# Latin/Chapter 1 Verse

# Latin I prose

+------------------------------------------------------------+
| `<b>`{=html}Lesson Vocabulary`</b>`{=html}                 |
+============================================================+
|                                                            |
+------------------------------------------------------------+
| `<font face="Arial" size="4">`{=html}Latin`</font>`{=html} |
+------------------------------------------------------------+
|                                                            |
+------------------------------------------------------------+
| **fulgeo, -ere**                                           |
+------------------------------------------------------------+
| **aperio, -ire**                                           |
+------------------------------------------------------------+
| **dormio, -ire**                                           |
+------------------------------------------------------------+
| **habeo, -ere**                                            |
+------------------------------------------------------------+
| **semper**                                                 |
+------------------------------------------------------------+
| **tempto, -are**                                           |
+------------------------------------------------------------+
| **dico, -ere**                                             |
+------------------------------------------------------------+
| **femina**                                                 |
+------------------------------------------------------------+
| **facio, -ere**                                            |
+------------------------------------------------------------+
| **ecce!**                                                  |
+------------------------------------------------------------+
| **velle:**\                                                |
| volo\                                                      |
| vis\                                                       |
| vult\                                                      |
| volumus\                                                   |
| vultis\                                                    |
| volunt                                                     |
+------------------------------------------------------------+
| **turba**                                                  |
+------------------------------------------------------------+
| **attonitus**                                              |
+------------------------------------------------------------+
| **tantus, -a, -um**                                        |
+------------------------------------------------------------+
| **susurro, -are**                                          |
+------------------------------------------------------------+
| **patefacio, -ere**                                        |
+------------------------------------------------------------+
| **rideo, -ere**                                            |
+------------------------------------------------------------+

The following is a nice easy short story for the Latin novice:

------------------------------------------------------------------------

### Lucius ad forum it

Sol fulget. Lucius oculos aperit. Videt uxorem suam, Octaviam. Octavia
dormit. Ergo, Lucius ad forum it.

Lucius multos amicos habet. Unus ex amicis Claudius est. Claudius semper
in foro est. Claudius temptat dicere cum feminis, quod Claudius multas
feminas amat. Multae feminae, tamen, Claudium non amant.

Lucius ad forum ambulat. Multos Romanos videt. Unus Romanorum ad cives
orationem facit. Est Claudius!

\"Ecce! Ecce!\" dicit Lucius. Lucius vult dicere cum amico. Claudius,
tamen, dicit ad turbam.

\"Amicus meus, Lucius\" dicit, \"hominem necavit.\"^A^

Lucius anxius respondet, \"Quid dicis, amice?\"

Claudius est attonitus. Dicit, \"Te non video, mi Luci\...\"

Lucius respondet, \"hominem non necavi! Cur tanta dicis?\" Claudius
susurrat, \"Volo videri^B^ fortissimus, amice. Feminae te amant. Me
dolent^C^.\"

Lucius omnia^D^ turbae^E^ patefacit.

Multae feminae ad Claudium misserimum rident. Mox, etiam Claudius ad se
ridet.

------------------------------------------------------------------------

-   ^A^ *Necavit* is the perfect form of *necare*, meaning \"he
    killed.\" For more, check out the next chapter.

```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
-   ^B^ *Videri* means \"to appear,\" (or more literally, \"to be
    seen\") and is the passive infinitive of *video*. There is more on
    that in chapters 2-4.
-   ^C^ *Me dolet* means \"makes me suffer\".
-   ^D^ *Omnia* means \"everything\".
-   ^E^ *turbae* is the dative case of \"turba\", meaning \"to the
    crowd\".


# Latin/Lesson 4-Ablative

## The Ablative Case

The ablative case in Latin has 9 main uses:

1.  With certain prepositions, eg. in, cum, sub, ab
2.  Instrumental ablative, expressing the equivalent of English \"by\",
    \"with\" or \"using\"
3.  Ablative of manner, expressing `<b>`{=html}how`</b>`{=html} an
    action is done, only when an adjective is used alongside it.
    _Example_: `<i>`{=html}Magnā cūrā id
    scrīpsit: he wrote it with great care.`</i>`{=html}
4.  Ablative of time `<b>`{=html}when`</b>`{=html} or `<b>`{=html}within
    which`</b>`{=html}. _note:_ not to be
    mistaken with the `<i>`{=html}accusative`</i>`{=html} of time which
    indicates `<b>`{=html}for how long a period of time`</b>`{=html} an
    action occurs.
5.  Locative Ablative, using the ablative by itself to mean \"in\",
    locating an action in space or time
6.  Ablative of separation or origin, expressing the equivalent of
    English \"from\"
7.  Ablative of comparison; when the first element to be compared was in
    the nominative or accusative case, `<i>`{=html}quam`</i>`{=html} was
    often omitted and the second element followed in the ablative case.
8.  Ablative with special deponents, which is technically the
    `<i>`{=html}instrumental ablative`</i>`{=html} but is used
    idiomatically with a few deponent verbs, such as ūtor, fruor,
    fungor, potior, vēscor
9.  Ablative Absolute, which is a type of participial phrase generally
    consisting of a noun (or pronoun) and a modifying participle in the
    ablative case; usually set off by commas, the phrase describes some
    general circumstances under which the action of the sentence occurs.

The different uses of the ablative will be dealt progressively. For a
summary of all forms of the ablative, please consult the Appendix.

## Grammar Part 5: The Power of the Ablative Case

Ablative generally indicates position in time and/or space (i.e. when
and where). It can also indicate the idea of ways of getting to a
location, abstractly or concretely.

### Ablative of Means

#### Exercise

How would you translate \"I made the toga by hand\"?

-   ***Hint:** You would not (and should not) use the genitive. The case
    you are studying right now can be used _by
    itself_ for this goal.*
-   ***Hint:** Remember that you won\'t need to use the pronoun \"I,\"
    since Latin is based not on word order, but on the endings!*
-   ***Glossary:***

    :   \"to make\" - *Facio* (\"I make\"), *facere* (\"to make\"),
        *feci* (\"I made\"), *factus* (\"made\")
    :   \"toga\" - *Toga*, *togae* feminine
    :   \"hand\" - *Manus*, *manus* feminine (This is fourth declension)

##### Answer

Answer: *Togam manu feci*.

In this case, the word \"manu\" is in the ablative (see fourth
declension list) and thus means \"by hand.\"

#### Exercise

I have my wisdom by means of my teacher.

-   **\'Glossary**:\'\'

    :   \"wisdom\" - *Sapientia, sapientiae* feminine
    :   \"to have\" - *Habeo* (\"I have\"), *habere* (\"to have\"),
        *habui* (\"I had\"), *habitus* (\"had\")
    :   \"teacher\" - *Magister, magistri* masculine (This is a second
        declension word, despite the \'r\' at the end, like puer.)

##### Answer

Answer: *Habeo sapientiam magistro.*

### Ablative of Time

How would you say: *I will arrive at the 5th hour.*

\'at the 5th hour\' is indicating position of time. Thus, it can be put
into the ablative case, giving:

`<i>`{=html}adveniam quinta hora`</i>`{=html}

In general, therefore, in order to say \"In the morning\", \"At nine
O\'clock,\" or \"In the tenth year,\" use ablative. It is generally used
to refer to a specific time in which something has, does, or will occur.

Example: I will leave in the night.

Hint: Future tense can be looked up in the appendices of this Wikibook!

Hint: to leave- discedo, discedere; night- nox, noctis(This is a third
declension word!)

##### Answer

Answer: Discedam nocte.

Note the simplicity in which Latin translates the six words into simply
two. The ending based language completely negates the need for the words
\"I,\" \"will,\" \"in,\" and \"the.\"

### Ablative of Place

*Naves navigabant mari.* The ships were sailing on the sea.

The ablative is also useful for showing the location of things, in
general where you would use the words on, in, or at. There is an
exception for the slightly more archaic locative, which is used with the
words *domi* (from *domus, domus, f.*, home), *ruri* (from *rus, ruris,
n.*, country \[as opposed to city\]), and *Romae* (from *Roma, Romae,
f.*, Rome), as well as with the names of towns, cities and small
islands.

Latin has its own way of handling prepositions depending on the nouns
and their cases in the sentence, including the versatile *in*, which can
take many different meanings depending upon the case of the object.

## Ablative with prepositions

Here are a few prepositions that can take the ablative (for a fuller
list, see the lesson on adverbs and prepositions in the previous
chapter):

  -------------------------------- ----------------------------------
  `<B>`{=html}Latin`</B>`{=html}   `<B>`{=html}English`</B>`{=html}
  *in*[^1]                         in, on
  *a/ab*                           from
  *de*                             down from, concerning
  *e/ex*                           out of, out from
  *cum*                            with
  *sine*                           without
  *pro*                            on behalf of, in front of
  *super*[^2]                      upon, above, beyond
  *sub*[^3]                        under, beneath
  -------------------------------- ----------------------------------

```{=html}
<references/>
```
As a general rule, when motion is implied, use the accusative instead.

### Example 3

*Servus ex agris venit.*

:   \"The slave came from the fields.\"

Note: *Ager* (*ager, agri, m.*, field) must take an ablative suffix to
match the preceding preposition, in this case *e*/*ex*.

Incidentally, both *ager* and *campus* mean \"field,\" but *ager*, like
its English derivative \"agriculture\", connotes a farming field, while
*campus* (think \"camping\" or \"college campus\") means \"open field.\"
The *Campus Martius* was a large field in Rome used for military
training.

## The Vocative Case

While you will rarely need to ask Lupus where the bathroom is in Latin,
you may find yourself reading either quotes or letters in which a person
is being directly addressed. The case it will be in is the vocative.

For example, \"Hail, Augustus\" will appear in Latin as Ave Auguste, and
not Ave Augustus.

Each declension has its own form of the vocative singular and plural.
They are listed in the table below.

Furthermore, in all but the second declension, the nominative and
vocative are exactly the same!

  ------------ ------- ------------------------ ------- -------- -------
  Number       First   Second\*                 Third   Fourth   Fifth
  Singular     a       us-\>e, ius-\>i, r-\>r   \--     us       es
  Plural\*\*   ae      i                        es      us       es

  ------------ ------- ------------------------ ------- -------- -------

-   In the second declension singular, there are three separate
    possibilities for the vocative, depending on its nominative ending.
    Hence, if it is a us word, it will become an e and so forth.

#### Examples for different declensions in the second declension

-   **-us:**

    :   Lupus -\>Lupe (given name, wolf)
-   **-ius:**

    :   Filius -\> Fili (son)
    :   Horatius-\> Horati (given name)
-   **-r:**

    :   Puer-\> Puer (boy)

:   *In all cases, the plural vocative is exactly the same as the plural
    nominative. This extends to those words which are neuter, which
    always have an \'a\' for the nominative and vocative.*

#### Examples

1.  Hello, Sextus.(Hello= *Salve*)\*

    :   Salve, Sext**e**.
2.  Speak, girl! (Speak= *dico, dicere, dixi*)\*

    :   Dic, puell**a**.
3.  Knee, run!\*(Knee= *genu*; run= *curro, currere, cucurri*)\*

    :   Gen**u**, curre!
4.  Oh, heart, why do you lead me? (Oh-o; heart- cor, cordis-f.;
    lead-duco, ducere;

    :   O, cor! Cur ducis tu me?

-   Note that the first three also require use of the imperative. The
    imperative is used when ordering or telling someone what to do,
    e.g.- \"Stop,\" or \"Get away from me.\"

The basic form of the imperative is created by dropping the \"re\" off
of the infinitive form of the verb, as in: Amare, which becomes Ama; at
least in the singular active form, which is all that these exercises
require. More can be found about this subject in the chapter on verbs.

[^1]: Means \"into\" or \"against\" when used with the accusative

[^2]: Has static meaning when used with the ablative but connotes motion
    when used with the accusative

[^3]: Usually means \"up to\" or \"up to the foot of\" when used with
    the accusative


# Latin/Lesson 5-Declensions

## 3rd, 4th, and 5th Declension Nouns

We have already seen the first two declensions:

  ------------ ---------------------- ----------------------
               **1^st^ declension**   **2^nd^ declension**
  **-a**       **-us**                **-um (neuter)**
  *SINGULAR*   *PLURAL*               *SINGULAR*
  nominative   puell**-a**            puell**-ae**
  accusative   puell**-am**           puell**-ās**
  genitive     puell**-ae**           puell**-ārum**
  dative       puell**-ae**           puell**-īs**
  ablative     puell**-ā**            puell**-īs**
  ------------ ---------------------- ----------------------

------------------------------------------------------------------------

We will now complete the table of nouns with the 3rd, 4th, and 5th
declensions. These declensions are more difficult to work with because
their nominative and accusative plural forms are identical, as are their
dative and ablative plural forms. To distinguish the cases, you must use
a very simple key: context. Context will tell you the meaning.

### 3rd Declension Nouns

3rd declension nouns have two stems : The nominative and vocative
singular stem and the stem used for all other cases. Both stems have to
be memorized for each noun. Feminine and masculine forms are
indistinguishable.

#### 3rd Declension Masculine or Feminine, no *i*-stem: (each word has a set gender): *rēx*, m.

  3rd Declension   Singular   Plural
  ---------------- ---------- ------------
  nominative       *rēx*      *rēg-ēs*
  accusative       *rēg-em*   *rēg-ēs*
  genitive         *rēg-is*   *rēg-um*
  dative           *rēg-ī*    *rēg-ibus*
  ablative         *rēg-e*    *rēg-ibus*

#### 3rd Declension Neuter, no *i*-stem: *litus*

  3rd Declension Neuter                   Singular     Plural
  --------------------------------------- ------------ --------------
  `<I>`{=html}nominative\*`</I>`{=html}   *litus*      *litor-a*
  accusative                              *litus*      *litor-a*
  genitive                                *litor-is*   *litor-um*
  dative                                  *litor-ī*    *litor-ibus*
  ablative                                *litor-ī*    *litor-ibus*

#### 3rd Declension Masculine or Feminine, 2-consonant base *i*-stem: (each word has a set gender): *ars, artis*, f.

*i*-stem nouns differ from other 3rd declension nouns in that some of
the forms have endings changed to include *i*s.

There are two main kinds of masculine/feminine *i*-stem nouns. The first
kind has its usual stem end in two consonants; the example here, for
instance, has its base *art-* end in *-rt-*. The last consonant of the
nominative singular form always ends in either *-s* or *-x*.

  3rd Declension   Singular   Plural
  ---------------- ---------- ------------
  nominative       *ars*      *art-ēs*
  accusative       *art-em*   *art-ēs*
  genitive         *art-is*   *art-ium*
  dative           *art-ī*    *art-ibus*
  ablative         *art-e*    *art-ibus*

#### 3rd Declension Masculine or Feminine, parisyllabic *i*-stem: (each word has a set gender): *nūbēs*, f.

The other kind of masculine/feminine *i*-stem noun has the property that
its nominative and genitive singular forms have the same number of
syllables. They are therefore called parisyllabic. All nouns of this
form have their nominative singular form end in either *-ēs* or *-is*.

  3rd Declension   Singular   Plural
  ---------------- ---------- ------------
  nominative       *nūbēs*    *nūb-ēs*
  genetive         *nūb-is*   *nūb-ium*
  dative           *nūb-es*   *nūb-es*
  accusative       *nūb-ī*    *nūb-ibus*
  ablative         *nūb-e*    *nūb-ibus*

#### 3rd Declension Neuter *i*-stem: *mare*

Neuter *i*-stem nouns have their nominative singular forms end with
*-al*, *-ar*, or *-e*.

  3rd Declension Neuter                   Singular   Plural
  --------------------------------------- ---------- ------------
  `<I>`{=html}nominative\*`</I>`{=html}   *mare*     *mar-ia*
  accusative                              *mare*     *mar-ia*
  genitive                                *mar-is*   *mar-ium*
  dative                                  *mar-ī*    *mar-ibus*
  ablative                                *mar-ī*    *mar-ibus*

#### List of common 3rd declension stem change patterns

  Singular Nominative   Main stem   Main gender   Examples
  --------------------- ----------- ------------- ------------------------
  -is                   -is         masc/fem      canis, navis, hostis
  -s                    -is         masc/fem      urbs, rex\*, matrix\*
  -s                    -tis        masc/fem      nox\*, mons, pons
  -o                    -onis       masc/fem      legio, auditio, statio
  -en                   -inis       neuter        carmen, flumen, examen
  -or                   -oris       masc/fem      amor, timor
  -us                   -oris       neuter        litus, corpus
  -us                   -eris       neuter        genus, vulnus

-   regs and matrics, respectively, but the gs and cs both compound
    into x. The c and g stay in the other cases, hence regis and
    matricis as their genitives. Nox (gen. noctis) works similarly.

### 4th Declension Nouns

#### 4th Declension Masculine/Feminine (each word has a set gender) *gradus*, m.

  `<B>`{=html}4th Declension`</B>`{=html}   Singular    Plural
  ----------------------------------------- ----------- -------------
  nominative                                *grad-us*   *grad-ūs*
  accusative                                *grad-um*   *grad-ūs*
  genitive                                  *grad-ūs*   *grad-uum*
  dative                                    *grad-uī*   *grad-ibus*
  ablative                                  *grad-ū*    *grad-ibus*

#### 4th Declension Neuter: *cornū*

  4th Declension Neuter   Singular    Plural
  ----------------------- ----------- -------------
  nominative              *corn-ū*    *corn-ua*
  vocative                *corn-ū*    *corn-ua*
  accusative              *corn-ū*    *corn-ua*
  genitive                *corn-ūs*   *corn-uum*
  dative                  *corn-ū*    *corn-ibus*
  ablative                *corn-ū*    *corn-ibus*

### 5th Declension Nouns

The 5th declension has no neuter nouns. The masculine and feminine forms
are again indistinguishable.

#### 5th Declension Masculine/Feminine (each word has a set gender; most are feminine): *rēs*, f.

  5th Declension Feminine/Masculine   Singular   Plural
  ----------------------------------- ---------- ----------
  nominative                          *r-ēs*     *r-ēs*
  vocative                            *r-ēs*     *r-ēs*
  accusative                          *r-ēm*     *r-ēs*
  genitive                            *r-ēī*     *r-ērum*
  dative                              *r-ēī*     *r-ēbus*
  ablative                            *r-ē*      *r-ēbus*

## Exercises

### Exercise 1

  ------------------------------------------------------------
   `<font face="Arial" size="2">`{=html}Latin`</font>`{=html}
                         **villa, -ae**
                 **mittō, -ere, mīsī, missum**
                       **nomen, nominis**
             **maledicō, -dicere, -dīxī, -dictum**
            **placeō, -ere, placui, placitum + dat**
                           **quā rē**
                     **iste, ista, istud**
            **interficiō, -ficere, -fēci, -fectum**
                     **volō, velle, voluī**
               **mandō, mandere, mansī, mansum**
  ------------------------------------------------------------

### Exercise 2


# Latin/Lesson 6-Irregular Verbs

## Irregular Verbs

Irregular verbs do not fit in any particular conjugation. Irregular
verbs conjugate but not in a predictable manner. An example of an
irregular verb that you have met is \'esse\'. There are a few others
which will be listed in the present indicate active tense below for you
to memorise and refer to.

Verb

Meaning

ego

tu

is/ea

nos

vos

ei/eae

Imperative sing.

Imp. pl

ire

to go

eo

is

it

imus

itis

eunt

i

ite

esse

to be

sum

es

est

sumus

estis

sunt

es

este

fieri

to become

fio

fis

fit

fimus

fitis

fiunt

fi

fite

velle

to wish

volo

vis

vult

volumus

vultis

volunt

(none)

(none)

malle

to prefer

malo

mavis

mavult

malumus

mavultis

malunt

(none)

(none)

nolle

to be unwilling

nolo

non vis

non vult

nolumus

non vultis

nolunt

noli*

nolite

ferre*

to carry

fero

fers

fert

ferimus

fertis

ferunt

fer

ferte

The imperatives noli and nolite are used to mean "don't", eg.
"nolite ire" = "don't go!"

Sometimes ferre is considered to be an 'o' stem 3rd conjugation verb.
For practical purposes ferre is irregular.

## Exercise 1

## Exercise 2

1\. Decline the following five nouns in both singular and plural number
in the five common cases (nominative, accusative, genitive, dative,
ablative):

  -----------------------------------
  `<B>`{=html}Singular`</B>`{=html}
  Nominative
  Accusative
  Genitive
  Dative
  Ablative
  `<B>`{=html}Plural`</B>`{=html}
  Nominative
  Accusative
  Genitive
  Dative
  Ablative
  -----------------------------------

2\. Conjugate the verb \'servāre\' in both singular and plural number
and all three persons.

3\. Conjugate the verb \'esse\', in both singular and plural number and
all three persons.

4\. Translate:

Nota Bene: Often Latin uses the present to indicate a \'vivid past\'. It
would be suitable to translate the following passage in the past tense.

  ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
   `<span style="font-family:Arial; font-size:small;">`{=html}Latin`</span>`{=html}
                                       **heri**
                                   **taberna, -ae**
                                    **solea, -ae**
                                       **sic**
                                  **solus, -a, -um**
                                    **casa, -ae**
                            **sto, stare, steti, statum**
  ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Heri, ad tabernam eō. In tabernā sunt trēs rēs quārum amō duas sōleās et
unam mensam. Habeō trēs denariōs, sīc ego emeō mensam sōlum quod sum nōn
dīvīnitās. Hodiē, mensa est in casā meā. In triclīnio stat.


# Latin/Lesson 8-Imperfect and Future

# Imperfect and Future constructs

Warning: Beyond the imperfect, this page is not entirely clear. Do not
use it beyond the basic imperfect if you are a first time Latin student.
See discussion for my thoughts on this.

## Imperfect Active Indicative

The imperfect is a construct like:

:   **I was seeing.**

In Latin it would look like this:

:   **Vidēbam.**

English has a similar construct called progressive past. Actions seem
incomplete, and so the imperfect label. For example, \"I was running,\"
\"We were sailing,\" \"They were calling.\" Note that \'to be\' is
always there. Latin, however, would sometimes use imperfect like simple
past; accordingly, \"We were sailing\" could be translated as \"We
sailed.\" Other translations of imperfect can be used to/kept such as
\"We used to sail/We kept sailing.\"

Regardless of language, the concept of an imperfect is important.
Imperfect is called imperfect for a reason - in Latin, the verb
\"perficere\" means to finish/complete, which is what perfect is from.
Thus, imperfect, in the grammatical sense, means not finished - that the
action could be or could not be completed. Perfect instead means it has
been finished - I saw. You have already seen, and it is now completed. I
was seeing implies that the action is not yet completed.

The perfect tense, which we will learn later, is a more immediate
reference to the past. The name, imperfect, helps you remember its use:
in situations where you can\'t say when an event started or ended or
happened, you must use the imperfect.

In situations where you can know when an event started or ended or
happened, use the perfect.

You conjugate the imperfect tense this way: verb + -bā- + personal
ending

The endings for imperfect are:

Sg.

1.  **-bam**
2.  **-bās**
3.  **-bat**

Pl.

1.  **-bāmus**
2.  **-bātis**
3.  **-bant**

Note that the only thing we add are ba + the personal endings (the same
as in the present tense) to the infinitive stem. This gives us the
imperfect conjugation.

Note that in third and fourth conjugations, you will have to form it
differently. There is \*no\* rule to explain this, it just is, although
there are memorization techniques that can help.

ven`<U>`{=html}i`</U>`{=html}re is 4th conjugation and is formed like:

:   veniēbam
:   veniēbās
:   veniēbat
:   veniēbāmus
:   veniēbātis
:   veniēbant

For third conjugation -iō stem verbs, the imperfect is like so: capere
(to capture or seize)

:   capiēbam
:   capiēbās
:   capiēbat
:   capiēbāmus
:   capiēbātis
:   capiēbant

Note that it is easiest to think of what the endings -ere and
`<U>`{=html}i`</U>`{=html}re lack. The imperfect -bā- + the personal
ending, which we can call the imperfect conjugation, must be prefixed by
-iē-.

A few examples:

:   **amābam** - **I was loving** (A-conjugation\--1st)
:   **monēbātis** - **You were warning \[object/personage\]** (of
    something negative) (Pl.) (2nd Conjugation)
:   **vincēbāmus** - *\'We were defeating* (3rd conjugation)
:   **capiēbant** - **They were catching** (short I-conjugation\--3rd
    conjugation)
:   **pellēbat** - **She/he/it was propelling** (drive something (not a
    vehicle), propel something) (consonantic conjugation)

(Wiki-reading tips: See discussion. Some of the above may be unclear,
however the clarifying \'\--\' and \'/\' indicate verification. We may
not know what the original author intended, but we know what
conjugations the examples are.)

## Future I, Active

Future active is a tense which, unsurprisingly, refers to something
which has not yet happened. The endings are fairly basic, and follow
fairly regular rules - however, the future endings used in 1st and 2nd
conjugation differ from the endings of 3rd, 3rd-iō, and 4th.

For example - \"amō, amāre\" (1st conjugation) would be

:   Amābō - I will love
:   Amābis - You will love
:   Amābit - He/She/It will love
:   Amaābimus - We will love
:   Amābitis - Y\'all will love
:   Amābunt - They will love

NOTE: 1st person singular and 3rd person plural use -bō and -bunt, not
-bi-.

NOTE: the B and the BIs - the distinguishing feature of future tense in
Latin.

With \"veniō, venīre\" (4th conjugation), however, the endings are
different. In future, this is what they look like:

:   Veniam - I will come
:   Veniēs - You will come
:   Veniet - He/She/It will come
:   Veniēmus - We will come
:   Veniētis - Y\'all will come
:   Venient - They will come

\[deleted paragraphs go here. deleted to maintain rigorous accuracy,
which we will go back to striving for.)

To clarify: ven`<U>`{=html}ī`</U>`{=html}re, veniō.. we know it is 4th
conjugation verb and if we look at its first person singular
conjugation, we see that it is an -iō verb, because the conjugation of
the first person singular is \"ven**i**o\". (an io category exists
within 3rd and fourth conjugations and is a more general concept which
we will briefly introduce here by using venire, venio as an example).

Let\'s first identify what we know.

We know it is 4th conjugation -io because it ends in
`<U>`{=html}ī`</U>`{=html}re, which tells us that it is 4th conjugation,
and io because its first person singular ends in io (venio). Because it
is -iō, we leave the -i- in. So, when we are asked (as all textbooks
should phrase these `<B>`{=html}new`</B>`{=html} questions):

**What are the steps to form the future 2nd person conjugation?**

We say:

1.  It is better to know more than you need: check the infinitive
    nominative singular, we now know that it is 4th conjugation io.
2.  We now know that we can form the stem: the stem is veni and can then
    add a personal ending\--leaving in the i. We leave in the i because
    it is io. Because it looks weird, we never leave the i in the future
    perfect.

What is the form for venīre, in the future tense, in the 2nd person?

The answer is veniēs.

## Future conjugation

Example: **I will love**:

:   **amā*b*ō**

The table at the end of this page tries to summarize the future tense,
with both sets of personal endings. As the warning notes, this summary
may confu panda

As an aid to your understanding, this table only applies to the future
tense. Do not assume the table is displaying a pattern that is somehow
applicable to all of Latin.

(Wiki-reading-tip: This is why they are in the future section, and were
not discussed before.)

The A- and the E- conjugation are (relatively) straight-forward. The
others are more advanced, and as the warning notes, could confuse a
first-time student. Commercial textbooks probably explain it better at
this point, although laying their explanation in a table like the one
below is well-advised. Leave items marked with a ? in until issues are
resolved.

Take a look at the following table:

  ----------------- ------------------ ---------------------------------- --------------- -----------------
  **A**             **E**              \'\'\'long I (vincere/3rd conj.)   **short I**     **Consonantic**
  amā-**b**o        monē-**b**o        vinc-**a**m                        capi-**a**m     pell-**a**m
  ama-**b***i*s     mone-**b***i*s     vinc-**e**s                        capi-**e**s     pell-**e**s
  ama-**b***i*t     mone-**b***i*t     vinc-**e**t                        capi-**e**t     pell-**e**t
  ama-**b***i*mus   mone-**b***i*mus   vinc-**e**mus                      capi-**e**mus   pell-**e**mus
  ama-**b***i*tis   mone-**b***i*tis   vinc-**e**tis                      capi-**e**tis   pell-**e**tis
  ama-**b***u*nt    mone-**b***u*nt    vinc-**e**nt                       capi-**e**nt    pell-**e**nt
  ----------------- ------------------ ---------------------------------- --------------- -----------------

The vocabulary mostly consists of verbs, and can easily be looked up in
a dictionary. We will give a limited translation below, and the rest,
for those who are particularly adept at language learning, can be
learned through immersion.

:   capere (3rd conjugation\--short ere): to seize, metaphorically or
    literally \[see dictionary for full explanation\]
:   amare (first conjugation -are): to love

## Exercises


# Latin/Chapter 2 Verse

## Using a Dictionary

Foremost, Latin verbs are listed using the **present indicative first
person singular active** construct of the verb. For example, to find the
meaning of the verb *amāre*, you must find *amō* listed in the
dictionary. Some verbs like *esse* and *ferre* are highly irregular and
use different stems to form the perfect tenses.

Nouns are usually much easier. They are always given in the nominative
singular. If you see a noun such as *vōcem* and do not know what it is,
do not fret. If you look for *voc-* in the dictionary, you will not find
what you are looking for. The ending *-em* typically belongs to the
third-declension accusative; thus, be aware that third-declension nouns
have radically changing stems. Those that have the consonant *c* or *g*
usually have the consonant *x* in the nominative singular. Thus the
nominative singular of *vōcem* is *vōx*, and *rēx* becomes *rēgem* in
the accusative singular. There are plenty of other simple rules which
you will learn through experience.

Words that do not conjugate or decline (like prepositions and particles)
are listed under their only form.

## Exercise 1

### Vocabulary

1.  *affectus, -ūs, m.*, goodwill
2.  *confessiō, -ōnis, f.*, confession
3.  *dē*, from, about, concerning
4.  *liber, librī, m.*, book
5.  *malus -a -um*, evil, bad
6.  *placeō -ēre* + dative, to please (*placuīsse* is a perfect
    infinitive)
7.  *filia, -ae f.*, daughter
8.  *puella, -ae f.*, girl

### Other Difficulties

1.  *quod ad mē attinet*, as far as I\'m concerned
2.  *cum scriberentur*, when they were written (imperfect passive
    subjuntive)
3.  *quid sentiant*, what they think (present subjunctive in indirect
    question)
4.  *ipsī viderint*, (loosely) they will see in their own way (future
    perfect)
5.  *eōs placēre sciō*, accusative-infinitive construction for indirect
    statement: \"I know they \[the books\] please\"

### Passage


# Latin/Lesson 2-Active v Passive

A verb\'s voice shows the relationship between the subject and the
action expressed by the verb. Latin has two voices: active and passive.

In the active voice, the subject of the clause performs the verb on
something else (the object), e.g., \"The girl sees the boy.\"

In the passive voice, the subject of the sentence receives the action of
the verb, e.g., \"The boy is seen by the girl.\"

The personal endings in the active voice are: **-ō**/**-m**, **-s**,
**-t**, **-mus**, **-tis**, **-nt**.

The personal endings in the passive voice (present, imperfect, future)
are: **-r**, **-ris**, **-tur**, **-mur**, **-mini**, **-ntur**.

        Singular   Plural
  ----- ---------- --------
  1st   -ō/-m      -mus
  2nd   -s         -tis
  3rd   -t         -nt

  : Personal Active

        Singular   Plural
  ----- ---------- --------
  1st   -r         -mur
  2nd   -ris       -mini
  3rd   -tur       -ntur

  : Personal Passive

In the perfect, pluperfect and future perfect, the passive voice is
formed by the fourth principal part plus the proper forms of **sum,
esse**. For the perfect tense, use the present forms of **esse**, for
the pluperfect use the imperfect forms of **esse**, and for the future
perfect use the future forms of **esse**. The fourth principal part,
when used in a passive construction, acts as a first-second declension
adjective and is declined accordingly.

As stated before, when the passive voice is used, the subject receives
the action of the verb from another agent. This agent, when it is a
person, is expressed by the preposition **ā**/**ab** plus the ablative
case. This construction is called the *ablative of personal agent*. The
*ablative of cause* is used without a preposition when the agent is not
a person.

## Examples:

-   Active: *Puella puerum videt.* (The girl sees the boy.)

:\*Passive: *Puer ā puellā vidētur.* (The boy is seen by the girl.)

:   *Puella* takes *ā* and the ablative, as it is a personal agent.

-   Active: *Timor virum capit.* (Fear seizes the man.)

:\*Passive: *Vir timore capitur.* (The man is seized by fear.)

:   *Timore* is ablative of cause.

-   Active: *Hostēs urbem oppugnābant.* (The enemies were attacking the
    city.)

:\*Passive: *Urbs ab hostibus oppūgnābātur.* (The city was being
attacked by the enemies.)

## Deponent verbs

Some verbs are always passive in form, even though they have an active
meaning. For example:

-   filius agricolam `<b>`{=html}sequitur`</b>`{=html} - The son follows
    the farmer
-   sol `<b>`{=html}ortus est`</b>`{=html} - The sun has risen
-   agricolae hostes `<b>`{=html}verentur`</b>`{=html} - The farmers
    fear the enemies
-   gladio `<b>`{=html}usus sum`</b>`{=html} - I used a sword

Some, called semi-deponent verbs, take on a passive form on only in the
perfect. For example:

-   colono `<b>`{=html}confido`</b>`{=html} - I trust the farmer
-   colono `<b>`{=html}confisus sum`</b>`{=html} - I trusted the farmer

Note that some deponent and semi-deponent verbs take the accusative case
(eg. vereor, vereri, veritus sum = I fear), some the ablative (eg. utor,
uti, usus sum = I use) and some the dative (eg. confido, confidere,
confisus sum = I trust). When you first encounter such a verb in Latin,
be sure to remember the case of the object the verb is taking along with
its spelling and meaning.


# Latin/Lesson 7-Future and Past Perfect

## Future perfect

The future perfect tense is used for an action that will have been
completed in the future by the time something else has happened.

English example: \"I **will have seen** the movie by the time it comes
out.\"

To form the future perfect, take the perfect stem and add the future
perfect endings:

```{=html}
<table border="1" cellpadding="5">
```
```{=html}
<tr>
```
```{=html}
<td>
```
*-erō*

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td>
```
*-erimus*

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
</tr>
```
```{=html}
<tr>
```
```{=html}
<td>
```
*-eris*

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td>
```
*-eritis*

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
</tr>
```
```{=html}
<tr>
```
```{=html}
<td>
```
*-erit*

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td>
```
*-erint*

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
</tr>
```
```{=html}
</table>
```
Note the similarities to the future tense of *sum*, except for the third
person plural ending *-erint*[^1] in place of *-erunt*, which serves as
the perfect ending instead.

Hence: **amāverō**, I will have loved; **vīderitis**, you (pl.) will
have seen

```{=html}
<references/>
```
## Pluperfect

The pluperfect tense is used to describe something in the past that
happened before another event in the past.

English example: \"I **had graduated** by the time I applied for a
job.\"

To form the pluperfect, take the perfect stem and add the pluperfect
endings:

```{=html}
<table border="1" cellpadding="5">
```
```{=html}
<tr>
```
```{=html}
<td>
```
*-eram*

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td>
```
*-erāmus*

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
</tr>
```
```{=html}
<tr>
```
```{=html}
<td>
```
*-erās*

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td>
```
*-erātis*

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
</tr>
```
```{=html}
<tr>
```
```{=html}
<td>
```
*-erat*

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td>
```
*-erant*

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
</tr>
```
```{=html}
</table>
```
Hence: **amāveram**, I had loved; **vīderātis**, you (pl.) had seen

## Examples

*De Acutiliano autem negotio quod mihi **mandaras** (**mandaveras**), ut
primum a tuo digressu Romam veni, **confeceram**.* (Cicero, *Ad Atticum*
1.5)

:   \"But as to the business of Acutilius that you had entrusted with
    me, I had already taken care of it when I came to Rome first thing
    after your departure.\" Note the relationship of the pluperfect
    verbs *mandaras* (*-aras* is a common contraction for *-averas*) and
    *confeceram* to the perfect verb *veni*.

*Ego certe meum officium **praestitero**.* (Caesar, *De Bello Gallico*
IV)

:   \"I certainly will have prevailed in my duty.\"

[^1]: *-int* as an ending is rare; *-erint* and *sint* are two of the
    most common


# Latin/Lesson 8-Ablative Absolute and Accusative Infinitive

## Ablative Absolute

The ablative absolute construction is used in a sentence to provide a
background for the main action in the sentence. An ablative absolute is
formed with a noun and an adjective or participle in the ablative case.

`<i>`{=html}`<b>`{=html}convivis ingressis`</b>`{=html} ille cenam
parat`</i>`{=html}

`<b>`{=html}With the guests having entered`</b>`{=html}, he prepares
dinner.

`<i>`{=html}`<b>`{=html}domino convivanti`</b>`{=html} servi diligenter
laborabant`</i>`{=html}

`<b>`{=html}With the master feasting`</b>`{=html}, the slaves were
working diligently.

`<i>`{=html}`<b>`{=html}omnibus ieiunis`</b>`{=html} multos panes parare
debuit`</i>`{=html}

`<b>`{=html}With everyone (being) hungry`</b>`{=html}, he had to prepare
lots of bread.

## Accusative Infinitive

The accusative infinitive construction is used to indirectly report
speech or thoughts. An accusative infinitive construction is formed by
taking the indirect clause and putting the subject in the accusative and
the verb in the infinitive.

`<i>`{=html}ille credit `<b>`{=html}pueros stultos
esse`</b>`{=html}`</i>`{=html}

He believes the boys to be fools = He believes `<b>`{=html}that the boys
are fools`</b>`{=html}.

`<i>`{=html}magister parentibus dicit `<b>`{=html}pueros stultos
esse`</b>`{=html}`</i>`{=html}

The teacher says to the parents `<b>`{=html}that the boys are
fools`</b>`{=html}.

`<i>`{=html}colonus uxori dicit `<b>`{=html}se confectum
esse`</b>`{=html}`</i>`{=html}

The farmer says to his wife `<b>`{=html}that he is
exhausted`</b>`{=html}.

In this sentence, note how the reflexive `<i>`{=html}se`</i>`{=html}
refers to the main subject of the sentence.

`<i>`{=html}colonus uxori `<b>`{=html}dixit`</b>`{=html} se confectum
esse`</i>`{=html}

The farmer said to his wife that he `<b>`{=html}was`</b>`{=html} tired.

Note how esse, despite being a present infinitive, is translated into
the past tense. This is because the infinitive uses the action of the
main verb, in this case `<i>`{=html}dixit`</i>`{=html} as a reference
point instead of the present.

But what about sentences such as \"the farmer
`<b>`{=html}says`</b>`{=html} to his wife that he
`<b>`{=html}worked`</b>`{=html} diligently\"? For those, you need to use
the `<b>`{=html}past infinitive`</b>`{=html}.

### Overview of infinitives in all tenses

  Tense     Active                   Passive                Active                    Passive                 Active                   Passive                Active                    Passive
  --------- ------------------------ ---------------------- ------------------------- ----------------------- ------------------------ ---------------------- ------------------------- -----------------------
  Present   amare                    amari                  monere                    moneri                  regere                   regi                   audire                    audiri
  Past      amavisse                 amatus, -a, -um esse   monuisse                  monitus, -a, -um esse   rexisse                  rectus, -a, -um esse   audivisse                 auditus, -a, -um esse
  Future    amaturus, -a, -um esse   amatum iri             moniturus, -a, -um esse   monitum iri             recturus, -a, -um esse   rectum iri             auditurus, -a, -um esse   auditum iri

The sentence \"The farmer says to his wife that he worked diligently\"
would thus translate as:

`<i>`{=html}colonus uxori dicit se diligenter laboravisse`</i>`{=html}

The following examples show how different infinitives with the main verb
in the past and present would appear in English:

-   colonus uxori dixit se diligenter laboravisse = The farmer said to
    his wife that he `<b>`{=html}had worked`</b>`{=html} diligently.
-   colonus uxori dixit se diligenter laborare = The farmer said to his
    wife that he `<b>`{=html}was working`</b>`{=html} diligently.
-   colonus uxori dixit se diligenter laboraturum esse = The farmer said
    to his wife that he `<b>`{=html}would work`</b>`{=html} (or
    `<i>`{=html}was going to work`</i>`{=html}) diligently.
-   colonus uxori dicit se diligenter laboraturum esse = The farmer said
    to his wife that he `<b>`{=html}will work`</b>`{=html} (or
    `<i>`{=html}is going to work`</i>`{=html}) diligently.
-   nuntius mihi dixit urbem deletam esse = The messenger told me that
    the city `<b>`{=html}had been destroyed`</b>`{=html}
-   nuntius mihi dixit urbem deleri = The messenger told me that the
    city `<b>`{=html}was being destroyed`</b>`{=html}
-   nuntius mihi dixit urbem deletum iri = The messenger told me that
    the city `<b>`{=html}would be destroyed`</b>`{=html} (or
    `<i>`{=html}was going to be destroyed`</i>`{=html})
-   nuntius mihi dicit urbem deletum iri = The messenger told me that
    the city `<b>`{=html}will be destroyed`</b>`{=html} (or
    `<i>`{=html}is going to be destroyed`</i>`{=html})

### Translation Exercises


# Latin/Chapter 3 Verse

The following poem is written in Hendecasyllabic. It is an introductory,
dedication poem written by the poet Gaius Valerius
Catullus.

It is commonly referred to as \"Catullus 1\" or by its first line.

:   Cui dono lepidum novum libellum
:   arida modo pumice expolitum?
:   Corneli, tibi: namque tu solebas
:   meas esse aliquid putare nugas.
:   Iam tum, cum ausus es unus Italorum
:   omne aevum tribus explicare cartis\...
:   Doctis, Iuppiter, et laboriosis!
:   Quare habe tibi quidquid hoc libelli---
:   qualecumque, quod, o patrona virgo,
:   plus uno maneat perenne saeclo!


# Latin/Lesson 1-Subjunctive

## Subjunctives

The Subjunctive is one of the three different moods a Latin verb can
take. The two other moods are the Indicative and the Imperative. The
subjunctive is perhaps the most common and also most difficult to grasp,
and there are a great number of different subjunctive uses.

The subjunctive mainly expresses doubt or potential and what could have
been. Whereas the indicative declares \"this happened\" or \"that
happened,\" the imperative is called \'jussive,\' which is from
\'iubere\' - to command, bid.

Examples

-   \"Let me go\" and \"May I go?\" are statements of potential; the
    speaker is not entirely certain his/her command will be followed.
-   \"Were I a king, I would have a golden throne.\" -this expresses
    what could be true, but is not. Speaker is not a king, and so will
    not get the throne.
-   \"May the force be with you!\" expresses the hope/potential that the
    force (Star Wars) will be with you. The essential word here is
    \'may\' - \"*May* the force be with you.\"

\"*If* this *were* to happen,\" or \"May this happen!\" or \"I ask you
to make this happen\" are all possible uses of the subjunctive.

There are four subjunctives: present, imperfect, perfect, and
pluperfect. There are no subjunctives in the future tense, which already
incorporates an element of doubt.

### The Present Subjunctive

The present subjunctive is similar to the present indicative, except
marked by a change of the theme vowel.

*present stem* + *theme vowel change* + *ending*

#### Form

In the present subjunctive, the theme vowel for every conjugation
changes; in effect, the first conjugation masquerades as the second
conjugation and all the other conjugations take on the appearance of the
first.

  ----------------- ----- --------- ------
  1st Conjugation   *a*   becomes   *e*
  2nd Conjugation   *e*   becomes   *ea*
  3rd Conjugation   *e*   becomes   *a*
  3rd -io and 4th   *i*   becomes   *ia*
  ----------------- ----- --------- ------

Some ways to remember this are in the following collapsed table.

+------------------------------------------------+
| Show                                           |
+================================================+
| Sh**e** w**ea**rs **a** g**ia**nt d**ia**mond  |
|                                                |
| W**e** b**ea**t **a** l**ia**r.                |
|                                                |
| W**e** b**ea**t **a**ll l**ia**rs.             |
|                                                |
| W**e** **ea**t **a** fr**ia**r                 |
|                                                |
| W**e** **ea**t **a** F**ia**t                  |
|                                                |
| N**e**ver F**ea**r **a** L**ia**r              |
|                                                |
| L**e**t\'s **ea**t **a** d**ia**per.           |
|                                                |
| L**e**t\'s **ea**t c**a**v**ia**r.             |
|                                                |
| Sh**e** w**ea**rs **a** d**ia**mond.           |
|                                                |
| W**e** **ea**t c**a**v**ia**r                  |
|                                                |
| W**e** f**ea**r **a** l**ia**r                 |
|                                                |
| Sh**e** w**ea**rs **a** t**ia**ra              |
|                                                |
| W**e** b**ea**t **a** g**ia**nt.               |
|                                                |
| Sh**e** r**ea**ds **a** d**ia**ry.             |
|                                                |
| Sh**e** w**ea**rs **a** d**ia**mond t**ia**ra. |
|                                                |
| L**e**t\'s b**ea**t th**a**t g**ia**nt.        |
|                                                |
| F**e**w F**ea**r F**a**t Fr**ia**rs.           |
|                                                |
| H**e**r br**ea**sts **a**re g**ia**nt.         |
|                                                |
| Cl**e**m St**ea**ms Cl**a**ms in S**ia**m      |
+------------------------------------------------+

### Example Conjugation

*porto, port**a**re, portavi, portatus* (1st conjugation - to carry)

#### Present Indicative

This is the present active indicative form of *portāre*, which has
already been covered.

Remember the join vowels.

#### Present Subjunctive

The present active subjunctive of *portare* would be conjugated as
follows:

Notice:

-   The *-ā-* vowel stem has changed to an *-ē-*.
-   The personal endings *-m, -s, -t, -mus, -tis, -nt* are used, as is
    done for regular indicative verbs.

#### Present Subjunctive of Esse

The present active subjunctive of *sum, esse*, the verb \"to be\", is
conjugated as follows:

Unlike the conjugation of the present active indicative form, the
present subjunctive is regular. The same personal endings are affixed to
*si-*.

##### Present Subjunctive of Posse

Translates as \"May I/you/he/we/you/they be able\"

### Imperfect Subjunctive

The imperfect subjunctive is formed by adding the personal endings *-m,
-s, -t, -mus, -tis, -nt* or the passive endings *-r, -ris, -tur, -mur,
-mini, -ntur* to the present infinitive active (often the second
principal part). In other words, for

*vocō, vocāre, vocāvī, vocātum*

The imperfect subjunctives are formed thus:

For deponent verbs, whose second principal part is the passive
infinitive (e.g., cōnārī, verērī, patī, expedīrī) a pseudo present
infinitive is used (e.g, cōnāre, verēre, patere, expedīre; although
these forms do not exist as stand-alone infinitives, they actually ARE
the singular imperatives for these deponent verbs)

The imperfect subjunctive of the verb to be (sum, esse) is conjugated
regularly, as are ALL irregular verbs, e.g.: possem, vellem, nollem,
ferrem, irem)

## Uses of the Subjunctive

Verbs in the subjunctive mood may assume special meaning in specific
constructions.

### Volitive or Optative Clauses

Subjunctives in independent clauses are often translated as
volitive/optative (that is, as a wish). Volitives/optatives show an
intention for an action to occur; e.g. \"amet\" may be translated in
volitive/optative context as \"may he love\"

#### Hortatory

A suggestion or command in first person (most often plural); e.g.
\"cedamus\" as an hortatory subjunctive is \"let us depart\"

#### Jussive

A suggestion or command in third person; e.g. \"cedat\" as a jussive
subjunctive is \"let her depart\"; \"deprehendatur\"= \"Let him be
seized\"

#### Potential

The potential or possibility of something happening, in any person:
(Fortasse) te amem. \"Perhaps I may love you.\"

**All of these Subjunctive types can be used in an independent (main)
clause.** Note that all can be translated with \"let\" or \"may\"; the
differences lie in how English will represent the subjunctive verb:

-   Volitive (Wish): May we be friends forever!
-   Hortatory (Suggestion): Let us be friends!
-   Jussive (Command): Let them be friends!
-   Potential (Possibility): They may be friends; we may be friends; you
    may be friends.

### Purpose Clauses

A purpose clause is a dependent clause used, as the name shows, to show
purpose. Often initiated by an indicative verb, the clause contains a
subjunctive verb in either the present or imperfect tense. Present and
imperfect verbs in purpose clauses should be translated with the
auxiliary verbs \"may\" and \"might,\" respectively. For example,
\"Marcus urbem condidit ut regeret\" should be translated as \"Marcus
built the city so that he would rule.\" These appear frequently in
Latin.

### Relative Clauses

A relative clause is an independent clause introduced by a relative
pronoun. When the verb of a relative clause is in the subjunctive mood
the clause may express result, purpose, or characteristic.

-   Result: The field is so large that he could not plow it in one day.
-   Purpose: He sent envoys who would pacify the city.
-   Characteristic: Who is so ill-prepared who would fight without a
    shield?


# Latin/Lesson 2-Subjunctive Use

.The subjunctive mood has several uses in Latin, the most notable of
which are:

-   First Person Exhortations
-   Purpose Clauses
-   Result Clauses
-   Indirect Commands

## First Person Exhortations (Hortatory Subjunctive)

### Definition, Common Usage and Expression in Latin

An exhortation is a statement which expresses a wish. In English, the
most common exhortation is \"let\'s go\". Other possibilities are
\"would go\", \"should go\" and \"may go\". In Latin, these statements
are equally as often used and are expressed in the present subjunctive
active tense.

### Examples

-
-
-
-
-
## Purpose Clauses

### Definition, Common Usage and Expression in Latin

A purpose clause is a clause which expresses that someone did something
in order that something else might happen. In English they usually
contain the words **in order to** or **so that**. In Latin this concept
is expressed by the words **ut** and **ne** followed by a verb in the
subjunctive mood. *Ut* means \"so that\" or \"in order to\" and *ne*
means \"lest.\" In purpose clauses, only forms of the imperfect
(following the secondary sequence of tenses) and present (for the
primary sequence) are used.

### Examples

-
-
-
## Result Clauses

### Definition, Common Usage and Expression in Latin

Result clauses state that something occurred as a result of something
else happening. For a positive result, use *ut*. For a negative result,
use *ut\... non*.

Result clauses are normally recognisable by a signpost word in the main
clause:

tam = so (with adjective or adverb) tantus, -a, -um = so big, tot
(indecl) = so many talis, -e = such, of such a sort adeo = so much, to
such an extent (with verb) ita = so, in such a way (with verb) totiens =
so often, so many times (with verb)

### Examples

-
-
-
-
## Indirect Commands

### Definition, Common Usage and Expression in Latin

An indirect command is a statement like the following: \"He ordered her
to do x\". The English equivalent words are \"**to**\" or \"**that they
should**\" It can also take the form of \"I am ordering you to do x\",
as opposed to the imperative \"DO X!\". Several verbs in Latin take the
subjunctive mood with indirect commands:

1.  rogo, rogare, rogavi, rogatum - to ask
2.  persuadeo, persuadere, persuasi, persuasum - to persuade
3.  impero, imperare, -imperavi, imperatum - to order
4.  peto, petere petivi, petitum - to seek, ask for

These verbs use an ut/ne + the subjunctive construction.

### Examples

-
-
-
## Indirect questions

### Definition, Common Usage and Expression in Latin

The subjunctive is used in indirect questions. For example, the question
\'What are you doing?\' is direct, while \"He asked what I was doing\"
is indirect. In Latin, the verb in the clause containing the indirect
question must be in the subjunctive.

### Examples

-   *Imperator milites rogat si castra ceperent*\
    The general asks the soldiers if they captured the camp.
-   *Eum rogo quid faciat*\
    I am asking him what he is doing.
-   *Magister pueros rogat utrum laborent an ludant*\
    The teacher asks the boys whether they are working or playing.

## Notā bene!

```{=html}
<references/>
```


# Latin/Lesson 6-The Subjunctive Perfect Passive

# Subjunctive Passive Verbs

## Subjunctive Passive Perfect

Subjunctive passive verbs form from the 4th principle part as shown in
the example below.

The verb\'s third principle part, e.g. in the word impedire(to
obstruct): impedio, impedire, **impedivi**, impeditus; gains the passive
ending for the appropriate person.

This is an example of the Subjunctive Passive in the perfect tense.
muto, mutare, mutavi, mutatum \-- to change

To make the verb into a perfect passive, take the fourth principle part,
make it agree with the subject in gender, number, and case, and then add
in the appropriate form of esse. In the perfect, we use the present form
of esse, and specifically the subjunctive present(sim, sis, sit, simus,
sitis, sint.)

For example, Do you know *what has been done to him?* would be made
into: scis quid eum factum sit?

`            `*`Singular`*

`           mutatus sim      `**`I have been changed.`**\
`           mutatus sis      `**`You have been changed.`**\
`           mutatus sit      `**`He has been changed.`**

`             `*`Plural*`*

`           mutati simus     `**`We have been changed.`**\
`           mutati sitis     `**`You have been changed.`**\
`           mutati sint      `**`They have been changed.`**

-   Note well that in the plural, the word \"mutatus\" becomes
    \"mutati,\" thus taking on the plural nominative. Remember that the
    perfect passive verbs require the fourth participle to agree in
    gender and number!

### Exercises

**In this section, it is only truly necessary to translate the
italicized portion. The rest exists in order to make the subjunctive
necessary.**

the children were so bad that they *have been scolded.* (Children-
Liberi; To scold- vitupero, vituperare, vituperavi)

He asked how *I was tricked.*(trick-ludo, ludere, lusi, lusus)

My parents drove to town so that now *I have been born in a
hospital.*(born- cresco, crescere, crevi, cretus; Hospital-
valetudinarium, valetudinarii-n.)

## Subjunctive Passive Pluperfect

The subjunctive passive pluperfect is very similar to the perfect, with
the major difference being the way esse is conjugated. In specific, the
word esse is simply given the active endings(m,s,t,mus,tis, nt)

mutavi + **isse** \--\>

*Singular*

```{=html}
<!-- -->
```

\*mutatus essem **I had been changed.**\
\*mutatus esses **You had been changed.**\
\*mutatus esset **He had been changed.**

```{=html}
<!-- -->
```

*Plural\**

```{=html}
<!-- -->
```

\*mutati essemus **We had been changed.**\
\*mutati essetis **You had been changed.**\
\*mutati essent **They had been changed.**

### Exercises

In these exercises, only the italicized parts require translation. The
rest exist to make the subjunctive necessary. Remember, the subjunctive
is not used in any but complex sentences or other rare circumstances.

Ovid wrote so much in the Metamorphoses that *his hand had been changed
into stone.*


# Latin/Lesson 7-The Gerund and Participles

# Participles

**Participles** are verbs which function grammatically like adjectives.
English, aided by auxiliary participles, is able have participle phrases
in many tenses. Latin has participles that do not have auxiliary
supplementary participles. This limits the usage of the participle in
Latin, according to some wiki-scholars of Classical Studies.

  -------------------------------------------------------------
  `<B>`{=html}`<I>`{=html}Example 1`</I>`{=html}`</B>`{=html}
  `<B>`{=html}English`</B>`{=html}
  `<B>`{=html}Latin`</B>`{=html}
  -------------------------------------------------------------

## Present Active Participles

Present participles are formed by adding -ns to the stem of the verb.

  -------------------------------------------------------------------
  `<B>`{=html}Forming the Present Imperfect Participle`</B>`{=html}
  1st Conjugation
  2nd Conjugation
  3rd Conjugation
  4th Conjugation
  -------------------------------------------------------------------

Present Participles are declined like 3rd declension adjectives. In
cases besides the nominative, the -s becomes -t.

Examples:

1\. ferens, ferentis 2. capiens, capientis 3. ens, entis

### Exercises

Form the Present Participle and translate of the following Latin verbs:

-   meto, messui, messum, ere
-   metuo, metum, ui, ere
-   milito, avi, atum, are
-   postulo, avi, atum, are
-   sulco, avi, sulcum, are
-   iacio, ieci, iactum, ere

### Uses

The examples will show participles of the verb *amo, amare, amavi,
amatum* (to love).

-   **present active**: base + \'ns.\' This forms a two-termination 3rd
    declension adjective. In the case of *amare*, the participle is
    *amans, amantis* (loving).
-   **perfect passive**: fourth principle part, with appropriate first
    or second declension endings: *amatus, -a, -um*.
-   **future active**: fourth principle part, minus \'m\', add \'rus,
    -a, -um\' This forms a 1st-2nd declension adjective: *amaturus, -a,
    -um* (about to love).

In deponent verbs, the perfect passive participle is formed in the same
way as in regular verbs. However, since the nature of the deponent verb
is passive in form and active in meaning, the participle is translated
actively.

Remember that participles are adjectives, and therefore must be declined
to agree with the noun which they modify in case, number and gender.

## Gerund

The gerund is a verbal noun which is used to refer to the **action** of
a verb. For example: ars **scribendi** = the art of **writing**. The
gerund is declined as a second declension neuter noun. It is formed by
taking the present stem and adding -ndum.

  ------------ ------------ --------------- -------------- --------------- ---------------
  **Verb**     amo, amare   video, videre   rego, regere   capio, capere   audio, audire
  **Gerund**   amandum      videndum        regendum       capiendum       audiendum
  ------------ ------------ --------------- -------------- --------------- ---------------

\
==== Meanings of the gerund ====

-   Genitive: ars legendi - The art of reading / to read
-   Accusative: ad puniendum - to punish, for punishing
-   Ablative: saepe canendo - through frequently singing; in legendo:
    while reading
-   Genitive with *causa*: puniendi causa - in order to punish

## Gerundive

The gerundive is a 1st/2nd declension adjective formed the same way as
the gerund, and its function overlaps somewhat with the gerund, but
otherwise differs. The literal translation of the gerundive is with \"to
be\", eg. defendendus, -a, -um = \"to be defended\".

-   Accusative: ad ludos fruendos - to the games to be enjoyed - to
    enjoy the games (Note that if this were a gerund construction, it
    would be ad lud**is** fruend**um** since *fruor, -i* takes the
    ablative case. In the gerundive construction, both noun and
    gerundive are governed by the preposition *ad*)
-   Gerundive of obligation, which is constructed with the verb \'est\'
    or \'sunt\', according to the subject\'s number: Carthago delenda
    est - Carthage is to be destroyed - Carthage must be destroyed. Note
    that if there is an object (eg. Carthage is to be destroyed **by
    us**), it goes into the dative case (eg. Carthago delenda **nobis**
    est).

# Exercises

1\. Convert the following subjunctive purpose clauses into gerund or
gerundive clauses with the same meaning. For example: militabat ut
patriam defenderet → militabat ad patriam defendendum *or* militabat
patriam defendendi causa *or* militabat ad patriam defendendam. Try to
use each construction twice.

-   casam exit ut patrem adiuvet
-   mater in casam rediit ut cenam pararet
-   hostes vincebant ergo scutum abieci (*I threw away my shield*) ut
    celerius fugerem
-   in silvas currimus ut nos celemus
-   hostes in silvas ineunt ut nos invenirent
-   Brutus Iulium Caesarem occidit ut Romam liberaret

2\. Translate into Latin. For example: I must see the temple -\> templum
mihi videndum est

-   We must build a large city.
-   Julius Caesar must lead an army into Greece.
-   Scipio (*Scipio, -ionis*) must defeat Hannibal.


# Latin/Lesson 8-Conditional Clauses

## Conditional Clauses

Conditional clauses in English and Latin have the general form:

`<b>`{=html}if`</b>`{=html} (condition clause) (result clause)

Or:

(result clause) `<b>`{=html}if`</b>`{=html} (condition clause)

For example:

1.  If I see anyone, I\'ll tell you.
2.  If he was sleeping, you should not have knocked.
3.  I cannot hear you if I\'m sleeping.
4.  I would have been sad if I had not won.

There are 3 types of conditional clauses in Latin:

1.  Simple Fact (Present or Past)
2.  Contrary to Fact (Present or Past)
3.  Future (More or Less Vivid)

### Simple Fact Conditionals

Simple fact conditionals in Latin have the general form:

si (condition clause in the present indicative) (result clause in the
present indicative)

Or:

si (condition clause in the imperfect/perfect indicative) (result clause
in the imperfect/perfect indicative)

=====For <example:=====>

`<i>`{=html}si diligenter laboras, bonus puer es`</i>`{=html}

If you are working diligently, you are a good boy.

`<i>`{=html}si dominum adiuvabas, bonus servus eras`</i>`{=html}

If you were helping your master, you were a good slave.

### Contrary to Fact Conditionals

Contrary to fact conditionals are used if the condition clause is known
to be false. For example:

If you weren\'t playing during class, you would be a good boy (but you
were playing, so you aren\'t a good boy).

Contrary to fact conditionals have the general form:

si (condition clause in the imperfect subjunctive) (result clause in the
imperfect subjunctive)

Or:

si (condition clause in the pluperfect subjunctive) (result clause in
the pluperfect subjunctive)

=====For <example:=====>

`<i>`{=html}si matrem adiuvaret, cena parata esset`</i>`{=html}

If he were helping his mother, the dinner would be ready.

`<i>`{=html}si patrem adiuvisset, pater matrem adiuvare
potuisset`</i>`{=html}

If he had helped his father, his father would have been able to help his
mother.

Note how English uses `<b>`{=html}would`</b>`{=html} and
`<b>`{=html}would have`</b>`{=html} for result clauses, while Latin uses
the same tense as in the condition clauses.

### Future Conditionals

Future conditionals are, of course, used to express conditions in the
future. For example:

If you help me, I will be done faster.

Future conditionals take the following general form:

si (condition clause in the future or future perfect) (result clause in
the future)

Or:

si (condition clause in the present subjunctive) (result clause in the
present subjunctive)

=====For <example:=====>

`<i>`{=html}si fortiter pugnaveritis, urbs non delebitur`</i>`{=html}

If you fight bravely, the city will not be destroyed.

Note how English uses the present tense for the condition clause, while
Latin uses the future or future perfect.

`<i>`{=html}si diligenter laboretis, vobis meridie domum
dimittam`</i>`{=html}

If you were to work diligently, I would dismiss you at noon.

This type of clause, known as the future less vivid (as opposed to the
future more vivid which uses the future and future perfect), is used to
express more improbable conditions in the future.


# Latin/Chapter 4 Verse

Haec est fabula De Faciebus Iani. Ianus, ut dicebatur, erat unus deorum,
cui facies duae erant. Altera earum enim in futura et altera in
praeterita prospiciebat.

Apollo ei olim sic dixit: \"Nonne tibi facies est, qua tempus praesens
spectes?\" Et paulo post Ianus ita respondit:

\"Mundus - orbis terrarum cyclus est similiter ac tempus est cyclicum.
Et initium omnium et finem video. Omnia prospicio aeternusque sum, neque
opus est porro videre, quae palam iaceant.\"

Diu cogitavit Apollo de verbis Iani hominesque acutissimā mente in omni
orbe terrarum conquaesivit eo consilio, ut ipse tam sapiens ut Ianus
fieret. Postea cum quibusdam illustrissimis viris collocutus est, quo
sapientior esset. Eo facto tamen unus eorum, cui Minervus nomen,
Apollinem monuit, ne summam quaereret sapientiam, quam novisse nullum
alium quam Ianum oportebat. Revenit autem Apollo ad Ianum eumque, ut
veritatem cognosceret, ea summa rogavit.

\"Intellegisne omnino quid roges?\" inquit Ianus, \"Si dis par fueris,
omnibus iuribus privari possis.\"

Itaque Apollo cognovit sapientissimum omnium fuisse, a quo monitus est.

Translation below:

This is the story of the faces of Janus. Janus, as it used to be said,
was one of the gods who had two faces. It was that one spied into the
future while the other into the past.

Apollo once had said to him, \"Have you not a face with which to see the
present?\" After a few moments, thus spoke Ianus:

\"The world is a circle. Time is a circle. I see both the beginning and
end of all living things. I am foreseeing and eternal; therefore, it is
not necessary for me to see that which is lying out of sight.\"

Apollo thought about these words for a very long time, and thus, that he
might become wise like Janus, he sought the keenest minds of the land.
He then was speaking with some great men that he might become wiser.
However, one, whose name was Minervus, warned him not to seek the
ultimate/highest truth because it may only be known by Janus. But he
returned again to ask Janus that he might obtain the truth.

\"Do you even know for what you\'re asking? If you enter onto the same
level (of the Gods), all your rights might be snatched from you,\" said
Janus.

And so Apollo knows now that the same man who had warned him was the
wisest of all.


# Latin/Chapter 5 Verse

\< Latin

## A Verse From the Gospel of St. Luke

Respondens Simon dixit: \"Aestimo quia is, cui plus donavit\". At ille
dixit ei: \"Recte iudicasti\". Et conversus ad mulierem, dixit Simoni:
\"Vides hanc mulierem? Intravi in domum tuam: aquam pedibus meis non
dedisti; haec autem lacrimis rigavit pedes meos et capillis suis tersit.
Osculum mihi non dedisti haec autem, ex quo intravi non cessavit
osculari pedes meos. Oleo caput meum non unxisti; haec autem unguento
unxit pedes meos. Propter quod dico tibi: Remissa sunt peccata eius
multa, quoniam dilexit multum: cui autem minus dimittitur, minus
diligit.\" Dixit autem ad illam: \"Remissa sunt peccata tua\". Et
coeperunt, qui simul accumbebant, dicere intra se: \"quis est hic, qui
etiam peccata dimittit?\". Dixit autem ad mulierem: Fides tua te salvam
fecit; vade in pace!\".


# Latin/Lesson 9-Poem

**_A Poem by Catullus_**

I. ad Cornelium `<poem>`{=html} cui dono lepidum nouum libellum arida
modo pumice expolitum. Corneli tibi namque tu solebas meas esse aliquid
putare nugas iam tum cum ausus es unus Italorum omne aeuum tribus
explicare cartis doctis Iuppiter et laboriosis. quare habe tibi quidquid
hoc libelli qualecumque quidem est. patroni et ergo plus uno maneat
perenne saeclo. `</poem>`{=html} 1. to Cornelius `<poem>`{=html} To whom
do I send this fresh little book of wit, lately polished dry with pumice
stone? To you, Cornelius: since you were accustomed to consider my
trifles worth something even then, when you alone of Italians dared to
explain all the ages, in three learned works, by Jupiter, and with the
greatest labour. Then take this little book for your own: whatever it
is, and is worth: virgin Muse, patroness, let it last, for more lives
than one. `</poem>`{=html}

**_Notes_**

Title: ad Cornelium

Ad is a Preposition meaning \"to\" and therefore never changes case. The
name Cornelius is a second declension masculine noun. Names are declined
the same as any other noun. You need only decline the singular since
there is only one Cornelius.\
Nom. Cornelius\
Voc. Corneli\
Acc. Cornelium\
Gen. Cornelii\
Dat. Cornelio\
Abl. Cornelio\
The translation is \"To Cornelius\". The Preposition \"ad\" is only used
with the Accusative Case. The Accusative Case is the same as the English
Object Case.

Second declension male names ending 'ius' have the double 'ii' form in
the genitive.

Line One: Cui dono lepidum nouum libellum?


# Latin/Spoken

This chapter\'s purpose is to demonstrate hands-on spoken latin using
dialogues, word lists, colloquial expressions and all that is needed to
grasp spoken latin.

It is recommended that you cover all verb, adjective and noun endings
and have read through the rest of the Latin book, or
at least the revision pages,
before you embark on this. Subjunctive, infinitive and indicative all
need to be well understood in order to complete this course.

At the end of every exercise there will be a show-hide exercise and
sometimes an English-Latin translation. There will often be referenced
footnotes showing where there have been quotes from original Latin
authors and tips to usage of sentences.

## Introduction

Latin as a language was spoken from its earliest origins all through the
middle ages to the renaissance and beyond by numerous students, scholars
and the educated nobility. Like all spoken languages, Latin evolved in
vocabulary and form. Often the vernacular languages influenced how Latin
was spoken. While there were many attempts to stay true to Ciceronian
form in speech and writing by scholars, most when they spoke the Latin
tongue used forms and vocabulary often derived from their mother tongue
which would have been incomprehensible to Classical speakers. Latin
grammar has remained fixed and unchanged for centuries.

The two most controversial issues about the living use of Latin (living
Latin) are pronunciation and the
introduction of new words. Regarding modern vocabulary, many schools
exist, and there is no consensus as yet. The Roman Catholic Church
publishes a lexicon (*Lexicon Recentis
Latinitatis*) with an
exhaustive number of modern words translated into Latin; often this is
done through cumbersome periphrases (e.g. a hippie is 'osor
conformitatis') and other times by arbitrary coinage of new words.

### Pronunciation

When speaking Latin, the choice is usually between **'ecclesiastical'
pronunciation** and **'classical' pronunciation**.

The **'ecclesiastical' pronunciation** nowadays usually refers to the
Italian pronunciation of ecclesiastical or 'Church' Latin, which is
still the official liturgical language of the Catholic Church. Desiring
uniformity, this Italian pronunciation is often encouraged as the
standard for Masses celebrated in the Latin language. It is however only
one of many regional systems of pronunciation. An example of the Italian
pronunciation can be found in this
video.

**'Classical' pronunciation**, like the Italian pronunciation, offers
consistency of sound across national borders. It also aims to be a
scholarly reconstruction of how ancient Romans spoke, or at least
educated speakers of the late Republican/early imperial period. It is
described in books such as the paradigmatic Allen\'s Vox Latina. An
example of classical Latin pronunciation can be found in this
video.

The sound of the classical pronunciation, in particular the replacement
of the 'v' sound with the 'w' sound, has been the subject of
controversy. It is, however, the clear favorite of the 'Living Latin'
movement, which has the fastest growing number of new speakers of the
language.

## Lessons

-   Basic conversations
-   Telling people where you\'re from and what language you
    speak

## Revisions

-   /Revision 1/
-   /Revision 2/
-   /Revision 3/

## Assessments

-   /Test 1/

de:Latein/ Gesprochenes
Latein


# Latin/Verb Synopsis

Here The Verb Amo, Amare, Amavi, Amatus Is
Conjugated In The Second Plural

------------------------------------------------------------------------

**Active Indicative**

Amatis Amavistis Amabatis Amaveratis Amabitis Amaveritis

**Passive Indicative**

Amamini Amati Estis Amabamini Amati Eratis Amabimini Amati Eritis

**Active Subjunctive**

Ametis Amemini Amaretis Amaremini Amaveritis Amati Sitis Amavissetis
Amati Essetis

**Positive Imperative**

Ama (Active singular) Amate (Active plural)

Amare (Passive singular) Amamini (Passive plural)

**Negative Imperative**

Noli Amare (Singular) Nolite Amare (Plural)

**Participles**

Amans (Present Active) Amatus (Perfect Passive) Amaturus (Future Active)
Amandus (Future Passive)

**Infinitives**

Amare Amari Amavisse Amatus esse Amaturus esse Amatum iri

**Supines**

Amatum (To Show Purpose) Amatu (Used With Adj. Like An Infinitive)

------------------------------------------------------------------------


# Latin/Index II

`<big>`{=html}***This Page is incomplete***`</big>`{=html}\
For explanations of terms used in these grammar tables, check the
Glossary.

## Declension of Nouns

### 1st Declension Masculine (each word has a set gender) puella

  1st Declension   Singular   Plural
  ---------------- ---------- ------------
  nominative       puell-a    puell-ae
  vocative         puell-a    puell-ae
  accusative       puell-am   puell-as
  genitive         puell-ae   puell-arum
  dative           puell-ae   puell-is
  ablative         puell-a    puell-is

### 2nd Declension Masculine/Feminine (each word has a set gender): servus

  2nd Declension Masculine   Singular   Plural
  -------------------------- ---------- -----------
  nominative                 serv-us    serv-i
  vocative                   serv-e     serv-i
  accusative                 serv-um    serv-os
  genitive                   serv-i     serv-orum
  dative                     serv-o     serv-is
  ablative                   serv-o     serv-is

### 2nd Declension Neuter: bellum

  2nd Declension Neuter   Singular   Plural
  ----------------------- ---------- -----------
  nominative              bell-um    bell-a
  vocative                bell-um    bell-a
  accusative              bell-um    bell-a
  genitive                bell-i     bell-orum
  dative                  bell-o     bell-is
  ablative                bell-o     bell-is

### 2nd Declension Masculine: puer

  2nd Declension Masculine   Singular   Plural
  -------------------------- ---------- -----------
  nominative                 puer       puer-i
  vocative                   puer       puer-i
  accusative                 puer-um    puer-os
  genitive                   puer-i     puer-orum
  dative                     puer-o     puer-is
  ablative                   puer-o     puer-is

### 2nd Declension Masculine: ager

  2nd Declension Masculine   Singular   Plural
  -------------------------- ---------- ----------
  nominative                 ager       agr-i
  vocative                   agr-e      agr-i
  accusative                 agr-um     agr-os
  genitive                   agr-i      agr-orum
  dative                     agr-o      agr-is
  ablative                   agr-o      agr-is

### 3rd Declension Masculine or Feminine (each word has a set gender): rex

  3rd Declension   Singular   Plural
  ---------------- ---------- ----------
  nominative       rex        reg-es
  vocative         rex        reg-es
  accusative       reg-em     reg-es
  genitive         reg-is     reg-um
  dative           reg-i      reg-ibus
  ablative         reg-e      reg-ibus

### 3rd Declension Neuter: mare

  3rd Declension Neuter   Singular   Plural
  ----------------------- ---------- ----------
  nominative              mar-e      mar-ia
  vocative                mar-e      mar-ia
  accusative              mar-e      mar-ia
  genitive                mar-is     mar-ium
  dative                  mar-i      mar-ibus
  ablative                mar-i      mar-ibus

### 4th Declension Masculine/Feminine (each word has a set gender) gradus

  4th Declension   Singular   Plural
  ---------------- ---------- -----------
  nominative       grad-us    grad-us
  vocative         grad-us    grad-us
  accusative       grad-um    grad-us
  genitive         grad-us    grad-uum
  dative           grad-ui    grad-ibus
  ablative         grad-u     grad-ibus

### 4th Declension Neuter: cornu

  4th Declension Neuter   Singular   Plural
  ----------------------- ---------- -----------
  nominative              corn-u     corn-a
  vocative                corn-u     corn-a
  accusative              corn-u     corn-a
  genitive                corn-us    corn-uum
  dative                  corn-ui    corn-ibus
  ablative                corn-u     corn-ibus

### 5th Declension Masculine/Feminine (each word has a set gender): res

  5th Declension Feminine/Masculine   Singular   Plural
  ----------------------------------- ---------- --------
  nominative                          r-es       r-es
  vocative                            r-es       r-es
  accusative                          r-em       r-es
  genitive                            r-ei       r-erum
  dative                              r-ei       r-ebus
  ablative                            r-e        r-es

:   **m** = masculine\
:   **f** = feminine\
:   **n** - neuter

**NOTES**

4/5th declensions are modified 3rd declensions, thus behave similarily.
3rd declension is either M/F/N, 4th declension is either M/F/N and 5th
declension is either M/F. So for 3rd, 4th, and 5th declension is of most
importance to memorise the gender because the adjective will still need
to agree (ie have the same) with the noun in both case, gender, and
number.

The Vocative only changes for the 2nd declension masculine singular
(however not for the nouns that leave the -us suffix when in
nominative).

There are a few exceptions in the 1st declension which are not feminine.
Such nouns are poet-a (1st declension masculine, so to agree you need to
use -us on the adjective) and naut-a.

There are a few second declension nouns with irregularities. It is of
most importance that you memorise them.

When memorising a noun\'s meaning, make sure that you also memorise any
irregularities the noun has, the gender, and the declension. Without
doing this you may have trouble translating. For example, 2nd declension
masculines have -us in the nominative singular; however, 4th declension
masculines have -us in the nominative singular, nominative plural and
accusative plural. This may get you confused if you do not memorise the
declension of each noun.

## Single Declension Theory

If you look at the above list of declensions, you may feel that you are
going to be overcome if you have to memorize all of it. Memorization is
indeed the key, but it will be easier than you think.

Each word in Latin has three parts: the root, the stem vowel, and the
ending. There are five vowels in Latin, so there are five stem vowels:
A,O,I,U,E. Any word not really having a stem vowel naturally was given
to I.

If you study the declension patterns enough you will see that there are
many similarities in the declensions. All accusative singulars end in
\"m\" except neuters that sometimes still do. All accusative plurals end
in \'s\' except neuters that always end in *a*. All genitive plurals end
in \"um\", be it *ium, rum, uum* or whatever else.

If you read enough Latin you will actually find that authors would
switch a declension of a word at will if it made the sentence clearer.
Thus many words that are of the 4th declension were sometimes written as
if 2nd, and 5th declension as if 3rd and vice versa. Some ending
patterns that we use for one declension may also be used in another,
again to make the sentence clearer. Thus \"filiabus\" would be used in
any sentence where we want to make it clear that we are talking about
the Daughters and specifically not the Sons. We also see examples of
this in *animabus*. Some think that the *IS* used in the first and
second declensions was actually an abbreviation of *bus*.

Some students find the ablative difficult since it sometimes looks like
the nominative singular, dative plural or neither. All you really need
to do to get the hang of this is to know that in the plural, the
ablative always looks like the dative. If there is no preposition in
front of it then it is probably a dative, unless it is being used in an
ablative construction that would likely be apparent. If there is a
preposition and it looks like a dative, just remember that no
preposition takes a dative, only ever ablative and sometimes accusative.
Dative plural plus preposition equals ablative. The ablative singular is
really just the root plus the stem vowel with no ending to speak of,
since the preposition tells you the grammar of the word.

Some students also get confused by words that are the same in the
nominative singular and plural. Don\'t worry about that; the verb will
tell you which it is since the verb always agrees with the nominative.

It is thought that originally there was only one declension, but during
the task of applying it to every word in natural speech it was found
that some words naturally changed the way the basic sounds of the
original declension worked. Here is one idea of the original basic
declension.

  Case         Root    Stem Vowel   Singular   Plural
  ------------ ------- ------------ ---------- --------
  nominative   puell   a            None       es
  genitive     puell   a            is         rum
  dative       puell   a            i          bus
  accusative   puell   a            m          s
  ablative     puell   a            none       bus

When speaking in everyday conversation, Latin speakers would shorten the
word in their pronunciation so long as it still made sense.

If you go to New Orleans you will likely hear someone say \'prowly\'.
This is not a new dish at a restaurant or a new new code name for the
police, it is actually the local pronunciation of the word *probably*.
It is ok to shorten this word because when it is shortened everyone can
still understand it.

The Latins did the same thing. It is known that *I* can change to *E*
and vice versa, so we can see that pattern in the dative singular of all
declensions. The *IS* of the genitive was kept in the 3rd declension,
shortened in the 1st, 2nd, and 5th and slightly altered in the 4th. The
\'add *M*\' rule of the accusative singular is seen in the altering of
the stem vowel in the 2nd and 3rd declensions. The *ES* of the
nominative plural became *E* in 1st, *I* in 2nd, and *US* in 4th. The
*RUM* of the genitive plural was shortened in the 3rd and 4th
declensions.

The accusative plural as a rule never changes, but keep in mind that
neuter words followed a different pattern of using *A* for the
accusative plural, and all neuters took the accusative singular or
plural for the nominative of the same number.

The *BUS* of the dative/ ablative plural was shortened to *IS* in the
1st and 2nd declensions but kept in the others.

The 4th declension has a tendency to copy the *IBUS* of the 3rd in some
authors but retain the *UBUS* in others.

When studying Latin declensions you really should strive to memorize the
patterns, but also look to see how they are similar to other patterns in
the language as it will help you to remember. Also note that the *IS* of
the genitive singular is what eventually gave us the word *HIS* and the
\'add \'s\'\" rule of English. Latin also gave us the \'add \'s\'\" to
make a plural by way of the accusative plural.

If you study other inflexive languages related to Latin, such as Greek,
you will notice even similarities across languages.


# Latin/Accents and Scansion

All latin syllables are either long or short and stressed or unstressed.
The metre of Latin poetry, unlike English poetry, is dependent on the
length of the syllables rather than their accent.

### Length

The two different lengths for syllables are long (indicated by a macron
ˉ ) and short (indicated by a breve ˇ ). All syllables are either one or
the other. A syllable's length is determined by both its nature and its
position. If a syllable is long by nature that means that the vowel
sound is long and pronounced differently to its short counterpart
(e.g.).

  ----------------------------
  ā is pronounced as in cart
  ă is pronounced as in cut
  ----------------------------

On the other hand, if a syllable is long by position, the consonants
around the vowel sound determine the syllables length, rather than the
syllable itself. If a vowel is followed by two consonants, then the
syllable will be long irrespective of the nature of the vowel.

The following line is from Poem 1 by Catullus in hendecasyllables.

  ---------------------------------
  cuī dōnō lĕpĭdūm nŏvūm lĭbēllŭm
  ---------------------------------

The long syllable at the end of novum is caused by the two consonants (m
and l) following it whereas the long syllable at the end of dono has to
be long by nature as there is only one consonant following it.

### Stress

As well as long and short syllables Latin also has a stress accent, like
English. This is where the natural emphasis goes when speaking. The
stress accent is determined by the length of the syllables but not the
same as it. Unlike English there are fairly consistent rules to work out
where the stress accent is placed in Latin words.

  -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
  1\) For words of two syllables, the accent usually goes on the second last syllable.
  2\) For words of more than two syllables where the second last syllable is long, the accent goes on the second last syllable.
  3\) For words of more than two syllables where the second last syllable is short, the accent goes on the third last syllable.
  -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

These rules are demonstrated in the following words taken from the
extract above:\

  ------------------
  1\) **nŏ**vūm
  2\) lĭ**bē**llŭm
  3\) **lĕ**pĭdūm
  ------------------

### Poetic Meter

As mentioned, Latin poetry depends on the length of syllables rather
than their stress accent. A line of Latin verse is divided into feet
depending on the pattern of long and short syllables. The pattern of
feet then determines the meter. In some poetic meters, such as dactylic
hexameter, there is also a main caesura in every line written as (˄).
This is caused when there is a break in words in the middle of a foot.


# Latin/Common phrases

## Latin (Italic)

Pronunciations are first given in the Ecclesiastical Pronunciation
(Based on Italian, and used in some ceremonies by
the Catholic church, and usually heard in recordings of classical
music). These pronunciations are followed by the classical pronunciation
(a reconstruction of how scholars believe the Romans pronounced these
expressions)

For example --- "of light" lucis
(LOO-cheess)  (LOO-kiss), with
(LOO-cheess) being the ecclesiastical pronunciation, and (LOO-kiss) how
the Romans said lucis.

+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+
| Tra      | Latin    | IPA      | Pseudo   | IPA      | Pseudo   |
| nslation |          | (Eccles  | -English | (Cl      | -English |
|          |          | astical) |          | assical) |          |
+==========+==========+==========+==========+==========+==========+
| Latin    | lingua   | ```{=me  | (lah-    | ```{=me  | (lah-    |
|          | Latina   | diawiki} | TEE-nah) | diawiki} | TEE-nah) |
|          |          | {        |          | {{       |          |
|          |          | {IPA|/'l |          | IPA|/'li |          |
|          |          | ingwa la |          | ngwa la' |          |
|          |          | 'tina/}} |          | tiːna/}} |          |
|          |          | ```      |          | ```      |          |
+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+
| hello    | ave!     | ```{=me  | (Ah-vay) | ```{=me  | (Ah-way) |
|          |          | diawiki} |          | diawiki} |          |
|          |          | {{IPA|   |          | {{IPA|/  |          |
|          |          | /'ave/}} |          | 'aweː/}} |          |
|          |          | ```      |          | ```      |          |
+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+
| welcome  | salve!   | ```{=me  | (        | ```{=me  | (        |
|          |          | diawiki} | Sal-vay) | diawiki} | Sal-way) |
|          |          | {{IPA|/  |          | {{IPA|/s |          |
|          |          | salve/}} |          | alveː/}} |          |
|          |          | ```      |          | ```      |          |
+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+
| goodbye  | vale!    | ```{=me  | (        | ```{=me  | (        |
|          |          | diawiki} | vah-lay) | diawiki} | wah-lay) |
|          |          | {{IPA|/  |          | {{IPA|/' |          |
|          |          | 'vale/}} |          | waleː/}} |          |
|          |          | ```      |          | ```      |          |
+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+
| please   | si       | ```{=me  | (see     | ```{=me  | (see     |
|          | placet   | diawiki} | PL       | diawiki} | P        |
|          |          | {{IP     | AH-chet) | {{IPA    | LAH-ket) |
|          |          | A|/si 'p |          | |/siː 'p |          |
|          |          | laʧet/}} |          | lakɛt/}} |          |
|          |          | ```      |          | ```      |          |
+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+
| thank    | gratias  | ```{=me  | (GRAH    | ```{=me  | (GRA     |
| you      | tibi ago | diawiki} | -tsee-as | diawiki} | H-tee-as |
|          |          | {{IPA|   | TI-bee   | {{IPA|/' | Ti-bee   |
|          |          | /'gratsi | AH-goh)  | graːtiaː | AH-goh)  |
|          |          | as 'tibi |          | s 'tibi  |          |
|          |          |  'ago/}} |          | 'agoː/}} |          |
|          |          | ```      |          | ```      |          |
+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+
| that one | ille/    | ```{=me  | (        | ```{=me  | (        |
|          | illa/    | diawiki} | ILL-lay, | diawiki} | ill-leh, |
|          | illud    | {{IPA|   | ILL-lah, | {{IPA|   | ill-lah, |
|          |          | /'ilːe,  | I        | /'ilːɛ,  | i        |
|          |          | 'ilːa, ' | LL-lood) | 'ilːa, ' | ll-lood) |
|          |          | ilːud/}} |          | ilːud/}} |          |
|          |          | ```      |          | ```      |          |
+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+
| how      | quot?    | ```{=me  | (quote)  | ```{=me  | (quote)  |
| much?    |          | diawiki} |          | diawiki} |          |
|          |          | {{IPA|   |          | {{IPA|   |          |
|          |          | /kwot/}} |          | /kwot/}} |          |
|          |          | ```      |          | ```      |          |
+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+
| yes      | certe,   | ```{=me  | (CH      | ```{=me  | (        |
|          | ita vero | diawiki} | AIR-tay) | diawiki} | ker-tay) |
|          |          | {{IPA|/' |          | {        |          |
|          |          | ʧerte/}} |          | {IPA|/'k |          |
|          |          | ```      |          | ɛrteː/}} |          |
|          |          |          |          | ```      |          |
+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+
| no       | non,     | ```{=me  | (noan,   | ```{=me  | (known,  |
|          | nullo    | diawiki} | NUL-loh  | diawiki} | NUL-oh   |
|          | modo     | {{IP     | MO-doh)  | {{IPA|/  | MO-doh)  |
|          |          | A|/'non, |          | 'noːn, ' |          |
|          |          |  'nulːo  |          | nuːlːo ' |          |
|          |          | 'modo/}} |          | mɔdoː/}} |          |
|          |          | ```      |          | ```      |          |
+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+
| sorry    | ignosce  | ```{=me  | (een-    | ```{=me  | (ing-k   |
|          | mihi     | diawiki} | YOH-shay | diawiki} | now-skeh |
|          |          | {{IPA|   | MEE-hee) | {        | Mi-hee)  |
|          |          | /i'ɲoʃe  |          | {IPA|/i' |          |
|          |          | 'mihi/}} |          | ŋnoːskɛ  |          |
|          |          | ```      |          | 'mihi/}} |          |
|          |          |          |          | ```      |          |
+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+
| I don't  | non      | ```{=me  | (noan    | ```{=me  | (known   |
| un       | com      | diawiki} | c        | diawiki} | c        |
| derstand | prehendo | {{       | om-pray- | {{IP     | om-pray- |
|          |          | IPA|/noŋ | HEN-doh) | A|/noːŋ  | HEN-doh) |
|          |          |  kompre' |          | komprɛ'h |          |
|          |          | hendo/}} |          | ɛndoː/}} |          |
|          |          | ```      |          | ```      |          |
+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+
| where\'s | ubi sunt | ```{=me  | (OO-bee  | ```{=me  | (OO-bee  |
| the      | l        | diawiki} | soont    | diawiki} | soont    |
| b        | atrinae? | {{IP     | lah-T    | {{IPA|   | lah-t    |
| athroom? |          | A|/'ubi  | REE-nay) | /'ubi su | ri-neye) |
|          |          | sunt la' |          | nt la'tr | (neye    |
|          |          | trine/}} |          | iːnai/}} | rhyming  |
|          |          | ```      |          | ```      | with     |
|          |          |          |          |          | eye)     |
+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+
| generic  | salutem! | ```{=me  | (sah-L   | ```{=me  | (sah-L   |
| toast    |          | diawiki} | OO-taym) | diawiki} | OO-tehm) |
|          |          | {{       |          | {{       |          |
|          |          | IPA|/sa' |          | IPA|/sa' |          |
|          |          | lutem/}} |          | luːtɛ̃/}} |          |
|          |          | ```      |          | ```      |          |
+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+
| Do you   | lo       | ```{=me  | (l       | ```{=me  | (l       |
| speak    | querisne | diawiki} | oh-quay- | diawiki} | oh-queh- |
| English? | anglice? | {{IPA|   | RISS-nay | {{IPA|/  | riss-neh |
|          |          | /lokwe'r | AHNG-gle | lɔkwɛ'ri | ahng     |
|          |          | isne 'aŋ | e-chay?) | snɛ 'aŋg | li-kay?) |
|          |          | gliʧe/}} |          | likeː/}} |          |
|          |          | ```      |          | ```      |          |
+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+