# Nanotechnology/About#Vision

  Navigate
  ---------------------------------------------------------
   \<\< Prev: Overviews
   \>\< Main: Nanotechnology
   \>\> Next: Reaching Out

\_\_TOC\_\_

------------------------------------------------------------------------

## Vision

We hope to use the Wikibooks format to make an Open Source Handbook on
Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, freely accessible for everyone, that can
be updated continuously.

Wikipedia is growing fast and one of the most visited websites on the
net -- a valuable resource of information we all use.

In science and technology we often need more detailed information than
what can be presented in a brief encyclopedic article -- and here
wikibooks.org, a sister project to Wikipedia, can help us with this
newly started handbook.

Though the book is still in its infancy, it has been elected book of the
month December 2006, and we hope this will provide PR and more people
contributing to the project!

The plan to create the book:

1: First to create smaller articles to 'cover' the entire area of
nanotechnology and achieve a well defined structure the book (some parts
could be revised thoroughly in this process,for instance the materials
chapter).

2: Once the structure is reasonably well defined, to begin refining the
articles with in-depth material so we reach lecture-note level material.

3: Since everybody can contribute, a continuous contribution of material
is expected and a backing group of editors is needed to maintain a
trustworthy level of information.

An voluntary editorial board is being put together to oversee the book,
support, contribute and follow its development.

Discussion about the content of the book can be found on the main talk
page talk:Nanotechnology

As with Wikipedia, we hope to see a solid information resource
continuously updated with open source material available for everyone!

## Editing hints

### References in Wikibooks

Add references whenever possible, with reference lists at the end of
each page. Please try to make links to the articles with the DOI
(digital object identifier) because that gives a uniform and structured
access for everyone to the papers.

All papers get a DOI - a unique number like a bar code in a supermarket.
All DOIs are registered by www.doi.org and in
the reference list you can add links like
<https://doi.org/10.1039/b504435a>
so people will be able to find it no matter how the homepage of the
journal or their own library changes.

The  References section has an example
reference.

Add links to the Wikipedia whenever possible - and for the beginning I
will rely extensively on Wikipedia\'s pages on the subjects, simply
referring to these. This textbook could be simply a gathering of
Wikipedia pages, but an encyclopedia entry is brief, and for a handbook
it is preferable to have more in-depth material with examples and the
necessary formulas. So, some information in this textbook will be very
much like the Wikipedia entries and we might not need to write it in the
book but can simply refer to Wikipedia, but the hope is that this will
be more a text book as is the intention with Wikibooks.

Multiple references, see w:Help:Footnotes

### Links

There\'s a shorthand way to make links to Wikipedia from Wikibooks:
\[\[w:Quantum_tunneling\|Wikipedia on Quantum Tunneling\]\] gives the
link  Wikipedia on Quantum Tunneling.

### Media

## History

The book was started by Kristian
Molhave(wiki user
page) 13. Apr. 2006. Initially it was
named *Nanowiki*, and later changed to
Nanotechnology. Kristian is currently
slowly uploading material to the book and looking for people who would
like to contribute that can and substantial material to specific
sections under the GNU license. I hope we can make an \'editorial
panel\' of people each keeping an eye on and updating specific sections.

The Summer 2008 Duke Talent Identification Program (TIP) eStudies
Nanotechnology students will be adding to the content of this Wikibook.
From June-Aug 2008 there will be content additions with references that
will add to this great resource.

## Authors and Editors

-   The Opensource Handbook on Nanoscience and Nanotechnology was
    started by Kristian Molhave(wiki user
    page)

### Editors

-   An editorial board is currently being organized.

## Support and Acknowledgments

Starting this book is supported by the Danish Agency for Science,
Technology and
Innovation
through Kristian Mølhave\'s talent project
'NAMIC' No. 26-04-0258.

## How to Reference this Book

I am not currently sure how work on wikibooks or wikipedia can be
referenced reliably in published literature.

Three suggestions:

1\) Reference the references from the wikibook. Wikibooks are not
intended to be the publication channel for new results, but should be
based on published and accepted information with references and these
references can be used. But this of course does not give credit to the
book, so I recommend then adding an acknowledgement about the book to
give it PR and credit.

2\) Reference the book with a specific page and date - the previous
versions of the pages are all available in the history pane and can
easily be accessed by future users. You can also hit \"permanent
version\" on the left side of the webpage (it is under \"toolbox\").
That sends you specifically to the selected version of the wikipage with
a link to it that will never change.

3\) Reference the PDF version and its version number. Once the book
achieves a reasonable level, PDF versions will become available for
download and they will have a unique version number and can be
retrieved.

Other suggestions are most welcome!

Edwards, Steven A.,The Nanotech Pioneers Christiana, USA: Wiley-VCH
2006, pg 2


# Nanotechnology/About#History

  Navigate
  ---------------------------------------------------------
   \<\< Prev: Overviews
   \>\< Main: Nanotechnology
   \>\> Next: Reaching Out

\_\_TOC\_\_

------------------------------------------------------------------------

## Vision

We hope to use the Wikibooks format to make an Open Source Handbook on
Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, freely accessible for everyone, that can
be updated continuously.

Wikipedia is growing fast and one of the most visited websites on the
net -- a valuable resource of information we all use.

In science and technology we often need more detailed information than
what can be presented in a brief encyclopedic article -- and here
wikibooks.org, a sister project to Wikipedia, can help us with this
newly started handbook.

Though the book is still in its infancy, it has been elected book of the
month December 2006, and we hope this will provide PR and more people
contributing to the project!

The plan to create the book:

1: First to create smaller articles to 'cover' the entire area of
nanotechnology and achieve a well defined structure the book (some parts
could be revised thoroughly in this process,for instance the materials
chapter).

2: Once the structure is reasonably well defined, to begin refining the
articles with in-depth material so we reach lecture-note level material.

3: Since everybody can contribute, a continuous contribution of material
is expected and a backing group of editors is needed to maintain a
trustworthy level of information.

An voluntary editorial board is being put together to oversee the book,
support, contribute and follow its development.

Discussion about the content of the book can be found on the main talk
page talk:Nanotechnology

As with Wikipedia, we hope to see a solid information resource
continuously updated with open source material available for everyone!

## Editing hints

### References in Wikibooks

Add references whenever possible, with reference lists at the end of
each page. Please try to make links to the articles with the DOI
(digital object identifier) because that gives a uniform and structured
access for everyone to the papers.

All papers get a DOI - a unique number like a bar code in a supermarket.
All DOIs are registered by www.doi.org and in
the reference list you can add links like
<https://doi.org/10.1039/b504435a>
so people will be able to find it no matter how the homepage of the
journal or their own library changes.

The  References section has an example
reference.

Add links to the Wikipedia whenever possible - and for the beginning I
will rely extensively on Wikipedia\'s pages on the subjects, simply
referring to these. This textbook could be simply a gathering of
Wikipedia pages, but an encyclopedia entry is brief, and for a handbook
it is preferable to have more in-depth material with examples and the
necessary formulas. So, some information in this textbook will be very
much like the Wikipedia entries and we might not need to write it in the
book but can simply refer to Wikipedia, but the hope is that this will
be more a text book as is the intention with Wikibooks.

Multiple references, see w:Help:Footnotes

### Links

There\'s a shorthand way to make links to Wikipedia from Wikibooks:
\[\[w:Quantum_tunneling\|Wikipedia on Quantum Tunneling\]\] gives the
link  Wikipedia on Quantum Tunneling.

### Media

## History

The book was started by Kristian
Molhave(wiki user
page) 13. Apr. 2006. Initially it was
named *Nanowiki*, and later changed to
Nanotechnology. Kristian is currently
slowly uploading material to the book and looking for people who would
like to contribute that can and substantial material to specific
sections under the GNU license. I hope we can make an \'editorial
panel\' of people each keeping an eye on and updating specific sections.

The Summer 2008 Duke Talent Identification Program (TIP) eStudies
Nanotechnology students will be adding to the content of this Wikibook.
From June-Aug 2008 there will be content additions with references that
will add to this great resource.

## Authors and Editors

-   The Opensource Handbook on Nanoscience and Nanotechnology was
    started by Kristian Molhave(wiki user
    page)

### Editors

-   An editorial board is currently being organized.

## Support and Acknowledgments

Starting this book is supported by the Danish Agency for Science,
Technology and
Innovation
through Kristian Mølhave\'s talent project
'NAMIC' No. 26-04-0258.

## How to Reference this Book

I am not currently sure how work on wikibooks or wikipedia can be
referenced reliably in published literature.

Three suggestions:

1\) Reference the references from the wikibook. Wikibooks are not
intended to be the publication channel for new results, but should be
based on published and accepted information with references and these
references can be used. But this of course does not give credit to the
book, so I recommend then adding an acknowledgement about the book to
give it PR and credit.

2\) Reference the book with a specific page and date - the previous
versions of the pages are all available in the history pane and can
easily be accessed by future users. You can also hit \"permanent
version\" on the left side of the webpage (it is under \"toolbox\").
That sends you specifically to the selected version of the wikipage with
a link to it that will never change.

3\) Reference the PDF version and its version number. Once the book
achieves a reasonable level, PDF versions will become available for
download and they will have a unique version number and can be
retrieved.

Other suggestions are most welcome!

Edwards, Steven A.,The Nanotech Pioneers Christiana, USA: Wiley-VCH
2006, pg 2


# Nanotechnology/About#Support and Acknowledgments

  Navigate
  ---------------------------------------------------------
   \<\< Prev: Overviews
   \>\< Main: Nanotechnology
   \>\> Next: Reaching Out

\_\_TOC\_\_

------------------------------------------------------------------------

## Vision

We hope to use the Wikibooks format to make an Open Source Handbook on
Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, freely accessible for everyone, that can
be updated continuously.

Wikipedia is growing fast and one of the most visited websites on the
net -- a valuable resource of information we all use.

In science and technology we often need more detailed information than
what can be presented in a brief encyclopedic article -- and here
wikibooks.org, a sister project to Wikipedia, can help us with this
newly started handbook.

Though the book is still in its infancy, it has been elected book of the
month December 2006, and we hope this will provide PR and more people
contributing to the project!

The plan to create the book:

1: First to create smaller articles to 'cover' the entire area of
nanotechnology and achieve a well defined structure the book (some parts
could be revised thoroughly in this process,for instance the materials
chapter).

2: Once the structure is reasonably well defined, to begin refining the
articles with in-depth material so we reach lecture-note level material.

3: Since everybody can contribute, a continuous contribution of material
is expected and a backing group of editors is needed to maintain a
trustworthy level of information.

An voluntary editorial board is being put together to oversee the book,
support, contribute and follow its development.

Discussion about the content of the book can be found on the main talk
page talk:Nanotechnology

As with Wikipedia, we hope to see a solid information resource
continuously updated with open source material available for everyone!

## Editing hints

### References in Wikibooks

Add references whenever possible, with reference lists at the end of
each page. Please try to make links to the articles with the DOI
(digital object identifier) because that gives a uniform and structured
access for everyone to the papers.

All papers get a DOI - a unique number like a bar code in a supermarket.
All DOIs are registered by www.doi.org and in
the reference list you can add links like
<https://doi.org/10.1039/b504435a>
so people will be able to find it no matter how the homepage of the
journal or their own library changes.

The  References section has an example
reference.

Add links to the Wikipedia whenever possible - and for the beginning I
will rely extensively on Wikipedia\'s pages on the subjects, simply
referring to these. This textbook could be simply a gathering of
Wikipedia pages, but an encyclopedia entry is brief, and for a handbook
it is preferable to have more in-depth material with examples and the
necessary formulas. So, some information in this textbook will be very
much like the Wikipedia entries and we might not need to write it in the
book but can simply refer to Wikipedia, but the hope is that this will
be more a text book as is the intention with Wikibooks.

Multiple references, see w:Help:Footnotes

### Links

There\'s a shorthand way to make links to Wikipedia from Wikibooks:
\[\[w:Quantum_tunneling\|Wikipedia on Quantum Tunneling\]\] gives the
link  Wikipedia on Quantum Tunneling.

### Media

## History

The book was started by Kristian
Molhave(wiki user
page) 13. Apr. 2006. Initially it was
named *Nanowiki*, and later changed to
Nanotechnology. Kristian is currently
slowly uploading material to the book and looking for people who would
like to contribute that can and substantial material to specific
sections under the GNU license. I hope we can make an \'editorial
panel\' of people each keeping an eye on and updating specific sections.

The Summer 2008 Duke Talent Identification Program (TIP) eStudies
Nanotechnology students will be adding to the content of this Wikibook.
From June-Aug 2008 there will be content additions with references that
will add to this great resource.

## Authors and Editors

-   The Opensource Handbook on Nanoscience and Nanotechnology was
    started by Kristian Molhave(wiki user
    page)

### Editors

-   An editorial board is currently being organized.

## Support and Acknowledgments

Starting this book is supported by the Danish Agency for Science,
Technology and
Innovation
through Kristian Mølhave\'s talent project
'NAMIC' No. 26-04-0258.

## How to Reference this Book

I am not currently sure how work on wikibooks or wikipedia can be
referenced reliably in published literature.

Three suggestions:

1\) Reference the references from the wikibook. Wikibooks are not
intended to be the publication channel for new results, but should be
based on published and accepted information with references and these
references can be used. But this of course does not give credit to the
book, so I recommend then adding an acknowledgement about the book to
give it PR and credit.

2\) Reference the book with a specific page and date - the previous
versions of the pages are all available in the history pane and can
easily be accessed by future users. You can also hit \"permanent
version\" on the left side of the webpage (it is under \"toolbox\").
That sends you specifically to the selected version of the wikipage with
a link to it that will never change.

3\) Reference the PDF version and its version number. Once the book
achieves a reasonable level, PDF versions will become available for
download and they will have a unique version number and can be
retrieved.

Other suggestions are most welcome!

Edwards, Steven A.,The Nanotech Pioneers Christiana, USA: Wiley-VCH
2006, pg 2


# Nanotechnology/About#How to Reference this Book

  Navigate
  ---------------------------------------------------------
   \<\< Prev: Overviews
   \>\< Main: Nanotechnology
   \>\> Next: Reaching Out

\_\_TOC\_\_

------------------------------------------------------------------------

## Vision

We hope to use the Wikibooks format to make an Open Source Handbook on
Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, freely accessible for everyone, that can
be updated continuously.

Wikipedia is growing fast and one of the most visited websites on the
net -- a valuable resource of information we all use.

In science and technology we often need more detailed information than
what can be presented in a brief encyclopedic article -- and here
wikibooks.org, a sister project to Wikipedia, can help us with this
newly started handbook.

Though the book is still in its infancy, it has been elected book of the
month December 2006, and we hope this will provide PR and more people
contributing to the project!

The plan to create the book:

1: First to create smaller articles to 'cover' the entire area of
nanotechnology and achieve a well defined structure the book (some parts
could be revised thoroughly in this process,for instance the materials
chapter).

2: Once the structure is reasonably well defined, to begin refining the
articles with in-depth material so we reach lecture-note level material.

3: Since everybody can contribute, a continuous contribution of material
is expected and a backing group of editors is needed to maintain a
trustworthy level of information.

An voluntary editorial board is being put together to oversee the book,
support, contribute and follow its development.

Discussion about the content of the book can be found on the main talk
page talk:Nanotechnology

As with Wikipedia, we hope to see a solid information resource
continuously updated with open source material available for everyone!

## Editing hints

### References in Wikibooks

Add references whenever possible, with reference lists at the end of
each page. Please try to make links to the articles with the DOI
(digital object identifier) because that gives a uniform and structured
access for everyone to the papers.

All papers get a DOI - a unique number like a bar code in a supermarket.
All DOIs are registered by www.doi.org and in
the reference list you can add links like
<https://doi.org/10.1039/b504435a>
so people will be able to find it no matter how the homepage of the
journal or their own library changes.

The  References section has an example
reference.

Add links to the Wikipedia whenever possible - and for the beginning I
will rely extensively on Wikipedia\'s pages on the subjects, simply
referring to these. This textbook could be simply a gathering of
Wikipedia pages, but an encyclopedia entry is brief, and for a handbook
it is preferable to have more in-depth material with examples and the
necessary formulas. So, some information in this textbook will be very
much like the Wikipedia entries and we might not need to write it in the
book but can simply refer to Wikipedia, but the hope is that this will
be more a text book as is the intention with Wikibooks.

Multiple references, see w:Help:Footnotes

### Links

There\'s a shorthand way to make links to Wikipedia from Wikibooks:
\[\[w:Quantum_tunneling\|Wikipedia on Quantum Tunneling\]\] gives the
link  Wikipedia on Quantum Tunneling.

### Media

## History

The book was started by Kristian
Molhave(wiki user
page) 13. Apr. 2006. Initially it was
named *Nanowiki*, and later changed to
Nanotechnology. Kristian is currently
slowly uploading material to the book and looking for people who would
like to contribute that can and substantial material to specific
sections under the GNU license. I hope we can make an \'editorial
panel\' of people each keeping an eye on and updating specific sections.

The Summer 2008 Duke Talent Identification Program (TIP) eStudies
Nanotechnology students will be adding to the content of this Wikibook.
From June-Aug 2008 there will be content additions with references that
will add to this great resource.

## Authors and Editors

-   The Opensource Handbook on Nanoscience and Nanotechnology was
    started by Kristian Molhave(wiki user
    page)

### Editors

-   An editorial board is currently being organized.

## Support and Acknowledgments

Starting this book is supported by the Danish Agency for Science,
Technology and
Innovation
through Kristian Mølhave\'s talent project
'NAMIC' No. 26-04-0258.

## How to Reference this Book

I am not currently sure how work on wikibooks or wikipedia can be
referenced reliably in published literature.

Three suggestions:

1\) Reference the references from the wikibook. Wikibooks are not
intended to be the publication channel for new results, but should be
based on published and accepted information with references and these
references can be used. But this of course does not give credit to the
book, so I recommend then adding an acknowledgement about the book to
give it PR and credit.

2\) Reference the book with a specific page and date - the previous
versions of the pages are all available in the history pane and can
easily be accessed by future users. You can also hit \"permanent
version\" on the left side of the webpage (it is under \"toolbox\").
That sends you specifically to the selected version of the wikipage with
a link to it that will never change.

3\) Reference the PDF version and its version number. Once the book
achieves a reasonable level, PDF versions will become available for
download and they will have a unique version number and can be
retrieved.

Other suggestions are most welcome!

Edwards, Steven A.,The Nanotech Pioneers Christiana, USA: Wiley-VCH
2006, pg 2


# Nanotechnology/Reaching Out#Teaching Nanotechnology

  Navigate
  ---------------------------------------------------------
   \<\< Prev: About
   \>\< Main: Nanotechnology
   \>\> Next: Seeing Nano

\_\_TOC\_\_

------------------------------------------------------------------------

# Teaching Nanotechnology

Teachers\' Toolbox is a Wikibook on
teaching methods and ways to improve teaching. The toolbox is intended
to give you an overview of methods you can use when teaching in general.

If you know of places that have teaching material available on the net,
please add a link to the list below:

-   Nanotechnology
-   Nano-to-Macro Transport Processes, Fall
    2004
-   nanostructured materials and
    interfaces

# Outreach projects

There are several nanotechnology related outreach projects. Here are
some examples to give ideas:

-   Nanoscale Science
    Education
-   Citizens school of
    nanotechnology
-   Webcast outreach
    lecture
-   Exploring the nanoworld
-   K-14
    outreach
-   Cornell
    Museum

# Demonstration experiments

There is a  dedicated section for
nanotechnology in  the
Wikiboook on Science Show, which is a cross
disciplinary collection of demonstration experiments. The  Danish
version is growing steadily and we will
begin to add to the English version soon. Please add to these books with
any demonstration experiments and ideas you have!

There are others available on the net:

-   Nano-Tex: Testing New Nano
    Fabrics
-   Nano kits and for
    instance the exercise moving a
    wall

# References

See also notes on editing this book about how to add references
Nanotechnology/About#How_to_contribute.

```{=html}
<references />
```

------------------------------------------------------------------------


# Nanotechnology/Reaching Out#Outreach projects

  Navigate
  ---------------------------------------------------------
   \<\< Prev: About
   \>\< Main: Nanotechnology
   \>\> Next: Seeing Nano

\_\_TOC\_\_

------------------------------------------------------------------------

# Teaching Nanotechnology

Teachers\' Toolbox is a Wikibook on
teaching methods and ways to improve teaching. The toolbox is intended
to give you an overview of methods you can use when teaching in general.

If you know of places that have teaching material available on the net,
please add a link to the list below:

-   Nanotechnology
-   Nano-to-Macro Transport Processes, Fall
    2004
-   nanostructured materials and
    interfaces

# Outreach projects

There are several nanotechnology related outreach projects. Here are
some examples to give ideas:

-   Nanoscale Science
    Education
-   Citizens school of
    nanotechnology
-   Webcast outreach
    lecture
-   Exploring the nanoworld
-   K-14
    outreach
-   Cornell
    Museum

# Demonstration experiments

There is a  dedicated section for
nanotechnology in  the
Wikiboook on Science Show, which is a cross
disciplinary collection of demonstration experiments. The  Danish
version is growing steadily and we will
begin to add to the English version soon. Please add to these books with
any demonstration experiments and ideas you have!

There are others available on the net:

-   Nano-Tex: Testing New Nano
    Fabrics
-   Nano kits and for
    instance the exercise moving a
    wall

# References

See also notes on editing this book about how to add references
Nanotechnology/About#How_to_contribute.

```{=html}
<references />
```

------------------------------------------------------------------------


# Nanotechnology/Reaching Out#Demonstration experiments

  Navigate
  ---------------------------------------------------------
   \<\< Prev: About
   \>\< Main: Nanotechnology
   \>\> Next: Seeing Nano

\_\_TOC\_\_

------------------------------------------------------------------------

# Teaching Nanotechnology

Teachers\' Toolbox is a Wikibook on
teaching methods and ways to improve teaching. The toolbox is intended
to give you an overview of methods you can use when teaching in general.

If you know of places that have teaching material available on the net,
please add a link to the list below:

-   Nanotechnology
-   Nano-to-Macro Transport Processes, Fall
    2004
-   nanostructured materials and
    interfaces

# Outreach projects

There are several nanotechnology related outreach projects. Here are
some examples to give ideas:

-   Nanoscale Science
    Education
-   Citizens school of
    nanotechnology
-   Webcast outreach
    lecture
-   Exploring the nanoworld
-   K-14
    outreach
-   Cornell
    Museum

# Demonstration experiments

There is a  dedicated section for
nanotechnology in  the
Wikiboook on Science Show, which is a cross
disciplinary collection of demonstration experiments. The  Danish
version is growing steadily and we will
begin to add to the English version soon. Please add to these books with
any demonstration experiments and ideas you have!

There are others available on the net:

-   Nano-Tex: Testing New Nano
    Fabrics
-   Nano kits and for
    instance the exercise moving a
    wall

# References

See also notes on editing this book about how to add references
Nanotechnology/About#How_to_contribute.

```{=html}
<references />
```

------------------------------------------------------------------------


# Nanotechnology/Optical Methods#Optical Microscopy

  Navigate
  -----------------------------------------------------------------------
   \<\< Prev: Seeing Nano
   \>\< Main: Nanotechnology
   \>\> Next: Electron Microscopy

\_\_TOC\_\_

------------------------------------------------------------------------

# Optical Microscopy

## The Abbe diffraction limit

Observation of sub-wavelength structures with microscopes is difficult
because of the Abbe diffraction
limit.
Ernst Abbe found in 1873 that light with wavelength λ,travelling in a
medium with refractive index n and converging to a spot with angle φ
will make a spot with radius

$$d=\frac{0.61 \lambda}{n sin \phi}$$

The denominator nsinφ is called the numerical aperture (NA) and can
reach about 1.4 in modern optics, hence the Abbe limit is roughly d=λ/2.
With green light around 500nm the Abbe limit is 250nm which is large
compared to most nanostructures or biological cells with sizes on the
order of 1μm and their internal organelles being much smaller. To
increase the resolution, shorter wavelengths can be used such as UV and
X-ray microscopes. These techniques offer splendid resolution but are
expensive, suffer from lack of contrast in biological samples, and also
tend to damage the sample.

## Resources

-   Microscope
    optics
-   Microscopy
    Primer
-   Olympus Interactive Java Tutorials on
    Microscopy
-   Nikon MicroscopyU with interactive tutorials on microscopy
    techniques

## The optical microscope

!Sketch of an optical
microscope{width="300"}

### Bright Field

The light is sent to the sample in the same directions as you are
looking - most things will look bright unless they absorb the light.

### Dark Field

Light is sent towards the sample at an angle to your viewing direction
and you only see light that is scattered. This makes most images appear
dark and only edges and curved surfaces will light up.

### Polarized Light

### DIC vs H

# Laser Scanning Confocal Microscopy (LSCM)

 Confocal laser scanning
microscopy is a
technique that allows a much better resolution from optical microscopes
and three dimensional imaging. A review can be found in Paddock,
Biotechniques
1999

Using a high NA objective also gives a very shallow depth of focus and
hence the image will be blurred by structures above or below the focus
point in a classical microscope. A way to circumvent this problem is the
confocal microscope, or even better the Laser Scanning Confocal
Microscope (LSCM). Using a laser as the light source gives better
control of the illumintaion, especially when using fluorescent markers
in the sample. The theoretical resolution using a 1.4 NA objective can
reach 140nm laterally and 230nm vertically [^1] while the resolution
quoted in ref [^2] is 0.5×0.5×1μm. The image in the LSCM is made by
scanning the sample in 2D or 3D and recordning the signal for each point
in space on a PC which then generates the image.

# X-ray microscopy

 X-ray microscopy uses X-rays to image
with much shorter wavelength than optical light, and hence can provide
much higher spatial resolution and use different contrast mechanisms.
X-ray microscopy allows the characterization of materials with submicron
resolution approaching the 10\'s of nanometers. X-ray microscopes can
use both laboratory x-ray sources and synchrotron radiation from
electron accelerators. X-ray microscopes using synchrotron radiation
provide the greatest sensitivity and power, but are unfortunately rather
large and expensive. X-ray microscopy is usually divided into two
overlapping ranges, referred to as soft x-ray microscopy (100eV - 2keV)
and hard x-ray microscopy (1keV-40keV). All x-rays penetrate materials,
more for higher energy x-rays. Hence, soft x-ray microscopy provides the
best contrast for small samples. Hard x-rays do have the ability to pass
nearly unhindered through objects like your body, and hence also give
rather poor contrast in many of the biological samples you would like to
observe with the x-ray microscope. Nevertheless, hard x-ray microscopy
allows imaging by phase contrast, or using scanning probe x-ray
microscopy, by using detection of fluorescent or scattered x-rays.
Despite its limitations, X-ray microscopy is a powerful technique and in
some cases can provide characterization of materials or samples that
cannot be done by any other means.

# UV/VIS spectrometry

# Infrared spectrometry (FTIR)

vIdentification of the functional groups present in a nanomaterial is a
frequent requirement in nanoscience and nanotechnology research. Among
other tools, FT-IR has found much popularity among researches due to its
versatility, relative ease of use and ability to use as a quantification
tool.

Atoms in a chemical bonds constantly vibrate. This vibration can be
analogue to a system with two masses attached to a spring. The vibration
frequency depend upon the weight of the masses and the spring constant
of the connecting spring. In the same way, depending on the masses of
the atoms that contributes to a bond and cohesiveness of the bond,
frequency differ. Since bonds have atoms with different shapes and sizes
and different strength, each combination of atoms in an each type of
bond has a unique harmonic frequency. This natural frequency lies in the
range of infrared region and therefore a spectroscopic method that use
IR can be devised to analyze bond vibrations.

When the IR radiation with the same harmonic frequency of the bond
shines upon the bond. The bond vibration is amplified by increased
transfer of energy from the IR radiation. When range of IR frequencies
given to the material, it only absorb IR frequencies that corresponds to
the natural frequencies of the bonds that exist in the sample. Others
are not absorbed and can be analyzed using an Infrared spectrometer,
which tells you the frequencies that are absorbed by the sample. This
provides important information about the functional groups present in
the sample. This is exactly what FT-IR does.

As FT-IR can be used to get information about functional groups present
in nanomaterials. This is particularly useful in cases such as when one
attempts to surface modify nanomaterials to increase affinity,
reactivity or compatibility. Analyzing the FT-IR of a nanomaterial would
tell you what groups present and then appropriate surface modification
strategy be decided based on the groups present. Further, it can also be
useful in characterizing the surface modification has taken place, as
new groups should emerge if the reaction is successful.Identification of
the functional groups present in a nanomaterial is a frequent
requirement in nanoscience and nanotechnology research. Among other
tools, FT-IR has found much popularity among researches due to its
versatility, relative ease of use and ability to use as a quantification
tool.

Atoms in a chemical bonds constantly vibrate. This vibration can be
analogue to a system with two masses attached to a spring. The vibration
frequency depend upon the weight of the masses and the spring constant
of the connecting spring. In the same way, depending on the masses of
the atoms that contributes to a bond and cohesiveness of the bond,
frequency differ. Since bonds have atoms with different shapes and sizes
and different strength, each combination of atoms in an each type of
bond has a unique harmonic frequency. This natural frequency lies in the
range of infrared region and therefore a spectroscopic method that use
IR can be devised to analyze bond vibrations.

When the IR radiation with the same harmonic frequency of the bond
shines upon the bond. The bond vibration is amplified by increased
transfer of energy from the IR radiation. When range of IR frequencies
given to the material, it only absorb IR frequencies that corresponds to
the natural frequencies of the bonds that exist in the sample. Others
are not absorbed and can be analyzed using an Infrared spectrometer,
which tells you the frequencies that are absorbed by the sample. This
provides important information about the functional groups present in
the sample. This is exactly what FT-IR does.

As FT-IR can be used to get information about functional groups present
in nanomaterials. This is particularly useful in cases such as when one
attempts to surface modify nanomaterials to increase affinity,
reactivity or compatibility. Analyzing the FT-IR of a nanomaterial would
tell you what groups present and then appropriate surface modification
strategy be decided based on the groups present. Further, it can also be
useful in characterizing the surface modification has taken place, as
new groups should emerge if the reaction is successful.

# Terahertz Spectroscopy

# Raman Spectroscopy

-    Raman scattering
-    Resonance Raman
    spectroscopy

## Surface Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy (SERS)

-    Surface Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy
    (SERS)
-   Surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy: a brief
    retrospective

# References

See also notes on editing this book
Nanotechnology/About#How_to_contribute.

```{=html}
<references />
```

------------------------------------------------------------------------

[^1]: Confocal laser scanning microscopy, Paddock SW, Biotechniques ,
    vol. 27 (5): 992 NOV 1999

[^2]: A new UV-visible confocal laser scanning microspectrofluorometer
    designed for spectral cellular imaging, Favard C, Valisa P,
    Egret-Charlier M, Sharonov S, Herben C, Manfait M, Da Silva E, Vigny
    P, Biospectroscopy , vol. 5 (2): 101-115 1999


# Nanotechnology/Optical Methods#STED Microscopy

  Navigate
  -----------------------------------------------------------------------
   \<\< Prev: Seeing Nano
   \>\< Main: Nanotechnology
   \>\> Next: Electron Microscopy

\_\_TOC\_\_

------------------------------------------------------------------------

# Optical Microscopy

## The Abbe diffraction limit

Observation of sub-wavelength structures with microscopes is difficult
because of the Abbe diffraction
limit.
Ernst Abbe found in 1873 that light with wavelength λ,travelling in a
medium with refractive index n and converging to a spot with angle φ
will make a spot with radius

$$d=\frac{0.61 \lambda}{n sin \phi}$$

The denominator nsinφ is called the numerical aperture (NA) and can
reach about 1.4 in modern optics, hence the Abbe limit is roughly d=λ/2.
With green light around 500nm the Abbe limit is 250nm which is large
compared to most nanostructures or biological cells with sizes on the
order of 1μm and their internal organelles being much smaller. To
increase the resolution, shorter wavelengths can be used such as UV and
X-ray microscopes. These techniques offer splendid resolution but are
expensive, suffer from lack of contrast in biological samples, and also
tend to damage the sample.

## Resources

-   Microscope
    optics
-   Microscopy
    Primer
-   Olympus Interactive Java Tutorials on
    Microscopy
-   Nikon MicroscopyU with interactive tutorials on microscopy
    techniques

## The optical microscope

!Sketch of an optical
microscope{width="300"}

### Bright Field

The light is sent to the sample in the same directions as you are
looking - most things will look bright unless they absorb the light.

### Dark Field

Light is sent towards the sample at an angle to your viewing direction
and you only see light that is scattered. This makes most images appear
dark and only edges and curved surfaces will light up.

### Polarized Light

### DIC vs H

# Laser Scanning Confocal Microscopy (LSCM)

 Confocal laser scanning
microscopy is a
technique that allows a much better resolution from optical microscopes
and three dimensional imaging. A review can be found in Paddock,
Biotechniques
1999

Using a high NA objective also gives a very shallow depth of focus and
hence the image will be blurred by structures above or below the focus
point in a classical microscope. A way to circumvent this problem is the
confocal microscope, or even better the Laser Scanning Confocal
Microscope (LSCM). Using a laser as the light source gives better
control of the illumintaion, especially when using fluorescent markers
in the sample. The theoretical resolution using a 1.4 NA objective can
reach 140nm laterally and 230nm vertically [^1] while the resolution
quoted in ref [^2] is 0.5×0.5×1μm. The image in the LSCM is made by
scanning the sample in 2D or 3D and recordning the signal for each point
in space on a PC which then generates the image.

# X-ray microscopy

 X-ray microscopy uses X-rays to image
with much shorter wavelength than optical light, and hence can provide
much higher spatial resolution and use different contrast mechanisms.
X-ray microscopy allows the characterization of materials with submicron
resolution approaching the 10\'s of nanometers. X-ray microscopes can
use both laboratory x-ray sources and synchrotron radiation from
electron accelerators. X-ray microscopes using synchrotron radiation
provide the greatest sensitivity and power, but are unfortunately rather
large and expensive. X-ray microscopy is usually divided into two
overlapping ranges, referred to as soft x-ray microscopy (100eV - 2keV)
and hard x-ray microscopy (1keV-40keV). All x-rays penetrate materials,
more for higher energy x-rays. Hence, soft x-ray microscopy provides the
best contrast for small samples. Hard x-rays do have the ability to pass
nearly unhindered through objects like your body, and hence also give
rather poor contrast in many of the biological samples you would like to
observe with the x-ray microscope. Nevertheless, hard x-ray microscopy
allows imaging by phase contrast, or using scanning probe x-ray
microscopy, by using detection of fluorescent or scattered x-rays.
Despite its limitations, X-ray microscopy is a powerful technique and in
some cases can provide characterization of materials or samples that
cannot be done by any other means.

# UV/VIS spectrometry

# Infrared spectrometry (FTIR)

vIdentification of the functional groups present in a nanomaterial is a
frequent requirement in nanoscience and nanotechnology research. Among
other tools, FT-IR has found much popularity among researches due to its
versatility, relative ease of use and ability to use as a quantification
tool.

Atoms in a chemical bonds constantly vibrate. This vibration can be
analogue to a system with two masses attached to a spring. The vibration
frequency depend upon the weight of the masses and the spring constant
of the connecting spring. In the same way, depending on the masses of
the atoms that contributes to a bond and cohesiveness of the bond,
frequency differ. Since bonds have atoms with different shapes and sizes
and different strength, each combination of atoms in an each type of
bond has a unique harmonic frequency. This natural frequency lies in the
range of infrared region and therefore a spectroscopic method that use
IR can be devised to analyze bond vibrations.

When the IR radiation with the same harmonic frequency of the bond
shines upon the bond. The bond vibration is amplified by increased
transfer of energy from the IR radiation. When range of IR frequencies
given to the material, it only absorb IR frequencies that corresponds to
the natural frequencies of the bonds that exist in the sample. Others
are not absorbed and can be analyzed using an Infrared spectrometer,
which tells you the frequencies that are absorbed by the sample. This
provides important information about the functional groups present in
the sample. This is exactly what FT-IR does.

As FT-IR can be used to get information about functional groups present
in nanomaterials. This is particularly useful in cases such as when one
attempts to surface modify nanomaterials to increase affinity,
reactivity or compatibility. Analyzing the FT-IR of a nanomaterial would
tell you what groups present and then appropriate surface modification
strategy be decided based on the groups present. Further, it can also be
useful in characterizing the surface modification has taken place, as
new groups should emerge if the reaction is successful.Identification of
the functional groups present in a nanomaterial is a frequent
requirement in nanoscience and nanotechnology research. Among other
tools, FT-IR has found much popularity among researches due to its
versatility, relative ease of use and ability to use as a quantification
tool.

Atoms in a chemical bonds constantly vibrate. This vibration can be
analogue to a system with two masses attached to a spring. The vibration
frequency depend upon the weight of the masses and the spring constant
of the connecting spring. In the same way, depending on the masses of
the atoms that contributes to a bond and cohesiveness of the bond,
frequency differ. Since bonds have atoms with different shapes and sizes
and different strength, each combination of atoms in an each type of
bond has a unique harmonic frequency. This natural frequency lies in the
range of infrared region and therefore a spectroscopic method that use
IR can be devised to analyze bond vibrations.

When the IR radiation with the same harmonic frequency of the bond
shines upon the bond. The bond vibration is amplified by increased
transfer of energy from the IR radiation. When range of IR frequencies
given to the material, it only absorb IR frequencies that corresponds to
the natural frequencies of the bonds that exist in the sample. Others
are not absorbed and can be analyzed using an Infrared spectrometer,
which tells you the frequencies that are absorbed by the sample. This
provides important information about the functional groups present in
the sample. This is exactly what FT-IR does.

As FT-IR can be used to get information about functional groups present
in nanomaterials. This is particularly useful in cases such as when one
attempts to surface modify nanomaterials to increase affinity,
reactivity or compatibility. Analyzing the FT-IR of a nanomaterial would
tell you what groups present and then appropriate surface modification
strategy be decided based on the groups present. Further, it can also be
useful in characterizing the surface modification has taken place, as
new groups should emerge if the reaction is successful.

# Terahertz Spectroscopy

# Raman Spectroscopy

-    Raman scattering
-    Resonance Raman
    spectroscopy

## Surface Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy (SERS)

-    Surface Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy
    (SERS)
-   Surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy: a brief
    retrospective

# References

See also notes on editing this book
Nanotechnology/About#How_to_contribute.

```{=html}
<references />
```

------------------------------------------------------------------------

[^1]: Confocal laser scanning microscopy, Paddock SW, Biotechniques ,
    vol. 27 (5): 992 NOV 1999

[^2]: A new UV-visible confocal laser scanning microspectrofluorometer
    designed for spectral cellular imaging, Favard C, Valisa P,
    Egret-Charlier M, Sharonov S, Herben C, Manfait M, Da Silva E, Vigny
    P, Biospectroscopy , vol. 5 (2): 101-115 1999


# Nanotechnology/Optical Methods#Laser Scanning Confocal Microscopy .28LSCM.29

  Navigate
  -----------------------------------------------------------------------
   \<\< Prev: Seeing Nano
   \>\< Main: Nanotechnology
   \>\> Next: Electron Microscopy

\_\_TOC\_\_

------------------------------------------------------------------------

# Optical Microscopy

## The Abbe diffraction limit

Observation of sub-wavelength structures with microscopes is difficult
because of the Abbe diffraction
limit.
Ernst Abbe found in 1873 that light with wavelength λ,travelling in a
medium with refractive index n and converging to a spot with angle φ
will make a spot with radius

$$d=\frac{0.61 \lambda}{n sin \phi}$$

The denominator nsinφ is called the numerical aperture (NA) and can
reach about 1.4 in modern optics, hence the Abbe limit is roughly d=λ/2.
With green light around 500nm the Abbe limit is 250nm which is large
compared to most nanostructures or biological cells with sizes on the
order of 1μm and their internal organelles being much smaller. To
increase the resolution, shorter wavelengths can be used such as UV and
X-ray microscopes. These techniques offer splendid resolution but are
expensive, suffer from lack of contrast in biological samples, and also
tend to damage the sample.

## Resources

-   Microscope
    optics
-   Microscopy
    Primer
-   Olympus Interactive Java Tutorials on
    Microscopy
-   Nikon MicroscopyU with interactive tutorials on microscopy
    techniques

## The optical microscope

!Sketch of an optical
microscope{width="300"}

### Bright Field

The light is sent to the sample in the same directions as you are
looking - most things will look bright unless they absorb the light.

### Dark Field

Light is sent towards the sample at an angle to your viewing direction
and you only see light that is scattered. This makes most images appear
dark and only edges and curved surfaces will light up.

### Polarized Light

### DIC vs H

# Laser Scanning Confocal Microscopy (LSCM)

 Confocal laser scanning
microscopy is a
technique that allows a much better resolution from optical microscopes
and three dimensional imaging. A review can be found in Paddock,
Biotechniques
1999

Using a high NA objective also gives a very shallow depth of focus and
hence the image will be blurred by structures above or below the focus
point in a classical microscope. A way to circumvent this problem is the
confocal microscope, or even better the Laser Scanning Confocal
Microscope (LSCM). Using a laser as the light source gives better
control of the illumintaion, especially when using fluorescent markers
in the sample. The theoretical resolution using a 1.4 NA objective can
reach 140nm laterally and 230nm vertically [^1] while the resolution
quoted in ref [^2] is 0.5×0.5×1μm. The image in the LSCM is made by
scanning the sample in 2D or 3D and recordning the signal for each point
in space on a PC which then generates the image.

# X-ray microscopy

 X-ray microscopy uses X-rays to image
with much shorter wavelength than optical light, and hence can provide
much higher spatial resolution and use different contrast mechanisms.
X-ray microscopy allows the characterization of materials with submicron
resolution approaching the 10\'s of nanometers. X-ray microscopes can
use both laboratory x-ray sources and synchrotron radiation from
electron accelerators. X-ray microscopes using synchrotron radiation
provide the greatest sensitivity and power, but are unfortunately rather
large and expensive. X-ray microscopy is usually divided into two
overlapping ranges, referred to as soft x-ray microscopy (100eV - 2keV)
and hard x-ray microscopy (1keV-40keV). All x-rays penetrate materials,
more for higher energy x-rays. Hence, soft x-ray microscopy provides the
best contrast for small samples. Hard x-rays do have the ability to pass
nearly unhindered through objects like your body, and hence also give
rather poor contrast in many of the biological samples you would like to
observe with the x-ray microscope. Nevertheless, hard x-ray microscopy
allows imaging by phase contrast, or using scanning probe x-ray
microscopy, by using detection of fluorescent or scattered x-rays.
Despite its limitations, X-ray microscopy is a powerful technique and in
some cases can provide characterization of materials or samples that
cannot be done by any other means.

# UV/VIS spectrometry

# Infrared spectrometry (FTIR)

vIdentification of the functional groups present in a nanomaterial is a
frequent requirement in nanoscience and nanotechnology research. Among
other tools, FT-IR has found much popularity among researches due to its
versatility, relative ease of use and ability to use as a quantification
tool.

Atoms in a chemical bonds constantly vibrate. This vibration can be
analogue to a system with two masses attached to a spring. The vibration
frequency depend upon the weight of the masses and the spring constant
of the connecting spring. In the same way, depending on the masses of
the atoms that contributes to a bond and cohesiveness of the bond,
frequency differ. Since bonds have atoms with different shapes and sizes
and different strength, each combination of atoms in an each type of
bond has a unique harmonic frequency. This natural frequency lies in the
range of infrared region and therefore a spectroscopic method that use
IR can be devised to analyze bond vibrations.

When the IR radiation with the same harmonic frequency of the bond
shines upon the bond. The bond vibration is amplified by increased
transfer of energy from the IR radiation. When range of IR frequencies
given to the material, it only absorb IR frequencies that corresponds to
the natural frequencies of the bonds that exist in the sample. Others
are not absorbed and can be analyzed using an Infrared spectrometer,
which tells you the frequencies that are absorbed by the sample. This
provides important information about the functional groups present in
the sample. This is exactly what FT-IR does.

As FT-IR can be used to get information about functional groups present
in nanomaterials. This is particularly useful in cases such as when one
attempts to surface modify nanomaterials to increase affinity,
reactivity or compatibility. Analyzing the FT-IR of a nanomaterial would
tell you what groups present and then appropriate surface modification
strategy be decided based on the groups present. Further, it can also be
useful in characterizing the surface modification has taken place, as
new groups should emerge if the reaction is successful.Identification of
the functional groups present in a nanomaterial is a frequent
requirement in nanoscience and nanotechnology research. Among other
tools, FT-IR has found much popularity among researches due to its
versatility, relative ease of use and ability to use as a quantification
tool.

Atoms in a chemical bonds constantly vibrate. This vibration can be
analogue to a system with two masses attached to a spring. The vibration
frequency depend upon the weight of the masses and the spring constant
of the connecting spring. In the same way, depending on the masses of
the atoms that contributes to a bond and cohesiveness of the bond,
frequency differ. Since bonds have atoms with different shapes and sizes
and different strength, each combination of atoms in an each type of
bond has a unique harmonic frequency. This natural frequency lies in the
range of infrared region and therefore a spectroscopic method that use
IR can be devised to analyze bond vibrations.

When the IR radiation with the same harmonic frequency of the bond
shines upon the bond. The bond vibration is amplified by increased
transfer of energy from the IR radiation. When range of IR frequencies
given to the material, it only absorb IR frequencies that corresponds to
the natural frequencies of the bonds that exist in the sample. Others
are not absorbed and can be analyzed using an Infrared spectrometer,
which tells you the frequencies that are absorbed by the sample. This
provides important information about the functional groups present in
the sample. This is exactly what FT-IR does.

As FT-IR can be used to get information about functional groups present
in nanomaterials. This is particularly useful in cases such as when one
attempts to surface modify nanomaterials to increase affinity,
reactivity or compatibility. Analyzing the FT-IR of a nanomaterial would
tell you what groups present and then appropriate surface modification
strategy be decided based on the groups present. Further, it can also be
useful in characterizing the surface modification has taken place, as
new groups should emerge if the reaction is successful.

# Terahertz Spectroscopy

# Raman Spectroscopy

-    Raman scattering
-    Resonance Raman
    spectroscopy

## Surface Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy (SERS)

-    Surface Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy
    (SERS)
-   Surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy: a brief
    retrospective

# References

See also notes on editing this book
Nanotechnology/About#How_to_contribute.

```{=html}
<references />
```

------------------------------------------------------------------------

[^1]: Confocal laser scanning microscopy, Paddock SW, Biotechniques ,
    vol. 27 (5): 992 NOV 1999

[^2]: A new UV-visible confocal laser scanning microspectrofluorometer
    designed for spectral cellular imaging, Favard C, Valisa P,
    Egret-Charlier M, Sharonov S, Herben C, Manfait M, Da Silva E, Vigny
    P, Biospectroscopy , vol. 5 (2): 101-115 1999


# Nanotechnology/Optical Methods#X-ray microscopy

  Navigate
  -----------------------------------------------------------------------
   \<\< Prev: Seeing Nano
   \>\< Main: Nanotechnology
   \>\> Next: Electron Microscopy

\_\_TOC\_\_

------------------------------------------------------------------------

# Optical Microscopy

## The Abbe diffraction limit

Observation of sub-wavelength structures with microscopes is difficult
because of the Abbe diffraction
limit.
Ernst Abbe found in 1873 that light with wavelength λ,travelling in a
medium with refractive index n and converging to a spot with angle φ
will make a spot with radius

$$d=\frac{0.61 \lambda}{n sin \phi}$$

The denominator nsinφ is called the numerical aperture (NA) and can
reach about 1.4 in modern optics, hence the Abbe limit is roughly d=λ/2.
With green light around 500nm the Abbe limit is 250nm which is large
compared to most nanostructures or biological cells with sizes on the
order of 1μm and their internal organelles being much smaller. To
increase the resolution, shorter wavelengths can be used such as UV and
X-ray microscopes. These techniques offer splendid resolution but are
expensive, suffer from lack of contrast in biological samples, and also
tend to damage the sample.

## Resources

-   Microscope
    optics
-   Microscopy
    Primer
-   Olympus Interactive Java Tutorials on
    Microscopy
-   Nikon MicroscopyU with interactive tutorials on microscopy
    techniques

## The optical microscope

!Sketch of an optical
microscope{width="300"}

### Bright Field

The light is sent to the sample in the same directions as you are
looking - most things will look bright unless they absorb the light.

### Dark Field

Light is sent towards the sample at an angle to your viewing direction
and you only see light that is scattered. This makes most images appear
dark and only edges and curved surfaces will light up.

### Polarized Light

### DIC vs H

# Laser Scanning Confocal Microscopy (LSCM)

 Confocal laser scanning
microscopy is a
technique that allows a much better resolution from optical microscopes
and three dimensional imaging. A review can be found in Paddock,
Biotechniques
1999

Using a high NA objective also gives a very shallow depth of focus and
hence the image will be blurred by structures above or below the focus
point in a classical microscope. A way to circumvent this problem is the
confocal microscope, or even better the Laser Scanning Confocal
Microscope (LSCM). Using a laser as the light source gives better
control of the illumintaion, especially when using fluorescent markers
in the sample. The theoretical resolution using a 1.4 NA objective can
reach 140nm laterally and 230nm vertically [^1] while the resolution
quoted in ref [^2] is 0.5×0.5×1μm. The image in the LSCM is made by
scanning the sample in 2D or 3D and recordning the signal for each point
in space on a PC which then generates the image.

# X-ray microscopy

 X-ray microscopy uses X-rays to image
with much shorter wavelength than optical light, and hence can provide
much higher spatial resolution and use different contrast mechanisms.
X-ray microscopy allows the characterization of materials with submicron
resolution approaching the 10\'s of nanometers. X-ray microscopes can
use both laboratory x-ray sources and synchrotron radiation from
electron accelerators. X-ray microscopes using synchrotron radiation
provide the greatest sensitivity and power, but are unfortunately rather
large and expensive. X-ray microscopy is usually divided into two
overlapping ranges, referred to as soft x-ray microscopy (100eV - 2keV)
and hard x-ray microscopy (1keV-40keV). All x-rays penetrate materials,
more for higher energy x-rays. Hence, soft x-ray microscopy provides the
best contrast for small samples. Hard x-rays do have the ability to pass
nearly unhindered through objects like your body, and hence also give
rather poor contrast in many of the biological samples you would like to
observe with the x-ray microscope. Nevertheless, hard x-ray microscopy
allows imaging by phase contrast, or using scanning probe x-ray
microscopy, by using detection of fluorescent or scattered x-rays.
Despite its limitations, X-ray microscopy is a powerful technique and in
some cases can provide characterization of materials or samples that
cannot be done by any other means.

# UV/VIS spectrometry

# Infrared spectrometry (FTIR)

vIdentification of the functional groups present in a nanomaterial is a
frequent requirement in nanoscience and nanotechnology research. Among
other tools, FT-IR has found much popularity among researches due to its
versatility, relative ease of use and ability to use as a quantification
tool.

Atoms in a chemical bonds constantly vibrate. This vibration can be
analogue to a system with two masses attached to a spring. The vibration
frequency depend upon the weight of the masses and the spring constant
of the connecting spring. In the same way, depending on the masses of
the atoms that contributes to a bond and cohesiveness of the bond,
frequency differ. Since bonds have atoms with different shapes and sizes
and different strength, each combination of atoms in an each type of
bond has a unique harmonic frequency. This natural frequency lies in the
range of infrared region and therefore a spectroscopic method that use
IR can be devised to analyze bond vibrations.

When the IR radiation with the same harmonic frequency of the bond
shines upon the bond. The bond vibration is amplified by increased
transfer of energy from the IR radiation. When range of IR frequencies
given to the material, it only absorb IR frequencies that corresponds to
the natural frequencies of the bonds that exist in the sample. Others
are not absorbed and can be analyzed using an Infrared spectrometer,
which tells you the frequencies that are absorbed by the sample. This
provides important information about the functional groups present in
the sample. This is exactly what FT-IR does.

As FT-IR can be used to get information about functional groups present
in nanomaterials. This is particularly useful in cases such as when one
attempts to surface modify nanomaterials to increase affinity,
reactivity or compatibility. Analyzing the FT-IR of a nanomaterial would
tell you what groups present and then appropriate surface modification
strategy be decided based on the groups present. Further, it can also be
useful in characterizing the surface modification has taken place, as
new groups should emerge if the reaction is successful.Identification of
the functional groups present in a nanomaterial is a frequent
requirement in nanoscience and nanotechnology research. Among other
tools, FT-IR has found much popularity among researches due to its
versatility, relative ease of use and ability to use as a quantification
tool.

Atoms in a chemical bonds constantly vibrate. This vibration can be
analogue to a system with two masses attached to a spring. The vibration
frequency depend upon the weight of the masses and the spring constant
of the connecting spring. In the same way, depending on the masses of
the atoms that contributes to a bond and cohesiveness of the bond,
frequency differ. Since bonds have atoms with different shapes and sizes
and different strength, each combination of atoms in an each type of
bond has a unique harmonic frequency. This natural frequency lies in the
range of infrared region and therefore a spectroscopic method that use
IR can be devised to analyze bond vibrations.

When the IR radiation with the same harmonic frequency of the bond
shines upon the bond. The bond vibration is amplified by increased
transfer of energy from the IR radiation. When range of IR frequencies
given to the material, it only absorb IR frequencies that corresponds to
the natural frequencies of the bonds that exist in the sample. Others
are not absorbed and can be analyzed using an Infrared spectrometer,
which tells you the frequencies that are absorbed by the sample. This
provides important information about the functional groups present in
the sample. This is exactly what FT-IR does.

As FT-IR can be used to get information about functional groups present
in nanomaterials. This is particularly useful in cases such as when one
attempts to surface modify nanomaterials to increase affinity,
reactivity or compatibility. Analyzing the FT-IR of a nanomaterial would
tell you what groups present and then appropriate surface modification
strategy be decided based on the groups present. Further, it can also be
useful in characterizing the surface modification has taken place, as
new groups should emerge if the reaction is successful.

# Terahertz Spectroscopy

# Raman Spectroscopy

-    Raman scattering
-    Resonance Raman
    spectroscopy

## Surface Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy (SERS)

-    Surface Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy
    (SERS)
-   Surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy: a brief
    retrospective

# References

See also notes on editing this book
Nanotechnology/About#How_to_contribute.

```{=html}
<references />
```

------------------------------------------------------------------------

[^1]: Confocal laser scanning microscopy, Paddock SW, Biotechniques ,
    vol. 27 (5): 992 NOV 1999

[^2]: A new UV-visible confocal laser scanning microspectrofluorometer
    designed for spectral cellular imaging, Favard C, Valisa P,
    Egret-Charlier M, Sharonov S, Herben C, Manfait M, Da Silva E, Vigny
    P, Biospectroscopy , vol. 5 (2): 101-115 1999


# Nanotechnology/Optical Methods#UV.2FVIS spectrometry

  Navigate
  -----------------------------------------------------------------------
   \<\< Prev: Seeing Nano
   \>\< Main: Nanotechnology
   \>\> Next: Electron Microscopy

\_\_TOC\_\_

------------------------------------------------------------------------

# Optical Microscopy

## The Abbe diffraction limit

Observation of sub-wavelength structures with microscopes is difficult
because of the Abbe diffraction
limit.
Ernst Abbe found in 1873 that light with wavelength λ,travelling in a
medium with refractive index n and converging to a spot with angle φ
will make a spot with radius

$$d=\frac{0.61 \lambda}{n sin \phi}$$

The denominator nsinφ is called the numerical aperture (NA) and can
reach about 1.4 in modern optics, hence the Abbe limit is roughly d=λ/2.
With green light around 500nm the Abbe limit is 250nm which is large
compared to most nanostructures or biological cells with sizes on the
order of 1μm and their internal organelles being much smaller. To
increase the resolution, shorter wavelengths can be used such as UV and
X-ray microscopes. These techniques offer splendid resolution but are
expensive, suffer from lack of contrast in biological samples, and also
tend to damage the sample.

## Resources

-   Microscope
    optics
-   Microscopy
    Primer
-   Olympus Interactive Java Tutorials on
    Microscopy
-   Nikon MicroscopyU with interactive tutorials on microscopy
    techniques

## The optical microscope

!Sketch of an optical
microscope{width="300"}

### Bright Field

The light is sent to the sample in the same directions as you are
looking - most things will look bright unless they absorb the light.

### Dark Field

Light is sent towards the sample at an angle to your viewing direction
and you only see light that is scattered. This makes most images appear
dark and only edges and curved surfaces will light up.

### Polarized Light

### DIC vs H

# Laser Scanning Confocal Microscopy (LSCM)

 Confocal laser scanning
microscopy is a
technique that allows a much better resolution from optical microscopes
and three dimensional imaging. A review can be found in Paddock,
Biotechniques
1999

Using a high NA objective also gives a very shallow depth of focus and
hence the image will be blurred by structures above or below the focus
point in a classical microscope. A way to circumvent this problem is the
confocal microscope, or even better the Laser Scanning Confocal
Microscope (LSCM). Using a laser as the light source gives better
control of the illumintaion, especially when using fluorescent markers
in the sample. The theoretical resolution using a 1.4 NA objective can
reach 140nm laterally and 230nm vertically [^1] while the resolution
quoted in ref [^2] is 0.5×0.5×1μm. The image in the LSCM is made by
scanning the sample in 2D or 3D and recordning the signal for each point
in space on a PC which then generates the image.

# X-ray microscopy

 X-ray microscopy uses X-rays to image
with much shorter wavelength than optical light, and hence can provide
much higher spatial resolution and use different contrast mechanisms.
X-ray microscopy allows the characterization of materials with submicron
resolution approaching the 10\'s of nanometers. X-ray microscopes can
use both laboratory x-ray sources and synchrotron radiation from
electron accelerators. X-ray microscopes using synchrotron radiation
provide the greatest sensitivity and power, but are unfortunately rather
large and expensive. X-ray microscopy is usually divided into two
overlapping ranges, referred to as soft x-ray microscopy (100eV - 2keV)
and hard x-ray microscopy (1keV-40keV). All x-rays penetrate materials,
more for higher energy x-rays. Hence, soft x-ray microscopy provides the
best contrast for small samples. Hard x-rays do have the ability to pass
nearly unhindered through objects like your body, and hence also give
rather poor contrast in many of the biological samples you would like to
observe with the x-ray microscope. Nevertheless, hard x-ray microscopy
allows imaging by phase contrast, or using scanning probe x-ray
microscopy, by using detection of fluorescent or scattered x-rays.
Despite its limitations, X-ray microscopy is a powerful technique and in
some cases can provide characterization of materials or samples that
cannot be done by any other means.

# UV/VIS spectrometry

# Infrared spectrometry (FTIR)

vIdentification of the functional groups present in a nanomaterial is a
frequent requirement in nanoscience and nanotechnology research. Among
other tools, FT-IR has found much popularity among researches due to its
versatility, relative ease of use and ability to use as a quantification
tool.

Atoms in a chemical bonds constantly vibrate. This vibration can be
analogue to a system with two masses attached to a spring. The vibration
frequency depend upon the weight of the masses and the spring constant
of the connecting spring. In the same way, depending on the masses of
the atoms that contributes to a bond and cohesiveness of the bond,
frequency differ. Since bonds have atoms with different shapes and sizes
and different strength, each combination of atoms in an each type of
bond has a unique harmonic frequency. This natural frequency lies in the
range of infrared region and therefore a spectroscopic method that use
IR can be devised to analyze bond vibrations.

When the IR radiation with the same harmonic frequency of the bond
shines upon the bond. The bond vibration is amplified by increased
transfer of energy from the IR radiation. When range of IR frequencies
given to the material, it only absorb IR frequencies that corresponds to
the natural frequencies of the bonds that exist in the sample. Others
are not absorbed and can be analyzed using an Infrared spectrometer,
which tells you the frequencies that are absorbed by the sample. This
provides important information about the functional groups present in
the sample. This is exactly what FT-IR does.

As FT-IR can be used to get information about functional groups present
in nanomaterials. This is particularly useful in cases such as when one
attempts to surface modify nanomaterials to increase affinity,
reactivity or compatibility. Analyzing the FT-IR of a nanomaterial would
tell you what groups present and then appropriate surface modification
strategy be decided based on the groups present. Further, it can also be
useful in characterizing the surface modification has taken place, as
new groups should emerge if the reaction is successful.Identification of
the functional groups present in a nanomaterial is a frequent
requirement in nanoscience and nanotechnology research. Among other
tools, FT-IR has found much popularity among researches due to its
versatility, relative ease of use and ability to use as a quantification
tool.

Atoms in a chemical bonds constantly vibrate. This vibration can be
analogue to a system with two masses attached to a spring. The vibration
frequency depend upon the weight of the masses and the spring constant
of the connecting spring. In the same way, depending on the masses of
the atoms that contributes to a bond and cohesiveness of the bond,
frequency differ. Since bonds have atoms with different shapes and sizes
and different strength, each combination of atoms in an each type of
bond has a unique harmonic frequency. This natural frequency lies in the
range of infrared region and therefore a spectroscopic method that use
IR can be devised to analyze bond vibrations.

When the IR radiation with the same harmonic frequency of the bond
shines upon the bond. The bond vibration is amplified by increased
transfer of energy from the IR radiation. When range of IR frequencies
given to the material, it only absorb IR frequencies that corresponds to
the natural frequencies of the bonds that exist in the sample. Others
are not absorbed and can be analyzed using an Infrared spectrometer,
which tells you the frequencies that are absorbed by the sample. This
provides important information about the functional groups present in
the sample. This is exactly what FT-IR does.

As FT-IR can be used to get information about functional groups present
in nanomaterials. This is particularly useful in cases such as when one
attempts to surface modify nanomaterials to increase affinity,
reactivity or compatibility. Analyzing the FT-IR of a nanomaterial would
tell you what groups present and then appropriate surface modification
strategy be decided based on the groups present. Further, it can also be
useful in characterizing the surface modification has taken place, as
new groups should emerge if the reaction is successful.

# Terahertz Spectroscopy

# Raman Spectroscopy

-    Raman scattering
-    Resonance Raman
    spectroscopy

## Surface Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy (SERS)

-    Surface Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy
    (SERS)
-   Surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy: a brief
    retrospective

# References

See also notes on editing this book
Nanotechnology/About#How_to_contribute.

```{=html}
<references />
```

------------------------------------------------------------------------

[^1]: Confocal laser scanning microscopy, Paddock SW, Biotechniques ,
    vol. 27 (5): 992 NOV 1999

[^2]: A new UV-visible confocal laser scanning microspectrofluorometer
    designed for spectral cellular imaging, Favard C, Valisa P,
    Egret-Charlier M, Sharonov S, Herben C, Manfait M, Da Silva E, Vigny
    P, Biospectroscopy , vol. 5 (2): 101-115 1999


# Nanotechnology/Optical Methods#Raman Spectroscopy

  Navigate
  -----------------------------------------------------------------------
   \<\< Prev: Seeing Nano
   \>\< Main: Nanotechnology
   \>\> Next: Electron Microscopy

\_\_TOC\_\_

------------------------------------------------------------------------

# Optical Microscopy

## The Abbe diffraction limit

Observation of sub-wavelength structures with microscopes is difficult
because of the Abbe diffraction
limit.
Ernst Abbe found in 1873 that light with wavelength λ,travelling in a
medium with refractive index n and converging to a spot with angle φ
will make a spot with radius

$$d=\frac{0.61 \lambda}{n sin \phi}$$

The denominator nsinφ is called the numerical aperture (NA) and can
reach about 1.4 in modern optics, hence the Abbe limit is roughly d=λ/2.
With green light around 500nm the Abbe limit is 250nm which is large
compared to most nanostructures or biological cells with sizes on the
order of 1μm and their internal organelles being much smaller. To
increase the resolution, shorter wavelengths can be used such as UV and
X-ray microscopes. These techniques offer splendid resolution but are
expensive, suffer from lack of contrast in biological samples, and also
tend to damage the sample.

## Resources

-   Microscope
    optics
-   Microscopy
    Primer
-   Olympus Interactive Java Tutorials on
    Microscopy
-   Nikon MicroscopyU with interactive tutorials on microscopy
    techniques

## The optical microscope

!Sketch of an optical
microscope{width="300"}

### Bright Field

The light is sent to the sample in the same directions as you are
looking - most things will look bright unless they absorb the light.

### Dark Field

Light is sent towards the sample at an angle to your viewing direction
and you only see light that is scattered. This makes most images appear
dark and only edges and curved surfaces will light up.

### Polarized Light

### DIC vs H

# Laser Scanning Confocal Microscopy (LSCM)

 Confocal laser scanning
microscopy is a
technique that allows a much better resolution from optical microscopes
and three dimensional imaging. A review can be found in Paddock,
Biotechniques
1999

Using a high NA objective also gives a very shallow depth of focus and
hence the image will be blurred by structures above or below the focus
point in a classical microscope. A way to circumvent this problem is the
confocal microscope, or even better the Laser Scanning Confocal
Microscope (LSCM). Using a laser as the light source gives better
control of the illumintaion, especially when using fluorescent markers
in the sample. The theoretical resolution using a 1.4 NA objective can
reach 140nm laterally and 230nm vertically [^1] while the resolution
quoted in ref [^2] is 0.5×0.5×1μm. The image in the LSCM is made by
scanning the sample in 2D or 3D and recordning the signal for each point
in space on a PC which then generates the image.

# X-ray microscopy

 X-ray microscopy uses X-rays to image
with much shorter wavelength than optical light, and hence can provide
much higher spatial resolution and use different contrast mechanisms.
X-ray microscopy allows the characterization of materials with submicron
resolution approaching the 10\'s of nanometers. X-ray microscopes can
use both laboratory x-ray sources and synchrotron radiation from
electron accelerators. X-ray microscopes using synchrotron radiation
provide the greatest sensitivity and power, but are unfortunately rather
large and expensive. X-ray microscopy is usually divided into two
overlapping ranges, referred to as soft x-ray microscopy (100eV - 2keV)
and hard x-ray microscopy (1keV-40keV). All x-rays penetrate materials,
more for higher energy x-rays. Hence, soft x-ray microscopy provides the
best contrast for small samples. Hard x-rays do have the ability to pass
nearly unhindered through objects like your body, and hence also give
rather poor contrast in many of the biological samples you would like to
observe with the x-ray microscope. Nevertheless, hard x-ray microscopy
allows imaging by phase contrast, or using scanning probe x-ray
microscopy, by using detection of fluorescent or scattered x-rays.
Despite its limitations, X-ray microscopy is a powerful technique and in
some cases can provide characterization of materials or samples that
cannot be done by any other means.

# UV/VIS spectrometry

# Infrared spectrometry (FTIR)

vIdentification of the functional groups present in a nanomaterial is a
frequent requirement in nanoscience and nanotechnology research. Among
other tools, FT-IR has found much popularity among researches due to its
versatility, relative ease of use and ability to use as a quantification
tool.

Atoms in a chemical bonds constantly vibrate. This vibration can be
analogue to a system with two masses attached to a spring. The vibration
frequency depend upon the weight of the masses and the spring constant
of the connecting spring. In the same way, depending on the masses of
the atoms that contributes to a bond and cohesiveness of the bond,
frequency differ. Since bonds have atoms with different shapes and sizes
and different strength, each combination of atoms in an each type of
bond has a unique harmonic frequency. This natural frequency lies in the
range of infrared region and therefore a spectroscopic method that use
IR can be devised to analyze bond vibrations.

When the IR radiation with the same harmonic frequency of the bond
shines upon the bond. The bond vibration is amplified by increased
transfer of energy from the IR radiation. When range of IR frequencies
given to the material, it only absorb IR frequencies that corresponds to
the natural frequencies of the bonds that exist in the sample. Others
are not absorbed and can be analyzed using an Infrared spectrometer,
which tells you the frequencies that are absorbed by the sample. This
provides important information about the functional groups present in
the sample. This is exactly what FT-IR does.

As FT-IR can be used to get information about functional groups present
in nanomaterials. This is particularly useful in cases such as when one
attempts to surface modify nanomaterials to increase affinity,
reactivity or compatibility. Analyzing the FT-IR of a nanomaterial would
tell you what groups present and then appropriate surface modification
strategy be decided based on the groups present. Further, it can also be
useful in characterizing the surface modification has taken place, as
new groups should emerge if the reaction is successful.Identification of
the functional groups present in a nanomaterial is a frequent
requirement in nanoscience and nanotechnology research. Among other
tools, FT-IR has found much popularity among researches due to its
versatility, relative ease of use and ability to use as a quantification
tool.

Atoms in a chemical bonds constantly vibrate. This vibration can be
analogue to a system with two masses attached to a spring. The vibration
frequency depend upon the weight of the masses and the spring constant
of the connecting spring. In the same way, depending on the masses of
the atoms that contributes to a bond and cohesiveness of the bond,
frequency differ. Since bonds have atoms with different shapes and sizes
and different strength, each combination of atoms in an each type of
bond has a unique harmonic frequency. This natural frequency lies in the
range of infrared region and therefore a spectroscopic method that use
IR can be devised to analyze bond vibrations.

When the IR radiation with the same harmonic frequency of the bond
shines upon the bond. The bond vibration is amplified by increased
transfer of energy from the IR radiation. When range of IR frequencies
given to the material, it only absorb IR frequencies that corresponds to
the natural frequencies of the bonds that exist in the sample. Others
are not absorbed and can be analyzed using an Infrared spectrometer,
which tells you the frequencies that are absorbed by the sample. This
provides important information about the functional groups present in
the sample. This is exactly what FT-IR does.

As FT-IR can be used to get information about functional groups present
in nanomaterials. This is particularly useful in cases such as when one
attempts to surface modify nanomaterials to increase affinity,
reactivity or compatibility. Analyzing the FT-IR of a nanomaterial would
tell you what groups present and then appropriate surface modification
strategy be decided based on the groups present. Further, it can also be
useful in characterizing the surface modification has taken place, as
new groups should emerge if the reaction is successful.

# Terahertz Spectroscopy

# Raman Spectroscopy

-    Raman scattering
-    Resonance Raman
    spectroscopy

## Surface Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy (SERS)

-    Surface Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy
    (SERS)
-   Surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy: a brief
    retrospective

# References

See also notes on editing this book
Nanotechnology/About#How_to_contribute.

```{=html}
<references />
```

------------------------------------------------------------------------

[^1]: Confocal laser scanning microscopy, Paddock SW, Biotechniques ,
    vol. 27 (5): 992 NOV 1999

[^2]: A new UV-visible confocal laser scanning microspectrofluorometer
    designed for spectral cellular imaging, Favard C, Valisa P,
    Egret-Charlier M, Sharonov S, Herben C, Manfait M, Da Silva E, Vigny
    P, Biospectroscopy , vol. 5 (2): 101-115 1999