# Managing Groups and Teams/Conflict

## Conflict Defined

Conflict can exist between factions or groups within a team, with a
leader or manager, and with other teams or departments within the
company. It has been defined in numerously different ways and has come
to hold several connotations. The following is an example of a
relatively broad dictionary entry, where ***conflict*** is defined in
the following way(s):

**Conflict**

**1**. To come into collision or disagreement; be contradictory, at
variance, or in opposition; clash: The account of one eyewitness
conflicted with that of the other. My class conflicts with my going to
the concert.

**2**. To fight or contend; do battle.

**3**. A fight, battle, or struggle, esp. a prolonged struggle; strife.

**4**. Controversy; quarrel: conflicts between parties.

**5**. Discord of action, feeling, or effect; antagonism or opposition,
as of interests or principles: a conflict of ideas.

**6**. A striking together; collision.

**7**. Incompatibility or interference, as of one idea, desire, event,
or activity with another: a conflict in the schedule.

**8**. Psychiatry. a mental struggle arising from opposing demands or
impulses.

### _**Conflict in Groups and Teams**_

Conflict inevitably arises in one form or another in varying degrees due
to the mere group and/or team dynamics of having people with differing
backgrounds, ideas, and potential agendas coming together in an effort
to accomplish a common goal. Conflict is generally considered to be
negative and something to be avoided. Numerous frameworks such as
LaFasto and Larson\'s CONNECT model have been developed to help rid
groups of negative conflict. However, conflict isn't always negative and
there are circumstances in which positive conflict is necessary in order
to prevent compliance tendencies and the potentially disastrous effects
of *groupthink*.

In the following sections, the positive and negative realms of conflict
will be outlined and further detailed in an effort to narrow the scope
of conflict while helping to navigate some of the more negative
connotations that easily come to mind when thinking about conflict. Use
all positive words and actions and you will get the same back, respect
others and they will respect you.

## Types of Conflict that a Team Can Face

***Positive conflict**vs**Negative conflict***

### **Positive conflict**

![](Challenger_explosion.jpg "Challenger_explosion.jpg"){width="400"}
Positive conflict is the notion that a healthy discourse may exist in
the disagreement among group members regarding personality traits,
styles, or characteristics or the content of their ideas, decisions or
task processes which involves a pathway towards resolution. Any
tolerable amount of conflict is vital to group success in order to avoid
groupthink and to generate more innovative ideas among potentially and
vastly differing members of the group. In addition, positive conflict
generates buy-in and offers elements of ownership and a sense of
cooperation and enhanced membership to all of the group members.
Positive conflict reduces the effects of conformity pressures and
groupthink. Groupthink occurs when conformity and compliance pressures
are exaggerated, and it generally occurs in the absence of task
conflict. One of the most devastating examples of groupthink occurred on
the morning of January 28th, 1986 in which the Challenger space
shuttle exploded over the
Atlantic Ocean after the failure of an O-ring. This failure resulted
from the O-ring being unable to withstand extreme temperatures in which
the O-ring had never been truly tested. Numerous NASA staff members were
aware of the possible failure of the O-ring in extreme temperatures, and
they were also aware of the ramifications should the O-ring break.
However, the decision making process regarding whether or not the
shuttle was safe to launch was riddled with flaws that ultimately
created a breeding ground for groupthink. To illustrate, the Challenger
launch had been postponed several times before this scheduled date, and
there was direct pressure from NASA to approve the launch. There was
also media pressure as they were scheduled to film the launch, since it
would be the first time a teacher was sent into space. NASA officials
feared public ridicule if the launch was delayed again, and as early as
six days prior to the launch, NASA put the pressure on. They told the
inspectors to stop thinking like inspectors and start thinking like
managers, and they rationalized that there was no conclusive evidence to
suggest that the O-ring would not work. As a result, the inspectors
bowed to conformity pressures and gave the approval to launch. The
resulting launch and subsequent death of all 7 crew members aboard the
Challenger shook the nation and was not the front page news that NASA
had hoped for.

Other disasters that occurred due to conformity pressures include the
Bay of Pigs, the Tenerife plane crash disaster, the holocaust, and many
others. To test how strong the effects of conformity pressures are on
less cohesive groups and among individuals that were only recently
introduced, Solomon Asch
conducted his famous conformity experiment in which a group of random
participants were shown a picture of the following lines, and they were
asked which line in the second group of lines is approximately the same
height as the first line shown.

!Example of the cards shown to the participants of the
study{width="300"}

Individuals that were a part of the experiment (confederates to the
experiment) selected an obviously inappropriate line such as line "B" as
their answer. The results were astounding in which the remaining
individual in the group (not a confederate to the experiment) also
selected line "B" as their answer due to perceived pressures to conform.
Conformity occurs as a result of individuals' desire to be liked and
their need to be right. Therefore, they tend to fall victim to false
consensus biases and generally
bring their behavior in line with the group's expectations and beliefs.
So how are you to know if your group is falling prey to conformity
pressures and groupthink? Here are some common symptoms:

:\*Illusions of invulnerability

:\*Rationalization & justification

:\*Illusion of group morality

:\*Stereotyping the out-group as weaker, evil, or stupid

:\*Direct or indirect peer or supervisory pressures

:\*Self-censorship by team members

:\*Illusions of unanimity

First, realizing that you and your group are affected by or susceptible
to conformity pressures and groupthink is very important. Next, in order
to create a norm of conflict, it is essential that a feeling of
psychology safety is present. This can be instated by encouraging
objections, criticisms, and altering perspectives. Also, as a leader,
one should avoid making clear statements about your preferences, create
subgroups, have outside experts come in to observe the decision making
process, and re-examine the next best alternatives once a decision has
been reached. Finally, limiting the size of the group and assigning
roles that make conflict commonplace (such as a "Devil's
Advocate") will help to discourage and
minimize compliance pressures. After the Challenger explosion, NASA took
similar steps to avoid future disasters in which they instituted a
verbal and video recorded affirmation from several NASA officials that
certify flight readiness. Furthermore, NASA\'s managers instituted a
veto policy in which anyone at any level is given the authority to stop
the flight process.

In addition to avoiding groupthink and conformity pressures, positive
conflict is more likely to generate a sense of membership, involvement,
and enthusiasm from all group members and is also more likely to lead to
the infusion of more creative and innovative ideas. This results from
each team member having the opportunity to voice his or her own
perspective on the issues being decided by the group. When individuals
feel more involved in the decision making process, they are more likely
to state a high satisfaction level with their team and are additionally
more likely to want to continue working as a member of that team.

Creating a heterogeneous team is another
way to encourage diverse perspectives, opinions, and ideas.
Heterogeneous groups also have a broader knowledge base resulting from a
variety of experiences, backgrounds, skills, and achievements.
Comparable to other investment strategies that are somewhat more risky
(in terms of the increased likelihood for ensuing conflict levels),
diverse teams stand a greater chance for potential return and favorable
results as well.

### **Negative conflict**

!Interactions{width="250"} In
diverse and heterogeneous teams, negative conflict has a tendency to
emerge in varying degrees due to the mere dynamics of having diverse
individuals with differing backgrounds, ideas, and potential agendas
coming together. Negative conflict can arise in several different arenas
including the following:

:\*Conflict can arise between factions or groups within a team.

::\*Subgroups, or factions, can develop within a team. Each group has
their own opinions and will stick together and oppose other factions
within the team. Organizations can be greatly divided by such factions

:\*Conflict can develop between team members and the leader of the team.

::\*Team members can disagree with the team leader. This can lead to
refusal to follow the direction of the team leader. There may be
conflict with management because management has not given clear goals to
the team or may not be supporting the team. The organization could have
a culture that does not allow teams to work effectively.

:\*Conflict can form between the different teams or departments in the
organization.

Unlike positive conflict, negative conflict is better if avoided and
must be swiftly addressed and resolved when it does present itself. Due
to the dangerous nature and destructive effects negative conflict has on
productivity and moral, it may potentially lead to Human Resource
Management issues or even a lawsuit. In order to set the stage so that
interpersonal conflict is avoided or at least minimized, firms can
prevent the establishment of in-groups and out-groups, foster open
communication and trust, understand the various personality styles that
comprise a group, and coach effective communication skills and
perspective taking skills to team members.

An example of a firm, where the formation of in-groups and out-groups
fostered so much negative conflict, was the Lehman Brothers firm, this
in-group and out-group culture lead to the selling of the firm. Within
this firm, a strong separation between Traders and Bankers literally
divided the corporation and led to its ultimate demise. Differences
between the functions were exaggerated and there was a perception that
each of the divisions was pursuing its own unique and more valuable
objectives. There was not a unified vision within the company and
personality conflict was commonplace. The Traders believed that the
Bankers were lazy \"Ivy League\" graduates who were awarded greater
benefits simply to uphold the status-quo. The Bankers perceived the
Brokers as less intelligent, blue collar workers who deserved less
compensation and rewards. Creating in-groups and out-groups in a company
leads to an unhealthy competition between the groups. Each faction ends
up battling for a greater share of the company's limited resources and
an "us" vs. "them" rational emerges, while energy is wasted on trying to
prove which group is better rather than to maintain common goals. As
demonstrated by the infamous Robbers Cave Experiment conducted by
Muzafer Sherif, working toward a common goal and maintaining common
purpose is essential for group unity and contributes to the reduction of
personal conflict. In this experiment, 22 boy scouts were assigned to
two separate camps and neither group was aware of the other\'s
existence. Each boy formed a strong identification with his own group,
and the scouts were even allowed to select a group name. The first
contact between the two groups was to play a competitive sport and
friction emerged between the groups almost immediately. During the
resolution phase of the experiment, a task was developed in which the
two groups were forced to cooperate and work together toward achieving a
common purpose that neither group could achieve alone. A broken-down
truck that needed to be towed back to the camp was staged, and the two
groups had to combine their man-power to tow the truck. By the end of
the experiment, the in-groups and out-groups had merged, and the entire
group even insisted upon riding back home on the same bus together. In
addition to forming a super-ornate goal for group members to achieve,
pointing out what group members have in common and defusing stereotypes
is a way to prevent the formation of an out-group.

Fostering support, trust, and open communication is also essential if
relationship conflicts are to be reduced and quickly resolved. Open
communication can be established by the following:

:\***Establish ground rules.**

::\*Take turns when talking and do not interrupt. Ensure that each team
member has equal time when stating their perspective. Listen for
something new and say bring something new to the discussion. Avoid
restating the facts and "talking in circles." Avoid power plays and
eliminate status or titles from the discussion

:\***Listen compassionately**

::\*Avoid thinking of a counterargument while the other person is
speaking. Listen to the other person's perspective rather than listening
to your own thoughts. Don't make an effort to remember points.

:\***Point out the advantages of resolving the conflict.**

:\***Maintain a neutral vantage point and be willing to be persuaded.**

:\***Avoid all-or-none statements such as "always" and "never" and point
out exceptions when these statements are used.**

::\*(IE: What does it look like when Marketing does consult sales before
acting?)

:\***Create a goal of discovery rather than of winning or persuading.**

:\***Be alert to common goals and where goals overlap as each party is
communicating their perspective.**

:\***Use clarifying statements to ensure the other party feels
understood and listened to such as, "What I heard you say is that you
feel unappreciated and that you lack vital feedback to help you perform,
is this correct?"**

:\***Help team members to separate the problem from the person.**

:\***Use techniques such as role-playing, putting oneself in the
competitor's shoes, or conducting war games. Such techniques create
fresh perspectives and engage team members.**

:\***Team members should recognize each other for having expressed his
view and feelings.**

::\*Thanking one another recognizes the personal risk the individual
took in breaking from group think and should be viewed as an expression
of trust and commitment toward the team.

:\*\'\'\'Help each team member to understand one anothers\' perspective,
and help them to re-frame the situation.

::\*The exact same situation can often be viewed differently by several
individuals. To illustrate, what did you see first in the picture below,
the young woman or the old woman?

!Which do you see?{width="200"}

Once a team has received coaching on how to communicate effectively,
address conflict situations immediately as they arise. Letting tense
situations fester will only allow time for animosity to polarize and
grow. Helping team members to reframe the problem and see it from the
other individual's perspective can also be accomplished directly, via
cross-training and job shadowing which allows each team member to draw
from a frame of reference by walking in the other team member\'s shoes.
Utilizing the Big 5 personality
test descriptions will also add
an element of understanding to the group dynamic. To illustrate, if
Jimmy is highly extroverted, neurotic, and conscientious, it may help
Tim, who is not quite as extroverted as than Jim and who is more
agreeable, to understand where Jimmy's seemingly endless ability to
voice his irritation with others is stemming from, and he may not take
it as personally. In addition, Jimmy may better understand and get less
irritated with Tim's perceived inability to take initiative and make
decisions efficiently.

Finally, understanding common stereotypes and mental shortcuts that are
used when passing judgment on others will make team members more aware
of how these shortcuts are leading to bias conclusions. The common
cognitive biases and a brief description are as follows:

:\*Self Fulfilling Prophecy:
the tendency to engage in behaviors that elicit results which will
(consciously or subconsciously) confirm our beliefs.

:\*Halo Effect: the tendency for a person\'s
positive or negative traits to \"spill over\" from one area of their
personality to another in others\' perceptions of them

:\*Primacy Effect: the tendency to weigh
initial events more than subsequent events.

:\*Recency Effect: the tendency to weigh
recent events more than earlier events

:\*Availability Heuristic: a
biased prediction, due to the tendency to focus on the most salient and
emotionally-charged outcome.

:\*Selective Perception:
selectively attend to data that supports your conclusion while omitting
valid evidence that does not.

:\*Actor-Observer Bias: the tendency
for explanations for other individual\'s behaviors to overemphasize the
influence of their personality and underemphasize the influence of their
situation. This is coupled with the opposite tendency for the self in
that one\'s explanations for their own behaviors overemphasize their
situation and underemphasize the influence of their personality.

:\*Hindsight Bias: sometimes called the
\"I-knew-it-all-along\" effect, the inclination to see past events as
being predictable.

:\*Illusory Correlation: beliefs
that inaccurately suppose a relationship between a certain type of
action and an effect

:\*Egocentric Bias: occurs when people
claim more responsibility for themselves for the results of a joint
action than an outside observer would.

:\*False Consensus Bias: the
tendency for people to overestimate the degree to which others agree
with them.

:\*Fundamental Attribution
Bias: the tendency for
people to over-emphasize personality-based explanations for behaviors
observed in others while under-emphasizing the role and power of
situational influences on the same behavior

:\*Just World Phenomenon: the
tendency for people to believe that the world is \"just\" and therefore
people \"get what they deserve.\"

:\*Self Serving Bias: the tendency to
claim more responsibility for successes than failures. It may also
manifest itself as a tendency for people to evaluate ambiguous
information in a way beneficial to their interests

:\*Illusion of Transparency:
people overestimate others\' ability to know them, and they also
overestimate their ability to know others.

:\*Ingroup Bias: the tendency for people to
give preferential treatment to others they perceive to be members of
their own groups.

**"...If you form a picture in your mind of what you would like to be
and hold it there long enough, you will soon become exactly as you have
been thinking."** --William James,
Professor of Psychology, Harvard
University.

## Why is Conflict Resolution Important in a Team Setting?

Whether we embrace it or avoid it, conflict is an inherent part of the
human condition. Unlike certain tasks or responsibilities, conflict is
not isolated to one or another aspect of life. With conflict looming all
about us, why should we even bother trying to resolve it? Or, if
conflict is inherent to being human, is it then presumptuous to even
attempt its resolution? We propose that, in the vast majority of
instances of team conflict, avoidance is a worse solution than
engagement with the conflicting situation. Moreover, avoided conflict
will lead to less optimal solutions and may even prevent the team from
finishing a project. Thus, from a manager's perspective, it is a simple
equation of a cost/benefits analysis in that the cost to the
organization is greater when teams avoid conflict than when they engage
it. In this chapter we will discuss the symptoms of conflict and
recommend solutions for their resolution.

Conflict absorbs team resources that could be better utilized working
towards the team's goals. As discussed, managers should manage conflict
in a way that leads the team towards completion of team goals.

## What are the Symptoms of Team Conflict?

Almost everyone has endured the experience of being part of a team that
was plagued with conflict. Whether in a large group that erupts in anger
and can't finish a meeting, or a small group of two or three individuals
that resort to backbiting and gossiping to vent frustration over a
conflict, everyone has been a part of a team where conflict has gotten
out of control. With this in mind, there are several symptoms of
conflict that can be identified in groups which can help groups to
recognize and manage conflict before it tears them apart. By identifying
the following symptoms related to communication, trust, and opposing
agendas, the team leader can identify conflict before it erupts. As you
read through these symptoms, think of the teams that you are a part of
and look for symptoms that exist in your team.

One common symptom of conflict is a lack of
communication or a lack of respectful
communication. This is most often seen when teams fail to have
meaningful meetings. Most often, non-communicating meetings are
characterized by team members sitting and listening to what the boss has
to say. Often chatter or silence prevails in teams. A lack of
communication can also be noted when team members don't get along, and
so refuse to talk to each other. These feuds create barriers within
teams and prevent communication in the team. A lack of communication or
disrespectful communication leads to a lack of trust, which is another
symptom of team conflict. Teams that fail to produce desired results
often lack the trust in one another as team members necessary to
succeed. Without trust in a team, verbal or non-verbal conflict becomes
the norm of the team. Team members spend more energy protecting their
own positions and jobs then they do producing what is required for the
team's success. When trust erodes in a team, the habit of blaming others
becomes the norm as individuals try to protect themselves. Team members
become enemies that compete against each other rather than allies that
build and help one another to achieve a common goal. Teams that lack
trust often gossip about other members or have frequent side
conversations after meetings to discuss opposing opinions. Such activity
sucks strength out of the team and its purpose.

Another symptom of team conflict can be seen when team members have
opposing agendas. This is not to be confused with members who have
different opinions. Having different opinions in a group can be very
healthy if managed correctly because it can create better ideas and ways
of getting the job done. However, when team members have opposing
agendas, more is at stake than differing opinions; it is two individuals
fiercely committed to the exact opposite approach. Opposing agendas can
create confusion in team members and can cause them to lose sight of
their role in the team and the team's final goal. Teams must work toward
a common goal in order to be successful. Extreme effort must be made to
reconcile differences, or such a team can look forward to failure.

## What are Appropriate Solutions to Conflict?

As mentioned above, conflict is a natural and necessary element of a
healthy team experience. If a team never experiences conflict, it is
less likely to be as productive as a team that does experience conflict.
This is especially true if the task that a team is attempting to
complete is complex in nature or highly detailed. Without having members
question specific actions, decisions, or the specifics of the proposed
solution, it may appear to the team that there is only one way in which
to solve the problem or complete the task.

One way in which a team can avoid being unproductive is by selecting
members with different backgrounds. This can be difficult because people
often assume that individuals who think similarly and get along with one
another will be more productive when working together. But this is not
necessarily true. In many cases having groups of people who think alike
and are not willing to voice their disagreement can be detrimental, or
even dangerous. Popular examples of this group think phenomenon are
noted in the Kennedy Administration's disaster with regards to the Bay
of Pigs, or those involved with the Challenger shuttle launch.
Differences among team members should however, be task orientated and
not personal or relationship oriented. Relationship conflicts are rarely
productive. If potential members of a team have a history of conflict
due to relationships and not in relation to tasks, one or both should
probably not be chosen as a team member. Additionally, peacekeepers
should also be avoided, unless the team environment fosters a very safe
atmosphere where the peacekeeper will feel comfortable enough to speak
out in the team setting. In this case, a difference in opinion could be
beneficial, but it might not be presented due to the member's
disproportionate desire to avoid conflict.

Avoiding the potential for group think, relationship conflicts, and
peacekeepers in choosing team members will help to promote healthy
conflict. But commitment is equally important. If team members are
individually or collectively indifferent toward the overall goal, they
probably will not perform well. A lack of commitment can also lead to a
lack of conflict. If the team is committed to the overall goal and
members are well chosen, there can be a healthy dose of conflict in the
process to complete the task.

When conflict does occur, it is important to address it immediately.
Although developing a solution to the conflict may take time,
acknowledging it will help to ensure that it can become productive to
the team. "Whatever the problem, effective teams identify, raise, and
resolve it. If it's keeping them from reaching their goal, effective
teams try to do something about it. They don't ignore it and hope it
goes away." By not addressing conflict, the leader risks sending the
message that conflict is unmanageable and cause vested members to become
complacent or feel their input is not valued. In the worst scenario, a
conflict that is not resolved could go from being task orientated to
personal.

## How Can a Team Prevent Negative Conflict?

Conflict may be inevitable on a team and may even have a positive
effect, "the absence of conflict is not harmony, it's apathy." However,
most of us have had experience with the crippling side of conflict. In
this section we offer insight into how other teams have successfully
managed conflict and make recommendations for mechanisms to put into
place in order to prevent harmful conflict. How do successful teams
manage conflict?

Three business professors, who studied teams which had learned how to
successfully "fight" in a team without allowing the conflict to become
destructive, found some common themes as to how such teams function.
First, successful teams worked with more, rather than less information
and debated on the basis of facts. Second, teams developed multiple
alternatives to enrich the level of debate. Third, productive teams
shared commonly agreed upon goals and objectives. Fourth, teams injected
humor into the decision-making process. Fifth, teams maintained a
balanced power structure. And sixth, teams resolved issues without
forcing consensus.

In another study, which surveyed 15,000 team members and their
assessments of their team mates, two professors found that the most
important behaviors in team relationships are openness and
supportiveness, "Regardless of whether it was a working relationship
with a peer, a superior, or a direct report, the result was the same.
The two factors identified as most important were openness and
supportiveness." Moreover, the authors identify specifically what is
meant by these two adjectives within a team context: openness "refers to
the ability to surface and deal with issues objectively," while
supportiveness "refers to bringing out the best thinking and attitude in
the other person."

From the above insights into successful teams, we start to see that such
teams put a high value on fact-based decisions and are able to set up
mechanisms that bring out the best in each team member and facilitate
information sharing. Drawing from these insights, then, what specific
measures, should a new leader or newly formed team put into place to
ensure the team can withstand conflict and even gain the benefits of
creativity that comes out of conflict?

## How Do Teams Prevent Damaging Conflict?

In order to prevent damaging conflict, the team leader must lay a
conflict-friendly foundation for the team. The following approach will
help the team leader to set the stage for conflict that is creative and
productive:

1.  Set a clear goal for the team.
2.  Make expectations for team members explicit.
3.  Assemble a heterogeneous team, including diverse ages, genders,
    functional backgrounds, and industry experience.
4.  Meet together as a team regularly and often. Team members that don't
    know one another well doesn't know positions on the issues,
    impairing their ability to argue effectively. Frequent interaction
    builds the mutual confidence and familiarity team members require
    expressing dissent.
5.  Assign roles such as devil's advocate and sky-gazing visionary and
    change these roles up from meeting to meeting. This is important to
    ensure all sides of an issue have been considered.
6.  Use techniques such as role-playing, putting oneself in the
    competitor's shoes, or conducting war games. Such techniques create
    fresh perspectives and engage team members.
7.  Actively manage conflict. Don't let the team acquiesce too soon or
    too easily. Identify and treat apathy early, and don't confuse a
    lack of conflict with agreement.

## Resolving Conflict

Interpersonal conflict should be managed and resolved before it
degenerates into verbal assault and irreparable damage to a team.
Dealing with interpersonal conflict can be a difficult and uncomfortable
process. Usually, as team members, we use carefully worded statements to
avoid frictions when confronting conflict.

The first step to resolving interpersonal conflict is in acknowledging
the existence of the interpersonal conflict. Recognizing the conflict
allows team members to build common ground by putting the conflict
within the context of the larger goal of the team and the organization.
Moreover, the larger goal can help by giving team members a motive for
resolving the conflict.

The Rosetta Stone for dealing with conflict is communication. As team
members we all understand the inevitability of interpersonal conflicts.
Moreover, as we have established above, open and supportive
communication is vital to a high performing team. One way to achieve
this is by separating the problem from the person. Problems can be
debated without damaging working relationships. When interpersonal
conflict occurs, all sides of the issue should be recognized without
finger-pointing or blaming. Above all, when team member gets yelled at
or blamed for something, it has the effect of silencing the whole team.
It gives the signal to everyone that dissent is not allowed, and, as we
know, dissent is one of the most fertile resources for new ideas.

When faced with conflict, it is natural for team members to become
defensive. However defensiveness usually makes it more difficult to
resolve a conflict. A conflict-friendly team environment must encourage
effective listening. Effective listening includes listening to one
another attentively, without interruption (this includes not having side
conversations, doodling, or vacant stares). The fundamentals to
resolving team conflict include the following elements:

1.  Prior to stating one's view, a speaker should seek to understand
    what others have said. This can be done in a few clarifying
    sentences,
2.  Seek to make explicit what the opposing sides have in common. This
    helps to reinforce what is shared between the disputants,
3.  Whether or not an agreement is reached, team members should thank
    the other for having expressed his view and feelings. Thanking the
    other recognizes the personal risk the individual took in breaking
    from group think and should be viewed as an expression of trust and
    commitment toward the team.

### How Can Teams Resolve Conflict Between Factions?

In resolving conflict between factions, the team leader should start by
bringing the groups together and acknowledging there is a conflict. The
team leader should make sure all group members are clear about the group
goal. Not only should each group member understand what the goal is,
they each need to be willing to work toward achieving it.

Set ground rules for the group if this has not been done. An important
rule to include is to eliminate outside politicking. When disagreements
or issues arise, they should be discussed within the group. Factions
should not have separate discussions about the problem. If ground rules
have already been established, discuss whether all agree with them and
are willing to follow them. Discuss the methods and processes that will
be used to reach the team goal. Again, it is important to get all team
members working together towards the common goal.

The team leader should stay alert to one faction forcing a particular
solution. If such an instance arises, those forcing a solution should be
asked to articulate the reason behind their thinking. Once the thinking
has been articulated, there can be open discussion as to the merits and
drawbacks to the proposed solution.

### What Should a Team Leader Do To Resolve Conflict and Promote Team Performance?

Team leaders have the responsibility of resolving conflict within their
teams. There are things that team leaders can do to make a team where
conflict resolution occurs naturally. One thing that team leaders can do
in their groups to resolve conflict is to set up team rules from the
outset. As discussed earlier, such team rules can guide team members to
resolve conflict between themselves, rather than going to the leader to
resolve all conflict. Team leaders should foster an environment in their
teams that is safe and positive. Such an environment will help foster
communication and will help team members to resolve conflicts. Team
leaders can also provide retreats and other activities away from the
office that will help to build team unity and trust. These factors will
also strengthen a team and help to avoid negative conflict before it
begins.

Team leaders can also strictly monitor performance issues in their
group. Performance issues that go unresolved create relationship
conflict and a lack of motivation and morale. Performance issues in
individual team members must be addressed immediately in order to avoid
issues in the group. This doesn't mean that team leaders always need to
eliminate poor performing team members immediately. Sometimes it is the
responsibility of the team leader to provide extra training to team
members when they're struggling, to help them meet expectations. When
attitudes need to be changed, awareness can be brought to how a team
member's attitude negatively affects the team and invitations can be
given for attitudes to improve.

In this process it is vital for the team leader to remember that
accountability must be held with team members. Without accountability in
a team, focus on the goal will not occur and teams won't produce desired
outcomes. Accountability promotes achievement and helps team members to
reach their potential. A lack of accountability can produce great task
conflict and relationship conflict. Full accountability can help produce
a feeling of fulfillment and achievement and teams will achieve their
optimal performance.

### How Can a Team Member Resolve a Conflict with the Team Leader?

If a team member has a conflict with the team leader, the first step is
to identify the type of conflict. If the conflict relates to the goal of
the team, then it would appear that the goal is not clear. The conflict
can also relate to the processes being used by the team. In either
situation, the team member can bring up the issue in a group meeting.
Ask that the goal be clarified so that all team members understand what
it is. If processes were never discussed and decided on by the team, now
would be an appropriate time to do so. If the team leader does not want
to discuss these issues in a team meeting, the team member should
approach the leader separately to discuss. The team member should
explain the issue and why the current situation is not working. Again,
ask that the team be allowed to discuss these issues.

If the conflict is interpersonal between the team leader and a team
member, the issue should be discussed privately between the two. The
team member should go to the leader and explain that there appears to be
conflict and that he or she would like to resolve it. LaFasto and Larson
outline an approach that can be used to resolve conflict called the
Connect Model. The steps involved in the model are as follows:

1.  Commit to the relationship.
2.  Optimize safety.
3.  Narrow to one issue.
4.  Neutralize defensiveness.
5.  Explain and echo.
6.  Change one behavior each.
7.  Track it!

These steps provide a great review of what has been discussed throughout
this chapter and will help to resolve the issue between a team leader
and team member.

In summary, team conflict is an important and integral part of any team
that exists. As we have outlined it in this chapter, conflict, if
approached effectively and managed appropriately, can exponentially work
in the favor of any team. Appropriate management of the relative type of
team conflict at hand is critical for teams to be successful. This
chapter has discussed several of the aspects of team conflict and how
they can be best managed and potentially resolved. These concepts will
help teams improve their functionality and dynamic effectiveness in an
effort to reach their ultimate goals in reaching to be a high performing
team.

## References

-   Greenhalgh, Leonard. \"Managing Conflict.\" Sloan Management Review
    (Summer 2006): 45-51.
-   Lafasto, Frank, and Carl Larson. \"When teams Work Best\". Thousand
    Oaks, CA.: Sage Publications, 2001.

-   Siegel, Matt. \"The Perils of Culture Conflict.\" Fortune. November
    1998: 257-262.
-   Simons, Tony L., and Randall S. Peterson. \"Task Conflict and
    Relationship Conflict in Top Management Teams: The Pivotal Role of
    Intragroup Trust\". Journal of Applied Psychology. 85.1 (2000):
    102-111.
-   Taylor, Susan M. \"Manage Conflict Through Negotiation and
    Mediation.\" The Blackwell Handbook of Principles of Organizational
    Behavior, 2003. .
-   Weingart, Laurie, and Karen A. Jehn. \"Manage Intra-Team Conflict
    Through Collaboration.\" The Blackwell Handbook of Principles of
    Organizational Behavior, 2003. .


# Managing Groups and Teams/Feedback in Teams

# Introduction

Feedback is an evaluative response about an action or process given to
the original source. There are many situations in which feedback is
appropriate and necessary. Working in teams provides a variety of
opportunities to give feedback to any number of recipients. It also
provides an opportunity to receive feedback from others. Before giving
feedback there are a variety of factors that must be considered,
including:

• The goal of giving feedback

• When to give feedback

• The recipient(s) of feedback

• Techniques & tools to ensure effective feedback

• Response to feedback

In the case of groups, roles and hierarchies may make peer to peer
feedback more difficult. In this case, it is even more important to make
sure feedback is given in the most effective manner.

## Common Goals of Giving Feedback

The first step in giving feedback is to determine the goal or the reason
for the feedback. This will vary depending upon the situation. Defining
the goal will help shape the process. Feedback is an educational
opportunity for both the sender and the receiver.

Feedback can be used to praise or show appreciation. For example, it is
a chance to tell the recipient that an idea he had was exceptional, that
he did well in a meeting, or that his hard work has been noticed. But
feedback is not always positive. It can be a tool to educate the
receiver about his negative behavior or performance, such as habitual
lateness or that he has gone over budget on a project. Negative feedback
is also called corrective feedback.

Improving communication is another common goal of feedback which can
lead to several great benefits such as building, maintaining and testing
relationships, gathering information, and keeping one's perceptions in
check.

One of the most common goals of feedback is to influence others'
behavior. However, feedback is not a good tool for getting a person to
change. Edith Whitfield Seashore noted that "even though \[interpersonal
behavior\] may influence future behavior, \[it\] doesn't necessarily
control anything. We often receive the same feedback over and over,
without anything changing significantly. And we often give feedback
without anyone else changing" \[1\]. Feedback should be used to
influence others to want to start, stop, or modify a behavior. Precisely
given feedback can help a person to see the effects of a behavior and
empower the receiver to want to change the behavior for the better.

## When to give feedback

Determining when to give feedback can be difficult, but it is usually
best to give feedback in a timely manner. This is especially true of
behavior or performance feedback. If a person or team completed a
project as asked it is important to let them know that their effort is
noticed in order to encourage the behavior to continue. On the flip
side, if a person or team is exhibiting poor behavior or performance it
is important to inform them of the disapproval and encourage them to
improve the behavior. This is especially important in teams as the
behavior and performance of one can snowball into a larger problem if it
is not addressed early on.

## Recipients of feedback

Feedback is appropriate for many different audiences such as team leader
to group, team member to peer, and group to team leader. The feedback
approach will differ depending upon the audience.

Working in teams provides additional opportunities to talk with the team
about its behavior, performance or goals. However, not all team feedback
should be given in the audience of the team. On occasion it may be
appropriate to pull a team member aside to give one on one feedback,
especially if the feedback is related to that person's negative behavior
or performance. However, feedback as is relates to the group's
performance, accomplishment of goals, or cohesion should be brought up
to the entire group. This ensures that all team members receive the same
message, and the group can work toward solutions to the problem if
necessary.

Providing performance feedback is effective in improving team
performance. But is the most effective way to administer feedback on an
individual level, group level, or both? DeShon, Kozlowski,Schmidt,
Milner & Wiechmann studied this issue in 2003 \[3\]. The groups that
were given feedback aimed at the individual showed an increased
individual performance within the team. Likewise, the groups which were
given feedback targeted at the team showed more successful team
performance. A third type of group was given both individual and team
feedback. The study predicted that this third group would benefit from
the multilevel multiple-goal feedback and would outperform the other two
types of groups. Surprisingly, this was not the case. Results found that
both groups that received a single focused type of feedback outperformed
this third group type on both individual and team performance measures.
However, the study found that if the goal is to improve team
performance, team feedback produces the best results.

## Positive and Negative Feedback for Teams

Every team has members which possess unique abilities, talents and
skills. If a team is fully functional, meaning that they have several
team members who are able to take what they know and make their
knowledge mesh together to accomplish a task or goal, they have a
greater probability of success. According to Webster's Dictionary,
positive feedback is defined as, "feedback that tends to magnify a
process or increase its output."\[4\] Positive feedback creates positive
results, however there is a need at times to balance out positive and
negative feedback. Poor feedback can cause mutiny, feelings of low
self-worth, anger or even hatred towards the task or that person.

---The absence of feedback can cause problems among a team because of
the perceived lack of recognition of hard work or special talents by the
one who is supposed to give the feedback.

---Negative feedback at least has a direction if said in the right tone
and the right way.

---Positive feedback has power to exponentially build a team, make it
work with fluidity and create a synergy that other methods cannot
duplicate.

However, solely giving positive feedback can be detrimental. In a
journal article titled The Negatives of Only Focusing on Positive
Feedback, it states that, "We agree that it is important for managers to
appreciate their strengths and understand how to leverage those
strengths. If they don't, they could waste time and effort attempting to
get better at leadership skills they have already mastered. They could
fail to leverage core skills that would help them be more successful.
But CCL's data suggest that if managers pay attention only to their
strengths, their leadership development efforts may not address what
their organizations need most. This in turn could be harmful not only to
individual managers but to entire organizations."\[5\]

Negative feedback, or coaching, as many companies like to call it, is a
necessary evil. Constructive criticism is the only way to build
character, otherwise the team members might not think that they are
doing anything wrong and can only do everything right. As a leader, this
comes into play and is desired.

However, it is vital that that one remain objective when giving negative
feedback. Aim feedback at the behavior, not the person. It is important
to look past the differences of the recipient in order to have an honest
and sincere interaction. Do not judge the person receiving the feedback.
Each person is experiencing each situation differently, and it is
impossible for the giver to understand each person's situation. Present
the feedback honestly, sticking to the facts, rather than judging the
person upon your perception.

It is important to consider the matrix of the team when giving feedback.
It is also important not to point out specific members of the group when
giving negative feedback. That is more appropriate for an individual
conversation. Focus on the behavior of the group and the changes that
need to be made within the group.

Finally, when giving negative feedback, one must have good intentions on
helping the person to improve. Feedback given with mal intent will not
have a positive outcome. If one is unable to give feedback in a sincere
manner it may be beneficial to have another respected member of the team
give the feedback.

## Feedback Techniques

Each team member should have a working knowledge of feedback techniques
that can be implemented with the group in order to reach the team goals
and to be productive. The following are a sample of techniques that can
be used to enhance the feedback experience.

**Serve the feedback like a meal**
^**Serve\ the\ feedback\ like\ a\ meal**^ How the message is delivered
can often determine if the message is received properly and if it will
be acted upon. Kind words shouted at someone do not have the same
positive impact as when they are spoken gently. Ed Sykes of The Sykes
Group \[6\] has suggested that feedback should be served to the team or
individual like a great meal. He offers five techniques for making the
feedback meal more appetizing:

a\. Mentally prepare to give feedback just as you would prepare ahead of
time to serve a banquet. Review questions such as "Is the feedback
important? What do I hope to accomplish through this feedback? Who are
the persons I will be giving the feedback to? How have they taken
feedback in the past? Etc.

b\. Serve each course at the appropriate time- waiting too long to serve
the criticism or serving it too early can result in a lack of hunger for
the team or individual receiving the meal.

c\. Start with quality ingredients like fairness, candor, and
consistency. Set positive expectations and be direct in the
communication.

d\. Ask for a meal review. Get feedback on the feedback session.

e\. Use appropriate table manners. Be gracious, respectful, and kind.
Always end on a positive note.

**Stay Positive** According to the UK management training firm Templeton
Finn \[7\], there is a three step technique to giving feedback that
significantly improves performance and motivation:

1\. Start the process with a few genuine, specific compliments.

a\. Be sure to use very specific and direct terms and remember that
whatever you comment on you will get more of.

2\. Give the person or group one or two things they could do differently
next time to make it even better.

a\. Be sure to give them the correct way to do it. If you only tell them
what they did wrong, then there is still a chance that they will do it
wrong again, just in a different way.

3\. Make an overall positive comment about the person's abilities or
progress.

In general, stay positive and use positive terms. There are an infinite
number of wrong ways to do something so it's much better to know how to
do something the right way than to know how not to do it. People
generally feel more confident about their abilities to improve upon
mistakes through positive feedback. On the other hand people generally
feel nervous and insecure when they receive feedback in a negative
manner, which often leads to more mistakes.

  Non-recommended feedback techniques                     Recommended feedback techniques
  ------------------------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------------------
  creating a closed, disrespectful environment            creating an open, respectful environment
  not eliciting thoughts and feelings prior to feedback   eliciting thoughts and feelings prior to feedback
  being judgmental                                        being nonjudgmental
  focusing on personality                                 focusing on behaviors
  basing feedback on hearsay                              basing feedback on observed facts
  basing feedback on generalizations                      basing feedback on specifics
  giving too much/little feedback                         giving the right amount of feedback
  not suggesting ideas for improvements                   suggesting ideas for improvements
  basing feedback on unknown,non-negotiated goals         basing feedback on well known negotiated goals

**CONNECT Model** The Connect Model \[8\] is a communication process
used between two members of a group that promotes a collaborative team
environment by allowing discussion of conflicts in a psychologically
safe environment. Through this process each member should gain a deeper
understanding of the other through giving and receiving feedback. The
method uses the following steps:

C -- Commit to the relationship. Tell why you think this is worth doing
and that you think the relationship is important enough to work on. O --
Optimize safety. Let the other person know that you will do your best
not to put him on the defensive. N -- Narrow the discussion to one
issue. N -- Neutralize defensiveness. Ask the person to let you know if
you make them defensive. E -- Explain and echo each perspective. Tell
what you notice and the effects that you perceive. Have the person echo
what you have said and then have him tell you his perspective. C --
Change one behavior each. T -- Track it. Pick a date to check back in
with each other to see how things are going.

**Red Paper / Green Paper** This activity will shed light upon your
group's strengths and weaknesses. Give each group member three red slips
of papers and three green slips of paper. Have them write three things
that the group is good at on the green papers and three things that the
group could improve upon on the red papers. These are written
anonymously. When finished, each member puts his papers in two piles
sorted by color. Shuffle the deck and read the negative results first.
Then read the positive results. Only after all papers are read should
the discussion start. It is interesting to note the common themes that
team members mention.

**Survey** Often this technique works well when a team leader finds it
beneficial to solicit feedback from the group in an effort to improve
performance. The team leader can create a survey form with specific
pertinent questions. The group will feel safer if the survey is
anonymous. The team leader should also fill out the survey and compare
his results to the group to see how "in tune" he is with his real
performance. It is common for one to think that he performs better than
he actually does. Feedback is a good reality check.

## Tools for Team members

In the book When Teams Work Best, it states, "Good feedback is
associated with a heightened sense of personal accountability, a wide
range of worker satisfaction factors, and enhanced performance,
especially in groups whose goals demand extensive interpersonal
relationships. Because feedback is the lifeblood of growth in a team
relationship, we need a set of tools that will move us closer at the end
of an attempted relationship adjustment, not farther apart."\[9\] The
following is a sample of tools that can help improve the feedback
process.

**FeedForward** One new trend in the positive feedback realm is that of
feedforward. "Asking for feedforward means asking for two suggestions
for the future that might help the team achieve a positive change in
their selected behavior. If participants have worked together in the
past, they are not allowed to give any feedback about the past. They are
only allowed to give ideas for the future...feedforward helps people
envision and focus on a positive future, not a failed past."\[10\] This
novel idea of looking towards the future to generate ideas is another
way that teams, or leaders of teams, can provide positive actions to
build a positive end result. There is truth in the statement that
feedback tends to cause us to look at a potentially failed past as a
dissection of what was done right and what was done wrong. However, the
optimistic point of view treats feedforward as the way to grow by
looking forward and making right decisions for the future.

**Checklist for Positive Interactions** In an article by Lindsey
Swinton, she states seven steps for positive feedback. They are:

1\. No Time Like Now: Give positive feedback as close to the event as
possible so the feedback doesn't go stale.

2\. In Public and Private: Praise in public, criticize in private.

3\. Practice Makes Perfect: Make it a habit to praise regularly

4\. Does the Reward Fit? : The amount of effort put in merits a reward
of the same level.

5\. No Favorites: Don't over praise one person. Keep a mental tally of
whom you praised most recently

6\. Be Clear and Mean It: Tell the team exactly why you are praising
them. Be specific.

7\. Catch People Doing Things Right: The more you catch people doing
things right, the more right things they will do! \[11\]

After reviewing these steps for positive feedback, it is clear that it
takes planning and effort to make each bit of positive feedback
worthwhile and meaningful for the team. Planning and execution of such
feedback is worth the time preparing and thinking of who deserves it and
why they are deserving of it.

**The Johari Window Model** The goal of feedback within teams is to
influence the team and member behavior. Members of teams will need to
have knowledge of models for feedback to implement in group settings to
reach the goals set and to be productive. The Johari Window model \[12\]
can be used to begin to understand group dynamics and interpersonal
behavior that can lead to feedback opportunities for managers and
groups. (insert image)

                        Known to Self   Not Known to Self
  --------------------- --------------- -------------------
  Known to Others       Open            Blind
  Not Known to Others   Hidden          Unknown

Group members share "open" information. One group member may have
"hidden" information. The group may deal with areas of "unknown"
information. Additionally, members may create "blind" information areas
when there is information or feelings observed but not shared. Lack of
information or pent up feelings can cripple a group's success. Feedback
can help to reduce the areas of hidden, blind, and unknown information
as well as to better discuss and utilize open information. A group may
choose to participate in a Johari activity and actually place adjectives
in each box of the model. This placement can then be used for members to
inform interpersonal relationships and communication.

**The Losada Line** The Losada Meta Learning Model \[13\] is one way to
divide groups into high, medium and low performers by actually
quantifying tiered variables of team dynamics:

● inquiry-advocacy (how much people ask vs. talk),

● positivity-negativity (how much people are positive vs. negative),

● other-self (how much people are focused on others vs. on themselves),

● connectivity(a control parameter)

● viscosity (how the environment resists change), and

● negativity bias (our speed of response to negative events to avoid
harm). While individual groups or group members may not be able to
produce the mathematically generated computer model to determine whether
they are high or low performing, these variables can be discussed and
influenced through feedback. Additionally, categories of teams could
also be related to a positive/negative feedback ratio:

• High -- 5.6 P/N

• Medium -- 1.9 P/N

• Low -- 0.36 P/N

**T-Group** A T-group is a model that provides participants with an
opportunity to "study their own behavior when they interact within a
small group."\[14\]. Because of the self-disclosure and openness
involved, this type of exercise may not be appropriate for regular
working groups within an organization. Best results occur in an
environment such as a training group or a seminar in which the
participants are strangers that will not work together in the future.
The group's work is focused on feelings, process, and feedback. Some of
the objectives that a participant can expect to come away with are an
increased understanding of underlying social processes within a group,
increased awareness of the effect one's behavior has on others in the
group, increased ability to give and receive feedback, and increased
ability to manage conflict.

## Response to Feedback

Generally, one feels comfortable giving positive feedback because the
danger of conflict is minimal. On the other hand, the reception of
negative feedback can be much more difficult to predict. A person may
receive feedback as a sign of constructive criticism. Others may receive
the same feedback as a personal attack. Often time people are reluctant
to give feedback because "complex interactions, especially that are
unproductive, occur when we interact with people who we perceive as
being very different from us." \[15\]

Use common sense to increase the chance of success when giving feedback.
Be slow to speak until you are sure that there is a problem that needs
to be addressed. It is better to err on the side of caution because
words cannot be taken back once they are spoken.

What should you do if the receiver doesn't respond in the desired manner
to your feedback? First of all, do not give up. Change often takes time.
You must also remember that you cannot control other people, but only
yourself.

After each feedback encounter, take a few minutes to evaluate your
performance. What went well? What can you improve? Make a mental note on
what you want to try different next time, because there will always be a
next time. A big part of giving successful feedback involves practice.

## Examples of successful real world applications of technique

**Cleveland Clinic Research Experiment** Doctors Mariana G Hewson PHD
and Margaret Little MD at the Cleveland Clinic in Cleveland, Ohio \[16\]
conducted a research experiment to verify the effectiveness of
recommended techniques for feedback in Medical Education. The study
aimed to substantiate several recommended feedback techniques (listed in
table 1). The researchers used both qualitative and quantitative
approaches to measure results.

They investigated "clinician teachers\' personal experiences with
receiving feedback in a course for improving the teaching of medical
interviewing (the annual training course of the American Academy of
Physician and Patient)."

The group of 83 course participants was comprised of 39 men and 44 women
from roughly 60 different medical institutions located in the United
States, Canada, and the United Kingdom.

At the end of the week-long course, each participant "was asked to
provide a short narrative of two selected course-related feedback
incidents, one of which they judged as personally helpful, and the other
as personally unhelpful."

The doctors found that the feedback techniques used in helpful incidents
often included a focus on skills along with personal styles. The
specific skills included: being able to lead a group discussion, giving
feedback, setting up a role play, and handling challenging incidents.
The effective personal styles consisted of traits like being quiet,
being verbally assertive, being non-threatening, being flexible, and
being facilitative.

According to Doctors Hewson and Little, the manner in which the feedback
was presented to the participants \"strongly affected their perceptions
of its helpfulness.\" Techniques like \"giving feedback lovingly,
supportively, and caringly\" as well as \"being gentle and not hitting
someone over the head with his or her mistakes\" along with \"being
concerned to understand the other person\'s position\" were all deemed
helpful. The researchers also noted that the \"participants appreciated
accurate and clear feedback about particular behaviors.\" The study also
mentioned that \"feedback that included specific suggestions for
improvement was seen as very important.\"

Ultimately through their research Doctors Hewson and Little were able to
conclude that "Feedback techniques experienced by respondents
substantiate the literature-based recommendations, and corrective
feedback is regarded as helpful when delivered appropriately."

**Bellon, Bellon & Blake Study** Research has shown that when classroom
teachers effectively use feedback techniques with children, they often
have a strong positive effect on the students. Researchers have found
that "Academic feedback is more strongly and consistently related to
achievement than any other teaching behavior" and that "this
relationship is consistent regardless of grade, socioeconomic status,
race, or school setting." In a study by Bellon, Bellon, and Blake
\[17\], when "feedback and corrective procedures are used, most students
can attain the same level of achievement as the top 20% of students."

Feedback has proven to be effective when there is recognition of a
common goal, evidence given of current position, and some understanding
is reached between the teacher and student of how to close the gap of
the desired goal and current position.

## Conclusion

Feedback is a valuable tool that can be used to improve team
performance. It is educational for both the sender and receiver.
Feedback informs, seeks to change behavior, and improves communication.
It can be of a positive or negative nature. Feedback works best when
given in a timely manner. Several techniques and tools were given to
help in giving successful feedback. Common sense also prevails. It is
difficult to predict the response one will receive. Do not be
discouraged if the response to your feedback is not what you were aiming
for. Remember that you cannot control others. Evaluate your performance
after each feedback session and remember that practice plays a big part
in improvement.

## References

\[1\] E. W. (1996). Feedback: An Educational Opportunity. Reading Book
for Human Relations Training. Columbia, MD: Bingham House Books.

\[2\] Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol 89(6), Dec, 2004. pp. 1035-1056

\[3\] <http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/positive%20feedback>

\[4\]Jean Briattain Leslie, & Sylvester Taylor. (2005). In
focus/feedback and development: The negatives of focusing only on the
positive. Leadership in Action, 24(6), 19+. Retrieved November 21, 2010,
from ABI/INFORM Global. (Document ID: 862836731).

\[5\] <http://www.thesykesgrp.com/FeedbackAppetizingArt01.htm>

\[6\] Templeton Finn Ltd, The Barn, Burrows Hall Farm, Over Burrows,
Brailsford, Derbyshire, East Midlands, DE6 3BU,
<http://www.templetonfinn.co.uk/resources/article11.php>

\[7\] LaFasto & Larson When Teams Work Best , pp 50-61, c2001

\[8\] LaFasto & Larson, When Teams Work Best, p. 46, c2001

\[9\] Marshall Goldsmith. (2003). Try feedforward instead of feedback.
The Journal for Quality and Participation, 26(3), 38-40. Retrieved
November 21, 2010, from ABI/INFORM Global. (Document ID: 454274271).

\[10\] <http://www.mftrou.com/positive-feedback.html>, Lindsey Swinton,
accessed via web 11/21/2010

\[11\] Luft, J.; Ingham, H. (1955). \"The Johari window, a graphic model
of interpersonal awareness\". Proceedings of the western training
laboratory in group development (Los Angeles: UCLA).

\[12\] Losada, M. (1999). The complex dynamics of high performance
teams. Mathematical and Computer Modeling, 30(9-10), 179-192. Additional
resources: <http://losada.socialpsychology.org/>

\[13\] www.orgdct.com/more_on_t-group.htm

\[14\] (Seashore, E.W. (1996). Feedback: An educational Opportunity.
Reading Book for Human Relations Training. Columbia, MD. Bingham House
Books)

\[15\] J Gen Intern Med. 1998 February; 13(2): 111--116. doi:
10.1046/j.1525-1497.1998.00027.x. Copyright 1998 by the Society of
General Internal Medicine,
<http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1496906/>

\[16\]
<http://www.academicleadership.org/leader_action_tips/Providing_Students_with_Effective_Feedback.shtml>,
Providing Students with Effective Feedback, By Academic Leadership the
Online Journal, Volume 4 - Issue 4, Feb 12, 2007, Bellon, Jerry, Bellon,
Elner, and Blank, Mary Ann. Teaching from a Research Knowledge Base: A
Development and Renewal Process. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company,
1992. (pp. 277-278)


# Managing Groups and Teams/Motivation

## What Is Motivation?

In the most general of terms, motivation is the psychological feature
that arouses an individual to action toward a desired goal. Motivation
can also be the reason for an individual\'s action or that which gives
purpose and direction to behavior. In other words, motivation is an
incentive that generates goal-directed behaviors.

### Motivational Theory

Motivation comes in many forms and what motivates one individual is not
necessarily the same for their team members. Therefore, it is important
to understand how motivation differs among individuals and how these
differences affect the overall drive and determination of a team toward
a goal. To better understand the complexities of motivation researchers
over the years have developed a number of theories to try to explain why
people behave in the ways that they do and to try to predict what people
actually will do, based on these theories. These theories, called
motivational theories are often split into two categories --content
theories and process theories.

**Content theories** are centered on finding what makes people tick or
appeals to them. These theories suggest that people have certain needs
and/or desires which have been internalized as they mature to adulthood.
These theories look at what it is about certain people that make them
want the things that they do and what things in their environment will
make them do or not do certain things. Two popular content theories are
Maslow\'s Hierarchy of Needs Theory and Hertzberg\'s Two Factor Theory.

**Process theories** focus on how and by what goals people are
motivated. Process theories of motivation look at what people are
thinking about when they decide whether or not to put effort into a
particular activity. There are of a number of this type of approach to
motivation theory one of which is Adam's Equity Theory.

Industrial psychologists have used these ideas on motivational theory to
develop management theories based on what we have learned motivates
individuals. Nearly all motivational theory, regardless of the approach
outlines significant differences in how individuals are motivated on
their own and how they are motivated when being part of a team. Team
motivation tends to be much more difficult. There are more possibilities
to motivate a team, yet at the same time there are more motivational
factors to fulfill for a team in order to gain motivation.

### Team Motivation

Motivational factors differ since the goals of the individual and the
team are often not on the same level. The individual will always fight
to fulfill their higher level needs. These needs are often not
consistent with the needs of the team and of the individual. The
motivation of the individual is essential for successful motivation of
the team. Team members must be able to fulfill their higher level needs
to be motivated and team members must be committed to the team. Along
with good leadership that enables team members to fulfill their goals
all of these qualities will motivate a team. These motivation factors
that drive a team can be divided into four categories-- task, structure,
goals, and members. By realizing other factors besides intrinsic rewards
that will motivate individuals, the team will also be motivated. The
sharing of knowledge, support, solidarity and communication are all
highly effective in motivating a team. All in all, a team that exists
within a collaborative, structured and communicative environment will be
highly motivated.

Overall, there are consequences when teams lack motivation. By examining
the consequences in the areas of task, structure, goals, and members, we
are able to recognize how motivation is lost and proactively address any
issues in the future.

## Lack of Motivation in Teams

Teams that lack motivation will rarely reach their full potential or
perform to the best of their ability. In most cases, it is not the
entire team that lacks motivation, but individuals on the team that lack
motivation.

## Motivation and Team Dynamics

Almost all teams have members who are changing or transitioning in and
out of the team; and requirements and tasks within the team are
constantly modified and becoming more focused on the goal. In fact,
teams that never change can become stagnant; this leads to decreased
motivation within the team. Therefore, monitoring the motivating factors
within the team is vital to team success and increased motivation for
the future. The keys to successfully managing these motivating factors
in an environment of constant team dynamics require understanding the
team members, understanding the team goals, and providing consistent
leadership throughout the project or life of the team.

### Understand Team Members

When the team is first formed, the team leader needs to pay careful
attention to the type of person that is selected in the team. Selecting
two individuals, who may be similar in many aspects yet are motivated by
two contradictory methods, may make it impossible to motivate one while
not offending the other. Then trying to determine the individual that is
less likely to be either unmotivated or un-offended by the motivation
techniques employed may cause additional problems, such as perceived
favoritism or dislike towards certain team members.

Even if the initial team members are perfectly chosen, taking all
motivation requirements into account, new members will probably be added
later to either provide additional support or to take the place of a
departing team member. Understanding the current team members\'
motivation requirements and those of potential team members may be even
more important at this time because the current team is already
progressing and the motivation techniques required to motivate new team
members may be detrimental to the current team members' efforts and
goals.

Understanding the team members\' motivation needs both at inception of
the team and also throughout the ever-changing environment of the team
will result in proper motivation techniques and greater success for the
team.

### Understand Team Goals

Team goals can be short-term task-specific goals, long-term
organizational goals or any combination thereof. In addition, these
goals may be constantly updated or changed, especially short-term
task-specific goals, as the business environment changes or as tasks and
goals are accomplished.

Different types of goals may require different types of motivation. For
example, a team might be motivated to work hard on a project for an
extra couple of weeks if they are rewarded with a three or four-day
weekend once it is completed; or maybe if the company has no
work-related accidents for the year everyone receives an extra
percentage bonus during the holiday season.

An understanding of the team goals, in all varieties, is neither more
nor less important as understanding the team members who are trying to
accomplish these goals. These two factors are interdependent in
determining the motivation tactics that should be employed to maximize
success within the team.

### Provide Consistent Leadership

Because there is so much change with team members and associated team
goals, providing consistent leadership is essential to motivating team
members. If possible, keeping the same individual in charge will keep
the team members focused on their goal rather than on determining what a
new leader expects of them. Team members may be motivated to make their
new boss happy rather than being motivated to achieve the team goals.

Additionally, with constantly changing leadership, many team members may
assume the team they belong to is undesirable to leaders. Team members
may think leaders are \"jumping ship\" because they know they will not
succeed; and in turn, managing a poorly achieving team puts a black mark
on own leadership abilities.

No matter how hard individual team leaders try to stay with a team,
change is inevitable for team leaders as well. To mitigate the problems
mentioned above, two strategies can be employed:

1.  Maintain consistent expectations from the former to the new team
    leader
2.  Utilize the current motivational techniques that work.

Both of these strategies require as much communication as possible
between the former and the new leader. In addition, communication to the
team members throughout the transition process provides motivation to
the team because they will understand what is expected of them, and they
will feel like they are part of the process. This communication between
the leaders and to the team members is the responsibility of the team
leaders, but team members should try to make sure they are available and
receptive to this communication.

An appreciation for the subtleties that exist in human behavior and team
dynamics will better enable the understanding of team motivation.
Understanding team members, understanding team goals, and providing
consistent leadership should help provide the motivation required to
achieve success.

## Motivating Team Members

Many top managers assume that the key to motivation is the proper use of
the available motivational *\"tools.\"* This is making an enormous
assumption that some magical tool actually exists that will motivate an
individual. This is one of the common myths regarding motivation.
According to Authenticity Consulting LLC advisor Carter McNamara, tools
are not what motivate individuals. Motivation is a process, not the end
result of a task. Specifically regarding the question posed to our team,
motivation is not catered to an individual because of their experience
or position. It is catered to an individual because they **ARE** an
individual. This goes for the long-tenured employee as well as the
newest member of the team.

### Motivational Myths

McNamara discusses three motivational myths that can help us better
understand the process of motivation. The first myth is that one person
can motivate another. This is simply not true. An employee has to
motivate themselves. As a manager you have to establish an environment
that will cultivate and bring forth the personal motivational factors of
each individual. This can be accomplished through establishing team
goals based on the goals of the individuals. If an individual is
motivated towards a goal and the goal has no relation to the team goal,
they will not continue to motivate themselves because their results will
have no real team value. This is why it is important that managers fully
and frequently discuss the organizational goals with their employees.

The second myth is that money and fear are good motivators. According to
McNamara, money can only help people from being less motivated. It does
not typically increase motivation in an individual. Fear, like money, is
only useful in the short term. The same repeated criticism or threat
from a manager can negatively impact the motivation of the employee.

\"I know what motivates me, so I know what motivates my employees,\" is
the third myth. Everyone is different. Motivational factors can vary to
every extreme. However, what can be uniform for everyone is the goal
they are trying to reach. Managers need to identify and understand what
motivates each employee to reach the common organizational goal. This
can be done by asking, observing and listening to your employees. They
will give tremendous insight into their motivational factors through
their daily, menial conversations. Often what motivates an individual is
what they show the most enthusiasm for. This needs to be followed up
with sincere one-on-one meetings to discuss accomplishments and to
modify goals based on evolving motivational factors.

### Steps to Employee Motivation

Finally, McNamara recommends some steps that managers can take to better
support their employees in motivating themselves. First, managers need
to write down what they think motivates each of their employees and ask
the employee to do the same. They then compare results with the employee
and discuss the differences and misconceptions. Next, the results are
used to establish a reward system based on self-stated motivational
factors. Finally, managers need to reward and acknowledge positive
behaviors. Employees need to know when an organizational goal has been
met as a result of their actions. They need to clearly understand their
specific action or actions that led to the goal being met. Once this is
done it is a time to celebrate. Celebration among the team of a job well
done is the first step in accomplishing the next organizational goal.

## Sources

-   Managementhelp.org


# Managing Groups and Teams/Motivation#What Is Motivation?

## What Is Motivation?

In the most general of terms, motivation is the psychological feature
that arouses an individual to action toward a desired goal. Motivation
can also be the reason for an individual\'s action or that which gives
purpose and direction to behavior. In other words, motivation is an
incentive that generates goal-directed behaviors.

### Motivational Theory

Motivation comes in many forms and what motivates one individual is not
necessarily the same for their team members. Therefore, it is important
to understand how motivation differs among individuals and how these
differences affect the overall drive and determination of a team toward
a goal. To better understand the complexities of motivation researchers
over the years have developed a number of theories to try to explain why
people behave in the ways that they do and to try to predict what people
actually will do, based on these theories. These theories, called
motivational theories are often split into two categories --content
theories and process theories.

**Content theories** are centered on finding what makes people tick or
appeals to them. These theories suggest that people have certain needs
and/or desires which have been internalized as they mature to adulthood.
These theories look at what it is about certain people that make them
want the things that they do and what things in their environment will
make them do or not do certain things. Two popular content theories are
Maslow\'s Hierarchy of Needs Theory and Hertzberg\'s Two Factor Theory.

**Process theories** focus on how and by what goals people are
motivated. Process theories of motivation look at what people are
thinking about when they decide whether or not to put effort into a
particular activity. There are of a number of this type of approach to
motivation theory one of which is Adam's Equity Theory.

Industrial psychologists have used these ideas on motivational theory to
develop management theories based on what we have learned motivates
individuals. Nearly all motivational theory, regardless of the approach
outlines significant differences in how individuals are motivated on
their own and how they are motivated when being part of a team. Team
motivation tends to be much more difficult. There are more possibilities
to motivate a team, yet at the same time there are more motivational
factors to fulfill for a team in order to gain motivation.

### Team Motivation

Motivational factors differ since the goals of the individual and the
team are often not on the same level. The individual will always fight
to fulfill their higher level needs. These needs are often not
consistent with the needs of the team and of the individual. The
motivation of the individual is essential for successful motivation of
the team. Team members must be able to fulfill their higher level needs
to be motivated and team members must be committed to the team. Along
with good leadership that enables team members to fulfill their goals
all of these qualities will motivate a team. These motivation factors
that drive a team can be divided into four categories-- task, structure,
goals, and members. By realizing other factors besides intrinsic rewards
that will motivate individuals, the team will also be motivated. The
sharing of knowledge, support, solidarity and communication are all
highly effective in motivating a team. All in all, a team that exists
within a collaborative, structured and communicative environment will be
highly motivated.

Overall, there are consequences when teams lack motivation. By examining
the consequences in the areas of task, structure, goals, and members, we
are able to recognize how motivation is lost and proactively address any
issues in the future.

## Lack of Motivation in Teams

Teams that lack motivation will rarely reach their full potential or
perform to the best of their ability. In most cases, it is not the
entire team that lacks motivation, but individuals on the team that lack
motivation.

## Motivation and Team Dynamics

Almost all teams have members who are changing or transitioning in and
out of the team; and requirements and tasks within the team are
constantly modified and becoming more focused on the goal. In fact,
teams that never change can become stagnant; this leads to decreased
motivation within the team. Therefore, monitoring the motivating factors
within the team is vital to team success and increased motivation for
the future. The keys to successfully managing these motivating factors
in an environment of constant team dynamics require understanding the
team members, understanding the team goals, and providing consistent
leadership throughout the project or life of the team.

### Understand Team Members

When the team is first formed, the team leader needs to pay careful
attention to the type of person that is selected in the team. Selecting
two individuals, who may be similar in many aspects yet are motivated by
two contradictory methods, may make it impossible to motivate one while
not offending the other. Then trying to determine the individual that is
less likely to be either unmotivated or un-offended by the motivation
techniques employed may cause additional problems, such as perceived
favoritism or dislike towards certain team members.

Even if the initial team members are perfectly chosen, taking all
motivation requirements into account, new members will probably be added
later to either provide additional support or to take the place of a
departing team member. Understanding the current team members\'
motivation requirements and those of potential team members may be even
more important at this time because the current team is already
progressing and the motivation techniques required to motivate new team
members may be detrimental to the current team members' efforts and
goals.

Understanding the team members\' motivation needs both at inception of
the team and also throughout the ever-changing environment of the team
will result in proper motivation techniques and greater success for the
team.

### Understand Team Goals

Team goals can be short-term task-specific goals, long-term
organizational goals or any combination thereof. In addition, these
goals may be constantly updated or changed, especially short-term
task-specific goals, as the business environment changes or as tasks and
goals are accomplished.

Different types of goals may require different types of motivation. For
example, a team might be motivated to work hard on a project for an
extra couple of weeks if they are rewarded with a three or four-day
weekend once it is completed; or maybe if the company has no
work-related accidents for the year everyone receives an extra
percentage bonus during the holiday season.

An understanding of the team goals, in all varieties, is neither more
nor less important as understanding the team members who are trying to
accomplish these goals. These two factors are interdependent in
determining the motivation tactics that should be employed to maximize
success within the team.

### Provide Consistent Leadership

Because there is so much change with team members and associated team
goals, providing consistent leadership is essential to motivating team
members. If possible, keeping the same individual in charge will keep
the team members focused on their goal rather than on determining what a
new leader expects of them. Team members may be motivated to make their
new boss happy rather than being motivated to achieve the team goals.

Additionally, with constantly changing leadership, many team members may
assume the team they belong to is undesirable to leaders. Team members
may think leaders are \"jumping ship\" because they know they will not
succeed; and in turn, managing a poorly achieving team puts a black mark
on own leadership abilities.

No matter how hard individual team leaders try to stay with a team,
change is inevitable for team leaders as well. To mitigate the problems
mentioned above, two strategies can be employed:

1.  Maintain consistent expectations from the former to the new team
    leader
2.  Utilize the current motivational techniques that work.

Both of these strategies require as much communication as possible
between the former and the new leader. In addition, communication to the
team members throughout the transition process provides motivation to
the team because they will understand what is expected of them, and they
will feel like they are part of the process. This communication between
the leaders and to the team members is the responsibility of the team
leaders, but team members should try to make sure they are available and
receptive to this communication.

An appreciation for the subtleties that exist in human behavior and team
dynamics will better enable the understanding of team motivation.
Understanding team members, understanding team goals, and providing
consistent leadership should help provide the motivation required to
achieve success.

## Motivating Team Members

Many top managers assume that the key to motivation is the proper use of
the available motivational *\"tools.\"* This is making an enormous
assumption that some magical tool actually exists that will motivate an
individual. This is one of the common myths regarding motivation.
According to Authenticity Consulting LLC advisor Carter McNamara, tools
are not what motivate individuals. Motivation is a process, not the end
result of a task. Specifically regarding the question posed to our team,
motivation is not catered to an individual because of their experience
or position. It is catered to an individual because they **ARE** an
individual. This goes for the long-tenured employee as well as the
newest member of the team.

### Motivational Myths

McNamara discusses three motivational myths that can help us better
understand the process of motivation. The first myth is that one person
can motivate another. This is simply not true. An employee has to
motivate themselves. As a manager you have to establish an environment
that will cultivate and bring forth the personal motivational factors of
each individual. This can be accomplished through establishing team
goals based on the goals of the individuals. If an individual is
motivated towards a goal and the goal has no relation to the team goal,
they will not continue to motivate themselves because their results will
have no real team value. This is why it is important that managers fully
and frequently discuss the organizational goals with their employees.

The second myth is that money and fear are good motivators. According to
McNamara, money can only help people from being less motivated. It does
not typically increase motivation in an individual. Fear, like money, is
only useful in the short term. The same repeated criticism or threat
from a manager can negatively impact the motivation of the employee.

\"I know what motivates me, so I know what motivates my employees,\" is
the third myth. Everyone is different. Motivational factors can vary to
every extreme. However, what can be uniform for everyone is the goal
they are trying to reach. Managers need to identify and understand what
motivates each employee to reach the common organizational goal. This
can be done by asking, observing and listening to your employees. They
will give tremendous insight into their motivational factors through
their daily, menial conversations. Often what motivates an individual is
what they show the most enthusiasm for. This needs to be followed up
with sincere one-on-one meetings to discuss accomplishments and to
modify goals based on evolving motivational factors.

### Steps to Employee Motivation

Finally, McNamara recommends some steps that managers can take to better
support their employees in motivating themselves. First, managers need
to write down what they think motivates each of their employees and ask
the employee to do the same. They then compare results with the employee
and discuss the differences and misconceptions. Next, the results are
used to establish a reward system based on self-stated motivational
factors. Finally, managers need to reward and acknowledge positive
behaviors. Employees need to know when an organizational goal has been
met as a result of their actions. They need to clearly understand their
specific action or actions that led to the goal being met. Once this is
done it is a time to celebrate. Celebration among the team of a job well
done is the first step in accomplishing the next organizational goal.

## Sources

-   Managementhelp.org