# Knowing Knoppix/Alternatives to KDE

# Alternatives to KDE

Knoppix has six alternative *desktop managers*. These let you run the X
Window System on a computer that doesn\'t have enough RAM for KDE. They
also save loading time, because they load much more quickly.

## Ice Window Manager

A small and fast window manager in the Microsoft Windows style.

```{=html}
<div align="left">
```
!Ice Window Manager
screenshot.png "Ice Window Manager screenshot"){width="524"}

```{=html}
</div>
```
## Window Maker

A simple and elegant window manager with a very solid feel.

```{=html}
<div align="left">
```
!Window Maker Window Manager
screenshot.png "Window Maker Window Manager screenshot"){width="524"}

```{=html}
</div>
```
## Fluxbox

Similar in style to Window Maker.

```{=html}
<div align="left">
```
!Fluxbox Window Manager
screenshot.png "Fluxbox Window Manager screenshot"){width="524"}

```{=html}
</div>
```
## Xfce

Xfce stands for "The Cholesterol Free Desktop Environment".

```{=html}
<div align="left">
```
!Xfce Desktop Environment
screenshot.png "Xfce Desktop Environment screenshot"){width="524"}

```{=html}
</div>
```
## Lars Window Manager

An alternative window manager. In Lars Window Manager, almost everything
is done with the keyboard instead of the mouse. Lars Window Manager is
designed for programmers that spend most of their time working with
text.

```{=html}
<div align="left">
```
!Lars Window Manager
screenshot.png "Lars Window Manager screenshot"){width="524"}

```{=html}
</div>
```
## Tab Window Manager

!Tab Window Manager
screenshot.png "Tab Window Manager screenshot"){width="524"}

:   *See also: Guide to X11/Window
    Managers/twm*

TWM is designed to use as little RAM as possible. If you start Knoppix
on a computer without enough RAM to run KDE, it will run Tab Window
Manager instead.

In **Knoppix 5.0.1**, the twm menu is missing, but a command line
(console) window does start. With a capable computer (at least 256 Mb
RAM), the easiest shortcut to an app launcher is KDE\'s Kicker. Invoke
it like this:

`$ `**`kicker &`**

\^ The dollar sign `$` is the default sign of the command line; the
ampersand `&` serves to separate Kicker from the console to free it up
for other uses. The screenshot to the right shows the same method with
The GIMP.

TWM does not appear to be included in CD versions of Knoppix 6.0 or
later, as these have solely defaulted to LXDE. That won\'t run with any
efficiency in computers that have less than 256 Mb of RAM memory.

# Starting an alternative window manager

once knoppix has loaded you can go through the configuration options, to
switch between various window manager(except beryl).

Use one of these commands at the boot prompt.

`knoppix desktop=icewm          # IceWM`\
`knoppix desktop=wmaker         # Window Maker`\
`knoppix desktop=fluxbox        # Fluxbox`\
`knoppix desktop=xfce           # Xfce`\
`knoppix desktop=larswm         # Lars Window Manager`\
`knoppix desktop=twm            # Tab Window Manager`\
`knoppix desktop=beryl          # Beryl with kde`

For example, to start Window Maker in the UK locale:

`knoppix desktop=wmaker lang=uk `

## Accessing disks and partitions while outside KDE

You may have noticed there are no desktop disk icons when you are using
an alternative to KDE. Luckily, you can still use KDE\'s disk management
tools, even when you are outside KDE. For example:

1.  Start Knoppix into Window Maker.
2.  Click the "*XTerm*" icon, which is on the right hand side, second
    from the top. Enter this command:\
    `kdf`
3.  Wait while "*KDiskFree*" starts.
4.  Right-click the icon of the disk or partition you want. Click
    "Mount". Right-click the icon again, then "Open in file manager".\
    ![](Knowing_Knoppix_(Accessing_disks_and_partitions_while_outside_of_KDE_1).png "Knowing_Knoppix_(Accessing_disks_and_partitions_while_outside_of_KDE_1).png"){width="691"}
5.  The files on the disk or partition will be displayed.

**`Important:`**` KDiskFree mounts in `**`read-write`**` mode, not read-only.`

## Text mode

Text mode is the fastest way to start Knoppix. Text mode is meant for
those who are familiar with the UNIX command line interface. There are
many excellent books on the subject, such as "Sams Teach Yourself UNIX
in 24 Hours".

### Starting

To start Knoppix in text mode, enter this at the boot prompt.

`knoppix 2`

For example, to start with UK keyboard/language, with DMA for faster
hard disk access, and without PCMCIA because you\'re not working on a
laptop computer, enter:

`knoppix lang=uk dma nopcmcia 2`

### Leaving

Enter this command to exit Knoppix:

`halt`

### Localisation

Text mode is called "runlevel 2". When started in text mode, *Knoppix*
uses the "C" locale. The C locale is defined as the "default" locale for
applications, meaning that their strings are displayed as written in the
initial code, without passing through a translation lookup. Just plain
old ASCII. Literally, the "C" locale turns off localisation.

To enable localisation, specify the locale that you want to use with the
"lang=" option. For example, enter this at the boot prompt to load
Knoppix in text mode with the UK regional settings:

`knoppix 2 lang=uk`

### Adjusting the keyboard layout

To switch to a UK keyboard layout, type this and press Enter:

`loadkeys`` uk`

The keyboard map will be changed to UK layout.

### Accessing disks and partitions

Use the "mount" command. For example, to mount the first partition on
the primary master IDE hard drive:

`cd /mnt`\
`mount` "wikilink")` hda1`

The files on the device `/dev/hda1` will be mounted to `/mnt/hda1`. To
view the files on the partition:

`cd hda1`\
`ls`

The files will be displayed. To learn more about navigating and copying
files in text mode, refer to a UNIX manual or text book.

**`Important`**\
`Disks and partitions are mounted `**`read-write`**` by the mount command.`

### Identifying hardware

Use these commands to get hardware information:

  Command                       Shows
  ----------------------------- ------------------------------
  lspci   PCI devices
  lsusb   USB devices
  `cat /proc/cpuinfo`           Processor information
  `cat /proc/meminfo`           Random Access Memory details
  `cat /proc/scsi/scsi`         SCSI device information
  dmesg   Kernel messages

**`Tip`**\
`Press Shift + Page Up to see the lines that have scrolled off the top of the screen.`\
`Press Shift + Page Down to go back down again.`


# Social and Cultural Foundations of American Education/Development Process

**The WikiText Development Process in ECI301 at Old Dominion
University** Darden College of Education, Fall 2006/Spring 2007/Summer
2007/Fall 2007

This WikiText, The Social and Cultural Foundations of Education, is the
combined effort of a dedicated group of professional collaborators,
faculty, graduate, and undergraduate students. The course was planned
over the summer of 2006 by Dr. Patrick O'Shea, Adjunct Faculty Member,
who had the original idea for a WikiText, Dwight W. Allen, Eminent
Scholar of Educational Reform, Peter Baker, Coordinating Graduate
Assistant for ECI301 where the WikiText has been developed and used, and
Douglas Allen, Associate Professor of Human Resources Development at the
University of Denver.

In the fall they were joined by two other senior researchers, Kevin
DePew, Assistant Professor of English, and Danny Curry-Corcoran,
Director of Evaluation for the Newport News Public Schools.

The senior research team also offered an applied research course in the
fall semester, paralleling the development of the WikiText. The major
objective of this course was to plan a series of research initiatives to
study the outcomes of this unprecedented, innovative approach to the
introduction of students to the profession of teaching. Preparation of
the WikiText and the evaluation of learning associated with that text
comprised about one half of the total introductory course which also
includes traditional lectures, both online and in a face to face format.
The course materials and syllabus can be found at:
<http://www.odu.edu/educ/dwallen/classallen.htm>.

Though the idea of WikiTexts is new, others have developed texts with
the cooperation of students, often though not always graduate students.
(See, for example, the developing student-written text about
educational psychology, as well as the
online Wikibooks version called *Contemporary Educational
Psychology*). We
decided to take a very different approach taking advantage of the large
numbers of students enrolled (about 225) in this introductory class.
First of all students were asked to produce a relatively brief (1,000
words) and very narrowly focused article on one of about 75 topics
selected by the professional staff as representing a "typical" mix of
topics for comparable courses. With about 225 students in the class, we
created a "sign up page" in the WikiText which allowed as many as three
students to sign up for each topic. In most cases we had two or three
student-authored versions of each article.

It was not expected that they would "cover" the topic, but rather would
select two to five major concepts they felt would be of value to them as
teachers in training. Students were also required to write five multiple
choice questions, applying the concepts their article to real life
situations, and one essay question. In addition they were asked to find
a "sidebar" something that would make the article more interesting -- a
quote, a video clip, an illustration or cartoon, a chart or graph.

The "book" was written during the first four weeks of class, and the
balance of the semester was spent reading the text they had written.
Each student was assigned to read and rate only one version of each
article, about ten topics each week. Typically we received about 50
ratings of each article. The highest rated article by students was
selected as the "official text." The other articles, some of which were
also highly rated are shown as supplementary materials.


# Social and Cultural Foundations of American Education/Philosophy and Ethics

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:   What are the philosophies of
    education?
:   What is the purpose of
    schooling?
:   What is the philosophy of Wikipedia and
    Wikibooks?
:   What does it mean to be an ethical
    teacher?
:   What does equality mean in American
    education?
:   How should teachers teach
    ethics?


# Social and Cultural Foundations of American Education/Dynamic Learning Environment

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:   Why is engagement
    important?
:   How can we motivate
    students?
:   What roles do fun and joy play in the learning
    environment?
:   What is the role of
    edutainment?
:   What are various strategies that can be employed for meaningful
    learning?
:   How can we teach students to evaluate resources for
    learning?
:   How can teachers continue to educate
    themselves?
:   How can we promote learning from
    peers?


# Social and Cultural Foundations of American Education/History

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:   What are the markers of the 17th
    Century?
:   What are the markers of the 18th
    Century?
:   What are the markers of the 19th
    Century?
:   What are the markers of the 20th
    Century?
:   What are the markers of the 21st
    Century?


# Social and Cultural Foundations of American Education/Educational Change

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:   What is the Allen/Cosby theory of
    change?
:   How has the NCLB act formed visions of
    change?
:   What are the goals for educational
    change?
:   What are the desired outcomes of educational
    change?
:   What is the role of
    standards?
:   How can we train Americans to compete in a constantly changing
    world work
    force?
:   Why are all subjects are essential to be
    taught?
:   Why do we need health and physical education in our
    schools?
:   How should foreign languages be
    taught?
:   How can we improve early childhood education (3- and 4-year-olds)
    for
    all?
:   How can we find other ways to finance American
    schools?
:   How can we educate students for creativity, innovation, and
    entrepreneurship?


# Social and Cultural Foundations of American Education/Barriers

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:   How is obsolescence a
    barrier?
:   How is mobility a barrier?
:   How is equity a barrier?
:   How is accountability a
    barrier?
:   How can class size act as a
    barrier?


# Social and Cultural Foundations of American Education/Classroom Issues

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:   How do we discipline?
:   What are reward systems, and do they
    work?
:   Are teachers isolated?
:   How do student dynamics impact
    learning?
:   What is the role of
    motivation?
:   Can discipline be done
    positively?
:   How can resistance to working with others be
    overcome?


# Social and Cultural Foundations of American Education/Forgotten Half

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:   Who is the curriculum designed for, and
    why?
:   What are the
    alternatives?
:   What is the Hope Factor?
:   How do we combat learned
    helplessness?
:   How do differences in perception and reality affect
    learning?


# Social and Cultural Foundations of American Education/Staffing Practices

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:   Are teachers
    interchangeable?
:   What are the positives and negatives of class
    size?
:   Credentialism---how has this impacted
    education?
:   What are the roles of
    paraprofessionals?
:   How can we recruit, select, and train new
    teachers?
:   Should teachers be allowed to
    unionize?


# Social and Cultural Foundations of American Education/Administration

\_\_NOEDITSECTION\_\_ \_\_NOTOC\_\_

### `<font size=1 color=dimgray>`{=html}Presentation`</font>`{=html}

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:   What is the role of the
    principal?
:   How should personnel be
    evaluated?
:   What does it mean for leadership to be
    ethical?
:   What are the legal
    issues?
:   How are schools financed?


# Social and Cultural Foundations of American Education/Curriculum Development

\_\_NOEDITSECTION\_\_ \_\_NOTOC\_\_

### `<font size=1 color=dimgray>`{=html}Presentation`</font>`{=html}

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:   What is the standards
    movement?
:   Can schools integrate vocational and academic
    learning?
:   Why is special education an issue for all
    teachers?
:   How do we plan lessons, and why is it
    important?
:   How has technology impacted instructional
    design?
:   What constitutes an effective instructional
    method?
:   Is a national curriculum
    needed?
:   What factors influence curriculum
    design?
:   What is the importance of early intervention in reading
    performance?


# Social and Cultural Foundations of American Education/Technology

\_\_NOEDITSECTION\_\_ \_\_NOTOC\_\_

### `<font size=1 color=dimgray>`{=html}Presentation`</font>`{=html}

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Development{width=""
height="40"}

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:   What role does technology play?
:   How might technology revolutionize education in the
    future?
:   What are the pros and cons of technology in the
    classroom?
:   How should the Internet be integrated into the
    classroom?
:   Can teachers be replaced by
    computers?
:   Should students have the ability to use computers in the
    classroom?
:   Should students write their own
    textbooks?
:   What technology should a teacher use in the
    classroom?
:   How can PowerPoint presentations be used
    effectively?
:   What is the role of social media in
    instruction?


# Social and Cultural Foundations of American Education/Relationships

\_\_NOEDITSECTION\_\_ \_\_NOTOC\_\_

### `<font size=1 color=dimgray>`{=html}Presentation`</font>`{=html}

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:   Where is the school/community
    disconnect?
:   What are the mutual responsibilities of teachers, parents, and the
    community for effective
    schools?
:   Is there unity in
    diversity?
:   How can families and schools better
    communicate?


# Social and Cultural Foundations of American Education/Multiculturalism

\_\_NOEDITSECTION\_\_ \_\_NOTOC\_\_

### `<font size=1 color=dimgray>`{=html}Presentation`</font>`{=html}

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```

:   What is the global context for
    education?
:   How has our multicultural world changed the responsibilities of
    teachers?
:   How have gender issues changed our
    views?
:   How should we think about
    minorities?
:   Is being different
    bad?


# Social and Cultural Foundations of American Education/Knowing

\_\_NOEDITSECTION\_\_ \_\_NOTOC\_\_

### `<font size=1 color=dimgray>`{=html}Presentation`</font>`{=html}

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```

:   What do we know about brain
    research?
:   How do people learn?
:   What role does action research
    play?
:   Why is feedback important?
:   How can we be encouraging?
:   Why is applied and abstract reasoning so important to the learning
    process?


# Social and Cultural Foundations of American Education/Assessment

\_\_NOEDITSECTION\_\_ \_\_NOTOC\_\_

### `<font size=1 color=dimgray>`{=html}Presentation`</font>`{=html}

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:   What roles do assessment of performance and performance appraisal
    play in schools and
    administrations?
:   How can we develop new testing systems emphasizing such areas as
    creativity and knowing how to work with ideas and abstractions, and
    functioning on teams?
:   How can we create and monitor high performance
    schools?
:   What is the role of Advanced Placement and the International
    Baccalaureate in creating national
    standards?


# Social and Cultural Foundations of American Education/Acknowledgment

\_\_NOEDITSECTION\_\_ \_\_NOTOC\_\_

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```

:   How can we encourage students and teachers to consider multiple
    perspectives?
:   What are the different concepts of
    intelligence?
:   What is lifelong
    learning?
:   What is
    service-learning?


# Social and Cultural Foundations of American Education/Accountability

\_\_NOEDITSECTION\_\_ \_\_NOTOC\_\_

### `<font size=1 color=dimgray>`{=html}Presentation`</font>`{=html}

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:   How should teachers be held
    accountable?
:   How should parents be held
    accountable?
:   How should students be held
    accountable?
:   How can we meet NCLB quality
    standards?
:   How should society respond to under-performing
    schools?
:   How should society reward outstanding schools and
    teachers?
:   How can teachers be flexible in an era of
    accountability?
:   What makes NCLB an enemy of quality
    education?
:   What makes NCLB the savior of quality
    education?


# Social and Cultural Foundations of American Education/Choice

\_\_NOEDITSECTION\_\_ \_\_NOTOC\_\_

### `<font size=1 color=dimgray>`{=html}Presentation`</font>`{=html}

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:   What is the case for home
    schooling?
:   What is the case against home
    schooling?
:   What is the case against
    vouchers?
:   What role do charter schools play in
    education?


# Social and Cultural Foundations of American Education/Feedback

\_\_NOEDITSECTION\_\_ \_\_NOTOC\_\_

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:   How can we construct effective measurements, including
    exams?
:   What are the principles of effective
    assessment?
:   What are feedback skills?
:   How should group work be
    assessed?
:   What role should peer evaluation play in grading and course
    work?
:   When should qualitative or quantitative assessments be
    used?


# Social and Cultural Foundations of American Education/Special Needs

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:   How can we best teach children with
    disabilities?
:   How can we best teach children with
    autism?
:   How can we learn to understand children with
    ADD?
:   How can we best accommodate children with hearing
    impairments?


# Social and Cultural Foundations of American Education/Hot Topics

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:   What is the ideal amount of homework to
    assign?
:   What are the effects of the home environment on
    learning?
:   Should school be held
    year-round?
:   Should school districts implement school uniform
    policies?
:   What can be done about the issue of
    bullying?
:   What effects do inequities in school funding have on teaching and
    learning?
:   What teaching styles can educators
    employ?


# Zine Making/Writing the pages

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To some extent the way you write your pages depends on what you\'re
doing. If it\'s a zine of your hand-drawn cartoons then your best option
is to hand-draw some cartoons. If it\'s an art zine then the appearance
is going to be defined by what you\'re trying to achieve artistically.
And so on. But here are some things to bear in mind:

## General considerations

-   For most copying purposes, **colour is much more expensive than
    black-and-white** (for photocopying, printing, etc). That\'s why
    most zines are in black and white. There are lots of things you can
    do to add a bit of colour, such as using coloured paper/card for the
    cover, or including one or two full-colour sheets in your zine
    (rather than the whole lot; it depends on your production method
    whether you can do this), or adding some colour after the zines have
    been produced.
-   If you\'re going to use a photocopier or a computer printer to print
    the pages, you\'ll probably find they don\'t print all the way to
    the **edges** of the paper, so you should probably experiment a
    little bit and make sure you don\'t go all the way to the edge on
    your \"master copy\".
-   Especially if photocopying, you\'ll probably find that **subtleties
    of lightness and darkness** won\'t come out very well. Stark
    black-and-white will photocopy most clearly.
-   If you have access to a scanner, try scanning the master copy to a
    computer instead of photocopying. Benefits include the ability to
    see exactly how the printouts will look, and the ability to make
    adjustments, without having to use paper and ink.

## Materials

### Pen/pencil etc

![](Pencil.jpg "Pencil.jpg") Hand-written / hand-drawn things can be
brilliant.

-   Remember the point above about being able to copy it - if you
    photocopy something done with **pencil** on paper, often it comes
    out really **faint**. **Biro (disposable ballpoint pen) can come out
    faint too.** You can fiddle with the photocopier\'s brightness
    settings to make it clearer, or if you can scan it into a computer
    you can make it come out much clearer and have a lot more control
    over it. Alternatively, just trace over the pencil lines with a dark
    pen. You might not like the way the lines can look doubled-up, but
    often the photocopier pretty much loses the pencil lines altogether
    and the end result looks pretty good.

### Typewriters

![](Smith_Premier_Typewriter.jpg "Smith_Premier_Typewriter.jpg")
Typewriters are great and can make good-looking text that\'s not as
boring as printed-out text from a computer, yet more legible than
handwriting\... but typewriters are becoming rarer and rarer these days
so for many people they might not be available. However you can get a
typewriter on eBay for pretty cheap, also check garage sales and thrift
stores or even ask friends or relatives who have updated to computers.

### Computers

![](Toughbook-cf-m34_4.jpg "Toughbook-cf-m34_4.jpg") OK, so computers
are capable of quite a lot, and we can\'t possibly cover all of it here.
You can type/draw things directly using your computer, you can add
photos from your camera/phone/etc, you can scan drawings/writings/etc
in.

-   If your zine is really quite text-based then a full
    **word-processor** like Apple iWork Pages, LibreOffice
    Writer, Google
    Docs, Microsoft
    Word or
    AbiWord can be fine.
    -   If you want to make your zine look pretty and have things laid
        out interestingly then a word-processor gets a bit limiting and
        it\'s difficult to stop things looking a bit samey, so you might
        find it better to just use a graphics program. Alternatively you
        can write your text, then print it out and then use
        cut-and-paste or whatever to organise/decorate the text more
        interestingly.
    -   In most word processors you can use the **columns** feature to
        help arrange things. For example, use the page setup to set the
        pages as landscape, then use the \"columns\" options to specify
        that there should be two columns on each page. Hey presto, you
        now have a layout that can easily be typed and then folded to
        make the standard *codex* (book-like) folded zine.
-   If you\'re going to be scanning and printing a lot, then a good
    **graphics program** is helpful. (The \"paint\" software that comes
    with your computer can be a bit frustrating!) Commercial programs
    like Photoshop and Paintshop Pro are well-known and they\'re very
    good. If you can\'t afford those, or even if you can, you should
    definitely check out the free and open-source equivalent, which is a
    piece of software called GIMP (GNU Image Manipulation
    Program). Despite the weird name, it\'s a
    full-featured and very good piece of software, and you\'re very
    likely to be able to do everything you want to do with it.
    Inkscape is also good, especially for vector
    graphics.
-   For **desktop publishing software**
    Scribus is free too.
-   LaTeX, a piece of Free software
    used for professional type setting, particularly in the maths and
    sciences, is another possibility.

### Cut and paste

A lot of zine-making involves cutting and pasting, to compile your
images and/or words. People also use it to incorporate things from other
sources.

We\'re not going to consider anything about the legal/moral/political
dimensions of making cut-and-paste works out of other people\'s stuff
here. It can look brilliant; but at the same time if you\'re just taking
someone else\'s work and dropping it into your own zine then you
haven\'t really done anything.

Practically, remember the thing about contrast if you\'re going to be
making copies. Also remember that if you\'re cutting-and-pasting from
**glossy** paper (such as magazines) then it can sometimes photocopy
really badly because the gloss on the paper just shines when it gets in
the photocopier, and you end up with a bright white thing instead of
your desired image (at least partially).

If you\'ve cut and pasted your stuff all together then it can be very
helpful to **photocopy** it to get a kind of \"master copy\" that
doesn\'t have bits everywhere.

### Photos

Photos rarely photocopy nicely. Choose ones with lots of contrasts, not
too much detail (e.g. a face rather than a crowd of people) and that
aren\'t too dark. If you can, you can probably improve results by
scanning a photo, adjusting it (fiddle with the brightness, **increase
the contrast**), and printing it back out again.

### Sewing

I\'ve seen some really good zines that make use of sewing, cross-stitch,
and crafty things like that. If you\'re going to be photocopying or
something like that, then you can still do crafty things like this, as
they can often come out quite well when copied (you\'ll need to have
good colour contrasts though). If you\'re going to hand-make the crafty
bits on each copy then of course you have more freedom and can make
perhaps more exciting items, but of course you need dedication\...


# Zine Making/Putting pages together

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## Page Layout on software

In Microsoft Word, go to Page Layout, Page Setup, Pages, Multiple Pages
and choose \'Book fold\' then print (save to PDF won\'t combine multiple
pages to one sheet or in book fold order). For distribution online but
for others to download and print themselves, save (or print to PDF) from
your word processor, then open in Adobe Reader then print \'booklet\'
settings to PDF printer.

-   Scribus1
-   LibreOffice Write, Return to Print dialog, and click the Page Layout
    tab page. Select
    Brochure.2

## Different ways to fold a sheet of paper

These are just suggestions of course but they cover some of the main
ways people fold sheets into ziney shapes. We\'ll start off by showing
how to fold a single sheet to make multiple pages, but most people need
more pages than that so they use multiple sheets of paper\...

### Folio (folding in half)

![](Zinemaking-folding-folio1.png "Zinemaking-folding-folio1.png")
![](Zinemaking-folding-folio4.png "Zinemaking-folding-folio4.png") This
is easy to do, and if you\'re using a word-processor it\'s quite
straightforward to get the software to do two columns and print out very
appropriately. The page numbering in the diagram to the left is for a
one-sheet zine. You\'ll probably want more than four sides to write on
so you\'ll probably need to attach multiple sheets together.

Note that the order of pages is not what your word-processor or your
brain is likely to expect, especially if you haven\'t done this before.
It can get even more confusing when you put multiple pages together. The
example to the right shows how to fold 4 separate sheets folio-style, to
produce a 16-page zine: {{-}}

### Quarto (folding in quarter)

![](Zinemaking-folding-quarto.png "Zinemaking-folding-quarto.png")

Note that some of the pages are upside-down relative to each other, so
you probably can\'t do this very straightforwardly on a word-processor.
But you like cut-and-pasting, yes?

If you want this to become a booklet-style paged thing (a \"codex\")
you\'ll need to make a couple of cuts after you\'ve attached the pages
together. {{-}}

### Folding into six

![](Zinemaking-folding-sixo.png "Zinemaking-folding-sixo.png")

One nice thing about folding into six is that with standard paper sizes
like A4, you get a roughly square zine at the end of it, which is quite
nice.

First fold the sheet into a Z-like shape (i.e. fold it 1/3 and 2/3 of
the way along, in a zigzag). Then fold it once the other way. This gives
12 approximately square sides.

![](Howtofold.png "Howtofold.png")

## Cutting the pages

If you\'re making a big batch of zines then you\'re probably going to be
doing a lot of cutting, either to separate the pages or to trim things
or whatever. It can get a bit tedious and slow to do it all with
scissors, but if you go to a largeish stationer\'s you can buy a cheap
**guillotine** which will make things easier.

## Different ways to compile multiple sheets into a zine

### Not attaching pages together

I\'ve seen a lot of multi-page zines where the pages are not attached to
each other, and generally that can work OK. It\'s certainly easier, but
of course the zine is in danger of falling apart. It\'s up to you, of
course.

### Stapling

![](Stapler-swingline-red.jpg "Stapler-swingline-red.jpg")

Stapling it yourself is easy to do and nice and cheap. You might find
that a normal stapler only-just-doesn\'t-quite-reach to the middle of
your page\... argh!

If you go to a largeish stationery shop you can easily find a **long-arm
stapler** which can make life a lot easier. A library or university
nearby might also have one you can use if you ask (try bringing your own
staples). Or if you don\'t have the money you can use a normal stapler
folded out flat to push the staples though the paper into a soft
surface, like carpet or dense foam. Once you have done that you can then
fold the staple down with something flat like a ruler or blunt knife - a
sharp knife can mark or cut the pages by accident, or you!

![](SaddleStapler.jpg "SaddleStapler.jpg"){width="300"}

If you\'re doing really big fat zines (more than about 20 pages to
attach together, at a guess) then sometimes you can knacker (create
technical problems) the stapler by trying to do too much. You can buy
heavy-duty staplers if you want to do lots of really big fat zines.

One nice thing about some fancy photocopiers is that they can do
**automatic stapling**, so if you have access to one of those then this
can be a nice easy option. You might have to pay more for this of
course.

### Stitching/binding

You can make holes (often 3 or 5 holes is good) down the spine of the
page and use ordinary needle and thread to bind the pages together. For
example, if you make three holes, you would create a kind of tight
figure-of-eight loop through the holes. This can bind things very
nicely.

This is the basis of making a nicely-bound **book**, so it\'s useful to
know how to do this if you want to self-publish your epic novel.
There\'s at least one reference on DIY book-binding in the other
resources section of this book.

### String

You can use a hole-punch to make one, or two, holes through the pages,
and then tie a loop of string through to connect the pages. Don\'t make
the loop too tight or no-one will be able to turn the pages properly.

## Single-page options

If you\'re printing onto a single page you can use clever folding and/or
cutting to make a nice zine layout without needing to bind things.

### Almost-cutting-through

If you take a piece of paper and fold it in half, then fold it in half
again, you have 8 sides. You\'d need to make a cut (along the line of
the first fold) to make them into a booklet-like codex, but this gives
you two separate pieces. One nice trick you can manage is to not make
the cut all the way through - leave a small amount of un-cut paper in
the middle, and this lets people turn the pages without completely
separating the pieces.

### No cutting, just folding

This doesn\'t give a booklet-like result (more of a thing to be folded
out) unless you do some cutting. But it\'s easy to do and who knows,
maybe it suits your purposes.

### An 8-sided zine from 1 sheet with 1 cut

I\'ve seen quite a few zines made using this trick. It\'s a really neat
way of making a proper little zine out of one sheet - all 8 sides are on
one side of your piece of paper, which is convenient for photocopying
etc, although you can also put stuff on the reverse side for people to
see when they unfold your zine. Here are the steps:

  --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- --------------------------------------------------------------------------
  Design your zine all on one sheet, with the pages in this order (and the same way up as the numbers shown):                                                                                ![](Zinemaking-folding-8cut-plan.png "Zinemaking-folding-8cut-plan.png")
  Then crease the sheet along the two main directions (by folding it in half then opening it, once for each direction):                                                                         ![](Zinemaking-folding-8cut-1.png "Zinemaking-folding-8cut-1.png")
  Now make another pair of creases, with the effect of dividing the long direction into quarters:                                                                                ![](Zinemaking-folding-8cut-2.png "Zinemaking-folding-8cut-2.png")
  Then unfold again, fold in half, and make a cut with scissors as shown - you should be cutting through two thicknesses of paper, but only as far as those quarter-folds you just made:        ![](Zinemaking-folding-8cut-3.png "Zinemaking-folding-8cut-3.png")
  Open it out again. The resulting page should have a cut in its centre, a bit like this:                                                                                ![](Zinemaking-folding-8cut-4.png "Zinemaking-folding-8cut-4.png")
  Fold it in half along the long direction, such that all your pages are still on the outside:                                                                                ![](Zinemaking-folding-8cut-5.png "Zinemaking-folding-8cut-5.png")
  Now push it inwards from each end, so that the inner bit pushes out in both directions to make a kind of cross-shape. Fold the resulting pages together so that your front page is outmost:   ![](Zinemaking-folding-8cut-6.png "Zinemaking-folding-8cut-6.png")
  And there you have it, a little zine of 8 pages that needs no stapling or gluing:                                                                                ![](Zinemaking-folding-8cut-7.png "Zinemaking-folding-8cut-7.png")
  --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- --------------------------------------------------------------------------


# Zine Making/Making copies

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## Hand-making

Hand-making is a good option if you\'re making very few indeed, or if
it\'s based on crafty stuff, or a series of one-off things. Otherwise,
remember that you\'ve got every right to combine hand-making techniques
with other techniques, such as photocopying the whole zine then sewing a
front cover (or whatever).

## Photocopiers

![](Canon_ir2270.jpg "Canon_ir2270.jpg") Photocopiers are a big thing in
zine-making, whether it\'s subtle use of the photocopier at work (or so
I\'ve heard) or the photocopier in the library. Some photocopiers will
even do your stapling for you, which is very kind.

Many photocopiers do not copy all the way to the edge of the page, and
some have quirks about the way they photocopy different shades/colours,
so it\'s a good idea to try a print-run out once or twice and see if you
can get it looking good, before you dial in \"500\" and press Go. It\'s
a good idea to get used to a specific photocopier\'s quirks and then
stick with that one, to avoid giving yourself a new set of headaches.

## Computer printers

If you have a computer and a printer at home then it can be easy to
print things out yourself, especially if you\'re not doing many. But
after a while it gets:

1.  **Expensive.** Printer ink is really quite expensive, and
    (especially if you have any pages with large amounts of black on
    them) you\'ll be using up printer ink faster than you can possibly
    imagine\...
2.  **Frustrating.** This is particularly true if you\'re doing
    double-sided things but your printer doesn\'t do double-sided,
    because you need to do a lot of sitting there feeding printed sheets
    back into the printer in the correct order/orientation/etc, and it
    can go wrong quite a lot too. It can also go a bit wrong because the
    printed sheets might be a bit damp or crinkly, so the printer goes a
    bit wrong in feeding the paper back in. Then there\'s also the stuff
    about getting it all to print out so all the folds line up nicely.

Anyway. If you are using your own printer then here are some tips:

-   Remember to make sure it\'ll fit on the page. Most printers don\'t
    print right to the edge of the paper, which means that either the
    edges of what you\'ve designed will be chopped off, or it\'ll be
    printed out slightly smaller than maybe you expected. You might find
    you need to leave an empty border around your work so that nothing
    gets chopped off.
-   Do a bit of experimenting then **make a template**. Draw some lines
    (or try and set appropriate borders) in your software, print them
    out, fiddle about and repeat until you\'ve got it about right, and
    save that file. You can use this as a basis for your pages then
    delete/hide any guiding lines before you print the pages out. This
    webpage has a couple of examples of templates:
    <http://www.footprinters.co.uk/layout.htm>
-   A quick rule of thumb: if your zine doesn\'t fit in the page, resize
    it (in the print preferences or whatever) to about 97%.

## Getting them printed

!You can get your zine printed for you at businesses all over the
world

If you\'re strongly into DIY or anarchist things you might not want to
use a company to print the things for you, and that\'s fine. But if not:

If you\'re getting to the point where you\'re making a lot of copies
(more than a few dozen) then it\'s probably cheaper and easier to get
the zines printed on your behalf, and will get you more uniform results.
Of course there are various limitations with this: the printing
companies are not likely to be willing to print every fourth page using
tracing paper, for example. But you could easily get a printing company
to make the zines and then do some \"post-processing\" on the zines to
add your preferred cross-stitch/hole-punch/felt-tip customizations,
which is quite a nice way of combining interestingness with painless
production.

Printing companies typically vary **a lot** when it comes to pricing, so
make sure you ask around for different prices. They can also vary in
**helpfulness**, and this can be quite important. Does the company look
small and friendly? A small friendly company may be more inclined to
spend time talking to you and making sure they get it right. Double
points if the website gives the name, photo and direct phone number of
the person who gives quotes.

Check: are they happy to do small print runs? Check that \"small print
run\" means 50 rather than 50,000.

You don\'t particularly need to pick a nearby printers, because delivery
is often included or inexpensive.

### What info to tell the print shop

-   What the finished zine will look like (e.g. 12-page A6 booklet)
-   How many copies you want printed
-   What weight of paper you want (e.g. 80gsm is normal printer paper,
    120gsm is thick paper\... ask them for advice if you\'re not sure)
-   The color and shininess of the paper (e.g. white, glossy)
-   What colors of ink you need (e.g. black, black and red, or full
    colour)
-   If you want it delivered and how soon you need it done
-   How you\'ll provide the original copy - either electronically (PDF,
    Word, jpg, by CD, email, etc) or \'camera ready\' (on paper)


# Zine Making/Selling or giving copies to people

\_\_NOEDITSECTION\_\_ \_\_NOTOC\_\_

### `<span style="font-size:x-small; color:dimgray;">`{=html}Presentation`</span>`{=html}

```{=html}
<table height=1 border=1 style="border-collapse:collapse; border-color:LightSkyBlue; background-color:AliceBlue;" width="100%">
```
```{=html}
<tr>
```
```{=html}
<td align=left>
```
```{=html}
<table width="100%" align=left>
```
```{=html}
<tr>
```
```{=html}
<td>
```
!Making copies{width="" height="40"}

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td>
```
![](Gohome.png "Gohome.png"){width="" height="40"}

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td nowrap>
```
`<span style="font-size:xx-large; color:teal;">`{=html}`</span>`{=html}

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td>
```
!Other resources{width=""
height="40"}

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td>
```
!List of Topics{width=""
height="40"}

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td width="99%">
```

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
<td>
```
```{=html}
<td>
```
!Other resources{width=""
height="40"}

```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
</tr>
```
```{=html}
</table>
```
```{=html}
</td>
```
```{=html}
</tr>
```
```{=html}
</table>
```

Most people who make zines aren\'t doing it as a profit-making
enterprise, and if you are hoping to make a living from your zine then
you\'re probably wrong. Most people who sell their zines put them at a
price which kind of approximately covers the costs of
making/distributing them, so that the zine-making process doesn\'t
bankrupt them. A lot of smaller zines (e.g. ones made from a single page
of A4) are given away. It\'s much less hassle not having to collect
money etc. And a lot of zines are swapped for other zines rather than
bought. It\'s up to you what you do, but don\'t expect to see some kind
of profit margin on your zine; that\'s usually not how it works.

## Record shops / book shops

![](Elliott_Bay_Books_-_author_reading_01A.jpg "Elliott_Bay_Books_-_author_reading_01A.jpg")

Lots of independent record shops / book shops are happy to carry zines.
Some of them have stands for them and have a sale-or-return procedure in
place to let you sell them. But even if they don\'t, you can often ask
your friendly independent record/book-shop person if they wouldn\'t mind
having them on the counter or wherever.

Sale-or-return is the typical agreement that shops do: they\'ll collect
the money on your behalf, and you can come back in a month (or whatever)
and collect your money (hopefully) or your unsold zines. Some shops have
a time-limit, for example if you don\'t collect them within 6 months
they assume you\'ve forgotten about them and get rid of them. Some shops
take a cut of the profit, and some don\'t.

## Distros

People who like zines and who really enjoy photocopying often set
themselves up to distribute other people\'s zines - these are often
called \"distro\"s. There are some large and well-established distros
and millions of tiny one-person distros, but typically it\'s just a case
of if they like it, they\'ll be happy to carry it for you. If you find
distros which have stuff you like, or your stuff fits in with them, just
ask\...

Remember that it\'s typically all done for the love of it so it\'s not
quite the same as approaching some publishing company. You don\'t need
to be particularly formal, just send them a zine and/or have a
conversation with them.

## Zine fairs

People who like zines and who really enjoy herding
cats often set up a
\"zine fair\" or \"zine symposium\" or some such, in their area or for
their particular scene. Have a look around to see if there\'s anything
suitable.

## Carrying zines around

If you\'ve got a nice load of zines freshly made and you want to take
them to gigs, fairs, etc, you probably want to keep them looking nice,
so it\'s a good idea to find a sturdy box to carry them around in. If
you\'ve only got a few then anything will do, but if you get to the
point of having a lot to carry around then finding an old suitcase,
camera-case, or some such case with a handle or strap can be really
helpful.


# Acoustics/Fundamentals of Acoustics

![](Acoustics_Fundamentals_of_Acoustics.jpg "Acoustics_Fundamentals_of_Acoustics.jpg")

## Introduction

Sound is an oscillation of pressure transmitted through a gas, liquid,
or solid in the form of a traveling wave, and can
be generated by any localized pressure variation in a medium. An easy
way to understand how sound propagates is to consider that space can be
divided into thin layers. The vibration (the successive compression and
relaxation) of these layers, at a certain velocity, enables the sound to
propagate, hence producing a wave. The speed of sound depends on the
compressibility and density of the medium.

In this chapter, we will only consider the propagation of sound waves in
an area without any acoustic source, in a
homogeneous fluid.

## Equation of waves

Sound waves consist in the propagation of a scalar quantity, acoustic
over-pressure. The propagation of sound waves in a stationary medium
(e.g. still air or water) is governed by the following equation (see
wave equation):

```{=html}
<div class="center">
```
$\nabla ^2 p - \frac{1}{{c_0 ^2 }}\frac{{\partial ^2 p}}{{\partial t^2 }} = 0$

```{=html}
</div>
```
This equation is obtained using the conservation equations (mass,
momentum and energy) and the thermodynamic equations of state of an
ideal gas (or of an ideally compressible solid or liquid), supposing
that the pressure variations are small, and neglecting viscosity and
thermal conduction, which would give other terms, accounting for sound
attenuation.

In the propagation equation of sound waves, $c_0$ is the propagation
velocity of the sound wave (which has nothing to do with the vibration
velocity of the air layers). This propagation velocity has the following
expression:

```{=html}
<div class="center">
```
$c_0  = \frac{1}{{\sqrt {\rho _0 \chi _s } }}$

```{=html}
</div>
```
where $\rho _0$ is the density and $\chi _S$ is the compressibility
coefficient of the propagation medium.

## Helmholtz equation

Since the velocity field $\underline v$ for acoustic waves is
irrotational we can define an acoustic potential $\Phi$ by:

```{=html}
<div class="center">
```
$\underline v  = \text{grad }\Phi$

```{=html}
</div>
```
Using the propagation equation of the previous paragraph, it is easy to
obtain the new equation:

```{=html}
<div class="center">
```
$\nabla ^2 \Phi  - \frac{1}{{c_0 ^2 }}\frac{{\partial ^2 \Phi }}{{\partial t^2 }} = 0$

```{=html}
</div>
```
Applying the Fourier Transform, we get the widely used Helmholtz
equation:

```{=html}
<div class="center">
```
$\nabla ^2 \hat \Phi  + k^2 \hat \Phi  = 0$

```{=html}
</div>
```
where $k$ is the wave number associated with $\Phi$. Using this equation
is often the easiest way to solve acoustical problems.

## Acoustic intensity and decibel

The acoustic intensity represents the acoustic energy flux associated
with the wave propagation:

```{=html}
<div class="center">
```
$\underline i (t) = p\underline v$

```{=html}
</div>
```
We can then define the average intensity:

```{=html}
<div class="center">
```
$\underline I  =  \langle \underline i  \rangle$

```{=html}
</div>
```
However, acoustic intensity does not give a good idea of the sound
level, since the sensitivity of our ears is logarithmic. Therefore we
define decibels, either using acoustic over-pressure or acoustic average
intensity:

```{=html}
<div class="center">
```
$p^{\rm dB}  = 20\log \left(\frac{p}{{p_\mathrm{ref} }}\right)$ ;
$L_I  = 10\log \left(\frac{I}{{I_\mathrm{ref} }}\right)$

```{=html}
</div>
```
where $p_\mathrm{ref}  = 2*10^{ - 5}~{\rm Pa}$ for air, or
$p_\mathrm{ref}  = 10^{ - 6}~{\rm Pa}$ for any other media, and
$I_\mathrm{ref} = 10^{ - 12}~{\rm W/m}^2$.

## Solving the wave equation

### Plane waves

If we study the propagation of a sound wave, far from the acoustic
source, it can be considered as a plane 1D wave. If the direction of
propagation is along the x axis, the solution is:

```{=html}
<div class="center">
```
$\Phi (x,t) = f\left(t - \frac{x}{{c_0 }}\right) + g\left(t + \frac{x}{{c_0 }}\right)$

```{=html}
</div>
```
where f and g can be any function. f describes the wave motion toward
increasing x, whereas g describes the motion toward decreasing x.

The momentum equation provides a relation between $p$ and $\underline v$
which leads to the expression of the specific impedance, defined as
follows:

```{=html}
<div class="center">
```
$\frac{p}{v} = Z =  \pm \rho _0 c_0$

```{=html}
</div>
```
And still in the case of a plane wave, we get the following expression
for the acoustic intensity:

```{=html}
<div class="center">
```
$\underline i  =  \pm \frac{{p^2 }}{{\rho _0 c_0 }}\underline {e_x }$

```{=html}
</div>
```
### Spherical waves

More generally, the waves propagate in any direction and are spherical
waves. In these cases, the solution for the acoustic potential $\Phi$
is:

```{=html}
<div class="center">
```
$\Phi (r,t) = \frac{1}{r}f\left(t - \frac{r}{{c_0 }}\right) + \frac{1}{r}g\left(t + \frac{r}{{c_0 }}\right)$

```{=html}
</div>
```
The fact that the potential decreases linearly while the distance to the
source rises is just a consequence of the conservation of energy. For
spherical waves, we can also easily calculate the specific impedance as
well as the acoustic intensity.

## Boundary conditions

Concerning the boundary conditions which are used for solving the wave
equation, we can distinguish two situations. If the medium is not
absorptive, the boundary conditions are established using the usual
equations for mechanics. But in the situation of an absorptive material,
it is simpler to use the concept of acoustic impedance.

### Non-absorptive material

In that case, we get explicit boundary conditions either on stresses and
on velocities at the interface. These conditions depend on whether the
media are solids, inviscid or viscous fluids.

### Absorptive material

Here, we use the acoustic impedance as the boundary condition. This
impedance, which is often given by experimental measurements depends on
the material, the fluid and the frequency of the sound wave.


# Acoustics/Fundamentals of Room Acoustics

![](Acoustics_fundamentals_of_room_acoustics.JPG "Acoustics_fundamentals_of_room_acoustics.JPG")

## Introduction

Three theories are used to understand room acoustics :

1.  The modal theory
2.  The geometric theory
3.  The theory of Sabine

## The modal theory

This theory comes from the homogeneous Helmoltz equation
$\nabla ^2 \hat \Phi  + k^2 \hat \Phi  = 0$. Considering a simple
geometry of a parallelepiped (L1,L2,L3), the solution of this problem is
with separated variables :

```{=html}
<center>
```
$P(x,y,z)=X(x)Y(y)Z(z)$

```{=html}
</center>
```
Hence each function X, Y and Z has this form :

```{=html}
<center>
```
$X(x) = Ae^{ - ikx}  + Be^{ikx}$

```{=html}
</center>
```
With the boundary condition $\frac{{\partial P}}
{{\partial x}} = 0$, for $x=0$ and $x=L1$ (idem in the other
directions), the expression of pressure is :

```{=html}
<center>
```
$P\left( {x,y,z} \right) = C\cos \left( {\frac{{m\pi x}}
{{L1}}} \right)\cos \left( {\frac{{n\pi y}}
{{L2}}} \right)\cos \left( {\frac{{p\pi z}}
{{L3}}} \right)$

```{=html}
</center>
```
```{=html}
<center>
```
$k^2  = \left( {\frac{{m\pi }}{{L1}}} \right)^2  + \left( {\frac{{n\pi }}{{L2}}} \right)^2  + \left( {\frac{{p\pi }}{{L3}}} \right)^2$

```{=html}
</center>
```
where $m$,$n$,$p$ are whole numbers

It is a three-dimensional stationary wave. Acoustic modes appear with
their modal frequencies and their modal forms. With a non-homogeneous
problem, a problem with an acoustic source $Q$ in $r_0$, the final
pressure in $r$ is the sum of the contribution of all the modes
described above.

The modal density $\frac{{dN}}{{df}}$ is the number of modal frequencies
contained in a range of 1 Hz. It depends on the frequency $f$, the
volume of the room $V$ and the speed of sound $c_0$ :

```{=html}
<center>
```
$\frac{{dN}}{{df}} \simeq \frac{{4\pi V}}{{c_0^3 }}f^2$

```{=html}
</center>
```
The modal density depends on the square frequency, so it increase
rapidly with the frequency. At a certain level of frequency, the modes
are not distinguished and the modal theory is no longer relevant.

## The geometry theory

For rooms of high volume or with a complex geometry, the theory of
acoustical geometry is critical and can be applied. The waves are
modelised with rays carrying acoustical energy. This energy decrease
with the reflection of the rays on the walls of the room. The reason of
this phenomenon is the absorption of the walls.

The problem is this theory needs a very high power of calculation and
that is why the theory of Sabine is often chosen because it is easier.

## The theory of Sabine

### Description of the theory

This theory uses the hypothesis of the diffuse field, the acoustical
field is homogeneous and isotropic. In order to obtain this field, the
room has to be sufficiently reverberant and the frequencies have to be
high enough to avoid the effects of predominating modes.

The variation of the acoustical energy E in the room can be written as :

```{=html}
<center>
```
$\frac{{dE}}{{dt}} = W_s  - W_{abs}$

```{=html}
</center>
```
Where $W_s$ and $W_{abs}$ are respectively the power generated by the
acoustical source and the power absorbed by the walls.

The power absorbed is related to the voluminal energy in the room e :

```{=html}
<center>
```
$W_{abs}  = \frac{{ec_0 }}{4}a$

```{=html}
</center>
```
Where a is the equivalent absorption area defined by the sum of the
product of the absorption coefficient and the area of each material in
the room :

```{=html}
<center>
```
$a = \sum\limits_i {\alpha _i S_i }$

```{=html}
</center>
```
The final equation is : $V\frac{{de}}{{dt}} = W_s  - \frac{{ec_0 }}{4}a$

The level of stationary energy is :
$e_{sat}  = 4\frac{{W_{abs} }}{{ac_0 }}$

### Reverberation time

With this theory described, the reverberation time can be defined. It is
the time for the level of energy to decrease of 60 dB. It depends on the
volume of the room V and the equivalent absorption area a :

```{=html}
<center>
```
$T_{60}  = \frac{{0.16V}}{a}$ Sabine formula

```{=html}
</center>
```
This reverberation time is the fundamental parameter in room acoustics
and depends trough the equivalent absorption area and the absorption
coefficients on the frequency. It is used for several measurement :

-   Measurement of an absorption coefficient of a material
-   Measurement of the power of a source
-   Measurement of the transmission of a wall


# Acoustics/Fundamentals of Psychoacoustics

![](Acoustics_Psychoacoustics.jpg "Acoustics_Psychoacoustics.jpg")

Due to the famous principle enounced by Gustav Theodor Fechner, the
sensation of perception doesn't follow a linear law, but a logarithmic
one. The perception of the intensity of light, or the sensation of
weight, follow this law, as well. This observation legitimates the use
of logarithmic scales in the field of acoustics. A 80 dB (10-4 W/m²)
sound seems to be twice as loud as a 70 dB (10-5 W/m²) sound, although
there is a factor 10 between the two acoustic powers. This is quite a
naïve law, but it led to a new way of thinking about acoustics: trying
to describe the auditive sensations. That's the aim of psychoacoustics.
As the neurophysiological mechanisms of human hearing haven't been
successfully modeled, the only way of dealing with psychoacoustics is by
finding metrics that best describe the different aspects of sound.

## Perception of sound

The study of sound perception is limited by the complexity of the human
ear mechanisms. The figure below represents the domain of perception and
the thresholds of pain and listening. The pain threshold is not
frequency-dependent (around 120 dB in the audible bandwidth). At the
opposite side, the listening threshold, as all the equal loudness
curves, is frequency-dependent. In the center are typical frequency and
loudness ranges for human voice and music.

![](Audible.JPG "Audible.JPG")

## Phons and sones

### Phons

Two sounds of equal intensity do not have the same apparent loudness,
because of the frequency sensibility of the human ear. An 80 dB tone at
100 Hz does not sound as loud as an 80 dB tone at 3 kHz. A new unit, the
phon, is used to describe the loudness of a harmonic sound. X phons
means "as loud as X dB at 1000 Hz". Another tool is used : the equal
loudness curves, a.k.a. Fletcher curves.

![](Curve_isofoniche.svg "Curve_isofoniche.svg")

### Sones

Another scale currently used is the sone, based upon the rule of thumb
for loudness. This rule states that the sound must be increased in
intensity by a factor 10 to be perceived as twice as loud. In decibel
(or phon) scale, it corresponds to a 10 dB (or phons) increase. The sone
scale's purpose is to translate those scales into a linear one.

$\log (S) = 0,03(L_{ph}  - 40)$

Where S is the sone level, and $L_{ph}$ the phon level. The conversion
table is as follows:

  Phons   Sones
  ------- -------
  100     64
  90      32
  80      16
  70      8
  60      4
  50      2
  40      1

## Metrics

We will now present five psychoacoustics parameters to provide a way to
predict the subjective human sensation.

### dB A

The measurement of noise perception with the sone or phon scale is not
easy. A widely used measurement method is a weighting of the sound
pressure level, according to frequency repartition. For each frequency
of the density spectrum, a level correction is made. Different kinds of
weightings (dB A, dB B, dB C) exist in order to approximate the human
ear at different sound intensities, but the most commonly used is the dB
A filter. Its curve is made to match the ear equal loudness curve for 40
phons, and as a consequence it's a good approximation of the phon scale.

```{=html}
<center>
```
![](dba.JPG "dba.JPG")

```{=html}
</center>
```
*Example : for a harmonic 40 dB sound, at 200 Hz, the correction is -10
dB, so this sound is 30 dB A.*

### Loudness

It measures the sound strength. Loudness can be measured in sone, and is
a dominant metric in psychoacoustics.

### Tonality

As the human ear is very sensible to the pure harmonic sounds, this
metric is a very important one. It measures the number of pure tones in
the noise spectrum. A broadwidth sound has a very low tonality, for
example.

### Roughness

It describes the human perception of temporal variations of sounds. This
metric is measured in asper.

### Sharpness

Sharpness is linked to the spectral characteristics of the sound. A
high-frequency signal has a high value of sharpness. This metric is
measured in acum.

### Blocking effect

A sinusoidal sound can be masked by a white noise in a narrowing
bandwidth. A white noise is a random signal with a flat power spectral
density. In other words, the signal\'s power spectral density has equal
power in any band, at any centre frequency, having a given bandwidth. If
the intensity of the white noise is high enough, the sinusoidal sound
will not be heard. For example, in a noisy environment (in the street,
in a workshop), a great effort has to be made in order to distinguish
someone's talking.


# Acoustics/Sound Speed

![](Acoustics_Sound_Speed.jpg "Acoustics_Sound_Speed.jpg")

The **speed of sound** *c* (from Latin *celeritas*, \"velocity\") varies
depending on the medium through which the sound waves pass. It is
usually quoted in describing properties of substances (e.g. Sodium\'s
Speed of Sound is listed under *Other
Properties*). In conventional use and scientific
literature, sound velocity *v* is the same as sound speed *c*. Sound
velocity *c* or velocity of sound should not be confused with sound
particle velocity *v*, which is the velocity of the individual
particles.

More commonly the term refers to the speed of sound in air. The speed
varies depending on atmospheric conditions; the most important factor is
the temperature. Humidity has very little effect on the speed of sound,
while the static sound pressure (air pressure) has none. Sound travels
slower with an increased altitude (elevation if you are on solid earth),
primarily as a result of temperature and humidity changes. An
approximate speed (in metres per second) can be calculated from:

$$c_{\mathrm{air}} = (331{.}5 + (0{.}6 \cdot \theta)) \ \mathrm{m/s}\,$$

where $\theta\,$ (theta) is the temperature in degrees Celsius.

## Details

A more accurate expression for the speed of sound is

$$c = \sqrt {\kappa \cdot R\cdot T}$$ where

-   *R* is the gas constant (287.05 J/(kg·K) for air). It is derived by
    dividing the universal gas constant $R$ (J/(mol·K)) by the molar
    mass of air (kg/mol), as is common practice in aerodynamics.
-   *κ* (kappa) is the adiabatic index (1.402 for air), sometimes noted
    as *γ* (gamma).
-   *T* is the absolute temperature in kelvins.

In the standard atmosphere:

*T*~0~ is 273.15 K (= 0 °C = 32 °F), giving a value of 331.5 m/s (=
1087.6 ft/s = 1193 km/h = 741.5 mph = 643.9 knots).\
*T*~20~ is 293.15 K (= 20 °C = 68 °F), giving a value of 343.4 m/s (=
1126.6 ft/s = 1236 km/h = 768.2 mph = 667.1 knots).\
*T*~25~ is 298.15 K (= 25 °C = 77 °F), giving a value of 346.3 m/s (=
1136.2 ft/s = 1246 km/h = 774.7 mph = 672.7 knots).

In fact, assuming an ideal gas, the speed of sound *c* depends on
temperature only, **not on the pressure**. Air is almost an ideal gas.
The temperature of the air varies with altitude, giving the following
variations in the speed of sound using the standard atmosphere - *actual
conditions may vary*. Any qualification of the speed of sound being \"at
sea level\" is also irrelevant. Speed of sound varies with altitude
(height) only because of the changing temperature!

+----------+----------+---------+----------+---------+----------+
| **Al     | **Tempe  | **m/s** | **km/h** | **mph** | *        |
| titude** | rature** |         |          |         | *knots** |
+----------+----------+---------+----------+---------+----------+
| Sea      | 15 °C    | 340     | 1225     | 761     | 661      |
| level    | (59 °F)  |         |          |         |          |
| (?)      |          |         |          |         |          |
+----------+----------+---------+----------+---------+----------+
| 11,000   | -57 °C   | 295     | 1062     | 660     | 573      |
| m        | (-70 °F) |         |          |         |          |
| --20,000 |          |         |          |         |          |
| m\       |          |         |          |         |          |
| (        |          |         |          |         |          |
| Cruising |          |         |          |         |          |
| altitude |          |         |          |         |          |
| of       |          |         |          |         |          |
| co       |          |         |          |         |          |
| mmercial |          |         |          |         |          |
| jets,\   |          |         |          |         |          |
| and      |          |         |          |         |          |
| first    |          |         |          |         |          |
| su       |          |         |          |         |          |
| personic |          |         |          |         |          |
| flight)  |          |         |          |         |          |
+----------+----------+---------+----------+---------+----------+
| 29,000 m | -48 °C   | 301     | 1083     | 673     | 585      |
| (Flight  | (-53 °F) |         |          |         |          |
| of       |          |         |          |         |          |
| X-43A)   |          |         |          |         |          |
+----------+----------+---------+----------+---------+----------+
|          |          |         |          |         |          |
+----------+----------+---------+----------+---------+----------+

In a **Non-Dispersive Medium** -- Sound speed is independent of
frequency. Therefore the speed of energy transport and sound propagation
are the same. For audio sound range, air is a non-dispersive medium. We
should also note that air contains CO2 which is a dispersive medium and
it introduces dispersion to air at ultrasound frequencies (\~28 kHz).\
In a **Dispersive Medium** -- Sound speed is a function of frequency.
The spatial and temporal distribution of a propagating disturbance will
continually change. Each frequency component propagates at its own phase
speed, while the energy of the disturbance propagates at the group
velocity. Water is an example of a dispersive medium.

In general, the speed of sound *c* is given by

$$c = \sqrt{\frac{C}{\rho}}$$ where

:   *C* is a coefficient of stiffness
:   $\rho$ is the density

Thus the speed of sound increases with the stiffness of the material,
and decreases with the density.

In a fluid the only non-zero stiffness is to volumetric deformation (a
fluid does not sustain shear forces).

Hence the speed of sound in a fluid is given by

$$c = \sqrt {\frac{K}{\rho}}$$ where

:   *K* is the adiabatic bulk modulus

For a gas, *K* is approximately given by

$$K=\kappa \cdot p$$

where

:   κ is the adiabatic index, sometimes called γ.
:   *p* is the pressure.

Thus, for a gas the speed of sound can be calculated using:

$$c = \sqrt {{\kappa \cdot p}\over\rho}$$ which using the ideal gas law
is identical to:

$c = \sqrt {\kappa \cdot R\cdot T}$

(Newton famously considered the speed of sound before most of the
development of thermodynamics and so incorrectly used isothermal
calculations instead of adiabatic. His result was missing the factor of
κ but was otherwise correct.)

In a solid, there is a non-zero stiffness both for volumetric and shear
deformations. Hence, in a solid it is possible to generate sound waves
with different velocities dependent on the deformation mode.

In a solid rod (with thickness much smaller than the wavelength) the
speed of sound is given by:

$$c = \sqrt{\frac{E}{\rho}}$$

where

:   *E* is Young\'s modulus
:   $\rho$ (rho) is density

Thus in steel the speed of sound is approximately 5100 m/s.

In a solid with lateral dimensions much larger than the wavelength, the
sound velocity is higher. It is found by replacing Young\'s modulus with
the plane wave modulus, which can be expressed in terms of the Young\'s
modulus and Poisson\'s ratio as:

$$M = E \frac{1-\nu}{1-\nu-2\nu^2}$$

For air, see density of air.

The speed of sound in water is of interest to those mapping the ocean
floor. In saltwater, sound travels at about 1500 m/s and in freshwater
1435 m/s. These speeds vary due to pressure, depth, temperature,
salinity and other factors.

For general equations of state, if classical mechanics are used, the
speed of sound $c$ is given by

$$c^2=\frac{\partial p}{\partial\rho}$$ where differentiation is taken
with respect to adiabatic change.

If relativistic effects are important, the speed of sound $S$ is given
by:

$$S^2=c^2 \left. \frac{\partial p}{\partial e} \right|_{\rm adiabatic}$$

(Note that $e= \rho (c^2+e^C) \,$ is the relativistic internal energy
density).

This formula differs from the classical case in that $\rho$ has been
replaced by $e/c^2 \,$.

## Speed of sound in air

  **Impact of temperature**
  ---------------------------
  θ in °C
  −10
  −5
  0
  +5
  +10
  +15
  +20
  +25
  +30

**Mach number** is the ratio of the object\'s speed to the speed of
sound in air (medium).

## Sound in solids

In solids, the velocity of sound depends on *density* of the material,
not its temperature. Solid materials, such as steel, conduct sound much
faster than air.

## Experimental methods

In air a range of different methods exist for the measurement of sound.

### Single-shot timing methods

The simplest concept is the measurement made using two microphones and a
fast recording device such as a digital storage scope. This method uses
the following idea.

If a sound source and two microphones are arranged in a straight line,
with the sound source at one end, then the following can be measured:

1.  The distance between the microphones (x)
2.  The time delay between the signal reaching the different microphones
    (t)

Then v = x/t

An older method is to create a sound at one end of a field with an
object that can be seen to move when it creates the sound. When the
observer sees the sound-creating device act they start a stopwatch and
when the observer hears the sound they stop their stopwatch. Again using
v = x/t you can calculate the speed of sound. A separation of at least
200 m between the two experimental parties is required for good results
with this method.

### Other methods

In these methods the time measurement has been replaced by a measurement
of the inverse of time (frequency).

Kundt\'s tube is an example of an experiment which can be used to
measure the speed of sound in a small volume, it has the advantage of
being able to measure the speed of sound in any gas. This method uses a
powder to make the nodes and antinodes visible to the human eye. This is
an example of a compact experimental setup.

A tuning fork can be held near the mouth of a long pipe which is dipping
into a barrel of water, in this system it is the case that the pipe can
be brought to resonance if the length of the air column in the pipe is
equal to ( {1+2n}/λ ) where n is an integer. As the antinodal point for
the pipe at the open end is slightly outside the mouth of the pipe it is
best to find two or more points of resonance and then measure half a
wavelength between these.

Here it is the case that v = fλ

## External links

-   Calculation: Speed of sound in air and the
    temperature
-   The speed of sound, the temperature, and \... **not** the air
    pressure
-   Properties Of The U.S. Standard Atmosphere
    1976