead,
    most (83%) relied on virtual work spaces. Here they posted their
    work in progress electronically and examined their colleagues'
    postings, well in advance of teleconferences. They tended to use the
    conference calls themselves to discuss disagreements, which they
    said were more effectively handled in conversation than in writing
    (Majchrazak, 2004: 5. This method of posting work makes the
    conference calls and other group communication more effective and
    less frequent because the team members can see each other\'s work
    and progress at anytime. Posting the work helped align the team
    members' goals and helped them work effectively and reduced the
    amount of voice communication that would otherwise have been
    necessary.

Finally, trust evolves with time. It starts mostly based on one's
trustworthiness while there is little knowledge and a weak structure. It
then evolves to some combined balance of trust and structure as members
acquire more knowledge of each other, the team's goals, norms, etc.
Along this continuum, trust faces a transition point where simple
trustworthiness gives way to early stages of trust.

## Communication Techniques

Introduction

New virtual communication techniques are being developed all the time as
teams seek for ways to improve information sharing. Virtual
Communication is achieved through two main methods: Videoconferencing
Systems and Collaborative Software Systems.

Videoconferencing Systems

Videoconferencing is a type of visual collaboration that allows groups
or individuals from two or more locations to interact through
interactive audio and visual transmissions. Microphones, speakers,
cameras and video display are needed along with a system to transfer the
data such as the internet or a Local Area Network (LAN).

Opportunities & Pitfalls

-   This is a powerful tool for communicating as few of the facial cues,
    body language indications or voice intonations and modulations from
    normal face to face communication are lost as in other technological
    communication. Teams from distinct locations can come to know one
    another and develop relationships much more quickly than could be
    accomplished through more impersonal methods.
-   Developing teams becomes easier when the choice of personnel is not
    restricted by geographic considerations. Videoconferencing and other
    virtual communication methods allow teams to choose the most
    appropriate members regardless of where they are located without the
    cost of travel to bring teams together.

However there are some challenges inherent in this technique.

-   It can be difficult to schedule meetings with people or teams spread
    across broad geographic areas. For a team in Australia to
    communicate with a team in Mountain Standard Time Zone in the U.S.,
    they may find that their usual office hours only overlap when one
    company is preparing to leave and the other is just arriving. What
    is more, the greater the number of members of a team, the more
    difficult it will be to find a time to meet that fits into
    everyone's schedule.
-   Another problem that arises is a lack of eye contact. The speakers
    are talking to a camera and/or faces on a screen. In some ways this
    is worse than a phone conversation as the technique can provide an
    incorrect impression of the speaker's intentions in regards to eye
    contact.
-   Moreover the camera can cause people to behave unnaturally. Stage
    fright or self-consciousness at appearing before a camera can
    influence people's mannerisms, body language and ability to
    communicate effectively.

Solutions

-   Scheduling and planning ahead are essential. It becomes more
    difficult to schedule videoconferencing meetings the greater the
    number of people involved. Unless the scheduling is done far in
    advance, meetings will often interfere with other duties and
    responsibilities of those involved.
-   Eye contact is important in regular conversation. Team members using
    videoconferencing should be alerted to the fact that eye contact is
    difficult when participating in videoconferencing. Different rules
    apply to this type of communication in that eye contact is often
    difficult over networks.\[1\]
-   It is important that team members behave naturally on camera. Many
    people will feel uncomfortable when put before video equipment.
    Increased exposure will often cure them of these difficulties. The
    first time in front of videoconferencing equipment can be unnerving
    but with time, people often feel less conscious of their appearance
    and how they will be perceived.

1Vertegaal, \"Explaining Effects of Eye Gaze on Mediated Group
Conversations: Amount or Synchronization?\" ACM Conference on Computer
Supported Cooperative Work, 2002

Collaborative Software

-   Collaborative software is used to allow people to work together
    towards a common goal without having to meet face to face. The most
    common techniques are text, email, virtual chatting, calendaring,
    file sharing, faxes, voice mail, data conferencing, etc.

Opportunities

-   Collaborative software is powerful because people can work together
    regardless of how the schedules may differ. A team with members in
    different time zones is able to collaborate at different hours
    regardless of the lack of overlapping time spent in the office so
    scheduling does not have to be done so far in advance. These
    techniques are also easy to implement. The equipment can be
    inexpensive and easy to acquire for all members of the team.

```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
-   One powerful aspect of collaborative software is Metcalfe's Law.
    Wikipedia describes the law as "the value of a telecommunications
    network is proportional to the square of the number of users of the
    system (n2)." This means that the greater the number of users, the
    more valuable a system becomes. This was first used to describe the
    value of fax machines. One is not that useful, but when everybody
    has one, they become very effective methods of communication.
    Collaborative software is often similar. One email account is not
    that effective, but when each person on the team has an email
    address, we can communicate with the team very quickly and easily.

Pitfalls

Communication can be tricky with collaborative software.

-   Much of the body language and nonverbal communication of regular
    communication is lost with this technique. Emails that are meant to
    be funny or sarcastic can be interpreted as just mean or angry.
-   Although scheduling can be easier, it can also be hard to manage.
    Team members do not need to be together all at the same time, which
    is nice but, people often forget deadlines when they are not
    planning for a meeting or seeing each other face to face.
-   A lack of cohesion often results from this technique. More than one
    person working on a document that is shared on a network or over
    email often results in a disjointed style or conflicting topics.
    This is often the case when a team is working together on a specific
    project that will be presented to a certain audience. For example a
    team may be preparing a report that will be presented to management.
    If they are not careful the report may hold conflicting ideas or not
    flow in an intelligible manner.

Solutions

-   Team members should be trained on the possible misinterpretations in
    this type of communication. It is often beneficial to have more than
    one person review emails that will be sent to a large audience to
    understand how they may be received. If people are made aware of
    these possibilities, they will be less likely to commit these errors
    or to misinterpret what they receive.
-   Team members need to be managed effectively. Deadlines should be
    enforced with regards to email communications. It may be necessary
    to impose deadlines on how long people should take to respond to an
    email or make updates to a shared file.
-   Efforts should be made to analyze the project as a whole. Groups and
    teams should have designated leaders that ensure unity of purpose
    and a cohesive finished product.

## Communication

**Introduction**

Cultural differences among team members may lead to various instances of
miscommunication since different cultures tend to contain certain
biases, assumptions, or views of the world. "Regardless of the source,
the fact remains that the 'cultural factor' may lead to information
distortion and various instances of miscommunication (Kayworth,
2000:191)." "Communication among global virtual teams may be extremely
difficult to manage and less effective than more traditional settings
(Kayworth, 2000: 184)." "These communication problems may also be
magnified by disparity among technology infrastructures, as well as
differences in technology proficiency among team members. Finally, when
cultural differences are added to this mix of potential issues, the
management of global virtual teams may become exceedingly complex
(Kayworth, 2000: 184)."

**Selecting a Communication Medium**

Global virtual teams are dependent on their ability to communicate with
each other rapidly, reliably, and over long distances. If the team can't
communicate with each other effectively, they can't work together
effectively. This makes the reliability of the technology very important
so that the flow of work can continue without interruptions. The media
chosen should also be carefully selected so that the end users, or those
who are using the information, as compared to those who are giving the
information, are able to communicate effectively.

**Opportunities**

*Establishing a pattern* Focusing on and following a strong repeating
pattern of communication will set a virtual team up for success. This
pattern is determined by the frequency of meetings held through the
richest available media, repeating itself as a "heartbeat, rhythmically
pumping new life into the group's processes (Maznevski, 2000:486)." The
group may try to establish the frequency of these "rich meetings"
according to the interdependence required by the tasks and their level
of group relationship (Maznevski, 2000:488). However in global virtual
teams it's important to remember that logistics commonly limit the
frequency of these meetings, especially face-to-face meetings. In this
case it's the frequency of the meetings that determines the frequency of
the high interdependent and complex decision processes they address,
such as generating commitment, building relationships, creating social
interaction and comprehensive decision making. (Maznevsky,
2000:483-484).

**Pitfalls**

*Misrepresentation* "As team members communicate, they tend to filter
information through their cultural 'lenses', thereby giving rise to a
potentially broad range of misinterpretations or distortions (Kayworth,
2000:184)." Communication styles differ wildly among various cultures.
Even if someone from another country speaks English, this is not going
to be the same English as that spoken elsewhere. This makes non-verbal
communication, such as pauses, silence, and expressions which differ
between cultures more important in global virtual teams and should be
known and understood by other team members.

**Solutions**

-   Speak slowly and clearly, use a higher tone of voice, avoid slang
    and colloquialisms, keep words and sentences short and confirm
    understanding through repetition and by asking questions.
-   Avoid using slang and jargons, use simple short words and sentences
    and maintain focus.
-   Use visual aids and send pre-meeting information to enhance
    participation in meetings.
-   Understand and be aware of cultural differences in praise and
    criticism.
-   Avoid humor, irony, and metaphors as these usually don't translate
    well and may be offensive.
-   Understand that silence, referred to as the most concerning
    behavior, may not reflect a lack of interest but may simply
    represent time needed to think or just wait for a formal invitation
    to participate.
-   Respect for religious beliefs and allowance for differences in time
    zones were the most easily changed behaviors.

## \"Netiquette\": Utilizing Virtual Communication Technologies Responsibly and Respectfully

Introduction :

Virtual communication technologies constitute some of the most essential
tools employed by members of virtual teams. Indeed, effective
communication in a virtual team setting can impact every functional
component of the team and can largely determine the success or failure
of the team. Managing virtual teams requires the establishment of
communication ground-rules and expectations. As in any organization, an
environment that fosters mutual respect, creativity, positive
interpersonal relations, and teamwork, depends largely upon both the
quality of information shared among team members, and the efficacy of
communication between team members.

Oftentimes, a failure to communicate respectfully and responsibly can
hamper the efficacy and functionality of the virtual team. Setting forth
network etiquette (or \'netiquette\') guidelines is an important
component to effective virtual team management. By establishing and
implementing netiquette standards, the efficacy and stability of the
virtual team will be more easily managed and maintained. Virtual teams
represent unlimited global business, learning and networking
opportunities. The adherence to netiquette standards will help to
maintain and ensure decorum, professionalism, courtesy, and ethical
behavior.

By implementing and applying netiquette standards to the virtual team
environment, team members will be better equipped to avoid informational
nuances and insinuations that are so easily misinterpreted. The
\"communication gap\" that is so prevalent in virtual communication
technologies (i.e. absence of body language, voice and tonal qualities,
emotion, and personal interplay) may also be lessened. Common barriers
to virtual communication may also be identified and overcome through the
use of clearly established netiquette standards.

Referring to the need for increased knowledge, familiarity, and
implementation of \"netiquette, David Krane, Director of Corporate
Communications at Google, Inc., once said, \"We live in an era where
hundreds and millions of professionals are putting down the pen and
increasingly relying on e-mail as a primary form of communication.
\[Proper mastery of netiquette will benefit\] both internet newbies and
new entrants to the \[virtual\] workplace who may be making a transition
from paper to computer or from instant messaging and e-mail between
friends to more formal electronic communications.\"

Netiquette Standards:

-   _Respecting the E-mail Addresses of Others:_

Do not give out others\' e-mail addresses without first obtaining
permission to do so. E-mail addresses represent a vital component of
one\'s virtual personal space. As such, giving out e-mail addresses
without permission constitutes a breach of trust and an invasion of
personal space and privacy.

-   _E-mail \"spam\" or \"bulk\" List
    Collection/Distribution:_

Recent legislation has, in many states, created barriers and penalties
to those who engage or utilize bulk- or mass-mail communications. Common
courtesy asks that individuals not collect other people\'s email
addresses for such purposes. If the virtual team in which you operate
utilizes bulk-mail as a business process, netiquette standards require
the inclusion of a genuine return e-mail address in which recipients may
respond and request to be removed from future mailing lists.

-   _Proper Personal and Business
    Identification:_

The organizational structure of virtual teams often requires proper
identification in instances of cold-contacts, solicitations, research
and development, networking, and day-to-day communications. When
establishing a contact for the first time, include the following
identifiers: your full name and title, company name, address, genuine
e-mail address, and occupation or objective. The utilization of e-mail
address providers such as hotmail, gmail, or yahoo, is not recommended
and can be perceived as \"cloaked\" or \"anonymous\" e-mail addresses.
The utilization of an email address that originates from your company is
preferred.

-   _Information Inquiries:_

One of the great benefits that has arisen from the virtual expansion of
today\'s global economy is the increase in available information. The
increase in available information has also catalyzed an increase in
information transfer velocity. The effective management of virtual teams
also relies upon the ability to acquire, process, and use information.
Though requesting information from others is beneficial to you and your
team, it can also represent a significant imposition and inconvenience
to those individuals that you query. In the process of information
gathering, include the following elements: an explanation of who you
are, and explanation of why you need the information, and an expression
of gratitude.

-   _Expressing Appreciation:_

Each response you receive from team members, outside consultants, or
individuals contacted for information, deserves a reply of gratitude.
Your \"thank you\" response should contain the following components:
reference to the request (e.g. \"thank you for responding to my query
regarding fossil fuel), your full name and title, company name, address,
and URL.

-   _A \"two-way\" Street:_

Business is a two-way street: if you give, you will receive (and vice
versa). When something of value or substance has been provided you,
offer return assistance, or extend an invitation to visit your website.

-   _Proprietary Rights and Information:_

Respecting proprietary rights and information is not only courteous, it
is the law. The expansive selection of information on the web represents
countless hours of contributions made by individuals and groups. The
work of these individuals and groups is oftentimes downloadable or
print-ready. In any case, you must respect the proprietary rights of
those who have contributed and/or created the information that has been
made available to you. Respecting the authors by using accurate and
appropriate citations is essential to the protection and perpetuation of
open-access intellectual property. You should also respect copyright.

-   _Courteous and Professional Virtual
    Behavior:_

Courteous and professional virtual behavior is rooted in the most basic
rules that govern etiquette. When asking for information, use courteous
language such as \"please,\" \"I would appreciate\" and \"thank you.\"
Failure to apply these basic rules may give rise to dislike, disrespect,
and uncooperative relationships.

-   _Doing Your Part First:_

The anonymity and potential loss of personal responsibility or
obligation that can be pervasive in virtual forums placed the burden of
responsibility on the requesting or interested party. If you have not
done your part, and contributed to the topic at hand, do not believe
that you will be the recipient of free professional work. It is
necessary that you demonstrate personal contributions, investment, and
effort toward your goal. Seek advice, not cheap labor.

-   _Admit and Own your Personal Level of Internet
    Savvy:_

Do not be ashamed to admit that you are a newcomer to the virtual arena.
In this computer era, there remain a surprising number of people who
lack computer skill and knowledge. Many people in the virtual arena are
prone to behave and act like mentors. If you are a newcomer, utilize
their offerings and remember to apply the rules of netiquette as you
glean information and knowledge from them. Own your respective level of
expertise - and you will be respected.

-   _Virtual White Boards, Chat Rooms, and Bulletin
    Boards:_

Avoid using jargon and include complete words in conjunction with
abbreviations. Make sure that what you say is understandable to any
viewer or audience. Monitor yourself - answer questions that others have
posed only if your response will add value to the general body on
knowledge. Do not respond with \"contact me.\" The virtual community
represents a fluid body of knowledge and contributions. As such, it is
not a place for foul or inappropriate language. Respect breeds respect.
Do not use bulletin boards, chat rooms and white boards for blatant
advertising purposes. They are intended for networking and idea
exchange. If another person makes a contribution that is noteworthy or
of value to you, acknowledge the contribution.

-   _Anonymity on the Web:_

Virtual forums allow postings and contributions to be made anonymously.
In many cases, individuals have valid and legitimate reasons to maintain
their anonymity. However, one should never abuse the ability to
contribute anonymously. Those who remain anonymous in order to treat
others with disrespect and cynicism are not acting as socially
responsible virtual community members. One should also remember that
virtual forums are an excellent way to network with others. If one were
to respond or act anonymously, the ability for others to contact or
network with that individual is impossible.

-   _Strategy and Opportunity:_

Much of the virtual community, especially white boards, chat rooms, and
bulletin boards, are regulated by organizers who post guidelines and an
explanation of purpose. By respecting and following these guidelines,
your contributions will be more meaningful. As a meaningful contributor
to the virtual community, you will establish worth in the eyes of the
organizers. The establishment of business rapport in the virtual arena
can result in business opportunities, services, and negotiations. Let
your actions and contributions reflect your personal strategy and
opportunities may be opened to you.

-   _Maintaining a Professional Attitude:_

Do not try to \"grab\" or pounce upon a business opportunity. If what is
required by team members or clients exceeds your level of expertise or
is outside the bounds of your working relationship, refer the enquirer
to a peer or other source specializing in that area. Treat your peers
with the same respect and consideration that you extend to customers.
Behave with integrity and honesty. Do not substitute your best interests
for those of the customer. Maintain mutually respectful relations with
peers and the entire virtual community. Speak well of others. Do not
pretend to be what you are not. Remember that virtual communication and
relations are almost instant - never respond or act hastily.

Opportunities :

Strong business contacts can be established through frequent interaction
and steady communication in which netiquette standards are employed.
Negotiations and bargaining form an integral part of any business deal.
As a manager, you have a responsibility to your virtual group or team to
promote netiquette standards. By adhering to netiquette standards, your
team will be better positioned and respected in the virtual community.
Some things that you can do to ensure the successful implementation of
netiquette standards include:

-   Establishing written guidelines for dealing with illegal, improper,
    or forged traffic.
-   Handle requests in a timely fashion - by the next business day.
-   Respond promptly to people who have concerns about receiving
    improper or illegal messages. Chain letters should not be allowed.
-   Explain any system or software rules to your team members and ensure
    adequate training.
-   Make sure that popular information has the bandwidth to support it.
-   Don\'t allow your team members to point to other sites without
    asking first.
-   Make sure your posted materials are appropriate for the supporting
    organization.
-   Maintain a consistent look to your information. Make sure the look
    and feel remain the same throughout your applications.
-   Be sensitive to the longevity of your information. Be sure that all
    sensitive materials are time-dated.

## Information Sharing

**Introduction** :

Teams are formed based on the expectation that the teams will produce a
better product than an individual. If a single resource works from home
or away from actual office you consider that team as Virtual Team.
Whether it is Virtual team or Team in the same room, information sharing
plays a vital role for team's increased productivity and success.
Information sharing is more problematic when the team is spread out
geographically. Virtual teams not only face a challenge with information
sharing, but also task sharing. In virtual teams if information is not
shared correctly the whole purpose of the virtual team might be in
jeopardy. If one or more persons works from different place then sharing
of information becomes very complex not only in the distribution of
information but also in the information gathering.

Virtual team can be a global team; global team is similar to virtual
team where part of the team will be outside the country. Because
information sharing plays a vital role in team's success, to minimize
the impact of loss in information sharing whether it is related to the
technical or application perspective of the work, one of the best way is
to rotate the individuals who work from a different country or who are
part of the global team or virtual team.

**Opportunities** :

How transparent you run or manage the team, still most of the times it
is hard to see perspective of the target or goal of a team, if part of
the team is in a different place, where that's country's culture
inhibits the resource to think beyond its culture or its system. Team
can have a rotational position, where one team member comes to onsite
and learn the process or application and could go back to his country
and transfer his/her knowledge he/she gained when he/she was at onsite.
Meanwhile team leader could bring another resource in place of first
team member who visited onsite to learn more about technical,
application, culture or process followed at onsite, and the first
resource who went back could train or share the information or
experiences to rest of the team, so that team could understand better
about the depth of process, application, technical things in the project
why things are done in such a way. By doing this the productivity of
whole team would increase by proper information sharing. Similar
productivity can be achieved if team leader wants to bring different
resource from offshore team once or twice at different times for a
period of 3-6 months. This system would be very cost effective if the
ratio of whole team is 1:5, which means, 5 on-site and 25 offshore
resources in a team.

Virtual teams can be more diversified geographically; because of this
virtual team can bring more variety of information to share among the
team to its success. Team with similar background and experience could
bring the same information to the team which can be considered as
redundant, where you could not see the edge in the team compared to the
information sharing with virtual team where chances of team could be
from different backgrounds.

**Pitfalls** :

Most of the time to share the information within the team, trust is one
of the main factors. Unless you know the person with whom you are
working it is hard to tell what kind of personality is that resource.
Building a trust is easier when resources work together because you
could know the person's feeling when you talk with them directly. If the
resource is working from a remote location, it is hard to see the
reaction of that resource. In my work experience when I worked with
remote employees many times, I ponder to myself whether it is accurate
to share this information or not, because I do not know the person's
personality with whom I am working.

Most of the times virtual teams are on different time zones and because
of time zones, information might not be received at right time and could
see delays.

## Establishing Ground Rules and Norms

**Introduction** :

A team to succeed in its goal, it should have ground rules and norms set
for the team. Rules are useful in determining what kind of behavior is
acceptable in the team, how team members interact, and when to interact
in the team, which usually prevents misunderstandings and disagreement.

**Opportunities** :

It is good to document the rules on common shared folder, so that every
body could have access to the network folder. When new member joins the
team, it is easier for the person who is giving the orientation to new
team member know what the ground rules and norms of the team. Even when
experienced resources aren't around him/her, still s/he could
communicate well in the team as well as outside team, if the ground
rules and norms are shared with new member.

Need to outset regarding the cultural differences if the virtual team is
globally placed and address the styles on how to address if one arises.

Members in the virtual team should learn to trust one another to create
an environment where one should feel comfortable stating opinions and
not personally attack each other. Should not penalize for any
miscommunication and should try to think with different perspectives.
All members' opinions are to be considered equal. Disagreements and
differences of opinions should be honored, should be given a fair
hearing, and conflicts should be resolved by a defined process.

**Pitfalls and Solutions** :

Virtual team should recognize the problem of resources working in time
zones and organizing the team meeting and conference calls flexible to
all resources in the team. Updating the status reports to team leaders
by timely manner, so that team leader could access the load of the work
and assign it different resources accordingly.

Hard on some resources, if the time set for the conference calls do not
suit those individual's time zone.

Tough to be open and honest with one another to create psychologically
safe environment in virtual team, but by taking some time to socialize
before each meeting on general topics outside the events of the team
work. Messages could be taken wrongly, because there are no associated
non-verbal messages indicating how to interpret them.

## Virtual Team Meetings

Introduction :With members of a virtual team spanning different time zones, languages, and cultures, it can be complex and difficult to organize, optimize, and manage an effective team meeting. Managers, who are sensitive to these issues and are diligent in their preparation, can get the most out of any virtual team meeting.

```{=html}
<!-- -->
```

Opportunities :

-   Cost: One of the greatest advantages of a virtual meeting over a
    traditional meeting is the low cost. Airfare for corporate
    executives to attend a traditional meeting can be exorbitantly
    priced, especially in the aftermath of 9.11. Participants can join a
    teleconference practically anywhere telephone service is available,
    reducing unnecessary travel costs. Many corporations have negotiated
    long-distance charges to an almost negligible amount, allowing
    employees to call across the world for not much more than an
    in-state call.
-   Time: Virtual meetings can save valuable work time, even for
    organizations with closely located facilities. Travel between
    buildings or locations can eat up precious time that could be spent
    on other tasks. In large manufacturing companies, it can take 30
    minutes to an hour to get from one side of the facility to the
    other. Some managers waste half a day\'s work in just commuting
    between various meetings. Given the price per hour of top-level
    executives\' salaries, even a short traditional meeting can be very
    costly.

Pitfalls :

-   Group Size: As with traditional teams, if a virtual team has too
    many members, this can break down communication and reduce team
    effectiveness.
-   Conference Call Domination: We have all experienced conference calls
    where various corporate department representatives huddle around a
    conference room phone to speak with distant affiliates. The larger
    group, which is usually in the corporate office, tends to dominate
    the conversation. In addition, larger groups tend to carry on side
    conversations that are inaudible to the people on the other end of
    the call and put them at a disadvantage. One of the authors has also
    experienced conferenced calls that were \"hijacked\" by the ranking
    executive and used for a personal or political agenda.
-   Common Language: Even if all members of a virtual team speak
    English, they may not speak the same English. Others may not be
    native speakers. English spoken in the United Kingdom, Australia,
    the United States, and Malaysia is quite different.

Solutions :

-   Keep group size to no more than 7 members.
-   Again, keep group size small, including conference call groups. If
    possible have some team members call in on their desk phones, to
    minimize side conversations. In the case of a hijacking invitee,
    have a printed agenda with time allotted to each topic. If the
    meeting gets off track, express your desire to not let the call go
    longer than expected and use the agenda as an excuse to change the
    subject.
-   Use common terms that all can understand. Avoid slang and metaphor,
    e.g. US sports analogies. Speak slowly and clearly and ask for
    confirmation from all members that the discussion was understood. As
    in any environment, be sure to ask leading questions verifying that
    members specifically tasked with something have a complete
    understanding of the assignment. Many telephone conversations or
    conference calls have a few-second lag time. Be patient and don\'t
    interrupt.

## Organizational Development

Introduction :

Traditionally, organizational development occurs in a face-to-face or
voice-to-voice mode, utilizing observation, personal interaction, and
personal relations to develop or redevelop a coherent and appropriate
business model or organizational process. As virtual teams become more
common place, the need for organizational development persists. The
virtual arena, in many cases, requires a modified managerial approach to
organizational development.

The management and development of a virtual entity may require that the
execution of needs assessments, focus groups, and interviews, be done
electronically via a collaborative software system or group support
system. These systems allow users to \"hide\" or \"disable\" their
personal identities during information gathering sessions and interact
with others under the guarantee of anonymity. In some cases, employees
and virtual team members may approach the process of organizational
development with apprehension. Anonymity, for the purpose of information
gathering, may serve to ally such apprehension.

Opportunities :

-   Employee satisfaction can influence the efficacy and longevity of
    organizational development. There is no consensus in the literature
    regarding the impact of a virtual team structure on employee
    satisfaction. However, most studies indicate that participating in a
    virtual team environment and/or working from home can result in:

\- an increase of employee job satisfaction

\- reduced likelihood of employee turn-over

\- reduction in role stressors

\- increased satisfaction with supervisors

\- increased commitment to the organization

\- decreased satisfaction with peers

\- decreased satisfaction regarding opportunities for advancement and
promotion

These findings emphasize the importance of measuring and responding to
employee outcomes as part of managing in a virtual team environment.

-   Videoconferencing is a useful tool that can be used to facilitate
    small group interviews and interventions. The use of
    videoconferencing technologies provides a medium in which all
    participants can be viewed on each individual screen regardless of
    geographic location. Some believe that this may be as effective as a
    face-to-face experience.

```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
-   Research has shown that the medium used for teaching technical
    skills has no effect on students' learning outcomes. One can use
    videotape, CD-ROM, videoconferences, teleconferences, web-based
    training, or instruction manuals. However, some skills (e.g.
    communication and some management/leadership skills) are best taught
    in a face-to-face environment. In these instances, consideration
    should be given to the use of training centers or external training
    venues.

Pitfalls and Solutions :

<FIle:Virtualprobs.jpg>

## Conclusion

The increasing use of global virtual teams demands special attention to
differences in culture, communication barriers, and inherent trust
existing among the team members. While these teams are not fundamentally
different from traditional teams, additional focus and effort in some
key areas is necessary to ensure team success. These include knowing the
cultural differences that exist in the team and taking steps to educate
the other team members and understanding how this affects how they
should approach different situations. Because global virtual teams don't
experience the same physical contact that traditional teams do, extra
effort is required from all team members to maintain trust and to
promote practices that encourage team members to work well together and
give reasons to trust each of the other members. It is also important to
keep in mind that there is no set recipe for success in any team,
especially global virtual teams. Only by understanding the challenges
and differences between global virtual teams and traditional teams,
management and team members can better prepare themselves and take
advantage of their strengths to promote success.

## Online Resources/References

Where In The World Is My Team
<http://www.tmaworld.com/global_teams_virtual_teams/>

Working Together When Apart
<http://online.wsj.com/public/page/2_1304.html>

Managing Virtual Teams (video)
<http://link.brightcove.com/services/player/bcpid572031310>

Managing Virtual Teams (pdf)
<http://www.groupjazz.com/pdf/vteams-toronto.pdf>

17 Pointers for Managing Virtual Teams
<http://www.squarewheels.com/content2/virtual.html>

Virtual Teams
<http://www.managementhelp.org/grp_skll/virtual/virtual.htm>

10 Tips for managing global teams
<http://gadishamia.wordpress.com/2007/10/13/leading-a-global-team-the-starter-guide/>

Managing Virtual Teams (HR Magazine)
<http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m3495/is_6_47/ai_87461019>

Best Practices of Managing Virtual Teams
<http://www.expressitpeople.com/20040531/cover.shtml>

New Work Rules (Stanford Business)
<http://www.gsb.stanford.edu/news/bmag/sbsm0305/feature_virtual_teams.shtml>

Virtual Teams Over the Internet
<http://www.managementhelp.org/grp_skll/virtual/virtual.htm>

6 Ways to Work More Effectively on a Virtual Team (Microsoft)
<http://www.microsoft.com/atwork/worktogether/virtual.mspx>

We researched dozens of tools to find the most useful tools for managing
remote workers <https://www.hivedesk.com/blog/managing-remote-workers/>


# Managing Groups and Teams/How Do You Build High-performing Virtual Teams?

## Introduction

"Virtual teams are groups of geographically and/or temporally dispersed
individuals brought together via information and telecommunication
technologies." (Piccoli and Ives, 2003, p365) Virtual teams are
increasingly becoming a key feature of projects in modern organizations,
while the landscape of communication tools continues to change
dramatically. The benefits of virtualization include diversity of
perspectives, large member selection pool, extended hours of
productivity, and reduced transportation costs.

However, many new challenges arise, such as difficulty in performance
monitoring, disappearance of social cues, member isolation and
anonymity, and technology issues. In addition, virtual teams must deal
with cultural, temporal, and geographic barriers. Using a framework
based on Larson and LaFasto's *Teamwork*, conventional team strategies
have been adapted for the virtual context to help virtual team leaders
and members overcome these challenges.

## A Clear and Elevating Goal

Larson and LaFasto (1989) stress the importance of a clear and elevating
goal in the performance of an effective team. They define goal clarity
as "a specific performance objective, phrased in such concrete language
that it is possible to tell, unequivocally, whether or not that
performance objective has been attained" (p28) and elevating as
"personally or collectively" challenging and that it "makes a
difference." (p31) While Larson and LaFasto consider this to possibly be
the most important component of an effectively functioning team, it
appears to be even more critical for a virtual team.

To stress this point, Kirkman and Rosen, et al. (2002) quote a team
member from Sabre, Inc. as saying "virtual teams need to understand much
more so than co-located teams what goal they are working towards because
you are working in such different areas, and in our case, in different
countries. It plays a much stronger role if you know what your ultimate
target is going to be. Everyone is working towards the same thing."
Further work on the performance of virtual teams by Kirkman and Rosen,
et al. (2004) demonstrates a positive correlation between empowerment
and virtual team performance. They define empowerment as having four
dimensions, two of which, potency and impact significantly overlap the
concepts of goal clarity and elevation.

This research therefore supports and elevates the arguments made by
Larson and LaFasto about the importance of a clear and elevating goal
for virtual teams. Virtual team managers should make sure to have a
clear and elevating goal for the group and should make sure to
prominently display the team mission statement on the virtual work
space, team web-site, and other electronic communications to the group.

## Results-Driven Structure

Team structure is a key factor which differentiates successful teams
from unsuccessful ones. Team structure encompasses many aspects such as
tools, processes, communications systems, facilities, and organization
of the team. However, the best structure depends on the objectives and
composition of the team.

Virtual teams tend to be very effective in project development tasks.
However, the lack of face to face contact can be a challenge in building
consensus. For decision-making teams, having the right team composition
can help to overcome this. Collectivistic teams have higher levels of
collaborative conflict management than individualistic teams, and are
motivated more by outcomes which benefit the entire team. (Paul, et al,
2005)

Research has also shown that highly diverse or heterogeneous teams
outperform homogenous teams in many performance measures, though they
take longer to reach consensus. Virtuality can be beneficial for highly
diverse teams since it obfuscates potentially divisive demographic
differences. (Kirkman et al, 2002)

Larson and LaFasto outlined four necessary features of effective team
structure, which apply equally to virtual teams, but become more
challenging.

First, team members must have clear roles and accountabilities. Lack of
visibility may cause virtual team members to feel less accountable for
results, therefore explicit facilitation of teamwork takes on heightened
importance for virtual teams. Temporal coordination mechanisms such as
scheduling deadlines and coordinating the pace of effort are recommended
to increase vigilance and accountability. (Massey, Montoya-Weiss, and
Hung, 2003)

Second, teams require effective communications systems. This is
especially important for virtual teams because geographic and temporal
differences may rule out the most common communication channels. "Many
in our study found e-mail a poor way for teams as a whole to
collaborate." (Majchzak et al, 2004) Individual email conversations
cause others to feel left out, but copying everyone causes email
overload. Sharing documents over email often leads to conflicting
versions. Many successful teams prefer to use virtual work spaces,
online forums, instant messaging, and file repositories. Regardless of
the communication system, team norms and rewards structures should
support use of the systems.

Third, effective teams should monitor individual performance and provide
feedback. Assessment and development of virtual team members is very
limited in the virtual environment. Performance management is an
enormous challenge when employees are out of sight. Managers should
monitor group communication to assess subjective factors such as idea
generation, leadership, and problem-solving skills. (Kirkman et al,
2002) Utilizing peer and customer feedback helps assess contributions to
team effectiveness. Managers should also consider using \"richer\"
communication media (such as video conferencing) to more effectively
deliver evaluation feedback.

Finally, teams must rely on fact-based decision making, for which
information and communication tools are vital. Teams can adapt
decision-making software to facilitate fact-based problem solving and
decision-making. (Kirkman et al, 2002) They might also assign one person
to ensure accurate information is clearly communicated (Piccoli and
Ives, 2003). Rocketdyne, for example, used collaborative technology to
manage knowledge. They allowed all communications to be recorded and all
information to be visible to the team, and even prohibited face to face
discussions. (Malhotra, Majchzak, Carmen, Lott)

## Members

Larson and LaFasto recognize three common features of competent team
members: technical skills and abilities, desire to contribute, and
capability of collaborating effectively. Virtual teams amplify the
importance of using appropriate criteria when selecting people for the
team.

A critical element in high-performance teams is creating functional
diversity among team members, while productively managing resulting task
conflict. Work group studies suggest that "such conflict evidently
fosters a deeper understanding of task issues and an exchange of
information that facilitates problem solving, decision making, and the
generation of ideas." (Pelled, et al, 1999, p22) A best-practice study
of successful virtual teams concludes that diversity among disciplines,
working styles, and problem-solving approaches can be exploited to
produce "solutions instead of acrimony." (Majchrzak, et al, 2004, p133)
Conflict researchers have found that task conflicts can improve team
performance if managed collaboratively. (Weingart and Jehn, 2000)

However, regardless of other qualifications, not everyone can handle the
social isolation of a virtual team. Maintaining this challenging
environment requires selection of team members with interpersonal
skills, self-regulatory skills, a high level of knowledge, and comfort
with technology. (Gibson and Cohen, 2003) This critical balance between
technical and interpersonal skills must include the ability to work with
others to identify, address, and resolve issues.

Managers should consider using behavioral interviewing techniques and
simulations to select team members with unique areas of competence that
will contribute to a high-quality solution. Ideally some members should
have team process backgrounds. Managers should also provide potential
team members with a realistic assessment of virtual team challenges, and
the choice to opt out.

## Unified Commitment

Larson and LaFasto suggest that lack of unified commitment is often the
most important feature of ineffective teams. They identify two key
elements: dedication to the endeavor (commitment) and dedication to the
team (unity).

High-performance teams are distinguished by passionate dedication to
goals, identification and emotional bonding among team members, and a
balance between unity and respect for individual differences. Virtual
teams face the challenge of developing and sustaining unified commitment
in the absence of face-to-face contact. In particular, they must
identify and deal with the most serious threat, competition between
individual and team goals.

Kerber and Buono recommend appointing a strong team leader, willing to
maintain frequent contact with team members, take full advantage of
collaborative technologies, demonstrate a high level of personal
commitment, and deal quickly with self-serving and non-contributing team
members. Larson and LaFasto suggest that commitment can be enhanced by
involving team members in project planning and in defining team
identity, goals, and processes. Virtual team leaders should identify
commonalities among members early on, while focusing the team on
achieving key performance objectives and providing a clear context for
recognizing team success.

Finally, interdependence of goals, tasks, and outcomes among members of
virtual teams can overcome motivational challenges, particularly early
on. (Hertel, et al, 2004) Virtual team managers can create the
experience of connectedness by delegating goal setting, assigning
interdependent tasks, and rewarding both personal contributions and team
performance.

## Collaborative Climate

"Collaboration flourishes in a climate of trust." (Larson and LaFasto,
1989, p. 87) Trust is based on social characteristics (familiarity,
competence), immediate outcomes of interaction processes (reliability,
integrity), and institutions (social norms, policies). Studies have
shown that while trust has little impact on task performance, it can
significantly reduce process losses. (Jarvenpaa, Shaw, Staples, 2004)

Trust affects how we interpret member behavior. "Trust is the lens
through which these factors are interpreted." (Jarvenpaa, Shaw, and
Staples, 2004, p253) Therefore trust plays an important role in virtual
teams where ambiguity is high. Unfortunately, building trust is an
enormous challenge for virtual teams. \"In virtual organizations, trust
requires constant face-to-face interaction---the very activity the
virtual form eliminates.\" (Kirkman et al, 2002) Structured
opportunities for socialization are less satisfying in virtual
environments, and slow development of relational ties.

When a team is formed, expectations about workloads, processes, and
contributions lead to "psychological contracts" which can damage trust
when broken. (Piccoli and Ives, 2003) Reneging and incongruence are
heightened for virtual teams due to the limited ability to communicate.

Studies show that in high-trust teams, structured behavior control
mechanisms (rules, progress reports, explicit assignments) intensify the
negative effects of reneging and incongruence because they increase
salience of member behavior. (Piccoli and Ives, 2003) However, in
low-trust teams strong structures actually mitigate the negative effects
of trust by minimizing the role trust plays in interpreting member
behavior.

Trust is not always dependent on social bonds. Instead, it can be
founded on performance consistency. Task-based trust (vs. interpersonal
trust) may be more achievable for virtual teams, and can be built by
developing norms around communication patterns, ensuring reliable and
rapid responses, and making team interaction timely and consistent.
(Kirkman et al, 2002)

## Standards of Excellence and External Support

Virtual teams are held to the same standards of excellence as
conventional teams, but there are subtle differences. Virtual team
members often function as the point of contact for their immediate
physical group. They often have more autonomy than conventional team
members as their teams may meet according to varying time zones which
may not be understood by their local management. The presence of a true
"invisible team" (Larson and LaFasto, 1989, p109) is also a unique
component of a virtual team. The "invisible team" is the management team
to which each of the members report. The invisible team sets the
standards for each member.

Misunderstandings may arise if the "invisible team" does not align
itself to the same set of expectations. A virtual team leader must
understand the level and kind of support from each contributor. Larson
and LaFasto observe that "loss of morale...decreased belief and
commitment to the team's goal" (p110) result when support is not visible
to the team. The team leader should consider what expectations are
reasonable to ask of members. Virtual teams that span various companies
must create some form of "shared understanding" (Symons, 1997, p427) in
order for members to develop a set of expectations. Failure to establish
understanding may result in standards that are not achievable by all
members.

External support frequently determines how resources, such as incentives
and capital expenses, are contributed by team members. During the
Rocketdyne-Boeing Project, expectations of each member were established
at the outset of the project. (Malhotra, Majchzak, Carmen, Lott)
Resolving how each member would contribute time, resources, and
expertise reduced misunderstandings as the project progressed.

Standards of excellence and external support intersect on many levels.
Time and energy is well spent at the outset of a virtual team to
evaluate the level of excellence the team will achieve. This is
especially true when financial contributions require resources outside
of the control of the virtual team. Managers of virtual teams need to
understand the feasibility of their requests given the context of their
members' management.

## Leadership

Principled Leadership is the final ingredient identified by Larson and
LaFasto (1989) for effective team performance. Pauleen (2004) tells us
"leadership challenges are magnified in a virtual environment" and
stresses the necessity of face-to-face meetings, stating "it is
essential for them (leaders) to build personal relationships with team
members before commencing a virtual working relationship. Strong
relational links are associated with trust, creativity, motivation,
morale, good decisions, and fewer process losses.

However, Majchrzak, et al. (2004) argues that you can lead
high-performing virtual teams without face-to-face meetings and provides
several examples of successful teams whose members never met in person.
This requires intensive communications to build a coherent identity and
hold the team together, and their research found that the leaders of
successful virtual teams "rarely let a day go by when members did not
communicate with one another" and "frequent phone conversations between
the team leader and individual members ...were not unusual." Research by
Kirkman and Rosen, et al (2004) on the performance of virtual teams may
provide a clue for leaders attempting to resolve this dilemma. They
suggest that periodic face-to-face be held to focus on process
improvement, but if this is not feasible "managers need to make extra
efforts to empower virtual teams to deal directly and decisively with
process improvement issues" (p. 188).

Gibson and Cohen (2003) suggest virtual team leaders need to engage the
group in openly discussing cultural differences and similarities to help
develop communication norms. Thompson's (2000) work suggests the leader
of a virtual team must also play a key role in assessing and balancing
team performance levels across the four dimensions: team productivity;
team satisfaction; individual growth; and organizational gains. Pauleen
(2004) states that the leader of a virtual team must: assess team
issues, boundaries, organizational policies, resources, and technology;
target relationship levels necessary for performance; and develop
effective strategies and select and utilize appropriate communication
channels.

## Conclusions

Virtual teams must deal with problems that befall face-to-face teams,
along with some unique challenges. At the same time, they have the
potential to realize additional process gains and deliver high-quality
solutions by bringing together diverse individuals with complementary
knowledge without the limitations of physical, organizational or
cultural boundaries.

Our competitive environment places a premium on the quality and speed of
solutions, and technology is providing increasingly richer collaboration
tools -- advancing from the telephone and the fax machine to video
conferencing and virtual workspaces in a little over a decade.
Organizations that learn to harness the power of virtual teams with
these collaborative technologies will gain significant competitive
advantage.

## References

Duarte, Deborah L. and Nancy Tennant Snyder. Mastering Virtual Teams.
San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. 2006.

Gibson, Cristina B. and Susan G. Cohen. Virtual Teams That Work:
Creating Conditions for Virtual Team Effectiveness. San Francisco:
Jossey-Bass. 2003. Review in HR Magazine. 2003, Vol. 48 Issue 7, p121.

Guido Hertel, Udo Konradt, and Borris Orlikowski. "Managing Distance by
Interdependence: Goal Setting, Task Interdependence, and Team-based
Rewards in Virtual Teams". European Journal of Work and Organizational
Psychology. 2004, Vol 13, No. 1, p1-28.

Houghton G. Brown, Marshall Scott Poole, and Thomas L. Rodgers.
"Interpersonal Traits, Complementarity, and Trust in Virtual
Collaboration". Journal of Management Information Systems. 2004, Vol.
20, No. 4. p115-137.

Huey, John. "The New Post-Heroic Leadership". Fortune Magazine. February
21, 1994.

Jarvenpaa, Sirkka L., Thomas R. Shaw, and D. Sandy Staples. "Toward
Contextualized Theories of Trust: The Role of Trust in Global Virtual
Teams". Information Systems Research. Informs. 2004.

Kerber, Kenneth W. and Anthony F. Buono. "Leadership Challenges in
Global Virtual Teams: Lessons From the Field." SAM Advanced Management
Journal. Autumn 2004, Vol. 69 Issue 4, p4-10.

Kirkman, Bradley L., Benson Rosen, Paul E. Tesluk, and Cristina B.
Gibson. "The Impact of Team Empowerment on Virtual Team Performance: The
Moderating Role of Face-to-Face Interaction." Academy of Management
Journal. 2004, Vol. 47, No. 2.

Kirkman, Bradley L., Benson Rosen, Paul E. Tesluk, Cristina B. Gibson,
and Simon O. McPherson. "Five challenges to virtual team success:
Lessons from Sabre, Inc." Academy of Management Executive. August 2002,
Vol.16, No.3, p67-79.

Larson, Carl E. and Frank M. J. LaFasto. Teamwork: What must go right,
what can go wrong. Sage, 1989.

Majchrzak, Ann, Arvind Malhotra, Jeffrey Stamps, and Jessica Lipnack.
"Can Absence Make a Team Grow Stronger?" Harvard Business Review. May
2004. Vol.82 Issue 5, p131-137.

Malhotra, Arvind, Ann Majchzak, Robert Carmen, and Vern Lott. "Radical
innovation without Collocation: A case Study at Boeing Rocketdyne". MIS
Quarterly. Vol.25, No.2 p229-249.

Massey, Anne P., Mitzi M. Montoya-Weiss, and Yu-Ting Hung. "Because Time
Matters: Temporal Coordination in Global Virtual Project Teams". Journal
of Management Information Systems. 2003. Vol. 19, No. 4. p129-155.

McMahan, Kevin L. "Manage a Virtual Team". Effective Communication and
Information Sharing in Virtual Teams. Journal of Accountancy. June 2005.

Paul, Souren, Imad M. Samarah, Priya Seetharaman and Peter P. Mykytyn.
"An Empirical Investigation of Collaborative Conflict Management Style
in Group Support System-Based Global Virtual Teams". Journal of
Management Information Systems. Vol. 21 No. 3, Winter 2005 pp. 185 -
222.

Pauleen, David J. "An Inductively Derived Model of Leader-Initiated
Relationship Building with Virtual Team Members." Journal of Management
Information Systems. 2004, Vol. 20, No. 3.

Pelled, Lisa Hope, Kathleen M. Eisenhardt, and Katherine R. Xin.
"Exploring the Black Box: An Analysis of Work Group Diversity, Conflict,
and Performance." Administrative Science Quarterly. March 1999, Vol.44
Issue 1, p1-28.

Piccoli, Gabriele and Blake Ives. "Trust and the Unintended Effects of
Behavior Control in Virtual Teams." MIS Quarterly. Vol.27, No.3.
September 2003.

Symons, Frank. "Virtual departments, power, and location in different
organizational settings." Economic Geography. Vol. 73, No. 4, p427.
October 1997.

Thompson, Leigh. Making the Team: A Guide for Managers. Upper Saddle
River, NJ: Prentice Hall. 2000.

Weingart, Laurie and Karen A. Jehn. "Manage Intra-team Conflict through
Collaboration." Blackwell Handbook of Principles of Organizational
Behavior. 2000. p226-238.


# Managing Groups and Teams/Stages

## Stages of Group Development

One of the greatest challenges for team leaders or the team members
themselves is progressing through the stages of team development. There
are many different models and theories on team development and the
stages of team formation. For the time being, most of this part of the
chapter will focus on Bruce Tuckman's model of Forming, Storming,
Norming, and Performing established in the 1960's and 70's.

## Forming

In this first stage the team members do not have defined roles and most
likely it is not clear what they are supposed to do. The mission of the
team may be nonexistent or in the early stages of development, thus
individuals may not feel any sort of commitment or ownership toward the
team and/or its mission. The individual team members probably don't know
and/or haven't worked with other members on the team. Obviously there is
no team history, and the norms of the team are not yet established.
There is a high degree of learning in this phase as members learn about
each other, the mission, and their place within the team. Because there
is a high degree of unfamiliarity among team members there is high
uncertainty and low conflict. Team members are generally on their best
behavior, and tend to behave independently.

The forming phase of team building can be a bit stressful for the team
members, but is very important in laying a strong foundation for future
teamwork. Teams in the forming stage must be careful to avoid cliques,
or subgroups from forming within the team. Subgroups may or may not have
a negative impact on the team's performance. It is best for the team
leader-manager to carefully observe the subgroups behavior to ensure it
is acting in the best interests of the team.

This stage of team development is crucial and it is suggested that teams
in the forming stage participate in team-building activities (as
discussed later in this chapter). The below list is a non-exhaustive
list of behaviors and outcomes that characterize this phase and which
high performing team's generally complete.

1.  Define roles of team members
2.  Set the goal(s) of the team
3.  Establish a mission
4.  Determine directive leadership (this step may have been completed
    through an organization's structure)
5.  Occasionally meet to work on common tasks
6.  Team members decide to be on the team
7.  Figure out how to build trust within the team
8.  Establish expectations for the team and its members
9.  Form relationships, make contact, and bond
10. Create and agree to a team charter

## Storming

The storming stage of team development is a time for team members' ideas
are considered and in competition. Individuals will try new ideas and
push for power and position in the team. Agendas are quickly displayed.
People may want to modify the team's mission. There can often be little
team spirit and lots of personal attacks. Roles are expressed and
refined. Those team members who are conflict avoidance will often
participate little in this phase due to its inherent nature. Conversely,
those that are not conflict avoiding will often participate more during
this stage than others.

If this phase is not carefully managed it can get out of control and be
destructive to the effectiveness of the team. It is especially important
for team members to manage this phase with patience and tolerance. The
diversity and differences of the team members should be emphasized as
well as a common goal. There are some teams that never move from this
stage to the next because it can be de-motivating. Often cliques,
subgroups, and splinter groups will form.

For teams to move from the storming stage the norming stage they
typically do the following tasks.

1.  Recognize and publicize team wins
2.  Display active listening skills among members
3.  Make time to spend with the team
4.  Build trust by honoring commitments
5.  Provide and accept honest open feedback
6.  Create and maintain a positive supporting atmosphere
7.  Team leader asks for and expects results
8.  Team leader constantly reinforces proper team behavior
9.  Team leader facilitates the group for wins
10. Buy into goals, actions, and activities
11. Have a "We can succeed" mindset

## Norming

Only few teams reach the norming stage. Member agree about the roles and
processes required to solve problems. Members of the team adjust their
work habits and behavior in order to accommodate other team members and
make the work on the team more smooth and natural. Team members work
through this phase by agreeing on rules, values, professional behavior,
and methods. As team members learn more about each other their
perspectives about each other change (for the better or for the worse).

In this stage success occurs and the team has all the resources to meet
their objectives. Within the team, members will develop an appreciation
for each other as well as build trust. The team's purpose is accepted by
the members. The team leader will support and reinforce correct team
behavior. The team is creative, has more motivation, and commitment from
all members. If there are any hidden agendas, they will typically be
exposed as team members solidify team norms. Decisions are made through
consensus building and negotiation.

There are some common pitfalls that must be avoided in this phase.
Creativity may be stifled if norming behaviors become too strong, or the
group may begin to foster and display groupthink. Team members often
fail to challenge each other, or issues that may prevent the team from
performing to their optimal ability. Some team members can feel
threatened by the large amount of responsibility they are given --
causing them resist and revert back to storming stage. To prevent this
from happening team members must be aware of the common pitfalls that
may occur during this stage and take appropriate steps to ensure they
don't.

Teams that want to enter the performing stage should take the following
action steps during the norming stage.

Maintain traditions Distribute responsibility evenly Communicate at all
times Perform self-evaluations Express praise for other members
commitment and work Share leadership based on unique skill sets
Responsibility sharing Commit time to the team Set new higher goals to
keep the team excelling Actively delegate responsibilities Share rewards
and successes

## Performing

During the performing stage teams become high performing teams. Teams
collectively work to solve problems and get the job done without the
need for outside supervision or unnecessary conflict. The team is
focused, effective, and achieves extraordinary results. There is a
collaborative environment in which team members use their resources most
efficiently. Team members are autonomous, competent decision makers.
Team leaders focus more on strategy as well as communicating successes
and areas of opportunity because the team takes on the responsibility of
decision making.

Teams in this stage have the ability to recognize weaknesses and
strengthen them. Team members will experience tremendous personal
growth. Members care about each other, thus creating a unique team
identity. Any arguments, disagreements, disputes, and the like will be
channeled toward making the team stronger. Finally, performing teams
utilize their established communication protocols and action plans.

## Adjourning

Teams cannot exist indefinitely if there is overarching goal to achieve.
If the team has met its objective, it is usually disbanded. Tuckman
added the adjourning stage as a final stage to his four (now five) stage
process. High performing teams typically have positive team experiences.
Therefore, this stage is sometimes referred to as the mourning stage by
teams that must break up.

## Conclusion

There are four main stages of team development -- forming, storming,
norming, and performing. Each stage has its own set of characteristics,
but there may also be overlap among the phases. Teams that make it to
the norming and performing stages have done so because the team members
were willing to trust other members and care for them. Performing teams
also are able to assess the team's effectiveness and make decisions on
how improve in the future -- all autonomously.

The certainty of change in a team (whether it be objectives, members, or
other) will almost inevitably cause the team to revert back to earlier
steps. Long standing teams will periodically go through these cycles as
changing circumstances require.

## Links

<http://www.e3smallschools.org/documents/TuckmansTeamDevelopmentModel.pdf>

## References

Barret, D.J. (2006) _Leadership Communication._
McGraw Hill Irwin.

Rickards, T., & Moger,S.T., (1999) Handbook for creative team leaders,
Aldershot, Hants: Gower

Rickards, T., & Moger, S., (2000) 'Creative leadership processes in
project team development: An alternative to Tuckman's stage model',
British Journal of Management, Part 4, pp273-283

Tuckman, B. W. (1965). Developmental sequence in small groups.
Psychological Bulletin, 63, 384-399.

Tuckman, B. W. & Jensen, M. A. (1977). Stages of small-group development
revisited. Group Org. Studies 2:419-27

White A, (2009) From Comfort Zone to Performance Management. White &
MacLean Publishing.