# XML - Managing Data Exchange/XML Colors

For use in your stylesheet: these colors can be used for both background
and fonts.

```{=html}
<table class="wikitable" style="margin:0px auto; text-align:center;">
```
```{=html}
<tr>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#000000" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
000000

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#000033" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
000033

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#000066" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
000066

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#000099" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
000099

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#0000CC" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
0000CC

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#0000FF" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
0000FF

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#003300" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
003300

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#003333" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
003333

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#003366" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
003366

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#003399" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
003399

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#0033CC" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
0033CC

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#0033FF" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
0033FF

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
</tr>
```
```{=html}
<tr>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#006600" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
006600

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#006633" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
006633

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#006666" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
006666

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#006699" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
006699

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#0066CC" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
0066CC

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#0066FF" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
0066FF

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#009900" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
009900

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#009933" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
009933

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#009966" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
009966

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#009999" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
009999

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#0099CC" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
0099CC

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#0099FF" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
0099FF

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
</tr>
```
```{=html}
<tr>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#00CC00" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
00CC00

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#00CC33" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
00CC33

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#00CC66" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
00CC66

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#00CC99" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
00CC99

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#00CCCC" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
00CCCC

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#00CCFF" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
00CCFF

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#00FF00" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
00FF00

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#00FF33" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
00FF33

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#00FF66" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
00FF66

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#00FF99" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
00FF99

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#00FFCC" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
00FFCC

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#00FFFF" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
00FFFF

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
</tr>
```
```{=html}
<tr>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#330000" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
330000

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#330033" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
330033

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#330066" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
330066

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#330099" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
330099

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#3300CC" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
3300CC

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#3300FF" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
3300FF

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#333300" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
333300

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#333333" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
333333

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#333366" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
333366

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#333399" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
333399

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#3333CC" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
3333CC

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#3333FF" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
3333FF

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
</tr>
```
```{=html}
<tr>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#336600" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
336600

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#336633" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
336633

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#336666" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
336666

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#336699" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
336699

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#3366CC" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
3366CC

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#3366FF" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
3366FF

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#339900" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
339900

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#339933" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
339933

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#339966" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
339966

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#339999" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
339999

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#3399CC" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
3399CC

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#3399FF" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
3399FF

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
</tr>
```
```{=html}
<tr>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#33CC00" width="25" style="color:#000;">
```
33CC00

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#33CC33" width="25" style="color:#000;">
```
33CC33

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#33CC66" width="25" style="color:#000;">
```
33CC66

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#33CC99" width="25" style="color:#000;">
```
33CC99

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#33CCCC" width="25" style="color:#000;">
```
33CCCC

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#33CCFF" width="25" style="color:#000;">
```
33CCFF

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#33FF00" width="25" style="color:#000;">
```
33FF00

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#33FF33" width="25" style="color:#000;">
```
33FF33

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#33FF66" width="25" style="color:#000;">
```
33FF66

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#33FF99" width="25" style="color:#000;">
```
33FF99

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#33FFCC" width="25" style="color:#000;">
```
33FFCC

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#33FFFF" width="25" style="color:#000;">
```
33FFFF

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
</tr>
```
```{=html}
<tr>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#660000" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
660000

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#660033" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
660033

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#660066" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
660066

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#660099" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
660099

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#6600CC" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
6600CC

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#6600FF" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
6600FF

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#663300" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
663300

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#663333" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
663333

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#663366" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
663366

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#663399" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
663399

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#6633CC" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
6633CC

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#6633FF" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
6633FF

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
</tr>
```
```{=html}
<tr>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#666600" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
666600

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#666633" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
666633

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#666666" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
666666

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#666699" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
666699

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#6666CC" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
6666CC

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#6666FF" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
6666FF

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#669900" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
669900

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#669933" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
669933

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#669966" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
669966

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#669999" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
669999

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#6699CC" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
6699CC

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#6699FF" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
6699FF

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
</tr>
```
```{=html}
<tr>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#66CC00" width="25" style="color:#000;">
```
66CC00

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#66CC33" width="25" style="color:#000;">
```
66CC33

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#66CC66" width="25" style="color:#000;">
```
66CC66

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#66CC99" width="25" style="color:#000;">
```
66CC99

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#66CCCC" width="25" style="color:#000;">
```
66CCCC

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#66CCFF" width="25" style="color:#000;">
```
66CCFF

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#66FF00" width="25" style="color:#000;">
```
66FF00

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#66FF33" width="25" style="color:#000;">
```
66FF33

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#66FF66" width="25" style="color:#000;">
```
66FF66

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#66FF99" width="25" style="color:#000;">
```
66FF99

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#66FFCC" width="25" style="color:#000;">
```
66FFCC

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#66FFFF" width="25" style="color:#000;">
```
66FFFF

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
</tr>
```
```{=html}
<tr>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#990000" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
990000

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#990033" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
990033

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#990066" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
990066

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#990099" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
990099

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#9900CC" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
9900CC

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#9900FF" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
9900FF

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#993300" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
993300

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#993333" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
993333

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#993366" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
993366

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#993399" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
993399

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#9933CC" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
9933CC

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#9933FF" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
9933FF

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
</tr>
```
```{=html}
<tr>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#996600" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
996600

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#996633" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
996633

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#996666" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
996666

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#996699" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
996699

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#9966CC" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
9966CC

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#9966FF" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
9966FF

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#999900" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
999900

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#999933" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
999933

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#999966" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
999966

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#999999" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
999999

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#9999CC" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
9999CC

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#9999FF" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
9999FF

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
</tr>
```
```{=html}
<tr>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#99CC00" width="25" style="color:#000;">
```
99CC00

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#99CC33" width="25" style="color:#000;">
```
99CC33

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#99CC66" width="25" style="color:#000;">
```
99CC66

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#99CC99" width="25" style="color:#000;">
```
99CC99

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#99CCCC" width="25" style="color:#000;">
```
99CCCC

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#99CCFF" width="25" style="color:#000;">
```
99CCFF

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#99FF00" width="25" style="color:#000;">
```
99FF00

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#99FF33" width="25" style="color:#000;">
```
99FF33

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#99FF66" width="25" style="color:#000;">
```
99FF66

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#99FF99" width="25" style="color:#000;">
```
99FF99

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#99FFCC" width="25" style="color:#000;">
```
99FFCC

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#99FFFF" width="25" style="color:#000;">
```
99FFFF

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
</tr>
```
```{=html}
<tr>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#CC0000" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
CC0000

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#CC0033" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
CC0033

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#CC0066" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
CC0066

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#CC0099" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
CC0099

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#CC00CC" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
CC00CC

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#CC00FF" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
CC00FF

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#CC3300" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
CC3300

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#CC3333" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
CC3333

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#CC3366" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
CC3366

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#CC3399" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
CC3399

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#CC33CC" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
CC33CC

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#CC33FF" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
CC33FF

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
</tr>
```
```{=html}
<tr>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#CC6600" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
CC6600

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#CC6633" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
CC6633

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#CC6666" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
CC6666

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#CC6699" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
CC6699

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#CC66CC" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
CC66CC

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#CC66FF" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
CC66FF

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#CC9900" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
CC9900

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#CC9933" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
CC9933

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#CC9966" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
CC9966

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#CC9999" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
CC9999

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#CC99CC" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
CC99CC

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#CC99FF" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
CC99FF

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
</tr>
```
```{=html}
<tr>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#CCCC00" width="25" style="color:#000;">
```
CCCC00

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#CCCC33" width="25" style="color:#000;">
```
CCCC33

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#CCCC66" width="25" style="color:#000;">
```
CCCC66

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#CCCC99" width="25" style="color:#000;">
```
CCCC99

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#CCCCCC" width="25" style="color:#000;">
```
CCCCCC

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#CCCCFF" width="25" style="color:#000;">
```
CCCCFF

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#CCFF00" width="25" style="color:#000;">
```
CCFF00

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#CCFF33" width="25" style="color:#000;">
```
CCFF33

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#CCFF66" width="25" style="color:#000;">
```
CCFF66

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#CCFF99" width="25" style="color:#000;">
```
CCFF99

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#CCFFCC" width="25" style="color:#000;">
```
CCFFCC

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#CCFFFF" width="25" style="color:#000;">
```
CCFFFF

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
</tr>
```
```{=html}
<tr>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#FF0000" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
FF0000

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#FF0033" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
FF0033

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#FF0066" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
FF0066

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#FF0099" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
FF0099

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#FF00CC" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
FF00CC

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#FF00FF" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
FF00FF

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#FF3300" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
FF3300

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#FF3333" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
FF3333

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#FF3366" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
FF3366

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#FF3399" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
FF3399

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#FF33CC" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
FF33CC

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#FF33FF" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
FF33FF

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
</tr>
```
```{=html}
<tr>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#FF6600" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
FF6600

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#FF6633" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
FF6633

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#FF6666" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
FF6666

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#FF6699" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
FF6699

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#FF66CC" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
FF66CC

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#FF66FF" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
FF66FF

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#FF9900" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
FF9900

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#FF9933" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
FF9933

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#FF9966" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
FF9966

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#FF9999" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
FF999

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#FF99CC" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
FF99CC

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#FF99FF" width="25" style="color:#FFF;">
```
FF99FF

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
</tr>
```
```{=html}
<tr>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#FFCC00" width="25" style="color:#000;">
```
FFCC00

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#FFCC33" width="25" style="color:#000;">
```
FFCC33

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#FFCC66" width="25" style="color:#000;">
```
FFCC66

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#FFCC99" width="25" style="color:#000;">
```
FFCC99

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#FFCCCC" width="25" style="color:#000;">
```
FFCCCC

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#FFCCFF" width="25" style="color:#000;">
```
FFCCFF

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#FFFF00" width="25" style="color:#000;">
```
FFFF00

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#FFFF33" width="25" style="color:#000;">
```
FFFF33

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#FFFF66" width="25" style="color:#000;">
```
FFFF66

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#FFFF99" width="25" style="color:#000;">
```
FFFF99

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#FFFFCC" width="25" style="color:#000;">
```
FFFFCC

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td bgcolor="#FFFFFF" width="25" style="color:#000;">
```
FFFFFF

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
</tr>
```
```{=html}
</table>
```


# English in Use/Introduction

------------------------------------------------------------------------

## Welcome

Welcome to the English language Wikibook on the English language!

To learn about chapter format and whether this is the right book for
you, continue reading this page. Most of this material is not dependent
on other sections, so you can also use this book as a reference by
clicking on any subject you would like to learn more about on the
contents page. If you don\'t want to bother looking
through chapters for a specific piece of information, click
here
to ask a question on any subject covered in this book. To learn more
about this book and view a list of authors, see the
../About/ page.

Additionally, those knowledgeable about the English language are welcome
and highly encouraged to contribute. See the
../About/ page to learn more about contributing
and add your name to the authors listing.

## Introduction to the English language

English has become one of the most popular languages in the world.
Proper English skills are becoming a valuable asset in business around
the world. Do not put off learning English because of the great variety
of word orders available (even for simple things). Have a go and keep
trying. Practice.

It is well worth remembering that English is not a fixed language - it
is shifting like sand and so these \"rules\" are in the process of
change and are often ignored or bent - much to the disdain of erudite
scholars. This may be one reason why English can be tricky to learn.

## Purpose and structure - What will this book cover?

This book will function as:

1.  A guide to structure and grammar,
2.  A usage guide, and
3.  A manual of style

It is divided into six units: Words and usage, Sentences, Punctuation,
Other key topics, Appendices, and Topics in detail. The eventual goal is
to be usable in English classrooms around the world. This book will not
include English vocabulary and pronunciation (covered in English as an
Additional Language).
Advanced writing topics (covered in
) will also be excluded.

## Intended audience - Who is this book for?

This book is written for native English speakers and those who wish to
learn the finer grammar and mechanics points of the language and improve
their writing and speech, including ESL speakers. It is meant to be both
a structured textbook read chapter by chapter and a reference book.
English as an Additional
Language and Business
English present English in the manner of a
traditional foreign language course.
 covers advanced writing
techniques not covered in this book. See /External
resources for other pages to read.

## Chapter format

All pages of this book should be about the same length and difficulty,
in order to provide consistency and allow readers to plan ahead how much
they want to read each session. Each chapter will try to not be
dependent on previous chapters as much as possible. Each chapter should
be accompanied by exercises using .

## Contributing - What can I do to help?

Both experts and beginners can help to improve this book. If you would
like to help, the about page should tell you
everything you want to know to help. If you don\'t have a lot of time to
work on this book, there are two simple things you can do. Firstly, you
can make sure that  is on every
page. Type
on the bottom of the page to include the template. Secondly, you are
encouraged to comment on each chapter on its talk page. Don\'t
understand something? Please say so so others don\'t experience the same
problem! If you feel you understand the material on a page pretty well,

## Brief language history

Modern English has evolved out of old Anglo-Saxon, a language much like
modern German. In the process, it has borrowed many Latin words, and
completely changed its grammar.

The story starts when the Romans left Britain, leaving the Celtic
Britons in chaos. One Celtic king asked the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes to
come and fight for him, but they decided to take over England instead,
since the Celts couldn\'t put up a decent fight.

Soon, there were no Celts left in England, and hardly any trace of the
Celtic languages. There are a few river names inherited from the Celts,
or earlier, and maybe a dozen words, but no more. This complete
obliteration of the Celts was unusually thorough for the times.

A few generations later the English converted to Christianity. The new
religion brought with it a flood of new words, borrowed from Latin and
Greek; religious terms such as *Angel*, *priest*, and *nun*, but also
names of un-English things such *lion*, *pepper*, and *oyster*.

Around this time, the English began slurring the ends of words. This was
the start of the process that created modern English grammar.

After a few centuries of peace the Vikings invaded. They spoke Old
Norse, a language related to English. After much fighting, they settled
down in North East England, and introduced many Norse words into
English, including the pronouns *them*, *they*, and *their*.

Just as the Viking invasions stopped, the French-speaking Normans
invaded. Commoners continued speaking English, but for the next two
centuries the noblemen spoke French.

A few French words trickled into English during the period, but the
number stayed pretty low until the nobles stopped speaking French, in
the mid thirteenth century. This precipitated a large influx of words of
French origin into the English language as an entire class migrated from
French to English. Many of the French words were Anglicized, but some of
the spelling of the words remained roughly intact. It should be noted
that the Normans spoke an older version of French known as *Old French*
that may sometimes actually seem to be closer to English than current
French, because English took some words from Old French wholesale, such
as *mansion*. Around the same time the universities of Oxford and
Cambridge were founded.

During the Renaissance, the scholars of England added many more Greek
and Latin words to the English language. As a result, much of the
technical vocabulary in English consists of Greek or Latin words.

Since then, English has also borrowed many words from the major European
languages, such as French, as well as a few words from almost every
other language. It is still changing and developing.

hi:अंग्रेज़ी भाषा/परिचय


# English in Use/Articles

An **article** is the word *the*, *an*, or *a*, which we put before
nouns to limit their signification: as, *the air, the stars, an island,
a ship*.

The articles can seldom be put one for the other, without gross
impropriety; and of course either is to be preferred to the other, as it
better suits the sense: as,

-   \"The violation of this rule never fails to hurt and displease a
    reader.\"---Blair\'s Lectures, p. 107.
-   Say, \"A violation of this rule never fails to displease the
    reader.\"

## Nouns without any article

A common noun, when taken in its widest sense, usually admits no
article: as,

-   \"A candid temper is proper for man; that is, for all
    mankind.\"---Murray.

Nouns without any article, or other definitive, are often used in a
sense indefinitely partitive: as,

-   \"He took bread, and gave thanks.\"---Acts.
-   That is, \"Some bread.\"
-   \"To buy food are your servants come.\"---Genesis.
-   That is, \"Some food.\"
-   \"There are fishes that have wings, and are not strangers to the
    airy region.\"---Locke\'s Essay, p. 322.
-   That is, \"Some fishes.\"
-   Words in which nothing but the mere being of anything is implied,
    are used without articles: as, \'This is not beer, but water;\'
    \'This is not brass, but steel.\'---Dr. Johnson\'s Gram., p. 5.

## Indefinite articles

The indefinite article is *an* or *a*, which denotes one thing of a
kind, but not any particular one: as, *a boy, an orange*.

*An* is used in preference to a, whenever the following word begins with
a vowel sound: as, *an art, an end, an heir, an inch, an ounce, an hour,
an urn*.

*A* is used in preference to *an*, whenever the following word begins
with a consonant sound: as, *a man, a house, a wonder, a one, a yew, a
use, a ewer, a European car*.

The consonant sounds of *w* and *y*, even when expressed by other
letters, require *a* and not *an* before them: as,

-   \"In an epic poem, or a poem upon an elevated subject, a writer
    ought to avoid raising a simile on a low image.\"---Ld. Kames.

*An* or *a* before the genus, may refer to a whole species; and the
before the species, may denote that whole species emphatically: as,

-   \"A certain bird is termed the cuckoo, from the sound which it
    emits.\"---Blair.

But *an* or *a* is commonly used to denote individuals as unknown, or as
not specially distinguished from others: as,

-   \"I see an object pass by, which I never saw till now; and I say,
    \'There goes a beggar with a long beard.\'\"---Harris.

The article *an* or *a* implies unity, or one, and of course belongs to
nouns of the singular number only: as, *a man, an old man, a good boy*.

*An* or *a* sometimes gives a collective meaning to a numeral, when the
noun following is plural: as, *a few days, a hundred men, one hundred
pounds sterling*.

## Definite articles

The definite article is *the*, which denotes some particular thing or
things: as, *the boy, the oranges*.

The definite article is commonly used to denote individuals as known, or
as specially distinguished from others: as,

-   \"The man departs, and returns a week after; and I say, \'There goes
    the beggar with the long beard.\'\"---Id.

The article *the* is applied to nouns of either number: as, *the man,
the men; the good boy, the good boys*.

The is commonly required before adjectives that are used by ellipsis as
nouns: as,

-   \"The young are slaves to novelty; the old, to custom.\"---Ld.
    Kames.

Pronunciation of \"the\" all depends on the word it\'s referring to and
whether that word starts with a vowel sound or a consonant sound. When
the word begins with a vowel sound we use the long \"the\" (thee). For
example: The (thee) Apple, the (thee hOur). When the word begins with a
consonant sound we use the short \"the\" (thuh). For example: The (thuh)
Banana, the (thuh) University.

Sometime\'s \"the\" is used to emphasize a noun, especially when that
noun is unique. When writing this particular use of \"the\" it is almost
always written in Italics *\"the\"*.

For Example: \"I saw the Queen last week.\" \"What?! *The* (thee) Queen?
As in Queen Elizabeth the 2nd?\" \"Yes, Queen Elizabeth.\"

## General rules

Articles should be inserted as often as the sense requires them: as,

-   \"Repeat the preterit and \[the\] past participle of the verb to
    abide.\"---Merchant\'s American School Grammar, p. 66.

Needless articles should be omitted; they seldom fail to pervert the
sense: as,

-   \"The Rhine, the Danube, the Tanais, the Po, the Volga, the Ganges,
    like many hundreds of similar names, rose not from any obscure
    jargon or irrational dialect.\"---Dr. Murray\'s Hist. of Europ.
    Lang., Vol. i, p. 327.

## A short syntax

Articles relate to the nouns which they limit, as \"The blind beggar,\"
except the following cases: the comparative or the superlative degree,
as \"The mightiest,\" and an unstressed numeral, as \"A hundred men.\"

## References

-   A part of the text in this article, was taken from the public domain
    English grammar \"The Grammar of English
    Grammars\" by Goold Brown,
    1851.


# English in Use/Nouns

------------------------------------------------------------------------

:   *This page is written in English, and therefore needs to be
    translated at a later date to other languages for it to become more
    useful.*

+----------------------------------------------------------------------+
| **Examples**                                                         |
+======================================================================+
| -   **Janet** is the **name** of a **girl**.                         |
| -   **Apple** is a **fruit** and a computer **company**.             |
|                                                                      |
| In the above sentence, \"computer\" is an adjective because it is    |
| describing \"company\".                                              |
|                                                                      |
| -   **Cleanliness** is next to **Godliness**.                        |
| -   The **World Wide Web** has become the least expensive **way** to |
|     publish **information**.                                         |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------+

A **noun**, or **noun substantive**, is a part of speech (a word or
phrase) which functions as the head of a noun phrase. The word \"noun\"
derives from the Latin *nomen* meaning \"name\", and a traditional
definition of nouns is that they are only those expressions that refer
to a person, place, thing, event, substance, quality, or idea. They
serve as the subject or object of a verb and as the governed term of a
preposition, and can co-occur with articles and attributive adjectives.

There are different groups of nouns:

-   **Common nouns**---\"*chair*\",
-   **Proper nouns**---\"*Fred*\",
-   **Abstract nouns**---\"*love*\",
-   **Collective nouns**---\"*gaggle*\",
-   **Compound nouns**---\"*butterfly*\",
-   **Verbal nouns**---\"*triumphing*\".

Each of these different groups of nouns have different properties, each
making them different in how we use them.

Thus, nouns are names of objects, places, people and things. They are
used with adjectives to describe something, and with verbs to show an
action.

## Concrete nouns

Concrete nouns are proper nouns and common nouns.

### Proper nouns

**Proper nouns** are the names of people, places, groups or dates: as,
*Adam*, *Boston*, *the Hudson*, *the Romans*, *the Azores*, *the Alps*.
They almost always have a capital letter as their first letter. Example:

-   \"*Timmy* is not someone to be toyed with.\"No one likes to hear
    other people boast their talents

### Common nouns

**Common nouns** are the names of a sort, kind, or class, of beings or
things: as, *beast*, *bird*, *fish*, *insect*, *creatures*, *persons*,
*children*. They often refer to objects or things which we can see,
touch and feel, like the word *chair*. Example:

-   \"I sat at the *table*.\"

#### Individual nouns

Their refer to only one thing of the same kind, for eg: man, player,
cow, chicken, minister.

#### Collective nouns

**Collective nouns** are the names of a groups of objects or many
individuals together: as, *council*, *meeting*, *committee*, *flock*.
Example:

-   \"They are a *group*.\"

## Abstract nouns

**Abstract nouns** are the names of some particular qualities considered
apart from its substance: as, *goodness*, *hardness*, *pride*,
*frailty*. They are often names of the things that we cannot touch or
see, but are there all the same. Example:

-   \"I think I\'ve fallen in *love*!\"

### Attribute

### Verbal nouns

**Verbal nouns** or **participial nouns** are the names of some actions,
or states of being; and are formed from a verb, like a participle, but
employed as a noun: as,

-   \"The *triumphing* of the wicked is short.\"---Job, XX, 5.

### Sui generis

A thing **sui generis**, (i.e., of its own peculiar kind,) is something
which is distinguished, not as an individual of a species, but as a sort
by itself, without plurality in either the noun or the sort of thing:
as, *galvanism*, *music*, *geometry*.

## Words and word groups used as nouns

### Adjectives made nouns

-   \"The Ancient of days did sit.\"---*Bible*.
-   \"Of the ancients.\"---*Swift*.
-   \"For such impertinents.\"---*Steele*.
-   \"He is an ignorant in it.\"---*Id*.
-   \"In the luxuriance of an unbounded picturesque.\"---*Jamieson*.
-   \"A source of the sublime;\"---*Burke*.
-   \"The vast immense of space:\"---*Murray*.
-   \"There is none his like.\"---*Job, XLI, 33*.
-   \"A little more than a little, is by much too
    much.\"---*Shakespeare*.
-   \"And gladly make much of that entertainment.\"---*Sidney*.
-   \"A covetous man makes the most of what he has.\"---*L\'Estrange*.
-   \"It has done enough for me.\"---*Pope*.
-   \"He had enough to do.\"---*Bacon*.
-   \"All withers here; who most possess, are losers by their gain,
    stung by full proof, that bad at best, life\'s idle all is
    vain.\"---*Young*.
-   \"Nor grudge I you the much the Grecians give, nor murmuring take
    the little I receive.\"---*Dryden*.

### Pronouns made nouns

-   \"A love of seeing the what and how of all about him.\"---Story\'s
    Life of Flaxman: Pioneer, Vol. i, p. 133.
-   \"The nameless he, whose nod is Nature\'s birth.\"---Young, Night
    iv.
-   \"I was wont to load my she with knacks.\"---Shak. Winter\'s Tale.
-   \"Or any he, the proudest of your sort.\"---Shak.
-   \"I am the happiest she in Kent.\"---Steele.
-   \"The shes of Italy.\"---Shak.
-   \"The hes in birds.\"---Bacon.
-   \"We should soon have as many hes and shes as the
    French.\"---Cobbet\'s E. Gram., Para. 42.
-   \"If, for instance, we call a nation a she, or the sun a
    he.\"---Ib., Para. 198.
-   \"When I see many its in a page, I always tremble for the
    writer.\"---Ib., Para. 196.
-   \"Let those two questionary petitioners try to do this with their
    whos and their whiches.\"---Spect: Ash\'s Gr., p. 131.
-   \"Such mortal drugs I have; but Mantua\'s law is death to any he
    that utters them.\"---Shak.

### Verbs made nouns

-   \"Avaunt all attitude, and stare, and start theatric.\"---Cowper.
-   \"A may-be of mercy is sufficient.\"---Bridge.
-   \"Which cuts are reckoned among the fractures.\"---Wiseman.
-   \"The officer erred in granting a permit.\"
-   \"Feel darts and charms, attracts and flames.\"---Hudibras.
-   \"You may know by the falling off of the come, or
    sprout.\"---Mortimer.
-   \"And you have talked of sallies and retires.\"---Shak.
-   \"For all that else did come, were sure to fail; yet would he
    further none, but for avail.\"---Spenser.

### Participles made nouns (gerunds)

-   \"For the producing of real happiness.\"---Crabb.
-   \"For the crying of the poor and the sighing of the needy, I will
    arise.\"---Bible.
-   \"Surely the churning of milk brings forth butter, and the wringing
    of the nose brings forth blood; so the forcing of wrath brings forth
    strife.\"---Prov., xxx, 33.
-   \"Reading, writing, and ciphering, are indispensable to civilized
    man.\"
-   \"Hence was invented the distinction between doing and
    permitting.\"---Calvin\'s Inst., p. 131.
-   \"Knowledge of the past comes next.\"---Hermes, p. 113.
-   \"I am my beloved\'s, and his desire is toward me.\"---Sol. Song,
    vii, 10.
-   \"Here\'s---a simple coming-in for one man.\"---Shak.
-   \"What are your rents? What are your comings-in? O Ceremony, show me
    but your worth.\"---Id.

### Adverbs made nouns

-   \"In these cases we examine the why, the what, and the how of
    things.\"---L\'Estrange.
-   \"If a point or now were extended, each of them would contain within
    itself infinite other points or nows.\"---Hermes, p. 101.
-   \"The why is plain as way to parish church.\"---Shak.
-   \"It is heaven itself that points out an hereafter.\"---Addison.
-   \"The dread of a hereafter.\"---Fuller.
-   \"The murmur of the deep amen.\"---Sir W. Scott.
-   \"For their whereabouts lies in a mystery.\"---Book of Thoughts,
    p. 14. Better.
-   \"Bid them farewell, Cordelia, though unkind; you lose here, a
    better where to find.\"---Shak.

### Conjunctions made nouns

-   \"The if, which is here employed, converts the sentence into a
    supposition.\"---Blair\'s Rhet.
-   \"Your if is the only peacemaker; much virtue is in if.\"---Shak.
-   \"So his lordship decreed with a grave solemn tone, decisive and
    clear, without one if or but---that whenever the nose put his
    spectacles on, by daylight or candlelight---eyes should be
    shut.\"---Cowper.

### Prepositions made nouns

-   \"O, not like me; for mine\'s beyond beyond.\"---Shakspeare: Cymb.,
    iii, 2.
-   \"I.e., her longing is further than beyond; beyond anything that
    desire can be said to be beyond.\"---Singer\'s Notes.
-   \"You whirled them to the back of beyont to look at the auld Roman
    camp.\"---Antiquary, i. 37.

### Interjections or phrases made nouns

-   \"Come away from all the lo-heres! and lo-theres!\"---Sermon.
-   \"Will cuts him short with a \'What then?\'\"---Sermon.
-   \"With hark and whoop, and wild halloo.\"---Scott.
-   \"And made a pish at chance and sufferance.\"---Shak.
-   \"A single look more marks the internal wo, than all the windings of
    the lengthened oh.\"---Lloyd.

## Countable and uncountable nouns

## Inflections of Nouns

Nouns have modifications of genders, numbers, and cases.

### Genders

Genders, in grammar, are modifications that distinguish objects in
regard to sex.

There are three genders; the masculine, the feminine, and the neuter:

1.  The **masculine** gender is that which denotes persons or animals of
    the male kind: as, *man, father, king*.
2.  The **feminine** gender is that which denotes persons or animals of
    the female kind: as, *woman, mother, queen*.
3.  The **neuter** gender is that which denotes things that are neither
    male nor female: as, *pen, ink, paper*.

Hence, names of males are masculine; names of females, feminine; and
names of things inanimate, literally, neuter.

-   Masculine nouns make regular feminines, when their termination is
    changed to *ess*: as,

:   *Hunter, huntress; prince, princess; lion, lioness*.

-   In some instances the syllable *ess* is simply added: as,

:   *Accuser, accuseress; advocate, advocatess; archer, archeress;
    author, authoress; avenger, avengeress; barber, barberess; baron,
    baroness; canon, canoness; cit, cittess; coheir, coheiress; count,
    countess; deacon, deaconess; demon, demoness; diviner, divineress;
    doctor, doctoress; giant, giantess; god, goddess; guardian,
    guardianess; Hebrew, Hebrewess; heir, heiress; herd, herdess;
    hermit, hermitess; host, hostess; Jesuit, Jesuitess; Jew, Jewess;
    mayor, mayoress; Moabite, Moabitess; monarch, monarchess; pape,
    papess; or, pope, popess; patron, patroness; peer, peeress; poet,
    poetess; priest, priestess; prior, prioress; prophet, prophetess;
    regent, regentess; saint, saintess; shepherd, shepherdess; soldier,
    soldieress; tailor, tailoress; viscount, viscountess; warrior,
    warrioress*.

-   In other instances, the termination is changed, and there is no
    increase of syllables: as,

:   *Abbot, abbess; actor, actress; adulator, adulatress; adulterer,
    adulteress; adventurer, adventuress; advoutrer, advoutress;
    ambassador, ambassadress; anchorite, anchoress; or, anachoret,
    anachoress; arbiter, arbitress; auditor, auditress; benefactor,
    benefactress; caterer, cateress; chanter, chantress; cloisterer,
    cloisteress; commander, commandress; conductor, conductress;
    creator, creatress; demander, demandress; detractor, detractress;
    eagle, eagless; editor, editress; elector, electress; emperor,
    emperess, or empress; emulator, emulatress; enchanter, enchantress;
    exactor, exactress; fautor, fautress; fornicator, fornicatress;
    fosterer, fosteress, or fostress; founder, foundress; governor,
    governess; huckster, huckstress; or, hucksterer, hucksteress;
    idolater, idolatress; inhabiter, inhabitress; instructor,
    instructress; inventor, inventress; launderer, launderess, or
    laundress; minister, ministress; monitor, monitress; murderer,
    murderess; negro, negress; offender, offendress; ogre, ogress;
    porter, portress; progenitor, progenitress; protector, protectress;
    proprietor, proprietress; pythonist, pythoness; seamster,
    seamstress; solicitor, solicitress; songster, songstress; sorcerer,
    sorceress; suitor, suitress; tiger, tigress; traitor, traitress;
    victor, victress; votary, votaress*.

-   In a few instances the feminine is formed as in Latin, by changing
    *or* to *rix*; but some of these have also the regular form, which
    ought to be preferred: as,

:   *Adjutor, adjutrix; administrator, administratrix; arbitrator,
    arbitratrix; coadjutor, coadjutrix; competitor, competitress, or
    competitrix; creditor, creditrix; director, directress, or
    directrix; executor, executress, or executrix; inheritor,
    inheritress, or inheritrix; mediator, mediatress, or mediatrix;
    orator, oratress, or oratrix; rector, rectress, or rectrix;
    spectator, spectatress, or spectatrix; testator, testatrix; tutor,
    tutoress, or tutress, or tutrix; deserter, desertress, or
    desertrice, or desertrix*.

-   The following are irregular words, in which the distinction of sex
    is chiefly made by the termination:

:   *Amoroso, amorosa: archduke, archduchess; chamberlain, chambermaid;
    duke, duchess; gaffer, gammer; goodman, goody, or goodwife; hero,
    heroine; landgrave, landgravine; margrave, margravine; marquis,
    marchioness; palsgrave, palsgravine; sakeret, sakerhawk; sewer,
    sewster; sultan, sultana; tzar, tzarina; tyrant, tyranness; widower,
    widow*.

### Numbers

Numbers, in grammar, are modifications that distinguish unity and
plurality.

There are two numbers; the **singular** and the **plural**.

The singular number is that which denotes but one: as,

-   \"The boy learns.\"

The plural number is that which denotes more than one: as,

-   \"The boys learn.\"
-   Plurals in meaning and form:

:   *Analects, annals, archives, ashes, assets, billiards, bowels,
    breeches, calends, cates, chops, clothes, compasses, crants, eaves,
    embers, estovers, forceps, giblets, goggles, greaves, hards or
    hurds, hemorrhoids, ides, matins, nippers, nones, obsequies, orgies,
    piles, pincers or pinchers, pliers, reins, scissors, shears,
    skittles, snuffers, spectacles, teens, tongs, trowsers, tweezers,
    umbles, vespers, victuals*.

-   Plurals by formation, derived chiefly from adjectives:

:   *Acoustics, aeronautics, analytics, bitters, catoptrics, commons,
    conics, credentials, delicates, dioptrics, economics, ethics,
    extraordinaries, filings, fives, freshes, glanders, gnomonics,
    goods, hermeneutics, hustings, hydrodynamics, hydrostatics,
    hydraulics, hysterics, inwards, leavings, magnetics, mathematics,
    measles, mechanics, mnemonics, merils, metaphysics, middlings,
    movables, mumps, nuptials, optics, phonics, phonetics, physics,
    pneumatics, poetics, politics, riches, rickets, settlings, shatters,
    skimmings, spherics, staggers, statics, statistics, stays,
    strangles, sundries, sweepings, tactics, thanks, tidings, trappings,
    vives, vitals, wages, withers, yellows*.

-   Plurals by composition:

:   *Backstairs, cocklestairs, firearms, headquarters, hotcockles,
    spatterdashes, self-affairs. To these may be added the Latin words,
    aborigines, antipodes, antes, antoeci, amphiscii, anthropophagi,
    antiscii, ascii, literati, fauces, regalia, and credenda, with the
    Italian vermicelli, and the French belles-lettres and entremets*.

#### Regular plurals

The plural form is usually represented orthographically by adding *s* to
the singular form. The phonetic form of the plural morpheme is
 by default. When the preceding sound is a
voiceless consonant, it is pronounced .
Examples: *boy* makes *boys*; *girl*, *girls*; *chair*, *chairs*; *cat*,
*cats*.

Where a noun ends in a sibilant sound, the plural is formed by adding
*es* (pronounced ), which is spelled *es* if
the word does not already end with *e*: *glass* makes *glasses*; *dish,
dishes; witch, witches; phase, phases; judge, judges*.

Most nouns ending in *o* preceded by a consonant also form their plurals
by adding *es* (pronounced ): *hero* makes
*heroes*; *potato, potatoes; volcano, volcanoes*.

Nouns ending in a *y* preceded by a consonant drop the *y* and add *ies*
(pronounced ): *cherry* makes *cherries*;
*lady, ladies*.

Proper nouns (particularly those for people or places) ending in a *y*
preceded by a consonant form their plurals regularly: *Harry* makes
*Harrys*; *Germany, Germanys*.

This does not apply to words that are merely capitalised common nouns:
as, *P&O Ferries*.

A few common nouns ending in a *y* preceded by a consonant form their
plurals regularly: *henry* makes *henrys*; *zloty, zlotys*.

Words ending in *ey* form their plurals regularly, in order to avoid the
unpleasant-appearing vowel sequence *eie*: *monkey, monkeys*.

#### Almost-regular plurals

Many nouns of Italian or Spanish origin are exceptions to the **oes
rule**: *canto* makes *cantos*; *piano, pianos; portico, porticos;
quarto, quartos; solo, solos*.

Many nouns ending in a voiceless fricative mutate that sound to a voiced
fricative before adding the plural ending. In the case of
 changing to  the
mutation is indicated in the orthography as well: *calf* makes *calves*;
*bath, baths; mouth, mouths; house, houses*.

Some retain the voiceless consonant: *proof* makes *proofs*; *moth,
moths; place, places; dwarf, dwarfs or dwarves; hoof, hoofs or hooves;
staff, staffs or staves; turf, turfs or turves; roof, roofs or rooves*.

#### Irregular plurals

There are many other less regular ways of forming plurals. While they
may seem quirky, they usually stem from older forms of English or from
foreign borrowings.

#### Irregular Germanic plurals

The plural of a few Germanic nouns can also be formed from the singular
by adding *n* or *en*, stemming from the obsolete weak declension: *ox*
makes *oxen*; *child, children*.

The plural is sometimes formed by simply changing the vowel sound of the
singular, in a process called umlaut (these are sometimes called
*mutated plurals*): *foot* makes *feet*; *goose, geese; louse, lice;
man, men; mouse, mice; tooth, teeth; woman, women*.

Some nouns have singular and plural alike, although they are sometimes
seen as regular plurals: as, *aircraft, sheep, deer, fish, cod, trout,
head, cannon*.

Generally, plurals refer to several species or kinds of animal, while
the unmarked plural is used to describe multiple individual animals; one
would say *the classification of fishes*, but *five fish in an
aquarium*.

#### Irregular plurals of foreign origin

Such nouns often retain their original plurals. In some cases both forms
are still vying: for a librarian, the plural of *appendix* is
*appendices*; for physicians, the plural of *appendix* is *appendixes*.
A radio engineer works with *antennas* and an entomologist deals with
*antennae*. The \"correct\" form is the one that sounds better in
context. Correctly formed Latin plurals are the most acceptable, in
academic and scientific contexts. In common usage, plurals with *s* are
sometimes preferred.

-   Final *a* becomes *ae* (also *æ*) or just adds *s*:

:   *Formula* makes *formulae*, *lamina*, *laminae*; *macula*,
    *maculae*; minutia, *minutiae*; *nebula*, *nebulae*; *siliqua*,
    *siliqiuae*; *dogma*, *dogmas* or *dogmata*; *exanthema*,
    *exanthemas* or *exanthemata*; *miasm* or *miasma*, *miasms* or
    *miasmata*; *stigma*, *stigmas* or *stigmata*.

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:   *Saliva* and *scoria* have no occasion for the plural.

-   Final *ex* or *ix* becomes *ices* (pronounced
     or ) or
    just adds *es*. Of nouns in *x*, there are few, if any, which ought
    not to form the plural regularly, when used as English words; though
    the Latins changed *x* to *ces*, and *ex* to *ices*, making the *i*
    sometimes long and sometimes short: as,

:   *Apex, apices, for apexes; appendix, appendices, for appendixes;
    calix, calices, for calixes; calx, calces, for calxes; calyx,
    calyces, for calyxes; caudex, caudices, for caudexes; cicatrix,
    cicatrices, for cicatrixes; helix, helices, for helixes; index,
    indices, for indexes; matrix, matrices, for matrixes; quincunx,
    quincunces, for quincunxes; radix, radices, for radixes; varix,
    varices, for varixes; vertex, vertices, for vertexes; vortex,
    vortices, for vortexes*.

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:   Some Greek words in *x* change that letter to *ges*: as, *larynx,
    larynges, for larinxes; phalanx, phalanges, for phalanxes*.
    *Billet-doux*, from the French, is *billets-doux* in the plural.

-   Final *is* becomes *es* (pronounced . Of
    nouns in *is*, some are regular: as, *trellis, trellises: so,
    annolis, butteris, caddis, dervis, iris, marquis, metropolis,
    portcullis, proboscis*.

:   Some seem to have no need of the plural: as, *ambergris,
    aqua-fortis, arthritis, brewis, crasis, elephantiasis, genesis,
    orris, siriasis, tennis*.

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:   But most nouns of this ending follow the Greek or Latin form, which
    simply changes *is* to *es*: as, *amanuensis, amanuenses; analysis,
    analyses; antithesis, antitheses; axis, axes; basis, bases; crisis,
    crises; diaeresis, diaereses; diesis, dieses; ellipsis, ellipses;
    emphasis, emphases; fascis, fasces; hypothesis, hypotheses;
    metamorphosis, metamorphoses; oasis, oases; parenthesis,
    parentheses; phasis, phases; praxis, praxes; synopsis, synopses;
    synthesis, syntheses; syrtis, syrtes; thesis, theses*.

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:   In some, however, the original plural is not so formed; but is made
    by changing *is* to *ides*: as, *aphis, aphides; apsis, apsides;
    ascaris, ascarides; bolis, bolides; cantharis, cantharides;
    chrysalis, chrysalides; ephemeris, ephemerides; epidermis,
    epidermides*.

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:   So *iris* and *proboscis*, which we make regular; and perhaps some
    of the foregoing may be made so too.

-   Final *ies* remains unchanged: as, *series, species*.
-   Final *on* becomes *a*. Of nouns in *on*, derived from Greek, the
    greater part always form the plural regularly: as, *etymons,
    gnomons, ichneumons, myrmidons, phlegmons, trigons, tetragons,
    pentagons, hexagons, heptagons, octagons, enneagons, decagons,
    hendecagons, dodecagons, polygons*.

:   So *trihedrons, tetrahedrons, pentahedrons*, etc., though some say,
    these last may end in *dra*.

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:   For a few words of this class, however, there are double plurals in
    use; as, *automata* or *atomatons*, *criteria* or *criterions*,
    *parhelia* or *parhelions*; and the plural of *phenomenon* appears
    to be always *phenomena*.

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:   The plural of *legumen* is *legumens* or *legumina*; of *stamen*,
    *stamens* or *stamina*: of *cherub*, *cherubs* or *cherubim*; of
    *seraph*, *seraphs* or *seraphim*; of *beau*, *beaus* or *beaux*; of
    *bandit*, *bandits* or *banditti*.

-   Final *um* becomes *a* or just adds *s*: as, *addendum* makes
    *addenda*, *medium* makes *media* or *mediums*. Of nouns in *um*,
    some have no need of the plural: as,

:   *Bdellium, decorum, elysium, equilibrium, guaiacum, laudanum, odium,
    opium, petroleum, serum, viaticum. Some form it regularly; as,
    asylums, compendiums, craniums, emporiums, encomiums, forums,
    frustums, lustrums, mausoleums, museums, pendulums, nostrums,
    rostrums, residuums, vacuums. Others take either the English or the
    Latin plural; as, desideratums or desiderata, mediums or media,
    menstruums or menstrua, memorandums or memoranda, spectrums or
    spectra, speculums or specula, stratums or strata, succedaneums or
    succedanea, trapeziums or trapezia, vinculums or vincula. A few seem
    to have the Latin plural only: as, arcanum, arcana; datum, data;
    effluvium, effluvia; erratum, errata; scholium, scholia*.

-   Final *us* becomes *i* (second declension), *era*, *ora* (third
    declension), or just adds *es* (especially in fourth declension,
    where it would otherwise be the same as the singular): as, *alumnus*
    makes *alumni*, *viscus viscera, corpus corpora, prospectus
    prospectuses*.

:   But such as have properly become English words, may form the plural
    regularly in *es*; as, *chorus, choruses*: so, *apparatus, bolus,
    callus, circus, fetus, focus, fucus, fungus, hiatus, ignoramus,
    impetus, incubus, isthmus, nautilus, nucleus, prospectus, rebus,
    sinus, surplus*.

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:   *Radius* makes *radii* or *radiuses*. *Genius* has *genii*, for
    imaginary spirits, and *geniuses*, for men of wit. *Genus*, a sort,
    becomes *genera* in Latin, and *genuses* in English. *Denarius*
    makes *denarii* or *denariuses*.

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:   Of nouns in *us*, a few have no plural: as, *asparagus*, *calamus*,
    *mucus*.

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:   Some have only the Latin plural, which usually changes *us* to *i*:
    as, *alumnus, alumni; androgynus, androgyni; calculus, calculi;
    dracunculus, dracunculi; echinus, echini; magus, magi*.

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:   Final *us* in nouns of Greek origin \"properly\" add *es*. These
    words are also heard with the Latin *i* instead, which is sometimes
    considered \"over-correct\", but this is so common as to be
    acceptable in most circumstances, even technical ones: *cactus*
    makes *cactuses* or *cacti*; *hippopotamus, hippopotamuses or
    hippopotami, octopus, octopuses, octopi, or octopodes; platypus,
    platypuses, rhinoceros, rhinoceroses or rhinoceri, uterus, uteruses
    or uteri*.

-   Final *as* in one case of a noun of Greek origin changes to *antes*:
    *Atlas* makes *Atlantes*; *atles, atlases*.
-   Final *ma* in nouns of Greek origin add *ta*: *stigma* makes
    *stigmata*; *stoma, stomata; zeugma, zeugmata*.

:   Though some take *s* more commonly: *schema* makes *schemata* or
    *schemas*; *dogma*, *dogmata* or *dogmas*; *lemma*, *lemmata* or
    *lemmas*.

-   Some nouns of French origin add *x*: *beau* makes *beaux*; *chateau,
    chateaux; bureau, bureaus or bureaux*.
-   Nouns from Slavic languages: *kniazhestvo* makes *kniazhestvos* or
    *kniazhestva*; *kobzar*, *kobzars* or *kobzari*, *oblast*, *oblasts*
    or *oblasti*.
-   Nouns of Hebrew language origin add *im*, *ot* (generally m/f), or
    just *s*: *cherub* makes *cherubim* or *cherubs*; *seraph, seraphim
    or seraphs; matzoh, matzot or matzos*.

:   The Hebrew plurals *cherubim* and *seraphim*, being sometimes
    mistaken for singulars, other plurals have been formed from them.

-   Some nouns of Japanese origin have no plural and do not change: as,
    *samurai, otaku*.

:   However, other nouns such as *kimonos*, *futons* and *tsunamis* are
    more often seen with a regular English plural.

-   In New Zealand English, nouns of Maori origin can either take an *s*
    or have no separate plural form: as, *waka* makes *waka*; *marae,
    marae; kohwai, kohwai or kohwais; tui, tuis or tui, kiwi, kiwi or
    kiwis*.
-   Nouns from languages that have donated few words to English, and
    that are spoken by relatively few English-speakers, generally form
    plurals as if they were native English words: *canoe* makes
    *canoes*; *kayak, kayaks; igloo, igloos; kangoroo, kangoroos; sauna,
    saunas; cwm, cwms; pizza, pizzas; kindergarten, kindergartens*.

:   In Canada and Alaska, some words borrowed from Inuktitut retain
    traditional plurals: *Inuk* makes *Inuit*; *inukshuk, inukshuit*.

-   Some words of foreign origin are much better known in the plural. In
    common usage, the proper plural is considered the singular form.
    Back-formation has usually resulted in a regularized plural:
    *candelabra* makes *candelabras*; *data, data; agenda, agendas or
    agendae; graffiti, graffiti; insignia, insignias; algae, algae or
    algaes; opera, operas; viscera, viscera; panini, paninis; phalanx,
    phalanges; magazine, magazines*.

### Cases

Cases, in grammar, are modifications that distinguish the relations of
nouns or pronouns to other words.

There are three cases; the nominative, the possessive, and the
objective.

#### The nominative case

The nominative case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun, which
usually denotes the subject of a finite verb: as,

-   \"The boy runs;\"
-   \"I run.\"

The subject of a finite verb is that which answers to who or what before
it: as,

-   \"The boy runs.\"
-   Who runs? \"The boy.\"

Boy is therefore here a noun in the nominative case, or **nominative**.

For example:

-   I eat an orange
-   I buy a chocolate
-   I love my family
-   I love yellow

#### The possessive case

The possessive case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun, which
usually denotes the relation of property: as,

-   \"My hat;\"
-   \"The boy\'s hat.\"

Boy is here a noun in the possessive case, or **possessive**.

The possessive case of nouns is formed, in the singular number, by
adding to the nominative *s* preceded by an apostrophe; and, in the
plural, when the nominative ends in *s*, by adding an apostrophe only:
as, singular, boy\'s; plural, boys\'; sounded alike, but written
differently.

#### The objective case

The objective case is that form or state of a noun or pronoun which
usually tells the object of a verb, participle, or preposition: as,

-   \"I know the boy, having seen him at school; and he knows me.\"

The object of a verb, participle, or preposition, is that which answers
to whom or what after it: as,

-   \"I know the boy.\"
-   I know whom? \"The boy.\"

Boy is therefore here a noun in the objective case, or **objective**.

The nominative and the objective of nouns, are always alike in form,
being distinguishable from each other only by their place in a sentence,
or by their simple dependence according to the sense.

For example:

-   I am playing with my football.
-   I take her bag.
-   Anoud\'s room is dirty.

#### The declension of nouns

The declension of a noun is a regular arrangement of its numbers and
cases. Thus:

    Sing. Nom.  friend,    Plur. Nom.  friends,
          Poss. friend's,        Poss. friends',
          Obj.  friend;          Obj.  friends.

    Sing. Nom.  man,       Plur. Nom.  men,
          Poss. man's,           Poss. men's,
          Obj.  man;             Obj.  men.

    Sing. Nom.  fox,       Plur. Nom.  foxes,
          Poss. fox's,           Poss. foxes',
          Obj.  fox;             Obj.  foxes.

    Sing. Nom.  fly,       Plur. Nom.  flies,
          Poss. fly's,           Poss. flies',
          Obj.  fly;             Obj.  flies.

## The noun as a modifier

## A short syntax

The subject must be in the nominative case, as \"You say it.\"

The subject is placed before the attribute, as \"Peace dawned on his
mind,\" except the following cases: a question, as \"How many loaves
have you?\" imperative mood, as \"Go you,\" strong feeling, as \"May she
be happy!\" a supposition, as \"Were it true,\" *neither* or *nor*, as
\"Neither shall you touch it,\" emphasis, as \"Here am I,\" no regimen,
as \"Echo the mountains round,\" dialogue, as \"My name is Hassan,\" and
the adverb *there*, as \"There lived a man.\"

A noun in apposition is put in the same case as the noun it explains, as
\"But he, our gracious master, knows us.\"

A possessive is governed by the name of the thing possessed, as \"Man\'s
life.\"

A possessive comes immediately before the governing noun, as \"Nature\'s
peace,\" except the following cases: an intervening adjective, as
\"Flora\'s earliest smells,\" affirmation or denial, as \"The book is
not John\'s,\" a possessive without sign, as \"Brother Absalom\'s
house,\" or \"David and Jonathan\'s friendship.\"

The predicate is governed by attribute in objective case, as \"I found
her.\"

A noun or a pronoun put after a non-transitive verb or participle,
agrees in case with a preceding noun or pronoun referring to the same
thing, as \"The child was named John.\"

The case of absolute noun or pronoun depends on no other word, as \"Your
fathers, where are they?\"

## References

-   A part of the text in this article, was taken from the public domain
    English grammar \"The Grammar of English
    Grammars\" by Goold
    Brown, 1851.
-   An English
    Grammar
    by W. M. Baskervill and
    J. W. Sewell, 1895.
-   The Wikipedia article on Collective
    noun.
-   The Wikipedia article on Count noun.
-   The Wikipedia article on English
    plural.
-   The Wikipedia article on Mass noun.
-   The Wikipedia article on Noun.


# English in Use/Pronouns

------------------------------------------------------------------------

A **pronoun** is a word used instead of a noun: as,

-   \"The boy loves his book; he has long lessons, and he learns them
    well.\"

Pronouns are not a requirement of a sentence, and it is possible for
them to never to be used in sentences. However, many sentences become
unwieldy without them:

-   \"Alistair is doing what Alistair thinks is best according to
    Alistair\'s rights as a human being.\"
-   Better, \"Alistair is doing what he thinks is best according to his
    rights as a human being.\"

The pronouns in English language are twenty-four; and their variations
are thirty-two: so that the number of words of this class, is fifty-six.

Pronouns are divided into three classes; personal, relative, and
interrogative.

Pronouns also change depending on whether they refer to one person or
thing (singular) or a group of people or things (plural).

## Personal pronouns

A personal pronoun or **personal** is a pronoun that shows, by its form,
of what person it is: as,

-   \"Whether it were I or they, so we preach, and so you
    believed.\"---1 Cor., xv, 11.

The simple personal pronouns are five: namely, *I*, of the first person;
*you (thou)*, of the second person; *he, she*, and *it*, of the third
person.

The compound personal pronouns are also five: namely, *myself*, of the
first person; *yourself (thyself)*, of the second person; *himself,
herself*, and *itself*, of the third person.

First person pronouns are used when referring to oneself:

-   \"*I* think *I* am not silly.\"

Second person pronouns are used to refer to someone who you are
conversing with, the person the sentence is intended to be heard by:

-   \"*You* are not very silly.\"

(\"*Thou* art not very silly.\")

Third person pronouns are used when referring to something else that is
outside the conversation, either some other person, or an object not
capable of understanding or communicating:

-   \"I like the tree because *it* is beautiful.\"
-   \"I don\'t like the RIAA because *they* sued me.\"

Third person singular pronouns are the only pronouns marked for gender.
If gender is unknown, use *he or she* or use a plural.

## Relative pronouns

A relative pronoun or **relative** is a pronoun that represents an
antecedent word or phrase, and connects different clauses of a sentence:
as,

-   \"No people can be great, who have ceased to be virtuous.\"---Dr.
    Johnson.

The relative pronouns are *who, which, what, that, as*, and the
compounds *whoever or whosoever, whichever or whichsoever, whatever or
whatsoever*.

*What* is a kind of double relative, equivalent to \"that which\" or
\"those which\"; and is to be parsed first as antecedent, and then as
relative: as,

-   \"This is what I wanted; that is to say, the thing which I
    wanted.\"---L. Murray. III.

## Interrogative pronouns

An interrogative pronoun or **interrogative** is a pronoun with which a
question is asked: as,

-   \"Who touched my clothes?\"---Mark, v, 30.

The interrogative pronouns are *who, which*, and *what*; being the same
in form as relatives.

*Who* demands a person\'s name; *which*, that a person or thing be
distinguished from others; *what*, the name of a thing, or a person\'s
occupation and character.

Pronouns have the same modifications as nouns; namely, persons, numbers,
genders, and cases. Definitions universally applicable have already been
given of all these things; it is therefore unnecessary to define them
again in this place.

The declension of a pronoun is a regular arrangement of its numbers and
cases.

## Simple personals

The simple personal pronouns are thus declined:

    I, of the first person, any of the genders.

    Sing. Nom.  I,             Plur. Nom.  we,
          Poss. my, or mine,         Poss. our, or ours,
          Obj.  me;                  Obj.  us.

    You, of the second person, any of the genders.

    Nom.  you,
    Poss. your, or yours,
    Obj.  you.

    He, of the third person, masculine gender.

    Sing. Nom.  he,            Plur. Nom.  they,
          Poss. his,                 Poss. their, or theirs,
          Obj.  him;                 Obj.  them.

    She, of the third person, feminine gender.

    Sing. Nom.  she,           Plur. Nom.  they,
          Poss. her, or hers,        Poss. their, or theirs,
          Obj.  her;                 Obj.  them.

    It, of the third person, neuter gender.

    Sing. Nom,  it,            Plur. Nom.  they,
          Poss. its,                 Poss. their, or theirs,
          Obj.  it;                  Obj.  them.

## Compound personals

The word *self*, added to the simple personal pronouns, forms the class
of compound personal pronouns; which are used when an action reverts
upon the agent, and also when some persons are to be distinguished from
others. They all want the possessive case, and are alike in the
nominative and objective. Thus:

    Myself, of the first person, any of the genders

    Sing. Nom.  myself,   Plur. Nom.  ourselves
          Poss. ------,         Poss. ---------,
          Obj.  myself;         Obj.  ourselves.

    Yourself, of the second person, any of the genders.

    Sing. Nom.  yourself,
          Poss. --------,
          Obj.  yourself.

    Plur. Nom.  yourselves,
          Poss. ----------,
          Obj.  yourselves.

    Himself, of the third person, masculine gender.

    Sing. Nom.  himself,  Plur. Nom.  themselves,
          Poss. -------,        Poss. ----------,
          Obj.  himself;        Obj.  themselves.

    Herself, of the third person, feminine gender.

    Sing. Nom.  herself   Plur. Nom.  themselves,
          Poss. -------,        Poss. ----------,
          Obj.  herself;        Obj.  themselves.

    Itself, of the third person, neuter gender.

    Sing. Nom.  itself,   Plur. Nom.  themselves,
          Poss. ------,         Poss. ----------,
          Obj.  itself;         Obj.  themselves.

## Relatives and interrogatives

The relative and the interrogative pronouns are thus declined:

    Who, literally applied to persons only.

    Sing. Nom.  who,      Plur. Nom.  who,
          Poss. whose,          Poss. whose,
          Obj.  whom;           Obj.  whom.

    Which, applied to animals and things.

    Sing. Nom.  which,    Plur. Nom.  which,
          Poss. ----,           Poss. -----,
          Obj.  which;          Obj.  which.

    What, applied ordinarily to things only.

    Sing. Nom.  what,     Plur. Nom.  what,
          Poss. ----,           Poss. ----,
          Obj.  what;           Obj.  what.

    That, applied to persons, animals, and things.

    Sing. Nom.  that,     Plur. Nom.  that,
          Poss. ----,           Poss. ----,
          Obj.  that;           Obj.  that.

    As, applied to persons, animals, and things.

    Sing. Nom.     as,    Plur. Nom.  as,
          Poss.    ----,        Poss. ----,
          Obj.     as;          Obj.  as.

## Compound relatives

The compound relative pronouns, *whoever or whosoever, whichever or
whichsoever*, and *whatever or whatsoever* are declined in the same
manner as the simples. Thus:

    Whoever or whosoever, applied only to persons.

    Sing. Nom. whoever,     Plur. Nom.  whoever,
          Poss.whosever,          Poss. whosever,
          Obj. whomever;          Obj.  whomever.

    Sing. Nom.  whosoever,   Plur. Nom.  whosoever,
          Poss. whosesoever,       Poss. whosesoever,
          Obj.  whomsoever;        Obj.  whomsoever.

    Whichever or whichsoever, applied to persons,
    animals, and things.

    Sing. Nom.  whichever,   Plur. Nom.  whichever,
          Poss. ---------,         Poss. --------,
          Obj.  whichever;         Obj.  whichever.

    Sing. Nom.  whichsoever, Plur. Nom.  whichsoever,
          Poss. ---------,         Poss. --------,
          Obj.  whichsoever;       Obj.  whichsoever.

    Whatever or whatsoever, applied ordinarily to things only.

    Sing. Nom.  whatever,    Plur. Nom.  whatever,
          Poss. --------,          Poss. --------,
          Obj.  whatever;          Obj.  whatever.

    Sing. Nom.  whatsoever,  Plur. Nom.  whatsoever,
          Poss. ---------,         Poss. --------,
          Obj.  whatsoever;        Obj.  whatsoever.

## Unclear Usage of Pronouns

Although helpful to eliminate repetitiveness of nouns, pronouns, when
used too much, can make a sentence extremely vague: as,

-   \"Pictures on walls make *it* look pretty.\"

The reader does not know what *it* is.

-   \"The teachers prepared the food. The students ate it. *They* had
    fun.\"

The reader does not know who *they* are.

## Y\'all

The pronoun *y\'all* is a contraction of \"You all\". It is
traditionally used in the south of the United States, where in the north
you all is more common. *Y\'all* follows the same conjugation rules as
*they*. Very often it is incorrectly spelled *ya\'ll*.

## A short syntax

A pronoun must agree with its antecedent, as \"This is the book; it is
excellent,\" except the following cases: something indefinite, as \"Tell
me who it was,\" a neuter pronoun, as \"I cannot view it,\" the pronoun
*it*, as \"It is not for kings,\" the adjective *many*, as \"Many a
great genius, they have no friends,\" enallage, as \"We shall close our
remarks,\" another sense, as \"Lamps is of the plural number,\"
nominatives, as \"Who are you?\", absolute nominatives, as \"It need not
be any wonder,\" possessives, as \"Him whose yoke is easy,\" objectives,
as \"Those whom she persuaded,\" neuter verbs, as \"Whom did you suppose
me to be?\", familiar language, as \"The man \[whom\] I trust,\"
omission of the relative, as \"The worst thing \[that\] could happen,\"
a collective noun, as \"The council were divided,\" the conjunction
*or*, as \"James or John will favour us with his company,\" the
conjunction *and*, as \"Saul and Jonathan were pleasant in their
lives,\" one person or thing, as \"This great philosopher and
statesman,\" empathy, as \"The good man, and the sinner too, shall have
his reward,\" and *each*, *every*, or *no*, as \"Every plant and every
tree produces others after its kind.\"

## References

-   A part of the text in this article, was taken from the public domain
    English grammar \"The Grammar of English
    Grammars\" by Goold Brown,
    1851.

## See also

-   The Wikipedia article on Ain\'t
-   The Wikipedia article on Generic you
-   The Wikipedia article on Personal
    pronouns
-   The Wikipedia article on Possessive
    pronouns
-   The Wikipedia article on Relative
    pronouns
-   The Wikipedia article on Singular they
-   The Wikipedia article on Y\'all
-   The Wikipedia article on You
-   The Wikipedia article on Who "wikilink")

de:Englisch: Pronomina
fr:Anglais:Pronoms


# English in Use/Adjectives

------------------------------------------------------------------------

An **adjective** is a word added to a noun or pronoun, and generally
expresses quality: as, A wise man; a new book; you two are diligent.
Adjectives may be divided into six classes; namely, common, proper,
numeral, pronominal, participial, and compound.

A **common** adjective is any ordinary epithet, or adjective denoting
quality or situation: as, *good, bad, peaceful, warlike, eastern,
western, outer, inner*.

A **proper** adjective is an adjective formed from a proper name: as,
*American, English, Platonic, Genoese*.

A **numeral** adjective is an adjective that expresses a definite
number: as, *one, two, three, four, five, six*, etc.

A **pronominal** adjective is a definitive word which may either
accompany its noun, or represent it understood: as,

-   \"All join to guard what each desires to gain.\"---Pope.

That is,

-   \"All men join to guard what each man desires to gain.\"

A **participial** adjective is one that has the form of a participle,
but differs from it by rejecting the idea of time: as,

-   \"An amusing story,\"
-   \"A lying divination.\"

A **compound** adjective is one that consists of two or more words
joined together, either by the hyphen or solidly: as, *nut-brown,
laughter-loving, four-footed; threefold, lordlike, lovesick*.

**Cardinal**: *one, two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine,
ten, eleven, twelve, thirteen, fourteen, fifteen, sixteen, seventeen,
eighteen, nineteen, twenty, twenty-one, twenty-two*, etc.

**Ordinal**: *first, second, third, fourth, fifth, sixth, seventh,
eighth, ninth, tenth, eleventh, twelfth, thirteenth, fourteenth,
fifteenth, sixteenth, seventeenth, eighteenth, nineteenth, twentieth,
twenty-first, twenty-second*, etc.

**Multiplicative**: *single or alone, double or twofold, triple or
threefold, quadruple or fourfold, quintuple or fivefold, sextuple or
sixfold, septuple or sevenfold, octuple or eightfold*, etc.

All that occur above decuple or tenfold, are written with a hyphen, and
are usually of round numbers only: as, *thirty-fold, sixty-fold,
hundred-fold*.

## Adjectives ending in ing and ed

## Adjectives word order

In English, multiple adjectives should follow a certain pattern as
follows:

1.  opinion (e.g. lovely, fantastic)
2.  size (e.g. tiny, large)
3.  most other qualities (e.g. warm, tight)
4.  age (e.g. new, young)
5.  colour (e.g. red, beige)
6.  pattern (e.g. stripy, plain)
7.  nationality (e.g. Spanish, foreign)
8.  material (e.g. silk, cotton)

Although you generally shouldn\'t use more than 2 or 3 adjectives
together it is possible to make a sentence like this:

-   \"I just bought a lovely, large, warm, new, red, stripey, foreign,
    cotton sweater.\"

## Modifications

Adjectives have, commonly, no modifications but the forms of comparison.
Comparison is a variation of the adjective, to express quality in
different degrees: as, *hard, harder, hardest; soft, softer, softest*.

There are three degrees of comparison; the positive, the comparative,
and the superlative.

The *\'positive degree* is that which is expressed by the adjective in
its simple form: as,

-   \"An elephant is large; a mouse, small; a lion, fierce, active,
    bold, and strong.\"

The **comparative degree** is that which is more or less than something
contrasted with it: as,

-   \"A whale is larger than an elephant; a mouse is a much smaller
    animal than a rat.\"

The **superlative degree** is that which is most or least of all
included with it: as,

-   \"The whale is the largest of the animals that inhabit this globe;
    the mouse is the smallest of all beasts.\"---Dr. Johnson.

Those adjectives whose signification does not admit of different
degrees, cannot be compared: as, *two, second, all, every, immortal,
infinite*.

Those adjectives which may be varied in sense, but not in form, are
compared by means of adverbs: as, *fruitful, more fruitful, most
fruitful; fruitful, less fruitful, least fruitful*.

## Regular comparison

Adjectives are regularly compared, when the comparative degree is
expressed by adding *er*, and the superlative, by adding *est* to them:
as, *great, greater, greatest; mild, milder, mildest*.

In the variation of adjectives, final consonants are doubled, final *e*
is omitted, and final *y* is changed to *i*, agreeably to the rules for
spelling: as, *hot, hotter, hottest; wide, wider, widest; happy,
happier, happiest*.

The regular method of comparison belongs almost exclusively to
monosyllables, with dissyllables ending in *w* or *y*, and such others
as receive it and still have but one syllable after the accent: as,
*fierce, fiercer, fiercest; narrow, narrower, narrowest; gloomy,
gloomier, gloomiest; serene, serener, serenest; noble, nobler, noblest;
gentle, gentler, gentlest*.

## Comparison by adverbs

The two degrees of superiority may also be expressed with precisely the
same import as above, by prefixing to the adjective the adverbs *more*
and *most*: as, *wise, more wise, most wise; famous, more famous, most
famous; amiable, more amiable, most amiable*.

The degrees of inferiority are expressed, in like manner, by the adverbs
*less* and *least*: as, *wise, less wise, least wise; famous, less
famous, least famous; amiable, less amiable, least amiable*. The regular
method of comparison has, properly speaking, no degrees of this kind.

Nearly all adjectives that admit of different degrees, may be compared
by means of the adverbs; but, for short words, the regular method is
generally preferable: as, *quick, quicker, quickest*; rather than,
*quick, more quick, most quick*.

## Irregular comparison

The following adjectives are compared irregularly: *good, better, best;
bad, evil, or ill, worse, worst; little, less, least; much, more, most;
many, more, most*.

## A short syntax

Adjectives relate to nouns or pronouns, as \"Worldly enjoyments,\"
except the following cases: an intervening verb, as \"To err is human,\"
arithmetical numbers, as \"Four hundred and fifty-six men,\" an abstract
adjective, as \"Being sublime,\" and an adjective as abstract noun, as
\"Sensations of sublime.\"

An adjective is placed immediately before noun, as \"Vain man,\" except
the following cases: pronouns, as \"They left me weary,\" other words,
as \"A mind conscious of right,\" an action, as \"Virtue renders life
happy,\" admiration, as \"Goodness infinite,\" a verb, as \"Truth stands
independent,\" a prefix *a*, as afraid, the nature of a participle, as
\"The time then present,\" poetry, as \"Isles atlantic,\" technical
usage, as \"Notary public,\" an adjective, as \"A being infinitely
wise,\" several adjectives, as \"A woman, modest, sensible, and
virtuous,\" empathy, as \"Weighty is the anger,\" an adjective in
predicate, as \"We call the boy good,\" and an adjective as adverb, as
\"Particularly\".

## References

-   A part of the text in this article, was taken from the public domain
    English grammar \"The Grammar of English
    Grammars\" by Goold Brown,
    1851.

## See also

-   The Wikipedia article on Adjective

fr:Enseignement de
l\'anglais/Adjectifs


# English in Use/Adverbs

------------------------------------------------------------------------

An **adverb** is a word added to a verb, a participle, an adjective, or
another adverb; and generally expresses time, place, degree, or manner:
as,

-   \"They are now here, studying very diligently.\"

Adverbs can modify a verb, a clause, adjective or a phrase.

## Form

Adjectives are generally turned into adverbs with the addition of a *ly*
suffix. *Ly* is a contraction of like, and is the most common
termination of adverbs. When added to nouns, it forms adjectives; but a
few of these are also used adverbially: as, *daily, weekly, monthly*.

Examples of adverbs are:

-   \"Jack is swimming *quickly*.\"
-   \"*Unfortunately*, he lost the race.\"
-   \"We told him to run *much* faster.\"

In the first sentence, the adverb modifies the verb swimming. The
adjective *quick* has had a *ly* added to it to make an adverb. In the
second sentence, it modifies the entire sentence and in the final
example, the adverb *much* modifies the adverb *faster*.

## Comparative forms of adverbs

Adverbs have no modifications, except that a few are compared, after the
manner of adjectives: as, *soon, sooner, soonest; long, longer, longest;
fast, faster, fastest*.

The following are irregularly compared: *well, better, best; badly or
ill, worse, worst; little, less, least; much, more, most; far, farther,
farthest; forth, further, furthest*.

## Kinds of adverbs

Adverbs may be reduced to four general classes; namely, adverbs of time,
of place, of degree, and of manner. Besides these, it is proper to
distinguish the particular class of conjunctive adverbs.

### Adverbs of time

Adverbs of time are those which answer to the question, when? how long?
how soon? or how often?

Of time **present**: as, *now, yet, today, nowadays, presently,
instantly, immediately, straightway, directly, forthwith*.

Of time **past**: as, *already, just now, lately, recently, yesterday,
formerly, anciently, once, heretofore, hitherto, since, till now, long
ago, erewhile, erst*.

Of time **to come**: as, *tomorrow, hereafter, henceforth, henceforward,
by-and-by, soon, erelong, shortly*.

Of time **relative**: as, *when, then, first, just, before, after,
while, whilst, meanwhile, as, till, until, seasonably, betimes, early,
late, whenever, afterward, afterwards, otherwhile, otherwhiles*.

Of time **absolute**: as, *always, ever, never, aye, eternally, forever,
perpetually, continually, incessantly, endlessly, evermore,
everlastingly*.

Of time **repeated**: as, *often, oft, again, occasionally, frequently,
sometimes, seldom, rarely, daily, weekly, monthly, yearly, annually,
once, twice, thrice, or three times*.

Above thrice, we use only the phrases four times, five times, six times,
etc. Times, for repetitions, or instances, may be supposed a noun; but
such phrases often appear to be used adverbially.

### Adverbs of degree

Adverbs of degree are those which answer to the question, how much? how
little? or to the idea of more or less.

Of **excess** or abundance: as, *much, more, most, too, very, greatly,
far, besides; chiefly, principally, mainly, mostly, generally; entirely,
full, fully, completely, perfectly, wholly, totally, altogether, all,
quite, clear, stark; exceedingly, excessively, extravagantly,
intolerably; immeasurably, inconceivably, infinitely*.

Of equality or **sufficiency**: as, *enough, sufficiently, competently,
adequately, proportionally, equally, so, as, even, just, exactly,
precisely*.

Of **deficiency** or abatement: as, *little, less, least, scarcely,
hardly, scantly, scantily merely, barely, only, but, partly, partially,
nearly, almost, well-nigh, not quite*.

Of quantity in the **abstract**: as, *how, however, howsoever, everso,
something, anything, nothing, a groat, a sixpence*, and other nouns of
quantity used adverbially.

### Adverbs of manner

Adverbs of manner are those which answer to the question, how? or, by
affirming, denying, or doubting, show how a subject is regarded.

Of manner from **quality**: as, *well, ill, wisely, foolishly, justly,
wickedly*, and many others formed by adding *ly* to adjectives of
quality.

Of affirmation or **assent**: as, *yes, yea, ay, verily, truly, indeed,
surely, certainly, doubtless, undoubtedly, assuredly, certes, forsooth,
amen*.

Of **negation**: as, *no, nay, not, nowise, noway, noways, nohow*.

Of doubt or **uncertainty**: as, *perhaps, haply, possibly, perchance,
peradventure, maybe*.

Of **mode** or way: as, *thus, so, how, somehow, nohow, anyhow, however,
howsoever, like, else, otherwise, across, together, apart, asunder,
namely, particularly, necessarily, hesitatingly, trippingly, extempore,
headlong, lengthwise*.

### Adverbs of place

Of place **in** which: as, *where, here, there, yonder, above, below,
about, around, somewhere, anywhere, elsewhere, otherwhere, everywhere,
nowhere, wherever, wheresoever, within, without, whereabout,
whereabouts, hereabout, hereabouts, thereabout, thereabouts*.

Of place **to** which: as, *whither, hither, thither, in, up, down,
back, forth, aside, ashore, abroad, aloft, home, homewards, inwards,
upwards, downwards, backwards, forwards*.

Of place **from** which: as, *whence, hence, thence, away, out, off,
far, remotely*.

Of the **order** of place: as, *first, secondly, thirdly, fourthly*,
etc.

Thus, secondly means in the second place; *thirdly, in the third place*;
etc.

### Conjunctive adverbs

The conjunctive adverbs are those which perform the office of
conjunctions. The following words are the most frequently used as
conjunctive adverbs: *after, again, also, as, before, besides,
consequently, else, ere, even, furthermore, hence, how, however,
moreover, nevertheless, as well, otherwise, since, so, still, till,
then, thence, therefore, too, until, when, where, wherefore, whither,
while*.

The **adverbs of cause**: *why, wherefore, therefore*; but the last two
of these are often called conjunctions.

The **pronominal compounds**: *herein, therein, wherein*, etc.

## A short syntax

Adverbs relate to verbs, participles, adjectives, or other adverbs: as,
\"How blessed,\" except the following cases: independent adverbs, as
\"No,\" the word *amen*, as \"These things say the amen,\" an adverb
before preposition, as \"All along\", and *much*, *little*, *far*, and
*all*, as \"Thus far is right.\"

## References

-   A part of the text in this article, was taken from the public domain
    English grammar \"The Grammar of English
    Grammars\" by Goold Brown,
    1851.

-   The Wikipedia article on Adverb