# Guitar/Buying an Amplifier

Amplifiers come in a wide variety of designs and your choice of
amplifier should be based on the type of music you wish to play. Your
local guitar dealer will let you test the different amplifiers they
stock though they may only offer a limited range due to space
restrictions. Its always a good idea to visit many dealers including
pro-audio outlets to test amplifiers across the entire price range
before committing yourself. This chapter will explain the difference
between a tube amplifier and a solid state amplifier as well as
exploring the variations on these two basic designs.

## Tube, Solid State and Hybrid Amplifiers

### Tube

Tube amplifiers produce a warm and fat tone that is popular with
guitarists. New models are available from Marshall, Fender and Vox as
well as other manufacturers which range in quality and price. Vintage
tube amplifiers from the 1960s and 1970s are available to buy, though
maintaining them can be expensive especially with regards to the cost of
replacement parts. The continuing popularity of vintage amplifiers from
earlier decades has resulted in a market for reissues.

!Mesa Boogie Mark IV Combo tube
amplifier

There are three operating modes for tube technology: Class A, Class B
and Class AB.

-   Pure Class A operates by having a full continuous current flowing
    through the tubes. The tubes are still fully powered even when there
    is no signal to divert to the speaker. This makes Pure Class A tubes
    expensive to run; similar to a car idling in neutral with the
    throttle pedal right down. Pure Class A responds very fast to an
    input signal with a tube saturation (distortion) that many
    guitarists find appealing. Many Pure Class A amplifiers use tubes
    with a low wattage to offset their inefficient operating mode
    thereby increasing the tubes lifespan and reducing running costs.

```{=html}
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```
-   Class A refers to an output design that doesn\'t use a Pure Class A
    single-ended output stage. Class A uses a pair of tubes or multiples
    terminating in a push-pull output stage.

```{=html}
<!-- -->
```
-   Class B is rarely used in guitar amplifiers due to crossover
    distortion issues so manufacturers instead use a combination of
    Class A and Class B known as Class AB.

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```
-   Class AB operates by using a pair of tubes. Whereas Pure Class A
    produces the entire waveform, positive and negative, with a
    single-ended output, Class AB produces the entire waveform using two
    tubes with one handling the positive voltage and the other the
    negative voltage. In comparison to Pure Class A, which uses a full
    continuous current to achieve a three hundred and sixty degree
    waveform and is always on at full power even when there is no signal
    present, Class AB uses a smaller amount of constant current to
    achieve the same always on state for the two tubes. Class AB is
    thereby more efficient with regards to power consumption and heat
    dissipation and the operating life of the tubes are greatly
    extended.

\
Tube amplifiers:

-   A tube is based on vacuum technology and requires more energy than a
    solid state amplifier with the same wattage.
-   Vacuum tubes are expensive and require replacement every one to four
    years depending on use.
-   Amplifiers with tubes are generally heavier than solid state
    amplifiers due to the need for an output transformer.
-   Tube amplifiers are usually more expensive than a solid state
    amplifier.
-   Tubes require a warm-up period before they reach optimum
    performance.
-   Tube amps are more fragile and repair-prone than solid state amps.

### Solid state

!Roland Jazz Chorus JC-120 solid state
amplifier

Solid state amplifiers use transistors instead of tubes. They are
popular with beginners due to their affordability and lower weight.
Solid state amplifiers have a fast attack time and are immediately
available for use when switched on. Solid state circuitry allows more
volume to be applied to the output signal before clipping occurs which
makes the amplifiers appealing to amateur and professional jazz or
acoustic guitarists who may wish to retain a clean sound at high
volumes. A solid state amplifier matched with good quality speakers can
produce a wide frequency response. Some solid state amplifiers use field
effect transistors (FET) on the preamp stage which at high gain produces
a distortion similar to a tube amplifier.

Solid state amplifiers retain a tight low end while producing a full
harmonic distortion at high gain which is desirable for the metal genre.
This has resulted in a range of solid state amplifiers specifically
designed for metal guitarists. Solid state amplifiers tend to be smaller
and lighter than their equivalent tube amplifiers and these design
factors allows manufacturers to build amplifiers weighing less than
10lbs which are capable of 150w clean RMS sound. Root Mean Square refers
to continuous output as opposed to Peak measurement which is the wattage
of an amplifier measured in a short burst.

Solid state amplifiers:

-   A solid state amplifier requires less energy to power than an
    equivalent tube amplifier.
-   Solid state circuitry needs minimum maintenance and there are no
    tubes to replace.
-   Solid state amplifiers are more robust than tube amplifiers.
-   Solid state amplifiers are available in an affordable price range.
-   A solid state amplifier requires no warm-up.

### Hybrid

All amplifiers have a preamp stage which boosts the signal from the
guitar before it is sent to the power amplifier stage. Hybrid amplifiers
are designed to utilize both tube and solid state technology and are
available in the following configurations:

-   tube preamp coupled with a solid state power amplifier
-   solid state preamp coupled with a tube power amplifier

A tube preamp coupled with a solid state power amplifier outputs a tube
tone with a fast attack. A solid state preamp coupled with a tube output
provides solid state high gain with the warmth of tubes.

Design variations may include digital modeling, integrated tube/solid
state stages or further additional tube or solid state stages in the
signal path:

-   The Vox Valvetronix signal path starts with solid state effects and
    preamp which sends the signal to a tube/solid state integrated
    output stage.
-   The Line 6 Spider Valve signal path starts with digital tone
    processing followed by a tube preamp which sends the signal to a
    tube power amplifier.

## Features

### Standard

-   Input - accepts a quarter inch mono jack cable
-   Power - off and on
-   Volume - adjusts the volume
-   Speaker - built-in or separate cabinet

### Additional

-   Gain - the amount of boost applied at the preamp stage
-   Overdrive or distortion
-   Reverb
-   Tone/equalizer - treble and bass tone knobs, sometimes three or more
    (mid, or low mid and high mid may be added), or graphic equalizer
-   Headphone socket - headphones can be used for private practice
-   Channel selection - switch between clean and high gain/overdrive
    (often with a footswitch)

### Extra

-   Additional inputs - high sensitivity input for use with a low-output
    pickup and low sensitivity input for use with a high-output pickup
-   Modeling - digital emulations of popular amplifiers, speakers and
    effects
-   Onboard effects - built in proprietary effects such as chorus,
    delay, echo and compression.
-   Effect loop - external effects can be plugged into the amplifier
-   Line in - the audio signal bypasses the preamp stage and is sent
    directly to the power amplifier
-   Line out - the output from the amplifier can be sent to another
    power amplifier or mixing desk
-   Speaker out - standard on a separate amplifier \"head\" and when
    found on a combo amplifier allows a different speaker to be used, or
    a second speaker. Adding a second speaker can increase the wattage
    output and volume.
-   Foot-switch plug input - an external foot-switch can be plugged in
    to control overdrive, reverb, solo boost, or another feature.
-   Impedance switch (on tube amplifiers only) - change the resistance,
    measured in ohms, of the amplifier to match speaker impedance
-   Standby switch (on tube amplifiers only) - the standby switch has
    exactly the same function as the standby mode of a computer which
    removes the need to cold boot when taking a short break. Any
    technology that requires a time period to reach optimum working
    state benefits from this idea. Components are powered down while
    remaining in a ready state which saves energy and extends their
    operating life.

## Wattage

### Amplifiers

The wattage rating is the maximum volume that an amplifier is designed
to output. A 10 watt amp is typically the first purchase for a beginner.
An amplifier in the 30 to 50 watt range is loud enough for band use and
home band rehearsals and is a common first performing amp. If you are
intending to buy a 100 watt amplifier you will need to consider using a
rehearsal studio for practice, as this will be too loud for a home. The
list below outlines possible uses based on the amplifier\'s wattage
rating.

The ratings below need to be interpreted differently for some genres of
music. A 30W amp that would only suffice for a rehearsal amp in a death
metal band might be entirely appropriate as a large-venue amp in a jazz
quartet, where all the other instrumrnts are acoustic.

Solid state amplifiers:

-   10-30W: home practice
-   30-50W: band practice, small club
-   50-100W: large venue

Tube amplifiers:

-   10-20W: home and band practice
-   20-30W: band practice, small to medium club
-   30-50W: small to medium club
-   50-100W: extremely loud in confined spaces or small clubs, though
    diffuse in large halls

### Speakers

The function of a speaker is to convert an electrical signal into sound
waves. This is achieved using an electromagnet called the voice coil
which is attached to the speaker cone by a spring called the spider. The
vibrations from the voice coil are transferred via the spider to the
speaker cone.

A speaker cabinet will house either a single speaker or multiples. A two
speaker configuration may utilize smaller speakers than a single speaker
model e.g. 2x10″ instead of 1x12″. The main benefit of having multiple
speakers is an increase in volume and bass response without sacrificing
the higher frequencies. By having more speaker cones the speakers will
move more air. For example, two 10″ speakers have a combined surface
area of 157 sq.in. while one 12″ speaker has a surface area of 113
sq.in. A 4x10″ cab is often used for large combo amplifiers as it
provides most of the bass response you would get from a 1x15″, but
retains the high frequency that the 1x15″ cannot produce. Also, it will
have increased power-handling capability, or more precisely, they split
the amplifier output. Thus, given the same amplification head, a two
speaker configuration will have a louder volume but only half the power
to each speaker.

A low power speaker is louder at the same power than a high power
speaker. This is known as speaker efficiency or sensitivity. A 25 watt
speaker with a 10 watt amplifier will generally be louder than a 100
watt speaker with the same 10 watt amplifier. A cabinet with multiple
speakers allows the use of low power speakers with a high power
amplifier.

To avoid damaging speakers it is recommended that the speaker wattage
should exceed the amplifier wattage. Damaging transient peaks or spikes
that are the result of an amplifier outputting more wattage than the
stated rating are negated by the higher headroom. It is not unusual to
find a 150 watt speaker matched to a 100 watt amplifier or a 75 watt
speaker matched to a 50 watt amplifier. Multiple speakers achieve the
same effect by sharing the amplifier load between speakers which allows
low wattage speakers to be used with a high wattage amplifier. If you
are buying a combo amplifier the issue does not arise as the
manufacturer has ensured that the amplifier and speaker are matched.

### Impedance

The speaker-out socket of an amplifier will have an impedance rating.
You should only plug in speakers with the same impedance rating. Some
amplifiers are equipped with a switch or dial which allows the impedance
to be set at 4 ohm, 8 ohm or 16 ohm. Plugging in a speaker with a too
low impedance rating may cause damage to the amplifier.

Tube amplifiers are much more sensitive to speaker impedance. Any
mismatch between the speaker impedance and the impedance set on the
amplifier will cause a strain on the transformer and tubes. Never turn
on a tube amplifier with no speakers connected. This might cause severe
damage to the output transformer. Always turn off your tube amplifier
before disconnecting the speaker. Some amplifiers have shorting jacks,
e.g. Hiwatts, these may allow you to change speakers on the fly, but
always at the amplifier side of the cable, never at the speaker side.

## Types of Unit

!Marshall amplifier without the speaker cabinet plugged in. Commonly
referred to as the
head._1959SLP-01_firmy_Marshall.jpg "Marshall amplifier without the speaker cabinet plugged in. Commonly referred to as the head.")

### Micro/Headphone amplifiers

Micro amplifiers are small portable amplifiers that generally do not
exceed 10 watts. These low wattage solid state amplifiers do not utilize
FET circuitry so they tend to distort very quickly. The Danelectro
Honeytone and Vox amPlug respectively illustrates the differences
between a micro amplifier and a headphone amplifier. The Danelectro
Honeytone has a speaker and pots and resembles a miniature amplifier.
The matchbox shape Vox amPlug is a headphone amplifier with rotary dials
instead of pots and offers four model emulations including the Vox AC30.

### Busking amplifiers

These small portable battery powered amplifiers are designed for outdoor
use where no mains power is available. The battery will normally provide
up to six to ten hours use on one charge though buying a spare battery
or ensuring that the amplifier can also be used with AC power will
offset this limitation. Examples include the Pignose Hog 30 which has an
8″ speaker and a rating of 30 watts and the Vox DA5 which has a 6.5″
speaker and a rating of 5 watts.

### Practice amplifiers

Practice amplifiers are designed to be used at home and are not suitable
for concerts or band rehearsals. The Vox DA5 and Epiphone Valve Junior
are small practice amplifiers designed for home use and are easily
transported and stored.

### Small venue/recording amplifiers

Combo amplifiers are suitable for small venues. The standard combo
consists of a 50 watt amplifier combined with one 12″ speaker with both
components enclosed in a single cabinet. Some manufactures combine a 30
or 40 watt amplifier with two or four speakers. A tube or solid state
amplifier with a minimum of 30 watts and good tone would be acceptable
for professional use. Combo amplifiers are favored by many guitarists
because of their compact form and matched amplifier and speakers. The
Vox AC30 and Fender Twin are examples of combo amplifiers.

These combo amps are also used in the recording studio, as they are
easier to transport and one does not need high volume in a recording
setting. As well, a very loud stack may need too high a volume to get a
guitarist\'s preferred tone, to the point that there may be sound
leakage into other booths or microphones. A smaller combo can reach
desired overdrive levels at lower volumes.

### Large Venue amplifiers

Amplifiers that range from 50 to 100 watts are suitable for a large
venue. A half stack consists of a separate amplifier head connected to
one 4x12″ speaker cabinet and is a very common guitar rig. A full stack
consists of a separate amplifier head with two speaker outs and two
4x12″ cabinets stacked vertically. A Marshall head and full-size cabinet
are bulky and heavy items to transport. A full-sized Marshall cabinet
has two handles, one on either side, and requires two people to lift and
move it safely. Large 8x10\" cabinets are hard to transport, if you are
moving them yourself (touring rock bands have a road crew to move gear
like this from vehicles to the stage). Storage and transportation must
be considered when buying a large guitar rig.

### Heads, cabinets, and stacks

A half-stack consists of two components:

-   head - amplifier
-   cabinet - speakers

When purchasing the two components check that the impedance of the
cabinet matches the impedance of the head. Make sure the cabs RMS rating
is about the same as the head\'s power output at the impedance of the
cab. Generally a single guitar cabinet would have 4x12″ speakers though
1x12″ and 4x10″ cabinets are also available. Some players use 1x12\"
speakers for small clubs or 1x15\" for deeper bass response.

### What format to buy

Most beginners start by buying a small, lightweight practice amp. Then,
when they start jamming, they buy a more powerful, larger amp capable of
being used at a pub or nightclub show. As they progress, an amateur
guitarist may buy a bigger, more powerful stack for large venue shows
and one or more higher-quality, expensive combo amps for recording.


# Guitar/Tuning the Guitar

Advances in manufacturing have solved many of the tuning problems
associated with the budget guitars of yesteryear. Entry level guitars
are available from major manufacturers such as Yamaha and Fender which
are entirely suitable for beginners. All guitar stores sell tuning forks
and electronic tuners. A tuning fork provides a single reference note
for tuning and for this reason an electronic tuner will be more useful
to the complete beginner.

When new strings have been put on a guitar they often fall out of tune
very easily. New strings will stretch until they reach a point where
their elasticity diminishes and then they will remain at the correct
tension and frequency. Strings need to be broken in. It will take time
to work all the slack out of the strings but the process can be sped up.
Put on new strings and tune to just below concert pitch using an
electronic guitar tuner. Then pull each string an inch away from the
fretboard and this will instantly put them out of tune. Use your
electronic guitar tuner to retune the strings to just below concert
pitch and repeat the process. After a while the slack should be gone
from the strings and the guitar can be tuned to concert pitch and should
stay in tune.

## Tuning the Guitar

Sound is created by the disturbance of particles in the air. The
vibrations of a struck string causes the air particles to moves in waves
which the ear receives and the brain interprets. When a string is
attached to two points, as the strings on a guitar are, then striking it
causes a sound to be produced at a regular frequency. The length,
thickness and tension of the string determines the pitch of the note it
produces. If you have a string of a certain length and tension stretched
across a wooden board which produced a known frequency and you wished to
double the frequency to produce the note an octave above - you simply
halve the distance that it is stretched across and keep the same
tension. That is exactly what happens on a guitar when you fret any of
the open strings at the twelfth fret.

There are many different tunings for the open strings of the guitar but
the most common is known as standard tuning or E tuning. In standard
tuning the open strings should be tuned to the notes **E A D G B e**.

The diagram below illustrates the open strings and the twelfth fret.
Note that the upper case **E** represents the thickest string and the
lower case **e** represents the thinnest string. The diagram is
orientated towards the player\'s view.

![](Guitar_Fretboard_Open_Strings_Diagram.png "Guitar_Fretboard_Open_Strings_Diagram.png"){width="1400"}

`e|-----------------------|`\
`B|-----------------------|`\
`G|-----------------------|`\
`D|-----------------------|`\
`A|-----------------------|`\
`E|-----------------------|`

### Four-Five Tuning

Four-Five tuning uses the open A string as the first reference note. A
tuning aid is useful to ensure that the open A string is at concert
pitch.

Concert pitch is an Internationally agreed standard that assigns A = 440
Hz. The guitar is a transposing instrument and is notated an octave
higher than its actual pitch to avoid having to use the bass clef in
standard notation. The notated middle C is played on the third fret of
the A string though the pitched middle C is to be found on the first
fret of the B string. A = 440 Hz is the fifth fret of the high e string
but for convenience the open A string (110 Hz) is used as the reference
note.

The diagram below shows the notes to be fretted.

`e|-------------------0---|`\
`B|---------------0---5---|`\
`G|-----------0---4-------|`\
`D|-------0---5-----------|`\
`A|---0---5---------------|`\
`E|---5-------------------|`

Follow these six steps to tune your guitar using the Four-Five method:

![](Guitar_Four-Five_Method_Tuning_A_note_for_reference_Step_1.png "Guitar_Four-Five_Method_Tuning_A_note_for_reference_Step_1.png")
**Step 1**
![](Guitar_Four-Five_Method_Tuning_D_string_to_A_string_Step_2.png "Guitar_Four-Five_Method_Tuning_D_string_to_A_string_Step_2.png")
**Step 2**
![](Guitar_Four-Five_Method_Tuning_G_string_to_D_string_Step_3.png "Guitar_Four-Five_Method_Tuning_G_string_to_D_string_Step_3.png")
**Step 3**
![](Guitar_Four-Five_Method_Tuning_B_string_to_G_string_Step_4.png "Guitar_Four-Five_Method_Tuning_B_string_to_G_string_Step_4.png")
**Step 4**
![](Guitar_Four-Five_Method_Tuning_e_string_to_B_string_Step_5.png "Guitar_Four-Five_Method_Tuning_e_string_to_B_string_Step_5.png")
**Step 5**
![](Guitar_Four-Five_Method_Tuning_E_string_to_e_string_Step_6.png "Guitar_Four-Five_Method_Tuning_E_string_to_e_string_Step_6.png")
**Step 6**

It is recommended that strings be brought up to their correct pitch when
tuning. The Four-Five method has the disadvantage of progressively
increasing tuning inaccuracies by the use of multiple reference notes.

### Harmonic Tuning

This method of tuning uses harmonics. By lightly touching a string
directly above its fret-wire the fundamental of a note is silenced
leaving only a series of overtones. Any note played on any instrument
consists of a fundamental and a harmonic series of overtones. The
twelfth, seventh and fifth nodes are the easiest frets with which to
sound harmonics. After striking the string the finger should be removed
quickly to produce the harmonic.

The fretboard diagram below shows the pairs of harmonics that are used.
You start by tuning the harmonic on the 7th fret of the A string to the
harmonic on the low E string. Then the harmonic on the 7th fret of the D
string is tuned with the harmonic on the 5th fret of the A string.
Tuning the G string to the D string is done in the same manner. Tune the
harmonic on the B string to the harmonic on the 4th fret of the G
string. Tune the harmonic on the e string to the harmonic on the B
string.

`e|-------------7*------------|`\
`B|--------5*-----------------|`\
`G|------4*-----7*------------| * = Play a harmonic at this fret`\
`D|--------5*---7*------------|`\
`A|--------5*---7*------------|`\
`E|--------5*-----------------|`

![](Guitar_Fretboard_Tuning_Diagram_Natural_Harmonics.png "Guitar_Fretboard_Tuning_Diagram_Natural_Harmonics.png"){width="1400"}

Tuning with harmonics can progressively increase tuning errors due to
the use of multiple reference notes. The fundamental is the most
dominant frequency of the harmonic series and it is recommended that a
further tuning check be made using fretted notes.

### Tempered Tuning

This method is recommended because it applies equal temperament with the
use of a single reference note. This method uses the open high e string
as the reference note. You tune the unison and octave E notes that are
found on the other strings to the open high e string. Hold the fretted
note down as you turn the tuning peg and you will feel the string move
under your fingertip. This involves striking the strings with your right
hand and then using the right hand to turn the tuning pegs. If may feel
awkward at first but with practice it becomes familiar. The open low E
string is the only string to be tuned to the high e string without
fretting. The fretted note on the 5th fret of the B string should be
tuned wide by the amount of two beats per second in relation to the high
e string.

![](Guitar_Fretboard_Tuning_Diagram_Using_The_Open_High_E_String_As_The_Reference_Note.png "Guitar_Fretboard_Tuning_Diagram_Using_The_Open_High_E_String_As_The_Reference_Note.png"){width="1400"}

de:Gitarre: Stimmen fr:Apprendre la
guitare/Accorder sa
guitare
it:Chitarra/Accordatura
nl:Gitaar/Gitaarstemming


# Guitar/Tablature

Tablature and standard notation are two ways that musical information is
shared. Sight-reading of standard notation is a requisite skill for
teaching careers, session work, and the theater orchestra. Reading music
increases your knowledge of music and allows you to notate your musical
ideas. Each notation system has its advantages and disadvantages.
Tablature does not convey timing and pitch information as well as
standard notation does though it is more useful for showing bends and to
what degree (1/4, 1/2 or full) they should be executed and other worded
instructions such as pick scrapes and whammy bar effects. For these
reasons many guitar transcriptions for rock, jazz and blues, use both
standard notation and tablature.

## Tablature

You do not need to know how to read music to use tablature. Each string
is represented by a line and on those lines numbers are used to indicate
which fret to press down.

Below is a simple melody in tablature.

![](First-tune.png "First-tune.png")

### Lower Section

In the lower section of the example above, the top line represents the
thinnest string of the guitar (high **e**) and the lowest line
represents the thickest string of the guitar (low **E**). Each number on
a line represents a fretted note on that string. The number zero is an
open string, the number one is the first fret, and so on.

The tab is divided into measures using bar-lines but the duration of the
notes is not indicated. You can figure out the duration of the notes
using the standard notation in the upper section. You can also work out
the note values using the time signature; which in this example is
four-four time. This means that there are four quarter-notes in each
measure. The tempo or style, which is given at the top of a piece of
sheet music, is also an indicator of how a song should be played.

The key signature is not shown in the example. Key signatures show which
sharps , naturals, and flats are to be used; represented by #\'s and
b\'s. Each sharp or flat is shown on their respective line and space
after the time signature.

### Upper Section

The upper section of the example above is in standard notation and shows
that the first bar has eight notes. Each note is represented by an oval
note-head which indicates which note pitch is to be played. A stem with
tails is used to indicate notes duration (how long the note is to be
held). In standard notation only the whole-note is written without a
stem. Because the notes in the first bar are all eighth notes with one
tail they are connected with a single beam as shown in the example. The
beaming of the same notes in a bar allows for easier reading. In a bar
of music with mixed note values a single eighth note would be shown with
a single tail. Sixteenth notes have two tails so a double beam is used
when grouping.

The vertical bar-line after the last eighth note marks the end of one
complete count of the time-signature. Bar-lines are used to show the
pulse of the music and taken overall allows us to describe the form of a
piece of music. The usefulness of using bar-lines to describe form is
self-evident in the twelve bar blues whose title states that a cyclic
group of twelve bars is to be performed. It is common to find musicians
describing one complete thirty-two bar cycle of a jazz standard as a
chorus. The term chorus is used to indicate how many times a song is to
be repeated. A vamp on the thirty-two bar Jazz standard \"Misty\",
written by the pianist Erroll Garner, would by convention start with all
the musicians stating the melody with the following choruses dedicated
to solo improvisation. The last chorus usually has the musicians stating
the melody again without improvisation. The convenience of using the
term chorus can be illustrated by imagining a four piece Jazz quartet
with piano, saxophone, double bass and drums. If each musician is given
a chorus to improvise over and the convention of all the musicians
stating the melody on the first and last chorus is utilized then the
song will have six choruses. The original hit recording of \"Misty\" as
sung by Sarah Vaughan consisted of only one chorus with a four bar
intro. Be aware that four and eight bar codas and intros are very common
in Jazz and Blues and need to be taken into account when working out how
many bars a chorus contains.

In some forms of music there is a strong emphasis placed on the first
beat of each bar. This is easily demonstrated by the Waltz time
signature where the first beat of a count of three is emphasized for the
dancers benefit in accord with the dance steps to be performed. If a
note is tied over the bar-line with a curved tie-line then the note
duration is held over to the next bar. Bars never have more notes in
them than is indicated by the time signature. In the next bar there is a
whole note which is a white oval with no stem. The two vertical black
lines at the end are called a double bar-line indicating that the piece
of music has ended.

## ASCII Tablature

There is a very informal and loose standard of \"Internet Tablature\"
using only ASCII characters. The above example would be written like
this:

```{=html}
<div style="font-family:'Courier New'">
```
`   e---0-1-3-5-3-1-0----|-----------------||`\
`   B------------------3-|-1---------------||`\
`   G--------------------|-----------------||`\
`   D--------------------|-----------------||`\
`   A--------------------|-----------------||`\
`   E--------------------|-----------------||`

```{=html}
</div>
```
It has the same disadvantages of tab and contains much less information
than the standard notation of the upper section. Rhythm can only be
suggested by spacing or by adding symbols above each note (such as Q for
quarter note). Much Internet tablature does not even contain bar lines.
The timing must be discerned by listening to the original piece. This is
the major flaw of online tabs and this style of tab in general.

However, online tabs are often much more convenient than standard
notation for precisely conveying a specific finger positioning.
Especially with alternate tunings
this is a clear advantage.

Common Tab symbols:

  Symbol    Meaning
  --------- ----------------------------------
  h or \^   hammer on
  p or \^   pull off
  b         bend string up
  r         release bend
  /         slide up
  \\        slide down
  v or \~   vibrato
  t         right hand tap
  x         play \'note\' with heavy damping

Chords are often written in the form:

```{=html}
<div style="font-family:'Courier New'">
```
`   EADGBE  EADGBE  EADGBE`\
`   xx0232  x32010  320003`

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## Standard Notation

### Notes On The Staff

Here are the notes as they appear in standard notation. The set of lines
and spaces that run horizontally across the page is called the staff
(*plural* - staves). Notes can be written on the lines and in the
spaces. A common mnenomic for remembering the notes of the Treble Clef
is:

*\"**E**very **G**ood **B**oy **D**eserves **F**udge\" and the word
\"**FACE***

![](_Notes_on_the_staff.gif "_Notes_on_the_staff.gif")

The musical alphabet starts at the letter **A** and ends on the letter
**G**. There are twelve sounds in music and seven letters to represent
them. The other five sounds are the sharps or flats of these seven
notes. Each step up the staff is the next letter, so it goes **A**,
**B**, **C**, etc. The first symbol on the staff is always the clef;
which in this case is the treble clef. The word *clef* is French for
*key* and gives you the position of the first note. The treble clef
shown here is also called the G clef. It is drawn so that the note **G**
is indicated as being on the second line.

!The notes on a classical guitar with standard
tuning


# Guitar/Lead Guitar and Rhythm Guitar

The terms **lead guitar** and **rhythm guitar** are mildly confusing,
especially to the beginner. Of course, a guitar should almost always
follow some sort of rhythm, whether loose or tight. Plus, many times,
guitars are very prominent in a song, where it drives the music, but
it\'s not quite lead. Plus, the lead guitarist doesn\'t even play a lead
part, and that happens almost all the time! How can we untangle this
mess?

The distinction is somewhat arbitrary. Many bands in contemporary music
have two guitarists, where usually one would specialize in \"lead\" and
the other in \"rhythm\". The Beatles, Dethklok, and Metallica are
examples of bands who use this combination. Lead guitar means melody
guitar, meaning that the lead guitarist must specialize in playing the
melody of the song, so any guitar playing a solo is not a lead. Sure, a
lead guitarist may get to solo, but someone cannot be called a lead
guitarist simply because he/she plays a solo in a song. A lead part
contributes entirely to melody (as lead guitar means melody guitar),
instead of to the foundation, which is carried by the rhythm guitar.
This means the rhythm guitarist is the driving source. Lead guitar uses
few or no chords, although sometimes it can be following a chord
structure, while rhythm guitar uses the chords to drive the music.

It is important to realize that lead guitar and rhythm guitar fit into
two different parts of a band, but it just happens that they are played
on the same instrument. Lead guitar provides a solo voice, and is
grouped with the lead vocals, lead piano, etc. Rhythm guitar is part of
the underlying rhythm section, along with instruments like bass, drums,
sometimes piano, background vocals, etc. Generally speaking, the rhythm
provides the groove of the song, while lead provides the melody.

However, these distinctions get fuzzy, especially when the so-called
lead guitarists play chords and double-stops in their riffs. In some
cases, a single guitar part provides both the melody and accompaniment
(especially power chord
riffs, commonly found
in rock and metal, and finger
picking, found in folk
guitar).

Some bands (often three piece bands) feature a single guitarist who can
act as either, by either assuming one role at a time or, in a recording
studio, recording a lead track over their own rhythm track. For example,
the band Dire Straits has been in both situations: in the early days,
David Knopfler played rhythm while Mark Knopfler played lead. When David
left, Mark usually played both parts on studio albums, and hired another
guitarist to play rhythm for live shows. Some guitarists reached such
technical proficiency that they were able to play both parts
\"simultaneously\". A famous example of this technique is Dimebag
Darrell, particularly on songs such like Walk or Breathing New Life
(using an harmonizing effect pedal). The bass plays a big part like in
songs such as Seven Nation Army by The White Stripes (even though there
is no bass guitar in the song, it\'s an electric acoustic) to set the
speed and tone for the song and that the lead guitarist (otherwise known
as melody guitarist) in the chorus follows the bass and drums not, the
bass follow the chorus player.

## Playing Lead Guitar

Very often, a lead guitar part is played on an electric guitar, using
moderate to heavy distortion (also known as drive or gain). For this
reason, many amplifier manufacturers refer to their distortion channel
as a lead channel. Distortion provides a more powerful sustain than a
clean channel, and this is often best represented in extreme techniques
like shredding and tapping, which some guitarists feel can only properly
be done with distortion. Of course, lead guitar can be played on an
acoustic guitar, but some techniques may not be as pronounced as on an
electric.

The most common techniques for creating lead parts are bending,
vibrato and
slides. These provide the basic means of
emphasizing notes, and allow for greater expression in the melody. Often
the lead guitarists may employ arpeggios or sweep
picking to add depth,
and the progression of the solo often mirrors the underlying rhythm
guitar part.

## Playing Rhythm Guitar

Rhythm guitar is characterized mostly by playing chords in patterns.
Some players criticize rhythm guitar as sounding \"chordy\", or not
being as interesting as the lead part. Although rhythm guitar does not
\"express\" as much as the lead guitar, there is so much to be learned
about chords, chord
progressions and rhythm
patterns, and a player is limited only by
their imagination.

Rhythm guitar is just as easily played on electric or acoustic, clean or
distorted. The technique is less about expressing individual notes, and
more about choosing chords or chord voicings that enrich the overall
sound, which may add its own expressive tone to the music.


# Guitar/The Basics

The guitar is, and has always been, a social instrument. In all its
forms, it has always been a portable, multi-stringed instrument made for
public hearing. Even today, there\'s nothing better than hanging out
with some friends and being able to strum a few songs on the guitar. And
if you\'ve just bought your first guitar, then you\'re in luck: you can
play literally hundreds of popular songs by learning just a handful of
chords. But playing the guitar is more than just struggling through a
half-recognizable version of some song, it also requires good technique.
In this section, you will learn the basics of how to hold the guitar,
use a pick, and other important fundamental techniques.

Never forget that instruction books are not a replacement for playing
with other guitarists, or learning from a teacher, who are excellent
sources of information and inspiration.

Also, this section, as with most guitar manuals, is written with right
handed players in mind. Left-handed players may simply reverse the
instructions as appropriate.

## Holding The Guitar

The guitar can be played in many positions, but some positions are
clearly more efficient than others. The choice of position is personal,
but clear guidelines exist. Some basic considerations in determining a
chosen playing position include:

-   the physical stability of the instrument
-   ensuring the freedom of both hands such that they have thorough
    access to the instrument and can meet all technical demands without
    having to support the instrument
-   elimination of general muscular tension in the assumed body
    position. While it is natural for a beginner to experience fatigue
    in the muscles of his hands and arms, you must be careful to sit
    straight and not cause damage to your spine and waist. If you do
    experience pain in those regions it is possible that the position is
    harmful and must be changed to prevent damage.

Many beginners try and turn the guitar towards themselves, so they can
look down at the frets and soundhole. Curling the guitar towards
yourself in such a way actually makes it more difficult to fret the
strings efficiently, because you have to curl your wrist more. This
tension can be harmful. Beginners are also often inclined to put their
elbow too high or low, which leads to cramping. Ideally your arm and
shoulder should be relaxed.

It may take a beginner several weeks until holding the guitar feels
comfortable and natural. By using efficient hand positions and not
straining, the muscles in the arm and hands will get stronger. If you
ever feel pain you should immediately stop and ascertain the cause of
pain before continuing. Sometimes discomfort is due merely to fatigue
and a period of rest will be all that is required.

### Sitting

#### Classical Style

Sit up straight on a chair or stool, with your left foot on a footrest
approximately 10-20 cm in height. Place the waist of your guitar on your
left thigh. Rest your right forearm on the top front edge of the
guitar\'s lower bout so that it is comfortable and allows you to easily
strum the strings over the soundhole. The guitar headstock should
approximately be at head level, which corresponds to an inclination of
the guitar neck of about 45 degrees. Your left hand should be presented
to the guitar neck and fretboard such that the thumb is behind the neck
and all three segments of the fingers are forward of the edge of the
fingerboard. Shoulders should be level and relaxed, and it helps to be
leaning forward slightly. Most people should feel comfortable and able
to stay in this position with little effort. If you cannot, something
may not be right. As an alternative to using a footstool, you can use
some sort of guitar support between your left leg and guitar. This also
allows for good alignment of the spine and an efficient playing posture.

With your left hand, put your thumb so that it is behind the second
fret. This is the most comfortable area for playing open chords. Your
thumb should not extend over the edge of the fretboard and touch the E
string.

#### Electric Guitar

Many rock performers hold the electric guitar lower than the classical
position. The neck is held horizontally, rather than at a 45 degree
angle. This allows bends to be more easily achieved and also allow the
same hand angle to be maintained when moving up the neck through box
positions. playing in extremely high fret positions is also facilitated
by this angle as the left hand twist to accommodate playing in the
cutaway in a way that would be straining and more difficult in the
classical position.

#### Lapsteel or Hawaiian guitar

With these styles, the guitar is played horizontally, so the frets and
strings point upwards. Some skilled players can fret notes and play
chords by pressing down on the strings, but more often these guitars are
played with a slide.

### Standing

If you have a guitar strap, available from any guitar store for a few
dollars, then you can also learn to play standing. This is useful if you
plan on playing in a band. If you have a heavy guitar a broad guitar
strap is often more comfortable than a thin strap. To attach a strap,
there should be a hole in each end that you can put over two pins,
usually fitted on the endblock of the guitar and where the neck meets
the body. Many acoustic guitars only have one pin on the end block, and
straps must be attached under the strings above the nut on the
headstock. However, this sometimes makes it difficult for keep the
guitar at an optimum height and can cause shoulder strain. You can
usually install a second pin where the neck meets the body, but you
should be careful or you might damage (and devalue) your guitar.

With the strap attached to the guitar, sling it so that it hangs around
your neck on your left shoulder. You can usually adjust the height of
the guitar, but the exact method depends on each strap. The length of
the strap depends on your preferences, but you can use the same
guidelines in found in the previous section. Some professionals have
their guitar hanging down at their knees, and others keep it under their
shoulders. Neither of these extremes are recommended for a beginner.

## Using the Picking Hand

!Various guitar picks. From top going clockwise: A standard Jim Dunlop
nylon pick; An imitation tortoise-shell pick; A plastic pick with high
friction coating (black areas); A stainless steel pick; A pick
approximating a Reuleaux triangle; and
a Jim Dunlop Tortex \"shark\'s fin\"
pick; A stainless steel pick; A pick approximating a Reuleaux triangle; and a Jim Dunlop Tortex "shark's fin" pick"){width="265"}
*Please see the Picking and
Plucking section for more
information.*

Much of the \"feel\" of a guitar style comes from the way the strings
are hit. Since there are many different techniques, and often they defy
explanation, it is difficult to explain all but the most basic
techniques. How a player hits the strings is something they must
discover for themselves.

In order to advance with the guitar, it is very important to properly
use your picking, or impact hand. This should almost always be your
dominant hand, so if you are right handed, you would use your right hand
for your picking hand, and vice versa for left handed people. This hand
should always be loose, because if it is not, the strings can sound
clunky.

Your hand should \"float\" at a comfortable height above the sound hole,
and you should be keeping your wrist straight or slightly bent. You
should always be ready for movement in either direction, and your wrist
should not touch the strings as you are strumming (unless you are doing
some sort of muting technique).
You can use your fourth finger to brace against your guitar, but this is
considered bad in the long term; this is like a crutch, and you are
limiting the potential you can get from practicing with your whole arm.
For example, even though the brace will let you pick notes faster, it
sometimes limit your ability to play complex rhythms using chords. While
it might be good to practice using your fourth finger for a brace
sometimes, you will become a better guitar player if you don\'t brace
yourself like that.

It doesn\'t matter if you are using a pick or just your fingernails,
whenever your impact hand hits the strings, the type of hit can be
changed based on the tension of your upper finger joints. This is the
area to pay attention, because slight variations in pressure and speed
can make distinctly different sounds.

### Fingers

The fingers can be used in two main ways, through finger picking or
strumming through chords like using a pick. There are several styles of
finger picking, such as Travis picking, where you only use the thumb and
first finger, and other styles where you use three, four or all five
fingers.

### Using a Pick

Hold the pick in between your first finger and your thumb. Don\'t pinch
it, hold it firm but loose, with the pick flat in between the side of
your first finger and the bottom of your thumb. Your thumb should be in
line with the first segment of the first finger, with the pick firmly
(but not tightly) between. When you pick, your wrist should be loose,
and the main motion comes from your wrist for picking on one string, and
you should use the Elbow for crossing strings. Similarly, when you
strum, make sure to use your forearm and not your wrist for strength.
Your wrist should be loose enough, but controlled, and the power should
come from your forearm.

It is helpful to imagine the pick like a small bird between your thumb
and finger; you do not want it to fly away, and you do not want to crush
it.

## Using the Fretboard

The most important things to remember when playing are to keep your hand
loose, avoid unnecessary movements and finger spreading, and not to
smother the strings. Having good flexibility in your hand is one thing,
but trying to reach too far can be exhausting. Keep your fingers tight
together, but not cramped. In general, when playing acoustic instruments
you should always use the tips of your left hand fingers and not the
pads to press the strings. If you use the pads, you risk muffling the
sound coming from adjacent strings, which may be required to be heard.
The greater sustaining properties of electric guitars often requires
that such strings be damped so this rule does not always apply. Ideally
your left elbow should be extended from your body, and your left hand
should curl in towards your body. Your fingers should be like little
hammers hitting down on the strings, and this way you will use the tips
to push the strings down into the frets.

Regardless of where you are playing on the fretboard, you always have to
make sure that you\'re pressing down in the best spot to get the best
sound. You should always be fretting down the string slightly behind the
fret of the note you want to play. Press the string down firmly to the
fretboard, close to the metal fret. If the finger is too far away from
the fret, then the pressure is not sufficient to press the string down
completely on the frets, and the note will buzz. If you are pressing too
close to the fret you will sometimes accidentally play a note too high.
You\'ll have to practice to get the right amount of pressure to use and
the right distance at which to hold your arm. Be careful on how you hold
strings

### Chords

*Please see the Chords section for more
information*

A chord is defined as three or more different notes sounded at the same
time. Ability to play chords is a basic requirement of most guitar
music. There are many different types of chords, and each type has its
own sound. Other things about the guitar affect how a chord sounds.

Generally, playing chords involve pressing several (and sometimes all)
the strings down on the frets. Sometimes this can be very tough for
beginners until their muscles develop. Often a beginner will find that
when playing a chord, not all the strings are being pressed down
properly, and some strings sound dead. It is important to make sure that
all the strings ring out, which can be tested by picking up and down a
chord, and adjust your fingers when needed. It doesn\'t matter how fast
or loud you can play, if your chords are not fretted properly you will
sound terrible.

Some players use their thumbs to play the low E string. They do this by
turning their fretting hand slightly out and squeezing the thumb down on
the string. Players with long thumbs can play on the low E and A
strings. This technique compromises efficient left hand function as the
wrist and hand have to undertake significant re-adjustment in order
present the thumb to the string in such a manner and then to return the
hand to its standard presentation. Additionally the tips of the fingers
can no longer be presented vertically to the strings. The technique is
not recommended for beginners who wish to maximise their technical
abilities.

Your hand is in a different position depending on whether you are
playing an open chord or a barre
chord.

### Melody

When a player is first starting out, it is not their ability to make
melodies causing problems, it is a lack of skill in their hands. Many
people can whistle or hum a melody, but have difficulty translating that
to the fretboard. Learning the sound of different intervals between
notes takes time and patience.

The best way to learn how to carry a melody on the guitar is simply to
keep practicing. Unfortunately there is no secret to being a good
player, you simply have to practice and learn for yourself. This is good
though, because even if there was some secret, if everyone did the same
thing, then all the music would sound the same. For general advice about
learning about melody, see the Lead Guitar and Rhythm
Guitar page

## Coordinating Your Hands

Truly great guitar playing comes from the unison of the left and right
hand. Unless both hands are connecting with the strings at the proper
time, your playing will sound sloppy. So it is very important to start
out slow and work your way up to playing faster.

## What\'s Next?

Now that you have some basic control over the guitar, you\'re ready to
start playing. A good place to begin is by exploring some of the other
styles and techniques listed on the main page. The
most important thing to remember is that you become a good player by
practising properly, and accurately. It is always better to learn and
practice a piece slowly, and then increase your speed as your increase
your skill and comfort, rather than struggling through it a few times
and just considering it \"learned\".


# Guitar/Open Chords

Open chords are chords that include unfretted strings of the guitar.
Open chords contain one or more open strings. For example the Em chord
diagram on this page shows 4 open strings but the D major chord diagram
only has 1 open string. They are both classed as \"open chords\".

Open chords are the easiest chords to play on the guitar and many famous
songs can be played using just 3 or 4 open chords. Learning a handful of
open chords at the first position (first four frets) and memorizing
their shape is an important step towards mastering barre
chords.

When you strum any chord, all of the strings (open and fretted) should
ring out clearly. If any of the strings cannot be heard; check to make
sure that you are not stopping any string from sounding. If you are
accidentally muting any strings, arch your hand more and curl your
fingers to ensure that it is the tip of the finger pressing the string
and not the flat of the finger.

## Major Chords

Major chords are defined by the major triad. The major triad consists of
three notes which are spaced at specific intervals. In ascending order:
the root, major third and perfect fifth. These intervals are also found
between the first note of a major scale and the third note (major 3rd),
and the first note and the fifth note (fifth). When combined they have a
bright happy tone, and are often used in upbeat music.

There are 6 major chords commonly used in the open position; A, C, D, E,
F and G. The standard tuning of a guitar is designed so that chords can
be easily played. Beginners often find the G major and the F major shape
challenging to play but a small amount of extra practice overcomes any
initial difficulties.

### E Major

<File:E> major chord for guitar (open).png

Many early blues songs are written with E major as the root chord. The
chord contains the notes E, G#, and B, and can be played with three
fingers.

Fingering 1: (o231oo)

First, place your second finger on the second fret of the fifth string.
The string now plays a B note. Then, place your third finger on the
second fret of the fourth string. This note is an E, which is an octave
higher than the open sixth string. Finally, place your first finger on
the first fret of the third string. You can alternatively switch the
second and third fingers.

When you strum this chord, all of the strings should ring out clearly.
If any string sounds dull or muffled, check to see that you are not
accidentally touching strings, and that all the strings are pressed
firmly against their frets. It is important to build good technique
early, as bad habits tend to linger. Make sure that your fingers are
arched on your left hand, and that your thumb is positioned to give you
a strong grip.

### A Major

<File:A> major chord for guitar (open).png

There are several ways to play A major. You should learn how to play all
of them, then use the most suitable to each musical context. In an A
major, the notes are A, C# and E. When playing an A, it is considered
good form not to let the low E string ring out. While an E is one of the
notes in the A major chord, playing an E below the other notes puts this
A major in second inversion. This changes the tone
of the chord, and may not achieve the desired effect.

Fingering: (xo123o)

Put your first, second, and third finger on the second fret of the
fourth, third and second strings respectively. When you strum, ensure
that all strings sound clear, except for the sixth string which should
be muted. This is probably the most popular fingering, but is tough for
people with thick fingers. (xo213o) is a variation by switching the
first and second finger, with the second on the third string, first for
fourth string, third for fifth string.

Alternatively you can finger this chord (xo112o), this requires that the
first finger fret two strings (using the finger\'s pad rather than the
tip). This leaves two fingers free and is often favoured by classical
and flamenco performers, depending on musical context.

(xo234o) fingering allows for easy transition into higher position barre
chords,

(xo231o) fingering allows for easy transition from open E, makes a
transition from A to Amin a breeze (great if A is the IV chord), and is
more comfortable for some with chubby fingers.

Finally, (xo111o) by using one of your fingers, most commonly the first
or third finger, and barre the aforementioned frets. This one is tough
for beginners, but easier for players with large hands. For more
information on barring, see the section on barre
chords.

### D Major

<File:D> major chord for guitar (open).png

Fingering: (xxo132)

Use your first finger on the third string, third finger on the second
string, and your second finger on the first string. Be careful not to
play the sixth and fifth strings, since they are not required for this
chord. At first this may feel awkward, but it will be comfortable to
play. Watch that you keep your thumb low when you play this chord. To
play D minor, try the most common fingering (xxo231), with your first
finger on the first fret of the first string, third finger on the third
fret of the second string, and your second finger on the second fret of
the third string. You can also try to finger the D major chord as
(xxo243), which will help you to later use this as a barred, movable
chord shape.

### G Major

<File:G> major chord for guitar (open).png\|three finger method <File:G>
major chord for guitar open position (no doubled third).png\|four finger
method

There are two common ways to play a G major, a three finger method
(Frets: 320003) and a four finger method (Frets: 320033), both with a
slight difference in sonority. In either way, the notes are a
combination of G, B and D. From this point forward, the fingerings will
be shown in parentheses for the sake of simplicity.

Fingering 1: (32ooo4)

Put your third finger on the sixth string, second finger on the fifth
string, and fourth finger on the first string. This is a favorite among
beginners, and it allows for easy change to the open C major chord.
Alternatively you can finger it (21ooo3), which may be easier for
players with small hands or guitars with small necks and is recommended
when changing to or from a open D7 chord.

Fingering 2: (21oo34)

This uses all four fingers and makes for an easy G to D major chord
change. This has a more \"stable\" sound than the first fingering
because the note played on the open B string is a D therefore avoiding
the doubling of the *third*. Don\'t worry if that explanation isn\'t
clear; just remember the difference between the two chords (one has a
doubled *third*). The theory of chords and how they are constructed from
the intervals of a scale is a subject that requires some
*off-the-guitar* learning but with applied study can be easily
understood.

### C Major

<File:C> major chord for guitar (open).png

Fingering: (x32o1o)

This is the most common fingering. Alternatively, you can use (x42o1o).
(x32o14) or (x32o13) provide C chords with different voicings.

### F Major

<File:F> major chord for guitar (open).png

Fingering: (xx3211)

To play this, use the pad of your first finger, and press the first and
second strings down at the first fret. You need to press firmly, or the
strings will not ring out properly. Then take your second finger and put
it on the third string, and put your third finger on the fourth string.
The fifth and sixth strings should not be played with this chord.

## Minor Chords

Minor chords use the first, third and fifth of the minor scale. They
have a dark, melancholic tone and are most often used in darker music.

### E Minor

<File:E> minor chord for guitar (open).png <File:Em> open chord for
guitar (doubled third on high e).png

Fingering: (o23ooo)

Alternatively you can finger this chord (o22ooo). For variation you can
also add a G on the high E string, and play the cord using these frets:
(o22oo3).

### A Minor

<File:A> minor chord for guitar (open).png

Fingering 1: (xo221o)

You can also finger this like (xo342o).

### D Minor

<File:D> minor chord for guitar (open).png

Fingering 1: (xxo231)

Also often fingered using the fourth finger in the place of the third.
Make sure your first finger does not \"fold\". If you are doing it, you
will know what I mean because your first finger will hurt around the
joints. The proper technique should apply to this chord just as much as
any other. Keep your thumb back.

## Other kinds of chords

There are a variety of other chords that can be played in open position,
and often it involves taking a chord you are already familiar with and
adding or removing a finger. Experimentation can yield a lot of
interesting sounds, and you are only limited by your imagination when it
comes to using them.

### Dominant-type seventh chords

Dominant-type seventh chords are notated as A7, C7 etc. They add an
extra note to a major chord. The extra note is found at an interval of a
minor seventh above the root note of the chord. For example, a D chord
major would contain a D, an F#, and an A making the intervals 1,3,5. A
D7 adds a C to these notes resulting in 1,3,5,minor7. The minor seventh
interval can be easily found by an alternative method. Take any chord,
and lower one of the root notes downwards in pitch by two frets (a whole
step) to locate the minor 7th. The chord will usually sound more settled
if the root remains as the bass note of the chord, so a root note higher
than the bass is the better choice to alter. The chords already shown
above all allow you to do this. Below are some chord shapes you should
know. These are only the open sevenths, which are easier than others
covered in the barre chords section.

**D7**

<File:D7> chord for guitar (open).png

Notice how we moved the octave D from the D major chord (third fret
second string) down two frets, making it the minor 7th. That\'s pretty
much what we are going to do with all the other 7th chords. You can take
any chord and, by moving one of the root notes down two frets, find the
minor 7th.

**E7**

<File:E7> chord for guitar (open).png

Easy, and again, we moved the octave E down two frets.

**A7**

<File:A7> chord for guitar (7th on high E).png <File:A7> chord for
guitar (open).png

Same again.

**G7**

<File:G7> chord for guitar (open).png

A bit unfriendly. Remember, it is not much different from a C chord
shape, except you stretch more.

**B7**

<File:B7> chord for guitar (open).png

This one looks funny, but you will use it a lot in songs in the key of E
major, which is the natural key of the guitar.


# Guitar/Intervals and Power Chords

An interval is the
distance between two notes.

Each interval has a distinctive sound.

Intervals are named with reference to scales. For example, the interval
from the root of the major scale to the second note of the major scale
is called a \"major second\"; the interval from the root to the third
note of that scale is a \"major third\", and so on. A \"minor third\" is
the interval from the root to the third of a minor scale, and is a
semitone (one fret) less than a major third.

`Major scale played on a single string:`\
\
` nut                                                                    12th fret`\
`                  `\
`O||-----|--●--|-----|--●--|--●--|-----|--●--|-----|--●--|-----|--●--|--●--|----`\
`^          ^           ^     ^           ^           ^           ^     ^      `\
`root      2nd         3rd   4th         5th         6th         7th   octave`\
`                                                                      (8th)     `

`Natural minor scale played on a single string:`\
\
` nut                                                                    12th fret`\
`                  `\
`O||-----|--●--|--●--|-----|--●--|-----|--●--|--●--|-----|--●--|-----|--●--|----`\
`^          ^     ^           ^           ^     ^           ^           ^      `\
`root      2nd  minor         4th         5th  minor       minor      octave`\
`                3rd                            6th         7th        (8th)     `

`Major 2nd interval played on one string (say, the 6th string): `\
\
` ||-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|---`\
` ||-----|-----|-----|-----|--●--|-----|--●--|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|---`

`Same interval played on two strings (6th and 5th):`\
`  `\
` ||-----|--●--|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|---`\
` ||-----|-----|-----|-----|--●--|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|---`\

`Exception. If played on 2nd and 3rd strings, the shape of a major 2nd becomes this, because of the tuning irregularity:`\
\
` ||-----|-----|--●--|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|---`\
` ||-----|-----|-----|-----|--●--|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|---`\

`Major 3rd on two strings (but not 2nd to 3rd strings)`\
\
` ||-----|-----|-----|--●--|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|---`\
` ||-----|-----|-----|-----|--●--|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|---`\
` `

`Major 3rd on 2nd and 3rd strings:`\
\
` ||-----|-----|-----|-----|--●--|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|---`\
` ||-----|-----|-----|-----|--●--|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|---`\

If the two notes are played at the same time, an interval is called a
harmonic interval. If they are played one after the other, it is called
a melodic interval. (Only melodic intervals can be played on a single
string.)

## Power chords

**Power chords** are simple chords consisting of root, fifth, and
possibly octave. An advantage to understanding power chords is their
shape can be used to quickly determine the location of the perfect fifth
and the octave. This improves one\'s overall understanding of the
location of notes on the fingerboard by relation to one another and
builds the groundwork for understanding
scales. Power chords are a staple of heavy
distortion guitar styles, where the distortion creates harmonics that
give a rich sound despite the bare-bones simplicity of the chord.

Perfect fifths (e.g., C-G) and their inversion, perfect fourths (e.g.,
G-C), are the most consonant interval on the guitar (and in all of music
for that matter), not counting unison and octaves.

It is more difficult to play the octave for a root note on the D string,
because the B string is tuned differently than the other strings, and
you will need to stretch further to reach the octave. Power chords are
most commonly played on the thicker strings, and many songs exclusively
use perfect fifth power chords.

### Perfect Fifth above octave

The simplest perfect fifth power chord uses the same fingering as an E
minor chord, except only the thickest
three strings are played. Here is the fretting for the E5 power chord:

```{=html}
<div style="font-family:monospace, monospace;">
```
File: E5 power chord for guitar (open).png\|**E5 Power Chord**

```{=html}
</div>
```
When you play a power chord in the open position (or any power chord),
you have to be careful to mute
the other strings so they do not ring out. In this case, if you also
played the G string, you would be playing a full chord, not a power
chord. Use your extra fingers to lightly touch the other strings, use
your fretting fingers to smother the unnecessary strings, or just avoid
hitting the unnecessary strings with your impact hand.

Power chords, and really any chord types, are useful because they can be
moved anywhere on the neck, as long as the relationship between the
notes is the same. For example, in the E5, the thickest string plays an
E, the next string plays a B (which is the fifth note of *any* E scale),
and the next string plays another E, but an octave above it.

If you take the same chord pattern, and move it up the neck to make a
different power chord. For example, take the two fretted notes, then use
your first finger and fret the thick E string two frets behind the
others. For example, if you were fretting the E string at the third
fret, you would be playing a G5 which looks like this:

```{=html}
<div style="font-family:monospace, monospace;">
```
File: G5 power chord for guitar (3rd fret).png\|**G5 Power Chord**

```{=html}
</div>
```
There are several different fingerings you can use to play a power
chord, but it is best to choose one that lets you easily move the power
chord up and down the neck.

Here are three most common fingerings for a power chord, in this case, a
G5. In the second and third fingering, the two strings are barred at the
fifth fret. The numbers indicate the number of finger to use. Finger #1
is the index finger, #2 the middle finger, #3 the ring finger, and
finger #4 is the little finger.

```{=html}
<div style="font-family:monospace, monospace; whitspace:pre">
```
`   EADGBE        EADGBE        EADGBE`\
`   ---xxx        ---xxx        ---xxx`\
` 1 ......      1 ......      1 ......`\
` 2 ......      2 ......      2 ......`\
` 3 1.....      3 1.....      3 1.....`\
` 4 ......      4 ......      4 ......`\
` 5 .34...      5 .33...      5 .44...`

```{=html}
</div>
```
#### Alternate Fingerings

One common variation on the power chord involved omitting the second,
higher octave note. For example, a G5 without the second G would look
like this:

```{=html}
<div style="font-family:'Courier New'">
```
File: G5 power chord for guitar (omit octave).png\|**G5 Power Chord with
the octave omitted**

```{=html}
</div>
```
These are easier to play because you only need two fingers and the sound
is similar to the three string version.

Since a power chord is just playing multiple strings that produce only
two tones, it is possible to play all six strings and still be playing a
power chord. Some open tunings
set the guitar up so that when you strum it open, it plays a power
chord. Here is an example of a full G5 chord, where all strings are
either playing a G or a D.

```{=html}
<div style="font-family:monospace, monospace; whitspace:pre;">
```
`   EADGBE`\
`   --00--`\
` 1 ......`\
` 2 ......`\
` 3 2...11`\
` 4 ......`\
` 5 .4....`

```{=html}
</div>
```
This chord can be considered a non-traditional power chord, since in
popular music, power chords usually use only two or three strings. This
is also a hard fingering for the beginner, but it emphasizes an
important fact about double stops: as long as you keep adding octave or
unison notes, you will *always* be playing the same interval. Playing a
non-octave or unison note will instead produce a chord.

Adding unison notes may sound different even though they are supposed to
produce the same pitch. This may be because the strings have different
tension or thickness. In general, the guitar\'s thinner strings will
have a brighter, more ringing sound.

### Perfect Fourths

This type of power chord can be regarded as root plus perfect fifth in
the octave below.

Perfect fourths have a slightly more suspended sound than perfect fifth
chords. These are easy to play, because most of the strings on the
guitar are tuned in fourths. This means that playing any two of the
thickest four strings, when they are beside one another and played at
the same fret. For example, a D4 is played like this:

```{=html}
<div style="font-family:monospace, monospace;">
```
<File:D4> power chord for guitar.png\|**D4 Power Chord with the octave
omitted**

```{=html}
</div>
```
```{=html}
<div style="font-family:monospace, monospace; whitspace:pre;">
```
`   EADGBE`\
`   xx00xx`

```{=html}
</div>
```
These can easily be moved up the neck. For example, a G4 or a B4 would
be played like this:

```{=html}
<div style="font-family:monospace, monospace;">
```
<File:G4> power chord for guitar omit octave.png\|**G4 Power Chord with
the octave omitted** <File:B4> power chord for guitar omit
octave.png\|**B4 Power Chord with the octave omitted**

```{=html}
</div>
```
```{=html}
<div style="font-family:monospace, monospace; whitspace:pre;">
```
`   EADGBE     EADGBE`\
`  (33xxxx)   (x22xxx)`

```{=html}
</div>
```
Perfect fourths are the same as the upper two notes of the original
three-string power chord. It is rare to add a new top octave, but it may
done. The following Power chords show the G4 and B4 with the octave
added:

\<div style=\"font-family:monospace, monospace;\>

<File:G4> power chord with octave for guitar.png\|**G4 Power Chord with
the octave** <File:B4> power chord with octave for guitar.png\|**B4
Power Chord with the octave**

```{=html}
</div>
```
```{=html}
<div style="font-family:monospace, monospace; whitspace:pre;">
```
`   EADGBE     EADGBE`\
`  (335xxx)   (x224xx)`

```{=html}
</div>
```
## Other Double Stops

You can play a huge variety of different intervals by playing chords,
and just plucking two notes at the same time. Often you can add variety
to chord strumming by playing a quick fill by playing different sections
of a chord, and achieving different intervals.


# Guitar/Muting and Raking

## Muting

Muting a string is simple: with the fretting hand, touch the string with
a finger, but do not press it down, and strike the string. It is usually
best to do this where a harmonic will not
result, but strings can be muted at harmonics for special effect. In
tablature, muted notes are often marked with an \"x\" instead of a fret
number. It is also common practice to mute a string with the picking
hand after striking a note to create a shortened \"staccato\" effect.
Again touching a string to mute away from harmonic nodes is advised, but
sometimes pulling off into harmonics creates interesting effects.

## Palm muting

![](Palm_mute_by_punkettaro.gif "Palm_mute_by_punkettaro.gif") Palm
muting may or may not make the pitch of the string discernable. Very
lightly rest the palm of the hand on or near the bridge, then fret and
strike strings normally. Palm-muted notes are sometimes notated the same
way as muted notes when the pitch is not discernable; otherwise fret
numbers are given normally and the muted notes are marked \"P.M.\" in
tablature.

### The Palm Muting Technique

The idea is not to mute the strings, but to dampen them, so that the
notes are still clear, but with less sustain. To start, hold your guitar
like you normally would, but let your palm brush against the strings,
near the bridge. Remember to \"let\" the strings brush against your
palm, not putting any force on the strings. The closer to the bridge,
the more forgiving it is. As you get better, try adjusting the amount of
muting by keeping your palm at different distances from the bridge. Very
heavy palm muting can raise the pitch of the note(s), especially on
guitars with a floating tremolo bar system equipped. Using or not using
this effect is at the reader\'s discretion.

## Finger Muting

![](Stoppato_by_punkettaro.gif "Stoppato_by_punkettaro.gif") You can
also mute strings just by pressing your fingers against the strings, but
not so hard that they are fretted and play notes.

## Raking

Raking is not a kind of muting, but a technique for applying it. It is
vaguely related to sweep
picking, but instead of
an arpeggio, the result is usually a single percussive-sounding note.
(However, sweep picking is sometimes incorrectly notated as a rake in
tablature, and sloppy sweep picking may accidentally become a rake.)
Between two and four strings are struck, only one containing the desired
note and the rest muted. Rakes may be notated in various ways; the most
common way is to add muted grace notes, possibly adding the word
\"rake\" to the tablature for clarification.

de:Gitarre: Palm Mute
it:Chitarra/Palm mute e
Stoppato


# Guitar/Learning Songs

Now that you\'ve got a few chords under your belt, you\'re ready to
start learning some songs. Great! There are several ways to learn songs,
and some are more accessible than others.

## General Tips

There are two basic forms that appear in thousands of songs. They are
the twelve bar blues and the thirty-two bar ballad. Both forms are used
extensively in all genres. The blues and rock \'n \'roll genres both use
the twelve-bar blues form and many songs by Chuck Berry, Eddie Cochran
and Buddy Holly are twelve bar blues and therefore very easy to learn.
If you are trying to learn a jazz standard then you will find that many
of them are of the thirty-two bar form. Practicing and understanding
these two basic forms is essential for the guitarist who wishes to learn
songs.

Practice the song slowly (especially if it\'s a fast song) until you can
play it flawlessly. Then, when you are confident with the notes you are
supposed to play, increase the speed until you can play along with the
song.

Using a drum-machine or metronome when practicing is essential. An
alternative method for improving timing is to play along with your
favorite artists.

## Methods of Learning

### Sheet Music

The best way is to find sheet music for the song you are trying to
learn, like a tab book, available from any guitar shop. Tab books are
good, because they are almost always accurate, and they not only show
the notes you\'re supposed to play, but they give good sense of how to
play the notes. Generally they include both the rhythm and lead part,
even written on the same page if they are played at the same time.

Tab books are expensive and there\'s a learning curve associated with
fluent tab reading, especially if you have no prior knowledge of music
notation. Understanding music theory, even
just enough to properly (and easily) read a tab book is a challenge but
not insurmountable. Being able to read music, whether it\'s tab or
notation, will improve your playing.

### Online Tab

A much quicker, cheaper and often faster way to learn is to search for
an online tab of the song you\'re looking for. Simply type \"Artist Name
Song Name tab\" into your favorite search engine, and \"voila!\", you
have dozens to choose from. The online tab community is thriving, and
there are many popular sites where you can find tabs for most popular
songs. Some sites even feature a MIDI of the song, to make learning even
easier.

There are several downsides to online tab, some of which are outlined in
the Tablature section. The biggest
problem is lack of accuracy. Always remember that online tabs are not
made by professionals like tab books, and that somewhere down the line
someone was sitting at home with a CD and figured it out by trial and
error. Thus, the more complicated the song, the less likely the tab you
are reading is 100% accurate. But since most people don\'t play a song
*exactly* as it sounds on the album (even the recording artists!), this
isn\'t such a big deal.

Another down side is that there is a huge amount of stealing in the
community, and if you are looking for an obscure tab, you might only
find one actual tab, with copies of it on every site you visit. Some
sites allow for multiple versions, and some use voting or comments to
give you a sense of how accurate the tab is. However, don\'t let voting
alone determine which tab you read, because if the people who vote
don\'t know how to play the song either, then they might vote a terrible
tab really high. In general, you should read two or three tabs for a
song, and then from that determine how you intend to play the song.
Comments on a song can contain slight revisions or alternate fingerings
for chords, so it is good to check those out.

### By Ear

Songs can also be learned \"by ear\", with no sheet music. Essentially
you just listen to the song and try to figure it out, with nothing for
reference. Knowledge of music theory is particularly helpful for this
method. It probably sounds a lot harder to learn this way than it is,
but it is a really good way to practice whatever music knowledge you
have. And it is especially rewarding being able to figure out a famous
musicians piece and saying \"I could have made that up!\"

First, you should always try and figure out the key (or scale) the song
is in. Knowing the key essentially tells you two important things; what
the root notes are of the chords they are playing, and the scale that is
used for soloing. When you know the scale, you can also probably figure
out which scale degree is supposed to be major or minor.

To figure out the key, try playing random notes on the fretboard, and
when one \"works\", play a major or minor pentatonic scale beginning
with that note. Once you have figure out a few more notes, you will
probably have a good idea of what scale is being used. If that doesn\'t
work, try humming the chords being used, and then match those tones on
the guitar. Be careful you don\'t accidentally start humming the lead
vocals, because although that will help determine the key, the chords
are likely different.

Once you know what key the song is in, the rest generally follows pretty
quickly. Some of the tricky bits can be one-note riffs, arpeggios, of
specific voicing of the chords they are using.

If have no experience of keys and their relationship to writing songs,
then figuring out songs by ear is more difficult. Essentially you need
to just find the same notes or chords and write them down or remember
them. Generally this involves a lot of trial and error, but working this
way provides excellent ear training.

### Other Guitarists

This is perhaps the best way to learn. Playing with another guitarist
gives you the opportunity to ask questions about chords and rhythms, and
it gives you a chance to see and hear what the song is supposed to be
like when it\'s performed live. However, the down side is that often a
guitarist learns to play a song \"their way\", and they don\'t care
about how it\'s \"really\" supposed to be played. Thus, you might not be
learning the song exactly, but rather a slightly different version.

### Concert Videos

Another place to learn is by watching concert videos, especially on DVDs
where they allow you to pick camera angles. Often they will have a
camera never breaks away from lead guitarist. By following along, you
can learn exactly how a particular guitarist plays a particular song
live.

The downside of this is that not every artist (especially new ones) has
a concert DVD. Also, the guitarist may be playing the song differently
live than on the album, so depending on how accurate you intend to be
with your learning and playing, watching a video may not be the best
way.

## Chord Progressions

Songs are created using chords. Chords are derived from scales. The
chords that are derived from one diatonic
scale never change. If you learn the seven
chords in the key of C major, then when you find a song in that key, you
can quickly work out the chord progressions that make up the song.

_Chords in C major_

```{=html}
<div style="font-family:'Courier New'">
```
File: C major chord for guitar (open).png\|**C major** File: D minor
chord for guitar (open).png\|**D minor** File: E minor chord for guitar
(open).png\|**E minor** File: F major chord for guitar (open).png\|**F
major** File: G major chord for guitar (open).png\|**G major** File: A
minor chord for guitar (open).png\|**A minor** <File:B> half diminished
7th chord for guitar (root 1st position).png\|**B half diminished 7th**

```{=html}
</div>
```
Note that the chords in the key of C major consists of 3 major chords, 3
minor chords and 1 diminished chord. This holds true for all major keys.

### Chord Theory

Songs in the key of C major will start with a C major chord and end with
a C major chord. The tonic chord of C major is the chord that defines
the key ( the name tonic is derived from the word tonal). If you think
of music as a journey then the tonic chord is the starting point and the
return point. The notes in the scale of C major are named:

I is the Tonic

II is the Supertonic

III is the Mediant

IV is the Subdominant

V is the Dominant

VI is the Relative Minor

VII is the Leading Note

VIII is the Octave

Tonic - is the first note of the scale and it is this note that
determines the tonality or key, hence the name Tonic.

Supertonic -- the word "super" comes from the Latin verb "superare"
which means "to be above". The second note of any scale is always above
the tonic.

Mediant -- the mediant refers to the fact that this note lies halfway
between the tonic and the dominant.

Subdominant -- the word "sub" means \"to be below\". This note is below
the dominant.

Dominant -- this note has this name because with the tonic it sets the
tonality or key. The tonic and dominant notes, more than any of the
others, determines the tonality of a piece of music. The fifth note of
the scale is therefore a dominant factor.

Relative Minor -- so called because this is the tonic note of the
corresponding natural minor scale. Every major scale has a corresponding
natural minor scale that contains exactly the same notes. So the
relative minor of the C major scale is A natural minor. It is also
called the submediant because is lies three notes below the octave as
the mediant lies three notes above the tonic.

Leading-note -- whenever you play a scale and arrive at this note, you
will find that it naturally wants to move up to the octave note. People
have a psychological expectation of music. The most important need is
for the "musical journey" to have a start and end. If you were to play
the C major scale and stopped at the leading-note, you would always have
the sense that the scale is incomplete.

Octave -- the same note as the tonic but an octave higher in sound and
the end of the musical journey that a scale takes us on.

All the chords in C major take the same names given to the degrees of
the scale. You can refer to the dominant note or the dominant chord.

### Common Progressions

The tonic, subdominant and dominant are called the tonal chords. The
supertonic, mediant and relative minor are called the modal chords. The
tonal chords define tonality (key) and the modal chords suggest
modality. If you play only the modal chords Am and Em from the key of C
major the listener will eventually interpret the music to be in the key
of A minor (aeolian mode). It must be noted that Am and Em has to be
stated over a lengthy period of time. Analyzing chord progressions
starts with the tonal chords:

Step One: Try the progression I-V (Tonic to Dominant)

Step Two: Try the progression I-IV (Tonic to Subdominant)

Step Three: Try the progression I-VI or I-III (Tonic to Relative Minor)
or (Tonic to Mediant)

Step Four: Try the progression I-II (Tonic to Supertonic)

If you know the song starts with a C major chord and none of the above
works then the song may contain chromatic chords. It is common practice
to change the modal chords which are minor into their major
counterparts. So D minor becomes D major and E minor becomes E major.
The chromatic supertonic and the chromatic mediant are a common
compositional device. Even though you have added chromatic chords the
listener will still interpret the key as C major.

Try playing this progression: **C - E major - Am - G**

```{=html}
<div style="font-family:'Courier New'">
```
File: C major chord for guitar (open).png\|**C major** File: E major
chord for guitar (open).png\|**E major** File: A minor chord for guitar
(open).png\|**A minor** File: G major chord for guitar (open).png\|**G
major**

```{=html}
</div>
```
In the above chord progression you have played a chord that doesn\'t
belong to the key of C major. The tonality of the piece is preserved by
the following chords which are diatonic to the key.

### How To Continue Learning

-   Take formal lessons from a qualified teacher. Be sure to seek
    testimonials and references.
-   Watch others play. Notice what they have to pay attention to and
    what seems like magic.
-   Practice arbitrary scale runs. Go up and or down 3 or 4 notes and
    then move up the scale with the same interval.
-   Jam up with friends who are better than you as frequently as
    possible
-   Get some friends along who are at the same skill level and form a
    band of your own
-   Listen to your favorite music and try to envision what the guitarist
    is doing to make the notes come out as they do.
-   Listen to different music. It may open your mind to techniques and
    phrasing you never imagined using before. It may also expand your
    musical library. Pick any genre you\'re not familiar with. Get a
    feel for the timing and note choice. Into classical? Try bluegrass.
    Headbanger? Pick up some jazz or blues. Then move on to your hero\'s
    heroes. Find out what musical influences got Jimi Hendrix, B.B King
    or Eric Clapton primed for stardom.

A great way to continue learning if you can already play is to teach
guitar to other people.