# Human Physiology/Appendix 1: answers to review questions

This appendix does not provide answers to the review questions posted at
the end of each chapter; it is a collection of questions provided at the
end of each chapter.

## Homeostasis

1\. Meaning of Homeostasis:

:   A\) contributor and provider
:   B\) expanding
:   C\) same or constant
:   D\) receiver

2\. What is the normal pH value for body fluid?

:   A\) 7.15-7.2556
:   B\) 7.35-7.45
:   C\) 7.55- 7.65
:   D\) 7.00-7.35
:   E\) 6.5-7.5

3\. An example of the urinary system working with the respiratory system
to regulate blood pH would be

:   A\) When you hold your breath the kidneys will remove CO2 from your
    blood
:   B\) If you exercise a lot your urine will become more acidic
:   C\) If you develop emphysema the kidneys will remove fewer
    bicarbonate ions from circulation
:   D\) If you hyperventilate the kidneys will counteract the alkalinity
    by adding hydrogen ions into the blood stream
:   E\) None of the above-the urinary system never works with the
    respiratory system

4\. The urge to breathe comes in direct response to:

:   A\) How long it has been since you last took a breath
:   B\) The oxygen concentration of your surrounding environment
:   C\) The buildup of nitrogen within your blood stream
:   D\) The pH of your blood
:   E\) The buildup of blood pressure that occurs when you don\'t
    breathe

5\. In response to a bacterial infection my body\'s thermostat is
raised. I start to shiver and produce more body heat. When my body
temperature reaches 101 degrees, I stop shivering and my body
temperature stops going up. This is an example of:

:   A\) Negative feedback
:   B\) A malfunctioning control system
:   C\) Positive feedback
:   D\) A negative impact

6\. Which of the follow is an example of a positive feedback?

:   A\) Shivering to warm up in a cold winter storm
:   B\) A cruise control set on your car applies more gas when going up
    a hill
:   C\) You sweat on a hot summer\'s day and the blood vessels in your
    skin vasodilate
:   D\) You get cut and platelets form a clot. This in turn activates
    the fibrin clotting system and more blood forms clots

7\. Where is the body\'s \"thermostat\" found?

:   A\) Within the nervous system, in the Hypothalamus
:   B\) Within the integumentary system, in the skin
:   C\) Within the brain, in the corpus callosum
:   D\) Within the Urinary system, in the kidneys

8\. What system has little to contribute to the homeostasis of the
organism?

:   A\) Urinary System
:   B\) Reproductive System
:   C\) Respiratory System
:   D\) Nervous System

## Cell physiology

1\. List 2 functions of the cell membrane:

:   **Separates internal metabolic events from the external
    environment.**
:   **Controls the movement of materials into and out of the cell.**

Questions 2 - 6 Match the following organelles with their function:

2\. Mitochondria **C**

3\. Vacuoles **D**

4\. Cilia **A**

5\. Smooth ER **B**

6\. Golgi Apparatus **E**

7\. The diffusion of H2O across a semi permeable or selectively
permeable membrane is termed

:   A. Active transport
:   B. Diffusion
:   C. Osmosis
:   D. Endocytosis

8\. Oxygen enters a cell via?

:   a\. Diffusion
:   b\. Filtration
:   c\. Osmosis
:   d\. Active transport

9\. The term used to describe, \"cell eating\" is?

:   a\. Exocytosis
:   b\. Phagocytosis
:   c\. Pinocytosis
:   d\. Diffusion

10\. Which of the following requires energy?

:   a\. Diffusion
:   b\. Osmosis
:   c\. Active transport
:   d\. Facilitated diffusion

11\. Protein synthesis occurs at the

:   a\. Mitochondria
:   b\. Lysosomes
:   c\. Within the nucleus
:   d\. Ribosomes

12\. Which of the following is not found in the cell membrane?

:   a\. Cholesterol
:   b\. Phospholipids
:   c\. Proteins
:   d\. Galactose
:   e\. Nucleic Acids

13\. What is a cell?

:   a\. The largest living units within our bodies.
:   b\. Enzymes that \"eat\" bacteria
:   c\. Microscopic fundamental units of all living things.
:   d\. All of the above.

## Integumentary System

1\. Name all of the parts of the integumentary system.

:   The integumentary system consists of the skin, the subcutaneous
    tissue below the skin, hair, nails, and assorted glands.

2\. Name the cells that produce melanin and describe its function.

:   Melanocytes
:   These are cells located in the bottom layer of the skin\'s epidermis
    and in the middle layer of the eye, the uvea. Through a process
    called
:   melanogenesis, these cells produce melanin, a pigment in the skin,
    eyes, and hair.

3\. Name and describe the importance of the cutaneous senses.

:   The cutaneous senses are touch, pressure, heat, cold and pain. Their
    purpose is to provide the central nervous system with information
    about the external environment and its effect on the skin.

4\. Explain how sweating helps maintain normal body temperature.

:   Eccrine sweat glands are coiled tubular glands derived from the
    outer layer of skin but extending into the inner layer. The sweat
    glands are
:   controlled by sympathetic cholinergic nerves which are controlled by
    a centre in the hypothalamus. The hypothalamus senses core
:   temperature directly, and also has input from temperature receptors
    in the skin and modifies the sweat output, along with other
    thermoregulatory processes.

5\. Explain where on the body hair has important functions, and describe
these functions.

:   Hair on the scalp provides insulation from cold for the head.
:   The hair of eyelashes and eyebrows helps keep dust and perspiration
    out of the eyes.
:   Hair in our nostrils helps keep dust out of the nasal cavities.
:   Any other hair on our bodies no longer serves a function, but is an
    evolutionary remnant.

6\. What is a melanoma?

:   a\. The outermost layer of skin
:   b\. A type of nail disease
:   c\. A malignant tumor that originates in melanocytes
:   d\. The lower most layer of skin

## The Nervous System

1\. The junction between one neuron and the next, or between a neuron
and an effector is called:

:   A ) A synapse
:   B ) A dendrite
:   C ) A neuotransmitter
:   D ) A ventricle
:   E ) None of the above

2\. A fast excitatory synapses follows this order:

:   A ) (1) neurotransmitter released (2) diffused across the synaptic
    cleft to a receptor protein (3) binding of the transmitter opens
    pores in the ion channels and positive ions move in.
:   B ) (1) neurotransmitter released (2) diffused across the synaptic
    cleft to a receptor protein (3) binding of the transmitter opens
    pores in the ion channels and negative ions move in.
:   C ) (1) neurotransmitter released (2) diffused across the synaptic
    cleft to a receptor amino acid (3) binding of the transmitter opens
    pores in the ion channels and positive ions move in.
:   D ) (1) diffused across the synaptic cleft to a receptor protein (2)
    neurotransmitter released (3) binding of the transmitter opens pores
    in the ion channels and positive ions move in.
:   E ) None of the above

3\. Resting potential is

:   A ) excess positive ions accumulate inside the plasma membrane
:   B ) excess negative ions accumulate inside the plasma membrane
:   C ) excess positive ions accumulate outside the plasma membrane
:   D ) both b & c
:   E ) both a & c

4\. Sensory neurons have:

:   A ) A short dendrite and a long axon
:   B ) A short dendrite and a short axon
:   C ) A long dendrite and a short axon
:   D ) A long dendrite and a long axon
:   E ) Their axons and dendrites may be either long or short

5\. \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_blocks Acetylcholine receptor sites causing muscle
relaxation.

:   A ) Novocain
:   B ) curare
:   C ) Nicotine
:   D ) Nerve gases

6\. Transmission across a synapse is dependent on the release of
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_?

:   A ) neurotransmitters
:   B ) synaptic vesicle
:   C ) neurons
:   D ) receptor proteins

7\. Motor neurons take messages

:   A ) from the muscle fiber to the central nervous system
:   B ) away from the central nervous system to the central nervous
    system
:   C ) that are classified
:   D ) away from the central nervous system to muscle fiber

8\. The medulla oblongata helps to regulate which of the following:

:   A ) Breathing
:   B ) Heartbeat
:   C ) Sneezing
:   D ) Vomiting
:   E ) All of the above

9\. The nervous systems main components are what?

:   A ) The Synapses and Sprinal cord
:   B ) The neurons and the synapses
:   C ) The brain and the neurons
:   D )The brain and the spinal cord

10\. Explain what LTP does to enhance communication between two neurons,
on the postsynaptic end.

-   More receptors, such as AMPA receptors, are added and existing ones
    are sensitized via phosphorylation. Dendritic spine number and
    surface area is increased as well.

11\. Explain what LTP does to communication between two neurons, on the
presynaptic end.

-   If the retrograde messenger theory is correct, presynaptic cells
    participate in the enhancement by increasing the probability of
    synaptic vesicle release. (Please remember the retrograde messenger
    is theoretical, I just thought it should be included here)

## Senses

### Critical Thinking: Vision

1\. Explain why you are normally unaware of your blind spot.

:\*Since your eyes are looking from different angles, they see each
other\'s blind spot and your brain combines the two images.

2\. Stare at a bright light for 10 seconds and then stare at a white
sheet of paper. What do you observe and why?

:\*You should observe a negative afterimage. This happens when the
rod/cone (mostly cone) cells in your eye adapt to the stimulus and lose
their sensitivity, leaving you with the negative of the color that was
adapted to.

3\. What is it that makes things \"disappear\" when you are staring at
them at night, and how do you make them reappear?

:\*There are no rods in the fovea, so little light is picked up when you
stare directly at the object. To make it reappear, just don\'t look
right at it.

4\. Name what rods are sensitive to and also what cones are sensitive
to.

:\*Rods are more sensitive to lower light levels, but lack color-seeing
ability. Cones work in brighter light and perceive color (blue, green,
red).

5\. Explain how Deadly Nightshade works

:\*Normally, the parasympathetic nervous system constricts the pupil as
needed with acetylcholine. The atropine in nightshade is a competitive
agonist on the same receptor as the one that accepts acetylcholine.
Basically: the atropine takes up all of the places for acetylcholine to
bind, and the pupils dilate.

### Critical Thinking: Hearing

1\. Explain how the pitch of sound is coded. How is the loudness of
sound coded?

2\. What do the three semicircular canals in the inner ear enable us to
do? How do they accomplish this?

:\*Each of the three fluid filled canals is on a different plane.
Movement is detected on these planes when the fluid inside moves around,
vibrating cilia on the cupula which sends it on to the brain.

3\. What does the eustachian tube do? What does the eustachian tube have
to do with a middle ear infection?

:\*The eustachian tube is to keep pressure in the middle ear the same as
atmospheric pressure. If the tube is blocked, the gases in the ear will
diffuse back into the surrounding tissues and a vacuum will be made.
Eventually, this will pull fluid in and if it becomes infected\... You
have an ear infection.

4\. What is the advantage of having a oval window?

Sound transducted from air to a more dense medium (endolymph, in scala
media where the organ of cortis is placed) would be partially reflected
and greatly weakened if not for the ossicular bones that transfer the
vibration from membrana tymphani trough malleus, incus and stapes to the
foramen ovale where it puts the liquids of cochlea in motion. This
motion is then transfered trough membrana vestibularis to membrana
basilaris, which in turn puts the haircells in motion. This leads to a
bending of the stereocills, fastened to membrana tectori, and as a
result; a depolarization of the afferent sensory fibre receptor of n.
cochlearis through release of glutamate. The loss of energy in
transduction is partially re-gained by the size of membr. tympani
compared to the size of foramen ovale and the rotation of the ossicular
bones.

### Review Questions

1\. Located under the hardest bone in the body, these control not only
hearing but also a sense of gravity and motion:

:   A\) The incus and the stapes
:   B\) The pinna and the ear drum
:   C\) the vestibular nerve and the semi circular canals
:   D\) The eustachian tube and the stapes

2\. The retina does the following;

:   A\) allows vision in light and dark, using cones and rods
:   B\) Gives depth perception using binocular vision
:   C\) Contains the ciliary muscles that control the shape of the lens
:   D\) Protects and supports the shape of the eye

3\. This is the reason that we stop feeling the clothes that we are
wearing

:   A\) Merkel's Discs are somewhat rigid in structure, and the fact
    that they are not encapsulated, causes them to have a sustained
    response
:   B\) Meissner's corpuscle are rapidly adapting or phasic, the action
    potentials generated quickly decrease and eventually cease
:   C\) Ruffini corpuscles is a class of slowly adapting mechanoreceptor
:   D\) Pacinian corpuscles allow sodium ions to influx in, creating a
    receptor potential

4\. When eating a piece of candy, I will use the following to sense that
it is sweet

:   A\) Fungiform papillae
:   B\) Filiform papillae
:   C\) Foliate papillae
:   D\) Circumvallate papillae
:   E\) All of the above

5\. If I have a cold, food may not taste as good to me because

:   A\) The nerve fibrils are not functioning properly
:   B\) My food will taste the same; taste and smell have nothing in
    common
:   C\) Papilla become blocked by mucus and are unable to function
:   D\) Olfaction, taste and trigeminal receptors together contribute to
    the flavor of my food

6\. Walking from a well lit room into a dark room would cause the
following to occur

:   A\) The sclera in the eye to open and eventually allow me to see in
    the dark
:   B\) The extraocular muscles in the eye to open and eventually allow
    me to see in the dark
:   C\) The cones in the eye to open and eventually allow me to see in
    the dark
:   D\) the rods in the eye to open and eventually allow me to see in
    the dark

7\. Hair cells in the ear

:   A\) Are the actual sensory receptors that will fire off action
    potentials when they are disturbed
:   B\) Show a graded response, instead of the spikes typical of other
    neurons
:   C\) "Rub" against the overhanging tectorial membrane
:   D\) All of the above

8\. Eyesight decreases with age because

:   A\) Older eyes receive much less light at the retina
:   B\) There are numerous eye diseases that can affect an older eye
:   C\) The extent to which the pupil dilates decreases with age
:   D\) all of the above

9\. Teens walking off of a roller coaster in Magic Mountain seem to have
vertigo because

:   A\) The fluid in the auricle has not stopped moving causing
    conflicts with the information coming from your vision
:   B\) the fluid in the cochlea has not stopped moving causing
    conflicts with the information coming from your vision
:   C\) The fluid in the tympanic membrane has not stopped moving
    causing conflicts with the information coming from your vision
:   D\) The fluid in the stirrup has not stopped moving causing
    conflicts with the information coming from your vision

10\. These receptors react to foods treated with monosodium glutamate

:   A\) Salt
:   B\) Sour
:   C\) Bitter
:   D\) Sweet
:   E\) Umami

## The Muscular System

1\. Smooth Muscle is

:   A\) Voluntary and Spindle Shaped
:   B\) Voluntary and Striated
:   C\) Involuntary and Spindle Shaped
:   D\) Involuntary and Striated

2\. Skeletal Muscle is

:   A\) Voluntary and Spindle Shaped
:   B)Voluntary and Striated
:   C\) Involuntary and Spindle Shaped
:   D\) Involuntary and Striated

3\. Cardiac Muscle is

:   A\) Voluntary and Spindle Shaped
:   B\) Voluntary and Striated
:   C\) Involuntary and Spindle Shaped
:   D\) Involuntary and Striated

4\. Which type of muscle cell is multinucleated?

:   A\) Cardiac
:   B\) Smooth
:   C\) Skeletal
:   D\) All of the Above

5\. What is an example of a smooth muscle?

:   A\) Masseter (Face)
:   B\) Bladder
:   C\) Heart
:   D\) Pronator Teres (Forearm)
:   E\) Rectus Abdominis (belly)

6\. Each myosin filament is surrounded by \_\_\_\_ actin filaments.

:   A\) Two
:   B\) Four
:   C\) Six
:   D\) Eight
:   E\) Seven

7\. The muscular system is controled by what system?

:   A\) The cardiovascular system
:   B\) The integumentary System
:   C\) The Nervous system
:   D\) None of the above

8\. How many types of muscle are there?

:   A\) Two
:   B\) Three (cardiac, smooth and skeletal)
:   C\) Four
:   D\) Five

## Blood Physiology

1\. Taking aspirin every day can reduce the risk of heart disease
because:

:   A\) it is a powerful vasodilator
:   B\) it blocks pain receptors in heart tissue
:   C\) it stops ventricular fibrillation
:   D\) it loosens plaque on arterial walls

**:E) it prevents platelet clumping**

2\. A hematocrit measures percentage of:

:   A\) White blood cells
:   B\) Plasma
:   C\) Platelets

**:D) Red blood cells**

3\. Fred\'s blood type is O- and Ginger\'s is B+. Fred and Ginger have a
son who is AB+. What do you conclude?

:   A\) If they have a second child Ginger needs to have RhoGam shot
:   B\) There is no risk to a second child, unless it has a negative
    blood type
:   C\) If the child needs a blood transfusion Fred could provide it
    safely, but not Ginger

**:D) Fred is not the boy's father**

4\. Which blood component plays the largest role in maintaining the
osmotic pressure of blood?

**:A) albumin**

:   B\) carbon dioxide
:   C\) white blood cells
:   D\) fibrinogen
:   E\) globulins

5\. If you hold your breath for one minute

:   A\) The kidneys will increase sodium ion reabsorption

**:B) Hydrogen-ion concentration in the blood will increase**

:   C\) Your heart rate will greatly slow
:   D\) Hemoglobin will bind to oxygen more strongly

6\. Most of the carbon dioxide produced by tissues is transported to the
lungs as:

:   A\) Small gas bubbles in the plasma
:   B\) Gas bound to hemoglobin in the red blood cells

**:C) Bicarbonate ions in the plasma**

:   D\) Gas bound to white blood cells and albumin
:   E\) Gas transported through the lymphatic system

7\. To prevent blood loss after a tissue injury, blood vessels first

:   A\) Form a platelet plug
:   B\) Form a clot
:   C\) Initiate the coagulation cascade

**:D) Constrict and form barriers**

8\. You take a blood sample from a male cyclist at the end of a long
race. The hematocrit is 60%. The most likely conclusion is:

:   A\) This is within normal range for most adult males
:   B\) This cyclist is anemic
:   C\) This low of a hematocrit could indicate liver damage or leukemia

**:D) The cyclist is dehydrated**

:   E\) The cyclist has been taking pharmaceutical erythropoietin

9\. In a normal blood sample, which of the following cells will be the
most abundant?

**:A) Neutrophils**

:   B\) Basophils
:   C\) Eosinophils
:   D\) Monocytes
:   E\) Lymphocytes

10\. A bag of donated blood does not clot because

:   A\) There is not enough oxygen
:   B\) It cannot dry out
:   C\) It is kept refrigerated
:   D\) There is no free calcium
:   E\) All of the above

## The cardiovascular system

1\. This conducts electricity like nerves

:   A\) Epicardium
:   B\) Pericardium
:   C\) Myocardium
:   D\) Subvalaular Apparatus
:   E\) None of these, only nerves conduct electricity

2\. This carries the most blood at any given time in the body

:   A\) Veins
:   B\) Capillary Beds
:   C\) Veins
:   D\) Aorta
:   E\) Vena Cava

3\. The following contract together to pump blood

:   A\) Right atrium with the right ventricle and left atrium with the
    left ventricle
:   B\) Right atrium with left atrium and right ventricles with left
    ventricle
:   C\) Tricuspid valve and mitral valve
:   D\) Aorta and pulmonary artery
:   E\) Aorta, pulmonary artery and pulmonary vein

4\. This is the pacemaker of the heart

:   A\) AV node
:   B\) Purkinje fibers
:   C\) AV Bundle
:   D\) SA node
:   E\) None of these, a pacemaker is surgically inserted

5\. When reading an EKG, this letter shows the depolarization from the
AV node down to the AV bundle

:   A\) S
:   B\) P
:   C\) U
:   D\) T
:   E\) Q

6\. The T wave in an EKG shows

:   A\) Resting potential
:   B\) Atrial depolarization
:   C\) SA node excitation
:   D\) Ventricle repolarization
:   E\) Purkinje Excitation

7\. Blood pressure is the measure of

:   A\) Pressure exerted by the blood on the walls of the blood vessels
:   B\) Pressure exerted by the blood on the arteries
:   C\) Pressure exerted by the blood on the veins
:   D\) Pressure exerted by the blood on the aorta

8\. Systolic Pressure is

:   A\) An average of 120 mm Hg
:   B\) Lowers steadily during ventricle systole
:   C\) The highest when blood is being pumped out of the left ventricle
    into the aorta
:   D\) An average of 80 mm Hg
:   E\) Both A and C
:   F\) Both B and D

9\. The heart has how many chambers?

:   A\) One
:   B\) Two
:   C\) Three
:   D\) Four (two ventricles and two atria)
:   E\) Five

10\. End diastolic volume in human

:   A)120mL
:   b)50mL
:   c)70mL
:   d)100mL

## The Immune System

1-When neutrophils and macrophages squeeze out of capillaries to fight
off infection it is called:

:   A\) phagocytosis
:   B\) hemolysis
:   C\) interleukin
:   D\) diapedesis
:   E\) folliculitis

2-During a great battle between your WBC\'s and an aggressive microbe,
an inflammatory response has been initiated. Reddness and edema has
kicked in what else does the body do to protect itself?

:   A\) Histamine cause vasodilation
:   B\) Hypothalmus raises the thermostat
:   C\) Neutrophils engulf and destroy the microbe
:   D\) Living and dead WBC and bacteria accumulate
:   E\) All of the above

3-Specificity and memory are associated with which body defense
mechanism?

:   A\) inflammatory response
:   B\) phagocytosis by macrophages and neutrophils
:   C\) interferon
:   D\) T cell and B cell responses
:   E\) anatomical barriers in the body

4-An additional chemical defense found in tears and saliva?

:   A\) T lymphocytes
:   B\) saline
:   C\) lysozyme
:   D\) EFC

5-Which of the following does complement protein perform

:   A\) They cause antibody release
:   B\) T cell development
:   C\) The release if histamine
:   D\) Promotes tissue repair
:   E\) Mast cell degranulation

6-Which substance induces fever?

:   A\) Pyrogen
:   B\) Pus
:   C\) Monocytes
:   D\) Edema
:   E\) Interferon

7-Major function(s) of the lymphatic system is/are?

:   A\) provide route for return of extracellular fluid
:   B\) act as drain off for inflammatory response
:   C\) render surveillance, recognition , and protection against
    foreign materials via lymphocytes, phagocytes, and antibodies.
:   D\) a and c
:   E\) all of the above

8-An antigen is:

:   A\) a chemical messenger that is released by virus infected cells
:   B\) a lymphocyte responsible for cell-mediated immunity
:   C\) something that coats the inside of lungs, causing infection
:   D\) a protein or other molecule that is recognized as non-self
:   E\) a thick yellow-white fluid

9-A foreign substance, usually a protein, that stimulates the immune
system to react, such as by producing antibodies is a
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_.

:   A\) allergen
:   B\) antigen
:   C\) histamine
:   D\) mast cell
:   E\) interferon

10-When a macrophage ingests an invading bacteria and takes the antigen
to a lymph node, what happens next?

:   A\) the macrophage will present it to the first B-cell it
    encounters, and the B-cell will in turn change its surface receptors
    to match the antigen
:   B\) a B-cell will only become activated if it already has a match
    for the antigen
:   C\) a matching B-cell will become activated into a cytotoxic T-cell
:   D\) the cells of the lymph node will release histamine
:   E\) the lymph node will increase production of neutrophils

11-What is the most common portal of entry for diseases, into the body?

:   A\) Respiratory system
:   B\) Endocrine system
:   C\) Hematacrit system
:   D\) Any opening into the body.

12-This gland shrinks in size during adulthood, and has hormones that
function in maturation of T-lymphocytes:

:   A\) lymph nodes
:   B\) thymus
:   C\) spleen
:   D\) GALT
:   E\) tonsils

13-Which of the following is not a mechanical factor to protect the skin
and mucous membranes from infection?

:   A\) Layers of cells
:   B\) Tears
:   C\) Saliva
:   D\) Lysozyme
:   E\) None of the above

14-Where is the site of maturation for a B cell?

:   A\) thymus
:   B\) bone marrow
:   C\) pancreas
:   D\) cortex

15-Nonspecific resistance is

:   A\) The body\'s ability to ward off diseases.
:   B\) The body\'s defenses against any kind of pathogen.
:   C\) The body\'s defense against a particular pathogen.
:   D\) The lack of resistance.
:   E\) None of the above.

16-What is an Antibody?

:   A\) An antimicrobial substance applied to a living tissue to prevent
    infection.
:   B\) Programmed cell death
:   C\) A protein generated by the immune system in response to a
    foreign substance.
:   D\) A chemical involved in inflammation.

## The Urinary System

1\. While reading a blood test I notice a high level of creatinine, I
could assume from this that

:   A\) There is a possibility of a UTI
:   B\) There is a possibility of diabetes
:   C\) **There is a possibility of kidney failure**
:   D\) There is nothing wrong, this is normal

2\. Direct control of water excretion in the kidneys is controlled by

:   A\) **Anti-diuretic hormone**
:   B\) The medulla oblongata
:   C\) Blood plasma
:   D\) Sodium amounts in the blood
:   E\) Cells

3\. Nephrons

:   A\) Eliminate wastes from the body
:   B\) Regulate blood volume and pressure
:   C\) Control levels of electrolytes and metabolites
:   D\) Regulate blood pH
:   E\) **All of the above**

4\. If I am dehydrated, my body will increase

:   A\) ATP
:   B\) **CDP**
:   C\) Diluted urine
:   D\) ADH

5\. Which part of the nephron removes water, ions and nutrients from the
blood?

:   A ) vasa recta
:   B ) loop of henle
:   C ) proximal convoluted tubule
:   D ) peritubular capillaries
:   E ) **glomerulus**

6.Kidneys have a direct effect on which of the following

:   A ) Blood pressure
:   B ) How much water a person excretes
:   C ) Total blood volume
:   D ) pH
:   E ) **all of the above**

7\. Why do substances in the glomerulus enter the Bowman\'s capsule?

:   A ) the magnetic charge of the Bowman\'s capsule attracts the
    substances
:   B ) the substances are actively transported into the Bowman\'s
    capsule
:   C ) **blood pressure of the glomerulus is so great that most
    substances in blood move into capsule**
:   D ) little green men force it in with their ray guns

8\. What happens in tubular excretion?

:   A ) urine bonds are formed between the wastes
:   B ) wastes are diffused from the tubule
:   C ) **wastes move into the distal convoluted tubule from the blood**
:   D ) blood pressure forces wastes away from the kidney

9\. The countercurrent exchange system
includes\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_and\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_.

:   A ) **glomerulus and macula densa**
:   B ) proximal convoluted tubule and distal convoluted tubule
:   C ) loop of Henle and collecting tubule
:   D ) afferent arteriole and efferent arteriole
:   E ) ureters and bladder

10\. The function of the loop of the nephron in the process of urine
formation is:

:   A ) **reabsorption of water**
:   B ) production of filtrate
:   C ) reabsorption of solutes
:   D ) secretion of solutes

## The respiratory system

1\. This is total lung capacity :\*A) Vital capacity :B) Tidal volume
:C) Expiratory reserve volume :D) Inspiratory reserve volume 2.
Involuntary breathing is caused by the

:   A\) Pituitary gland :B) Exocrine gland :C) Cerebral cortex :\*D)
    Medulla oblongata :E) Endocrine gland 3. Carbon monoxide is
    dangerous because :\*A) It binds strongly to hemoglobin, making it
    unavailable to oxygen :B) It binds strongly to plasma, making it
    unavailable to carbon dioxide :C) It raises the blood's pH level,
    causing a person to hyperventilate :D) Carbon monoxide is not
    harmfull, we have it in our bodies normally 4. Clubbing of the
    fingers could be a sign of :A) A viral infection :B) An upper
    respiratory infection :\*C) Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease
    :D) Nothing, it's inherited 5. The need to breathe is caused by
    :\*A) A decrease in blood pH :B) An increase in blood pH :C) A
    decrease in blood oxygen levels :D) A decrease in carbon dioxide
    levels 6. A person more susceptible to Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary
    Disease would be :A) A long time smoker :B) A long time fireman :C)
    A child whose parents smoke :D) A farmer that deals with pesticides
    :\*E) All of the above

7\. The exchange of gases between the blood within the capillaries and
tissue fluid surrounding the body\'s cells is called? :A) external
respiration :B) cell metabolism :C) cellular respiration :\*D) internal
respiration 8. The medulla oblongata and pons regulate and measure what?

:   A\) The pH level of your blood
:   B\) Your body temperature
:   C\) The amount of O2 in your blood
:   D\) The amount of air in your lungs

9\. About how many alveoli are there in the lungs?

:   A\) 300 million
:   B\) 300 billion
:   C\) 300 trillion
:   D\) 300 thousand
:   E\) None of the above 10. In relation to atmospheric pressure,
    intrapleural pressure is: :A) more pressurized :\*B) less
    pressurized :C) about the same

11\. Hemoglobin gives up oxygen when the environment is more
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_. :\*A)Acidic :B)Alkaline :C)Icey :D)Open 12. The sac that
surrounds your lungs is called what? :A) Diaphragm :\*B) Visceral Pleura
:C) Pulmonary Thorax :D) None of the above 13. In what cellular
organelle is the oxygen actually consumed and carbon dioxide produced?

:   A\) Nucleus
:   B\) Cytoplasm
:   C\) Microfilaments
:   D\) Mitochondria

14\. Which of these are protective reflexes?

:   A\) Hiccuping
:   B\) Sobbing
:   C\) Sneezing
:   D\) Itching

15\. Where does gas exchange take place?

:   A\) Bronchioles
:   B\) Conchae
:   C\) Pulmonary Capillaries
:   D\) Roots of the Lungs

16\. When you hyperventilate you release large amounts of CO2 and drop
your O2 levels. As a result you loose the urge to breathe and may pass
out. This is called what? :A) Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease :B)
Asthma :\*C) Shallow water black out :D) Pulmonary Fibrosis 17. Acidosis
is when you blood pH is below ? :A) 7.05 :B) 7.15 :C) 7.25 :\*D) 7.35
18. When we exhale deeply some air is still left in the lungs, this air
left is called? :A) Tidal Volume :B) Vital Capacity :C) Expiratory
reserve Volume :\*D) Residual Volume

## The gastrointestinal system

1\. This is released in the duodenum in response to acidic chyme

:   A\) Cholecystokinin
:   B\) Gastrin
:   C\) Secretin
:   D\) Peptide

2\. In the GI tract, this layer is responsible for absorption and
secretions

:   A\) Mucosa
:   B\) Sub mucosa
:   C\) Muscularis
:   D\) Serosa

3\. This digestive enzyme is produced in the salivary glands and the
pancreas

:   A\) Maltase
:   B\) Amylase
:   C\) Pepsin
:   D\) Nuclease
:   E\) Lipase

4\. This keeps the chyme in the stomach until it reaches the right
consistency to pass into the small intestine

:   A\) Esophageal sphincter
:   B\) Intrinsic sphincter
:   C\) Cardiac sphincter
:   D\) pyloric sphincter

5\. The site where most of the chemical and mechanical digestion is
carried out

:   A\) Pylorus
:   B\) Fundus
:   C\) Stomach
:   D\) Large intestine
:   E\) Small intestine

6\. Parietal cells secret

:   A\) Serotonin
:   B\) Mucus
:   C\) Pepsinogen
:   D\) Hydrochloric Acid
:   E\) Gastrin

7\. The cells at the base of fundic or oxyntic glands

:   A\) Chief cells
:   B\) G cells
:   C\) Argentaffin cells
:   D\) Goblet cells
:   E\) Parietal cells

8\. The movement and the flow of chemicals into the stomach is
controlled by

:   A\) Nervous system
:   B\) Pancreas
:   C\) Various digestive system hormones
:   D\) Liver
:   E\) Both the nervous system and various digestive system hormones

9\. The function of the Ileum is

:   A\) Absorb nutrients
:   B\) Absorb vitamin B12 and bile salts
:   C\) To introduce bile and pancreatic juices
:   D\) Absorb alcohol and aspirin

10\. The liver does this

:   A\) Glycogen storage
:   B\) Plasma protein synthesis
:   C\) Bile production
:   D\) Drug detoxification
:   E\) All of the above

11\. How many layers is the G.I tract composed of?

:   A)Two
:   B)Three
:   C)Four (mucosa, submucosa, muscularis, serosa)
:   D)Five

12\. Name the 7 accessory organs.

:\*Salivary glands, parotid gland, submandibular gland, sublingual
gland, tongue, teeth, liver, gallbladder, pancreas, vermiform appendix

## Nutrition

1\. Nonessential amino acids

:   A\) are stored in the body
:   B\) are only needed occasionally
:   C\) can be produced in the body
:   D\) can be taken in supplements

2\. Micronutrients include

:   A\) minerals and vitamins
:   B\) lipids and fatty acids
:   C\) amino acids and proteins
:   D\) vitamins and minerals

3\. The body requires amino acids to

:   A\) produce new red blood cells
:   B\) produce new protein
:   C\) replace damaged red blood cells
:   D\) replace damaged protein
:   E\) A and C
:   F\) B and D

4\. The function of lipids

:   A\) store energy
:   B\) organ protection
:   C\) temperature regulator
:   D\) emulsifiers
:   E\) all of the above

5\. This vitamin is a vital component of the reproductive process and
lowers the risk of getting cancer

:   A\) B12
:   B\) Folic Acid
:   C\) Niacin
:   D\) Thiamine
:   E\) Retinol

6\. This vitamin is needed to make red blood cells

:   A\) B1
:   B\) B2
:   C\) B6
:   D\) B12

7\. This participates in the synthesis of hemoglobin and melanin

:   A\) Copper
:   B\) Chloride
:   C\) Calcium
:   D\) Iron
:   E\) Iodine

8\. I go to visit my grandmother and see that she has multiple bruises-
from this I may assume that

:   A\) she has a vitamin A deficiency
:   B\) she is old and just clumsy
:   C\) she has a vitamin K deficiency
:   D\) she has scurvy
:   E\) she has rickets

9\. As a pirate I may get scurvy because

:   A\) I am not getting enough vegetables on the ship
:   B\) I am not getting enough fruit on the ship
:   C\) I am eating too much fish on the ship
:   D\) I am getting too much sun on the ship
:   E\) I am drinking too much rum on the ship

10\. I am taking anticoagulant medication and it doesn't seem to be
working, this could be because

:   A\) I have too much vitamin A
:   B\) I have too much B12
:   C\) I have too much sodium
:   D\) I have too much vitamin E
:   E\) I have too much vitamin K

11\. Which of these are fat soluable?

:   A\) Vitamin K
:   B\) Vitamin E
:   C\) Vitamin D
:   D\) Vitamin A
:   e\) All of the above

## The Endocrine System

1\. My child just fell and was hurt, the anxious feeling that I feel is
caused by

:   A\) glucagon
:   B\) insulin
:   C\) epinephrine ANS=C
:   D\) adrenocorticotropic
:   E\) None of these

2\. All of Bob's life he has had to take insulin shots, this is caused
because

:   A\) his beta cells don't function correctly ANS= A
:   B\) his alpha cells don't function correctly
:   C\) his DA hormone isn't functioning correctly
:   D\) his GHRH hormone isn't functioning correctly

3\. The reason iodine is in salt is

:   A\) to prevent diabetes
:   B\) to prevent simple goiters
:   C\) to prevent addison's disease
:   D\) to prevent cushing syndrome

4\. All hormones react to a negative feedback except

:   A\) progesterone
:   B\) estrogen
:   C\) prolactin
:   D\) oxytocin
:   E\) none of these ANS =E

5\. If I have a high blood calcium level it may be due to

:   A\) calcitonin
:   B\) parathyroid
:   C\) glucocorticoids
:   D\) glucagon

6\. Hormones that are lipids that are synthesized from cholesterol

:   A\) protien
:   B\) amino acid-derived
:   C\) polypeptide
:   D\) steroids ANS =D
:   E\) eicosanoids

7\. This type of hormone must bind to a receptor protein on the plasma
membrane of the cell

:   A\) water soluble
:   B\) lipid soluble ANS=E
:   C\) steroid
:   D\) polypeptide
:   E\) a and d
:   F\) b and c

8\. Endocrine glands release hormones in response to

:   A\) Hormones from other endocrine glands ANS =C
:   B\) Chemical characteristics of the blood
:   C\) Neural stimulation
:   D\) All of the above

9\. The anterior pituitary secretes

:   A\) oxytocin
:   B\) endorphins
:   C\) ADH ANS C
:   D\) TRH

10\. Chief cells produce

:   A\) epinephrine
:   B\) glucagon
:   C\) insulin ANS A
:   D\) mineralocoticoids
:   E\) parathyroid hormone

11\. Name the eight major endocrine glands.

;

  PITUITARY GLAND     FOLLICIL STIMULATING HORMONE,LUTEINIZING STIMULATING HORMONE,THYROID STIMULATING HORMONE ,ADRENOCORTICORTITROPIC HORMONE ,PROLACTIN, GROWTH HORMONE
  ------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- -- --
  THYROID GLAND       PRODUCES THYROXIN &CALCITON
  PARATHYROID GLAND   PRODUCES PARATHYROID HORMONE
  ADRENAL GLAND       PRODUCES ALDOSTERONE ,CORTISOL ,ADRENALINE \[EPINEPHRINE\]

  PINEAL GLAND     MELATONIN
  ---------------- --------------------------------------- -- --
  PANCREAS         PRODUCES INSULIN AND GLUCAGON
  TESTES/OVARIES   TESTOSTERONE ,OESTROGEN &PROGESTERONE

\*Pituitary gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid gland, pancreas, testes/ovaries, adrenal gland, pineal gland

12\. Name the four major groups hormones can be chemically classified
into.

;

  STEROIDS   TESTOSTERONE,ESTROGEN
  ---------- ----------------------- -- --

\*Amino acid-derived, polypeptides/proteins, steroids, eicosanoids, glycoprotein, amines

## The male reproductive system

1\. This is needed to make immature sperm mature

:   A\) FHS
:   B\) LH
:   C\) FSH
:   D\) HL

2\. These become engorged with blood in an erection

:   A\) corpora cavernosa
:   B\) fibrous envelope
:   C\) septum pectiniforme
:   D\) integument
:   E\) dorsal veins

3\. The difference between male and female sperm

:   A\) female sperm have a larger head
:   B\) male sperm are lighter
:   C\) female sperm are faster
:   D\) male sperm are weaker
:   E\) A and B
:   F\) C and D

4\. The entire process of sperm formation takes about

:   A\) 5-6 weeks
:   B\) 7-8 weeks
:   C\) 3-4 weeks
:   D\) 9-10 weeks

5\. Hyper Activation occurs when

:   A\) the sperm are introduced into the urethra
:   B\) the sperm are ejaculated into the vaginal canal
:   C\) the sperm begin to interact with the fertilizing layer of an egg
    cell
:   D\) the sperm reach the cervix

6\. It takes sperm \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ weeks to travel through the
epididymis

:   A\) 6-8
:   B\) 1-3
:   C\) 2-4
:   D\) 4-6

7\. While singing in the choir, Ben suddenly notices his voice is
constantly cracking. This is caused by

:   A\) androgens
:   B\) LH
:   C\) FSH
:   D\) Ben's inability to sing

8\. In sexual homology, the glans penis in the male is equal to
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ in the female

:   A\) clitoral hood
:   B\) clitoris
:   C\) clitoral glans
:   D\) clitoral crura

9\. In sexual homology, the \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ in the male is equal
to the fallopian tubes in the female

:   A\) testis
:   B\) appendix testis
:   C\) vas deferens
:   D\) seminal vesicle
:   E\) efferent ducts

10\. Joe has a bulge in the groin area that seems to get worse when he
lifts things. This most likely is

:   A\) epididymitis
:   B\) testicular cancer
:   C\) varicocele
:   D\) hydrocele
:   E\) inguinal hernia

## The female reproductive system

1\. In homology, the \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ in the female is equal to the
penis in the male

:   A\) labia majora
:   B\) clitoral hood
:   C\) clitoris
:   D\) labia minora
:   E\) none of the above

2\. This contains some of the strongest muscles in the human body

:   A\) uterus
:   B\) clitoris
:   C\) cervix
:   D\) labia majora

3\. This protects the vaginal and urethral openings

:   A\) labia majora
:   B\) labia minora
:   C\) clitoris
:   D\) urethra

4\. Sally has noticed that her cervical mucus has changed and now
resembles egg whites- from this Sally could assume

:   A\) her period will begin soon
:   B\) nothing, this is a normal occurrence
:   C\) she has a yeast infection
:   D\) she is ovulating

5\. Debbie recently went to the OBGYN and was diagnosed with PCOD
(polycystic ovary syndrome) because of this she has

:   A\) nothing, its normal in women
:   B\) antisperm antibodies
:   C\) an overproduction of LH
:   D\) leaking of milk from her mammary glands
:   E\) problems becoming pregnant

6\. Angie went to the doctor because she has had pain in her leg
recently- this could be caused by

:   A\) ovulation pain
:   B\) her period that will be starting tomorrow
:   C\) premenstrual syndrome
:   D\) a blood clot resulting from her birth control pill

7\. Sue recently started her period and has noticed that they are very
heavy and painful, and that they are inconsistent in their timing. One
explanation could be

:   A\) endometriosis
:   B\) ovarian cancer
:   C\) candidiasis
:   D\) toxic shock syndrome
:   E\) amenorrhea

8\. Mary is getting married and is not ready to become a mother- she
chooses this birth control because of its high effectiveness

:   A\) natural family planning
:   B\) a diaphragm
:   C\) contraceptive injections
:   D\) a spermicide foam

9\. The release of LH in woman causes

:   A\) menstration
:   B\) ovulation
:   C\) increase of endometrial lining
:   D\) decrease of endometrial lining
:   E\) nothing LH only does something in the male reproductive system

10\. When the ovaries stop producing estrogen, this occurs

:   A\) ovulation
:   B\) implantation
:   C\) premenstrual syndrome
:   D\) menopause

11\. Infertility affects what percentage of couples?

:   A\) 5%
:   B\) 10%
:   C\) 15%
:   D\) 20%

12\. What is the only 100% effective form of birth control?

:   A\) Tubal ligation
:   B\) IUD
:   C\) Natural family planning
:   D\) Abstinence

## Pregnancy and birth

1\. Is at this stage that an egg implants in the uterine lining

:   A\) morula
:   B\) zygote
:   C\) blastocyst
:   D\) embryoblast

2\. Which part of the embryoblast will become the central nervous system
in development

:   A\) ectoderm
:   B\) mesoderm
:   C\) endoderm

3\. This hormone is only produced in the human body when a woman is
pregnant

:   A\) estrogen
:   B\) HCG
:   C\) progesterone
:   D\) FSH
:   E\) LH

4\. By this week of pregnancy, the beginnings of all major organs have
formed

:   A\) 4
:   B\) 7
:   C\) 5
:   D\) 6
:   E\) 8

5\. Stem cells are found in the embryoblast and use of them is very
controversial, another place to find stem cells that are usable to treat
leukemia and other disorders is the

:   A\) morula
:   B\) chorion
:   C\) amnion
:   D\) amniotic fluid
:   E\) umbilical cord

6\. The cervix dilates on an average of \_\_\_\_\_\_ per hour in the
active phase of labor

:   A\) 2 mm
:   B\) 2 cm
:   C\) 1mm
:   D\) 1 cm

7\. The contractions of the uterus are stimulated by the release of

:   A\) oytocin
:   B\) FSH
:   C\) LH
:   D\) prolactin
:   E\) estrogen

8\. A sign of pre-labor is

:   A\) irregular contractions
:   B\) pain in the front only
:   C\) loss of the mucus plug
:   D\) contractions stop during rest

9\. This is the most common complication of pregnancy

:   A\) preclampcia
:   B\) miscarriage
:   C\) smoking
:   D\) Rh factor
:   E\) teratogens

10\. Sue decides to breastfeed because she has been told that colostrum
contains

:   A\) high protein
:   B\) low fat
:   C\) immunoglobulins
:   D\) all of the above
:   E\) none of the above

11\. What is the first milk, after birth, called?

:   A\) thrush
:   B\) mastitis
:   C\) colostrum
:   D\) milk let down

## Genetics and inheritance

1\. DNA is found on

:   A\) mitochondria
:   B\) ribosomes
:   C\) chromosomes
:   D\) cytoplasm

2\. Even though each cell has identical copies of all of the same genes,
different cells \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ or \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ different
genes

:   A\) express, repress
:   B\) genotype, phenotype
:   C\) dominate, recessive

3\. In diploid organisms, a dominant allele on one chromosome will

:   A\) show the expression of a recessive allele
:   B\) mask the expression of a recessive allele
:   C\) show that there are dominant alleles on both chromosomes
:   D\) none of the above

4\. Transcription occurs in the

:   A\) cytoplasm
:   B\) gogli apparatus
:   C\) mitochondria
:   D\) nucleus

5\. This is the start codon and is found at the beginning of each mRNA

:   A\) AGU
:   B\) GAU
:   C\) UAG
:   D\) GUA
:   E\) AUG

6\. Sara was born with cystic fibrosis, from this we could assume that

:   A\) all of her siblings also have cystic fibrosis
:   B\) only her dad is a carrier
:   C\) only her mom is a carrier
:   D\) both of her parents are carriers

7\. Jesse was born with a flattened face, almond eyes and less muscle
tone; it could be assumed that he has

:   A\) a chromosome abnormality on chromosome 21
:   B\) a chromosome abnormality on chromosome 19
:   C\) a chromosome abnormality on chromosome 20
:   D\) a chromosome abnormality on chromosome 22
:   E\) No chromosome abnormality, these are his inherited traits

8\. The most common inherited disease is

:   A\) hemochromatosis
:   B\) cystic fibrosis
:   C\) sickle cell anemia
:   D\) hemophilia
:   E\) all of the above

9\. Being a carrier of sickle cell anemia means that the person will

:   A\) also be a carrier of hemophilia
:   B\) be resistant to malaria
:   C\) have children that all have sickle cell anemia
:   D\) have children that all have malaria
:   E\) none of the above

10\. Hemophilia is

:   A\) a Y linked disease
:   B\) an XY linked disease
:   C\) an X linked disease

## Development: birth through death

1\. Growth is the most rapid in

:   A\) puberty
:   B\) childhood
:   C\) infancy
:   D\) adulthood
:   E\) Growth is always the same

2\. This hormone stimulates puberty

:   A\) GnRH
:   B\) LH
:   C\) FSH
:   D\) TSH

3\. Compared to girls\' early growth spurt, growth
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_in boys and \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_

:   A\) is quicker, lasts longer
:   B\) accelerates more slowly, lasts longer
:   C\) is slower, shorter
:   D\) None of the above

4\. This quality symbolizes adulthood in most cultures

:   A\) stability
:   B\) method/tact
:   C\) endurance
:   D\) objectivity
:   E\) all of the above

5\. Susie has a very hard time keeping friends, according to Maslow,
this could be because

:   A\) as a child she had a supportive family
:   B\) she likes to help solve the problems of others
:   C\) as a teenager her self-esteem was low
:   D\) as a baby she wasn't breastfed
:   E\) as a child she lived in an environment that never made her feel
    safe

6\. According to Maslow, in order for me to reach my full potential of
self-actualization I must first

:   A\) feel safe
:   B\) gain self-esteem
:   C\) have friendship
:   D\) have food
:   E\) all of the above

7\. Humans are one of the \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ developing species in the
animal kingdom

:   A\) slowest
:   B\) quickest
:   C\) average
:   D\) none of the above

8\. Jenny thinks that she might be going through menopause, a symptom of
this is

:   A\) bleeding
:   B\) frequent urination
:   C\) itchiness
:   D\) none of the above
:   E\) all of the above

9\. It is estimated that 52 million people will be afflicted with this
by 2010

:   A\) Progeria
:   B\) osteoporosis
:   C\) Alzheimer's
:   D\) dementia

10\. This is the leading cause of death for both men and women

:   A\) progeria
:   B\) cancer
:   C\) congestive heart failure
:   D\) osteoporosis
:   E\) heart attack


# Wikijunior:Big Cats/Complete Edition

# INTRODUCTION

# Foreword

\

# Meet The Cats

\
= GREAT CATS =

# Lions

\
= Tigers = \
= Leopards = \
= Jaguars = \
= Snow Leopards = \
= Clouded Leopards =
\
= Marbled Cats = \
= SWIFT CATS =

# Cheetahs

\
= SMALL NEW WORLD CATS =

# Pumas

\
= Lynx and bobcats =
\
= Ocelots = \
= Margays = \
= Jaguarundis = \
= Rusty-spotted cats =
\
= SMALL OLD WORLD CATS =

# Caracals

\
= Servals = \
= Manuls = \
= Wild cats = \
= Sand cats = \
= HYBRIDS =

# Tigons and Ligers

\
= MORE TOPICS =

# How do cats raise their young?

\
= Fossil History =
\
= In Danger of Extinction =
\
= Keeping Cats = \

# Cat Classification

# Glossary


# Wikijunior:Big Cats/Marbled cat

\_\_NOTOC\_\_
![](Lydekker_-_Marbled_Cat.JPG "Lydekker_-_Marbled_Cat.JPG"){width="250"}
The **marbled cat** is the big cat that isn\'t big at all, only slightly
larger than a domestic cat. Scientists place it in the same closely
related group as the lion, tiger and leopard, the *Subfamily
Pantherinae*, and even though it\'s much smaller than the clouded
leopard it has the same long fangs and a very similar fur pattern.
Scientific examination of their blood (blood serum analysis) suggests
that they are similar in form to the forest ancestors of the big cats
some ten million years ago. However, they may have also decreased in
size more recently due to competition with other big cats.

## Where do marbled cats live?

!Places where marbled cats live are colored
blue.
The marbled cat may be found in the forests of the Malay peninsula,
Sumatra, Borneo and some neighboring small islands.

## What do marbled cats look like?

Marbled cats look similar to clouded leopards but they are smaller, have
shorter faces more like a domestic cat, and have a fuzzier tail. Its
beautiful, striking coat is pale brown, with irregular slightly darker
brown blotches sharply outlined in dark brown or black. Its long
cylindrical tail is full from rump to tip and carries its body pattern.

## What do marbled cats eat, and how do they catch their prey?

Marbled cats spend a great deal of time in the trees and it is likely
that they catch much of their prey there, hunting birds, squirrels,
rodents, frogs and reptiles. They have been seen hunting on the ground
on the island of Borneo, and this may be a local habit. Not much is
known about their habits because they are rare in the wild and there are
no specimens currently kept in zoos.

## Fun facts

-   Marbled cats make sounds similar to a domestic cat, but they purr
    rarely and their meow is somewhat like a twittering bird call.
-   The longest a marbled cat lived in captivity was 12 years.

## For more information

-    Wikipedia: Marbled cat

Cheetahs

de:Wikijunior Großkatzen/
Marmorkatze


# Wikijunior:Big Cats/Cheetah

\_\_NOTOC\_\_ !Two cheetahs
together.{width="250"}
**Cheetahs** are built for speed, with a whip-like spine, long legs, and
a long tail that acts as a rudder for sudden turns. They are the
world\'s fastest land animal (but the world's fastest animal is a bird
called a peregrine falcon). The cheetah can chase its prey for 274
meters (almost a sixth of a mile) at the speed of 114 kilometers (almost
71 miles per hour) per hour. Both the male and the female of the species
are referred to as \"cheetahs,\" unlike in the case of many other
animals. Cheetahs can generally live up to seven years.

## Where do cheetahs live?

!Places where cheetahs live are colored
green.
Today, most cheetahs are found in sub-Saharan Africa, though a few are
still seen in Iran. In the past, they used to be found throughout
northern India and Iran. They prefer to live in semi-deserts, savanna,
prairies, and thick brush. As they rely upon speed to hunt, they avoid
dense forests. Conservation efforts are required in order to avoid the
cheetah becoming an entry on the endangered species list. In India, the
forests in which many cheetahs live are not secured and they can leave
the forests and travel into cities or villages. In the last two or three
years, cheetahs have been found in these urban areas.

## What do cheetahs look like?

!Cheetahs used as hunters, Persia, early
1560s

Cheetahs are rather dog-like, medium-sized spotted cats with long legs
and slender, but muscular, bodies. They have a white belly, and a dark
stripe that looks like a tear on both sides of their faces. In contrast
to leopards, which have palmette shaped spots, cheetahs have round dark
spots on their fur. Adult cheetahs weigh from 40 to 65 kilograms (90 to
140 pounds), and are around 112 to 135 centimeters (four to five feet)
in length. Cheetahs are built to do what they do: *run*! Their long tail
provides them with balance. They have a big chest, a narrow waist, and
powerful muscles in their hind legs. They have small heads and muzzles;
large nostrils for increased oxygen intake; and small, round ears. All
of this makes the cheetah very sleek and aerodynamic when it runs.

## What do they eat, and how do they catch their prey?

Cheetahs mostly eat mammals like gazelles, impala, gnu calves, and
hares, which are all about the same size as, or smaller than an adult
cheetah.

Cheetahs stalk their prey until they are within about thirty meters, and
then give chase. The chase is usually over in less than a minute, and if
the cheetah doesn\'t catch its prey quickly, it will often give up
rather than waste energy. This is because cheetahs use a lot of energy
when chasing prey at such high speed. They are very fast runners due to
the build of their legs and about half of the chases are successful.

Cheetahs must eat their catch quickly or risk losing their food to other
stronger predators. They will not usually fight with a larger animal
over food as risking an injury would mean certain starvation.

Cheetahs are well-adapted to living in arid environments. In the
Kalahari desert, they have been estimated to travel an average of 82
kilometers (51 miles) between drinks of water. They have been seen
getting their water from the blood or urine of their prey or by eating
Tsamma melons.

## Fun facts

See how much you know about the world\'s fastest land mammal:

-   After running at full speed, a cheetah must rest at least 15 minutes
    before running again.
-   Cheetahs do not roar, but they make a number of very un-catlike
    sounds, many of which resemble bird chirps.
-   Cheetah sounds include purrs, bleats, barks, growls, hisses and
    chirps but the chirp can be heard at a distance of a mile away (more
    than 1.5 kilometers)!
-   Cheetahs were called leopards before leopards were! Earlier the word
    for Cheetah was \"leopard\", and the word for leopard was simply
    \"pard\". Cheetahs were called leo-pards then as a mix between
    \"leo\", Latin for lion, and \"pard\", then the name of leopards.
-   Apart from pumas, cheetahs
    are the only big cats that purr.
-   Many cheetah cubs are killed by a lack of food or their natural
    enemies: lions, leopards, and hyenas. An old African legend says the
    tear stain marks on the cheetah\'s face are from the mother weeping
    for her lost cubs.
-   Cheetahs do not usually eat the skin or bones of their prey.
-   Hyenas, leopards, and lions steal the cheetah\'s prey after the
    cheetah has killed it.

## For more information

-    Wikipedia: Cheetah

Pumas

ca:Viquijúnior:Grans
felins/Guepard
de:Wikijunior Großkatzen/
Gepard fr:Wikijunior:Les
félins/Les guépards
it:Wikijunior_Grandi_felini/Ghepardo


# Wikijunior:Big Cats/Rusty spotted cat

\_\_NOTOC\_\_

**Rusty spotted cats** are the smallest members of the cat family.

## Where do rusty spotted cats live?

!The range of the rusty-spotted cat appears in
green
Rusty spotted cats live in southern India and Sri Lanka. Those living in
India mostly live in tropical dry forests and dry grasslands, but in Sri
Lanka rainforests are the preferred habitat. This may be due to
competition with the Leopard Cat, which occupies the rainforests of the
mainland, but does not live in Sri Lanka.

## What do rusty spotted cats look like?

They are the smallest cats, with small, round ears, a body about 40 cm
in length, plus a relatively short 20 cm tail. The color of the fur is
gray, with rusty spots all over the back and the flanks. It is rather
similar to its close relative the Leopard Cat. They weigh from three to
four pounds.

## What do rusty spotted cats eat, and how do they catch their prey?

Rusty spotted cats hunt at night, looking for rodents, birds and
lizards. They are known to make a meal of domestic poultry when the
opportunity arises.They are popular as pets to control mice and rats

## For more information

-    Wikipedia: Rusty-spotted
    cat

Caracals

de:Wikijunior Großkatzen/
Rostkatze


# Wikijunior:Big Cats/Sand cat

\_\_NOTOC\_\_ !A sand cat **Sand cats** are
the other extreme cat, taking the desert heat the way the snow leopard
takes the icy cold.

## Where do sand cats live?

As its name implies, the sand cat is commonly found in sandy desert
areas in the arid countries of Northern Africa, Arabia, and parts of
Central Asia and Pakistan.

## What do sand cats look like?

The sand cat's body is well adapted to desert life - its thick, medium
length fur insulates it against the extreme cold of the desert nights
and its feet and pads are covered with long hair which protects them
from the heat of the desert during the day and gives it extra support
needed in moving across the soft, shifting sands. The large triangular
ears are very sensitive to sound.

## What do sand cats eat, and how do they catch their prey?

The sand cat hunts at night, spending the hottest part of the day
sleeping under rough scrubby vegetation or a shallow burrow dug into the
sand. At sunset the cat will become active, moving away from its den in
search of prey. Its diet is known to include small rodents such as
gerbil and jerboas, insects, reptiles, including venomous desert snakes
and birds but they occasionally catch larger prey. They can do this due
to their great hearing and eyesight.

## Fun facts

See how much you know about the sand cat:

-   Sand cats have a low-pitched meow, but can also bark to communicate
    at long distances.
-   Most sand cats never drink water due to them getting all their
    moisture from their prey.
-   This cat also tends to chase its tail when it gets bored or nervous.
-   They eat jerboa.

## For more information

-    Wikipedia: Sand cat

Ligers

de:Wikijunior Großkatzen/
Sandkatze


# Wikijunior:Big Cats/Tigards

The tigard is a rare feline species that comes from a male tiger and a
female leopard. When people tried to cross the tiger and the female
leopard the cubs that were born died.

There have only been two attempts for crossing this two species:

In the year 1900 Carl Hagenbeck crossed this two species but he failed
and the cubs died when they were born, the cubs had many rosettes, some
spots and a few stripes. In the year 1951 the book \'Mammalian Hybrids\'
reported that a male tiger and two female leopards from India had cubs
but the cubs were born premature and they had the size of a small mouse
or a walnut.


# Wikijunior:Big Cats/In danger of extinction

\_\_NOTOC\_\_

## Extinction is Forever

!A photo of an extinct Bali
tiger Some big cats
throughout history have become extinct because they were replaced with
newer species better suited to the environment. The Sabretooth
(*Smilodon fatalis*) is one example of a large Ice-Age predator that
died out because the large prey it needed retreated with the glaciers.
Pumas and jaguars now roam where the mighty Sabertooth once ruled.
Natural extinction is part of the grand drama of life on Earth. However,
many more cat species are in danger of dying out due to unnatural
extinction, the killing of an entire species by man for reasons having
nothing to do with fitness for survival. These species are not replaced
with newer ones, their death merely leaves a hole in the fabric of life
on Earth.

## Predation

Many big cats have been killed because they either compete with humans
for the same prey animals or because they occasionally attack
human-raised livestock. Some big cats that become too weak to hunt their
own natural prey find domestic livestock much simpler to acquire. Other
big cats develop a taste for livestock out of sheer opportunity. There
are times when control of individual predators, through moving or
killing, appear to be justified. However there is a much more dangerous
approach to predator control where an entire population or even an
entire species is classified as a \"pest\" and open to *extermination*.

Extermination is an attempt to kill every last individual of a
population or species. There were times when pumas were targeted for
extermination in large areas of the American west. Bobcats and jaguars
have also been targets of extermination. These days most governments in
the world agree that extermination is not a good way to control cats,
but sometimes local peoples ignore laws designed to protect species from
extermination.

## Sport Hunting

The majority of people in western countries no longer give big game
hunters the same respect they once held in the writings of Ernest
Hemmingway. The cheetah, which was once abundant in India, was hunted to
complete extinction there. The Mughal emperor Akbar killed nearly 1000
cheetahs during his lifetime when the number of cheetahs was already
declining. The Asian lion met with the same fate.

Most outdoorsmen no longer seek trophies for their mantles and entrance
halls. However, a number of people still consider locating, outwitting,
and defeating large predators to be the ultimate test of courage and a
satisfying form of enjoying the out of doors. This practice is losing
popularity, though. In all fairness, it should be said that sport
hunters support laws and practices that benefit wildlife.

In the United States, wildlife populations have increased within the
past century. This is largely due to funds generated via an excise tax
on hunting equipment known as the Pittman-Robertson Act. In addition,
sportsmen contribute hundreds of millions of dollars each year to
wildlife conservation through sporting organizations that benefit all
wildlife.

## Poaching

People who defy existing laws to kill predators for money, animal parts,
or personal reasons are called poachers. As outlaws, many poachers are
dangerous people who are willing to protect their livelihood through
violent means. Famous conservation leaders George Adamson and Diane
Fossey were killed by poachers who saw them as a threat. Stopping
poaching is very difficult because most big cat habitat is remote land
that is difficult to patrol and exists in some of the world\'s poorest
countries without many law enforcement resources. The most effective way
to curb poaching is to reduce the demand for the products they provide.

## Folk Medicines

A number of people believe, without any scientific evidence, that folk
medicines made from parts of big cats can treat or even cure certain
illnesses and conditions. Belief in sympathetic magic, that
like-causes-like, leads people to seek the attributes they most admire
about big cats by using parts of their bodies. People seeking courage,
strength, or a greater capacity for physical intimacy attempt to acquire
those things through eating, drinking, applying or wearing parts of the
animals that are supposed to possess those traits. For nearly everything
supposedly treatable with feline folk medicines, there are effective,
safe and proven remedies available in modern medicine.

## The Fur Trade

The soft, warm, boldly patterned *pelts* (skins with fur) of big cats
were long considered the ultimate expression of fashion and
extravagance. Even today, most fashion items made with real fur come
from carnivores such as bobcats and mink. Those legal for sale are
produced from animals raised on fur farms rather than taken from the
wild. The vast majority of natural leopard, ocelot, lynx and jaguar furs
are banned on the international market by laws protecting endangered
species.

## Habitat Loss

!Habitat loss is the silent
killer Habitat
loss is the silent killer. An animal\'s habitat is an area where it can
live, and for most large predators that means cover, adequate prey,
freedom of movement, and water. Due to their predatory lifestyle, most
big cats require large areas of land without many manmade barriers where
they can hunt and raise young unmolested.

Uncontrolled development of wild areas, including such wasteful
practices as slash-and-burn agriculture, reduce the number of places
where big cats can survive and thrive. To some degree protected areas
known as Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries help preserve endangered species
habitat.

However in many poor countries there is not adequate law enforcement to
prevent poaching or illegal development of land inside park boundaries.
In addition, animals need more land than the human race can afford to
protect in parks.

More enlightened use of habitat by man can increase the number of big
cats and preserve their genetic diversity. For instance, a timber
plantation can provide both high quality wood and habitat for predators
and their prey. Using *sustainable management* techniques, land can
provide a never-ending source of quality wood products while continuing
to preserve wildlife.

## It Is Up To You

As someone interested in big cats, you can make your love of big cats
known through the way you vote, your lifestyle, and your charitable
giving. Governments can only do so much to help stop extinction. For big
cats to be saved, they must be saved by all of us working together.
Learn what you can do about the challenges facing your favorite animals,
and get involved. Always remember: \"We appreciate what we understand
and save what we appreciate.\"

Cats
 de:Wikijunior Großkatzen/ Die Gefahr des
Aussterbens


# Wikijunior:Big Cats/Classification

Scientists classify all living things into different groups. This helps
to see what some animals have in common and how related some animals
are. It is like building a family tree for living things. They classify
cats as well. All cats are in the family Felidae.

In English, a Puma may be called a cougar in one place or a mountain
lion somewhere else. Animals also have different names in other
languages like Russian, Greek and Spanish. To prevent confusion,
scientists agree on a single Latin name for each animal. Some early
humans did draw pictures of mammoths, mastodons, and European cave
lions, but any common names for these extinct animals are forgotten.
That\'s why many fossil big cats have an odd scientific name like
*Miraconyx inexpectatus* instead of a short, graceful name like
*Cheetah*.

Below is a list of the classification of the cats in this book.

Kingdom: Animalia (Animals)

:   Phylum: Chordata (Animals with spinal cords)

    :   Subphylum: Vertebrata (Vertebrates)

        :   Class: Mammalia (Mammals)

            :   Order: Carnivora (most Carnivorous Mammals)

                :   Family: Felidae (Cats)

                    :   Subfamily **Acinonychinae**

                        :   Genus *Acinonyx*

                            :   Cheetah, *Acinonyx jubatus*
                    :   Subfamily **Felinae**

                        :   Genus *Caracal*

                            :   Caracal, *Caracal caracal*
                        :   Genus *Felis*

                            :   Wild Cat, *Felis silvestris* (of which
                                the domestic cat is a subspecies)
                            :   Sand Cat, *Felis margarita*
                        :   Genus *Herpailurus*

                            :   Jaguarundi, *Herpailurus yaguarondi*
                        :   Genus *Leopardus*

                            :   Ocelot, *Leopardus pardalis*
                            :   Margay, *Leopardus wiedii*
                        :   Genus *Leptailurus*

                            :   Serval, *Leptailurus serval*
                        :   Genus *Lynx*

                            :   Eurasian Lynx, *Lynx lynx*
                            :   Iberian Lynx, *Lynx pardinus*
                            :   Canadian Lynx, *Lynx canadensis*
                            :   Bobcat, *Lynx rufus*
                        :   Genus *Otocolobus*

                            :   Pallas Cat, *Otocolobus manul*
                        :   Genus *Prionailurus*

                            :   Rusty-spotted Cat, *Prionailurus
                                rubiginosus*
                        :   Genus *Puma*

                            :   Puma, *Puma concolor*
                    :   Subfamily **Pantherinae**

                        :   Genus *Neofelis*

                            :   Clouded Leopard, *Neofelis nebulosa*
                        :   Genus *Panthera*

                            :   Lion, *Panthera leo*
                            :   Tiger, *Panthera tigris*
                            :   Leopard, *Panthera pardus*
                            :   Jaguar, *Panthera onca*
                            :   Liger, *Panthera × leogris* (hybrid)
                            :   Tigon, *Panthera × tigreo* (hybrid)
                        :   Genus *Pardofelis*

                            :   Marbled Cat, *Pardofelis marmorata*
                        :   Genus *Uncia*

                            :   Snow Leopard, *Uncia uncia*

## For more information

Felidae

Next Topic: Glossary of Terms


# Non-Programmer's Tutorial for Python 3/Front matter

All example Python source code in this tutorial is granted to the public
domain. Therefore you may modify it and relicense it under any license
you please. Since you are expected to learn programming, the Creative
Commons Attribution-ShareAlike license would require you to keep all
programs that are derived from the source code in this tutorial under
that license. Since the Python source code is granted to the public
domain, that requirement is waived.

This tutorial is more or less a conversion of Non-Programmer\'s
Tutorial for Python
2.6. Older
versions and some versions in Korean, Spanish, Italian and Greek are
available from
<http://jjc.freeshell.org/easytut/>

The *Non-Programmers\' Tutorial For Python 3* is a tutorial designed to
be an introduction to the Python programming language. Originally, this
guide is for someone with no programming experience. However, it does
take a few shortcuts here and there. If you\'re confused at some point,
try one of the other Python tutorials linked below. Be sure to come back
to improve this Wikibook though! ;-)

If you have programmed in other languages I recommend the Python
Tutorial for Programmers
written by Guido van Rossum.

If you have any questions or comments please use the discussion pages or
see Authors
page for author contact information. I welcome questions and comments
about this tutorial. I will try to answer any questions you have as best
I can.

Thanks go to James A. Brown for writing most of the Windows install
info. Thanks also to Elizabeth Cogliati for complaining enough :) about
the original tutorial (that is almost unusable for a non-programmer),
for proofreading, and for many ideas and comments on it. Thanks to Joe
Oppegaard for writing almost all the exercises. Thanks to everyone I
have missed.

### Other resources

-   Python Home Page
-   Python 3 Documentation
-   Official Python tutorial
-   A Byte of Python by Swaroop C
    H
-   Another free beginners Python tutorial (Python
    Land)
-   Porting to Python 3: An in-depth guide

ca:Python 3 per a no
programadors/Prefaci
id:Panduan Python 3 untuk
Non-Pemrogram/Pendahuluan


# Non-Programmer's Tutorial for Python 3/Intro

### First things first

So, you\'ve never programmed before. As we go through this tutorial, I
will attempt to teach you how to program. There really is only one way
to learn to program. **You** must read *code* and write *code* (as
computer programs are often called). I\'m going to show you lots of
code. You should type in code that I show you to see what happens. Play
around with it and make changes. The worst that can happen is that it
won\'t work. When I type in code it will be formatted like this:

``` python
# Python is easy to learn
print("Hello, World!")
```

That\'s so it is easy to distinguish from the other text. If you\'re
reading this on the Web, you\'ll notice the code is in color \-- that\'s
just to make it stand out, and to make the different parts of the code
stand out from each other. The code you enter will probably not be
colored, or the colors may be different, but it won\'t affect the code
as long as you enter it the same way as it\'s printed here.

If the computer prints something out it will be formatted like this:

`Hello, World!`

(Note that printed text goes to your screen, and does not involve paper.
Before computers had screens, the output of computer programs would be
printed on paper.)

Note that this is a Python 3 tutorial, which means that most of the
examples will not work in Python 2.7 and before. As well, all but a
small number of the extra Python 2.7 libraries (third-party libraries)
have been converted to Python 3. Most likely you will want to learn
Python 3, but if you are learning Python for a specific package or set
of modules that are only written in Python 2.7, you may want to consider
learning from the Non-Programmer\'s Tutorial for Python
2.6. However, the
differences between Python 2 and 3 are not particularly large, so if you
learn one, you should be able to read programs written for the other
without much difficulty.

There will often be a mixture of the text you type (which is shown in
**bold**) and the text the program prints to the screen, which would
look like this:

`Halt!`\
`Who Goes there? `**`Josh`**\
`You may pass, Josh`

(Some of the tutorial has not been converted to this format. Since this
is a wiki, you can convert it when you find it.)

I will also introduce you to the terminology of programming - for
example, that programming is often referred to as *coding* or *hacking*.
This will not only help you understand what programmers are talking
about, but also help the learning process.

Now, on to more important things. In order to program in Python you need
the Python 3 software. If you don\'t already have the Python software go
to www.python.org/download and get
the proper version for your platform. Download it, read the instructions
and get it installed.

### Installing Python

For Python programming you need a working Python installation and a text
editor. Python comes with its own editor, *IDLE*, which is quite nice
and totally sufficient for the beginning. As you get more into
programming, you will probably switch to some other editor like `nano`,
`emacs`, `vi` or another.

The Python download page is <http://www.python.org/download>. The most
recent version is Python 3.11.5 (as of October 2023); **Python 2.7 and
older versions will not work with this tutorial.** There are various
different installation files for different computer platforms available
on the download site. Here are some specific instructions for the most
common operating systems:

#### Linux, BSD, and Unix users

You are probably lucky and Python is already installed on your machine.
To test it type `python3` on a command line. If you see something like
what is shown in the following section,
you are set.

IDLE may need to be installed separately, from its own package such as
`idle3` or as part of `python-tools`.

If you have to install Python, first try to use the operating system\'s
package manager or go to the repository where your packages are
available and get Python 3. Python 3.0 was released in December 2008;
all distributions should have Python 3 available, so you may not need to
compile it from scratch. Ubuntu and Fedora do have Python 3 binary
packages available, but they are not yet the default, so they need to be
installed specially.

Roughly, here are the steps to compile Python from source code in Unix
(If these totally don\'t make sense, you may want to read another
introduction to \*nix, such as Introduction to
Linux):

-   Download the .tgz file (use your Web browser to get the gzipped tar
    file from
    <https://www.python.org/ftp/python/3.7.4/Python-3.7.4.tgz>)
-   Uncompress the tar file (put in the correct path to where you
    downloaded it):

`$ tar -xvzf ~/Download/Python-3.7.4.tgz`\
*`... list of files as they are uncompressed`*

-   Change to the directory and tell the computer to compile and install
    the program

`$ cd Python-3.7/`\
`$ ./configure --prefix=$HOME/python3_install`\
*`... lots of output. Watch for error messages here ...`*\
`$ make`\
*`... even more output. Hopefully no error messages ...`*\
`$ make install`

-   Add Python 3 to your path. You can test it first by specifying the
    full path. You should add \$HOME/python3_install/bin to your PATH
    bash variable.

`$ ~/python3_install/bin/python3`\
`Python 3.7.4 (... size and date information ...)`\
`[GCC 9.1.0] on linux`\
`Type "help", "copyright", "credits" or "license" for more information.`\
`>>>''`

The above commands will install Python 3 to your home directory, which
is probably what you want, but if you skip the
`--prefix=$HOME/python3_install`, it will install it to `/usr/local`. If
you want to use the IDLE graphical code editor, you need to make sure
that the `tk` and `tcl` libraries, together with their development
files, are installed on the system. You will get a warning during the
`make` phase if these are not available.

#### Mac users

Starting from Mac OS X Tiger (10.4), versions of Python 2 shipped with
the operating system by default, but you will need to also install
Python 3 unless Mac OS starts including Python 3 (check the version by
starting `python3` in a command line terminal). Also IDLE (the Python
editor) might be missing in the standard installation. If you want to
(re-)install Python, get the Mac OS installer from the Python download
site.

#### Windows users

Download the appropriate Windows installer (the x86 MSI
installer, if
you do not have a 64-bit AMD or Intel chip). Start the installer by
double-clicking it and follow the prompts.

See <https://docs.python.org/3/using/windows.html#installing-python> for
more information.

##### Configuring your PATH environment variable

The PATH environment variable is a list of folders, separated by
semicolons, in which Windows will look for a program whenever you try to
execute one by typing its name at a Command Prompt. You can see the
current value of your PATH by typing this command at a Command Prompt:

`echo %PATH%`

The easiest way to permanently change environment variables is to bring
up the built-in environment variable editor in Windows. How you get to
this editor is slightly different on different versions of Windows.

**On Windows 8** or **Windows 10**: Press the Windows key and type
*Control Panel* to locate the Windows Control Panel. Once you\'ve opened
the Control Panel, select View by: Large Icons, then click on *System*.
In the window that pops up, click the *Advanced System Settings* link,
then click the *Environment Variables\...* button.

**On Windows 7** or **Vista**: Click the Start button in the lower-left
corner of the screen, move your mouse over *Computer*, right-click, and
select *Properties* from the pop-up menu. Click the *Advanced System
Settings* link, then click the *Environment Variables\...* button.

Once you\'ve brought up the environment variable editor, you\'ll do the
same thing regardless of which version of Windows you\'re running. Under
*System Variables* in the bottom half of the editor, find a variable
called `PATH`. If there is is one, select it and click *Edit\...*.
Assuming your Python root is `C:\Python37`, add these two folders to
your path (and make sure you get the semicolons right; there should be a
semicolon between each folder in the list):

`C:\Python37`\
`C:\Python37\Scripts`

Note: If you want to double-click and start your Python programs from a
Windows folder and not have the console window disappear, you can add
the following code to the bottom of each script:

``` python
#stops console from exiting
end_prog = ""
while end_prog != "q":
        end_prog = input("type q to quit")
```

### Interactive Mode

Go into IDLE (also called the Python GUI). You should see a window that
has some text like this:

    Python 3.0 (r30:67503, Dec 29 2008, 21:31:07)
    [GCC 4.3.2 20081105 (Red Hat 4.3.2-7)] on linux2
    Type "copyright", "credits" or "license()" for more information.

        ****************************************************************
        Personal firewall software may warn about the connection IDLE
        makes to its subprocess using this computer's internal loopback
        interface.  This connection is not visible on any external
        interface and no data is sent to or received from the Internet.
        ****************************************************************

    IDLE 3.0
    >>>

The `>>>` is Python\'s way of telling you that you are in interactive
mode. In interactive mode what you type is immediately run. Try typing
`1+1` in. Python will respond with `2`. Interactive mode allows you to
test out and see what Python will do. If you ever feel you need to play
with new Python statements, go into interactive mode and try them out.

### Creating and Running Programs

Go into IDLE if you are not already. In the menu at the top, select
*File* then *New File*. In the new window that appears, type the
following:

``` python
print("Hello, World!")
```

Now save the program: select *File* from the menu, then *Save*. Save it
as \"`hello.py`\" (you can save it in any folder you want). Now that it
is saved it can be run.

Next run the program by going to *Run* then *Run Module* (or if you have
an older version of IDLE use *Edit* then *Run script*). This will output
`Hello, World!` on the *\*Python Shell\** window.

For a more in-depth introduction to IDLE, a longer tutorial with
screenshots can be found at
<http://hkn.eecs.berkeley.edu/~dyoo/python/idle_intro/index.html>.

#### Program file names

It is very useful to stick to some rules regarding the file names of
Python programs. Otherwise some things *might* go wrong unexpectedly.
These don\'t matter as much for programs, but you can have weird
problems if you don\'t follow them for module names (modules will be
discussed later).

1.  Always save the program with the extension `.py`. Do not put another
    dot anywhere else in the file name.
2.  Only use standard characters for file names: letters, numbers, dash
    (`-`) and underscore (`_`).
3.  White space (\"\") should not be used at all (use underscores
    instead).
4.  Do not use anything other than a letter (particularly no numbers!)
    at the beginning of a file name.
5.  Do not use \"non-English\" characters (such as `å`, `ɓ`, `ç`, `ð`,
    `é`, `õ`, `ü`) in your file names---or, even better, do not use them
    at all when programming.
6.  Do not use module names for file names (such as `print.py`,
    `math.py`, `list.py`)

### Using Python from the command line

If you don\'t want to use Python from the command line, you don\'t have
to, just use IDLE. To get into interactive mode just type `python3`
without any arguments. To run a program, create it with a text editor
(Emacs has a good Python mode) and then run it with
`python3 `*`program_name`*.

#### Running Python Programs in \*nix

If you are using Unix (such as Linux, Mac OS, or BSD), if you make the
program executable with chmod, and have as the
first line:

``` python
#!/usr/bin/env python3
```

you can run the python program with `./hello.py` like any other command.

### Where to get help

At some point in your Python career you will probably get stuck and have
no clue about how to solve the problem you are supposed to work on. This
tutorial only covers the basics of Python programming, but there is a
lot of further information available.

#### Python documentation

First of all, Python is very well documented. There might even be copies
of these documents on your computer that came with your Python
installation:

-   The official Python 3 Tutorial
    by Guido van Rossum is often a good starting point for general
    questions.
-   For questions about standard modules (you will learn what these are
    later), the Python 3 Library
    Reference is the place to look.
-   If you really want to get to know something about the details of the
    language, the Python 3 Reference
    Manual is comprehensive but
    quite complex for beginners.

#### Python user community

There are a lot of other Python users out there, and usually they are
nice and willing to help you. This very active user community is
organised mostly through mailing lists and a newsgroup:

-   The tutor mailing
    list is for folks
    who want to ask questions regarding how to learn computer
    programming with the Python language.
-   The python-help mailing
    list is
    python.org\'s help desk. You can ask a group of knowledgeable
    volunteers questions about all your Python problems.
-   The Python newsgroup comp.lang.python
    (Google groups
    archive) is the
    place for general Python discussions, questions and the central
    meeting point of the community.
-   Python wiki has a list of local user
    groups, you can join
    the group mailing list and ask questions. You can also participate
    in the user group meetings.
-   LearnPython subreddit is
    another location where beginner level questions can be asked.

In order not to reinvent the wheel and discuss the same questions again
and again, people will appreciate very much if you *do a web search for
a solution to your problem before contacting these lists!*

###### Using python online

If you don\'t want to download python, or you are using a computer that
you cannot download programs on, such as a chromebook, you can use one
of the many available online python editors.

ca:Python 3 per a no
programadors/Introducció
id:Panduan Python 3 untuk
Non-Pemrogram/Pengantar


# Non-Programmer's Tutorial for Python 3/Hello, World

### What you should know

Once you\'ve read and mastered this chapter, you should know how to edit
programs in a text editor or IDLE, save them to the hard disk, and run
them once they have been saved.

### Printing

Programming tutorials since the beginning of time have started with a
little program called \"Hello, World!\"[^1] So here it is:

``` python
print("Hello, World!")
```

If you are using the command line to run programs then type it in with a
text editor, save it as `hello.py` and run it with `python3 hello.py`

Otherwise go into IDLE, create a new window, and create the program as
in section Creating and Running
Programs.

When you run this program, the output will look as follows:

`Hello, World!`

Now I\'m not going to tell you this every time, but when I show you a
program, I recommend that you type it yourself and run it (as opposed to
copy/pasting it). I tend to learn and internalize the learning material
better when I type it in, and you will probably too!

Now here is a more complicated program:

``` python
print("Jack and Jill went up a hill")
print("to fetch a pail of water;")
print("Jack fell down, and broke his crown,")
print("and Jill came tumbling after.")
print("hello python.")
print("hello python 3.")
print("this is not c++ language")
```

When you run this program it prints out:

`Jack and Jill went up a hill`\
`to fetch a pail of water;`\
`Jack fell down, and broke his crown,`\
`and Jill came tumbling after.`

When the computer runs this program it first sees the line:

``` python
print("Jack and Jill went up a hill")
```

so the computer prints:

`Jack and Jill went up a hill`

Then the computer goes down to the next line and sees:

``` python
print("to fetch a pail of water;")
```

So the computer prints to the screen:

`to fetch a pail of water;`

The computer keeps looking at each line, follows the command and then
goes on to the next line. The computer keeps running commands until it
reaches the end of the program.

#### Terminology

Now is probably a good time to give you a bit of an explanation of what
is happening - and a little bit of programming terminology.

What we were doing above was using a *function* called `print`. The
function\'s name - `print` - is followed by parentheses containing zero
or more *arguments*. So in this example

``` python
print("Hello, World!")
```

there is one *argument*, which is `"Hello, World!"`. Note that this
argument is a group of characters enclosed in double quotes (\"\"). This
is commonly referred to as a *string of characters*, or *string*, for
short. Another example of a string is `"Jack and Jill went up a hill"`.
The combination of a function and parentheses with the arguments is a
*function call*.

A function and its arguments are one type of *statement* that python
has, so

``` python
print("Hello, World!")
```

is an example of a statement. Basically, you can think of a statement as
a single line in a program.

That\'s probably more than enough terminology for now.

#### \\n in Printing

`\n`, or newline in printing makes the strings after the \\n in a new
line, it is also an escape character, here is an example:

``` python
print("Hello, World!\nWhat should I do?")
```

Here is the output:

`Hello, World!`\
`What should I do?`

It can be used to put a bunch of strings that are supposed to be on
different lines into 1 print statement instead of making multiple print
statements

The print statement also sort of uses `\n` even if you do not use it for
example:

``` python
print("Hello, World!")
```

is actually

``` python
print("Hello, World!\n")
```

Well, there is a difference if you do it manually, but python actually
adds a newline \"behind the scenes\" at the end of the string

### Expressions

Here is another program:

``` python
print("2 + 2 is", 2 + 2)
print("3 * 4 is", 3 * 4)
print("100 - 1 is", 100 - 1)
print("(33 + 2) / 5 + 11.5 is", (33 + 2) / 5 + 11.5)
```

And here is the *output* when the program is run:

`2 + 2 is 4`\
`3 * 4 is 12`\
`100 - 1 is 99`\
`(33 + 2) / 5 + 11.5 is 18.5`

As you can see, Python can turn your thousand-dollar computer into a
five-dollar calculator.

#### Arithmetic expressions

In this example, the print function is followed by two arguments, with
each of the arguments separated by a comma. So with the first line of
the program

``` python
print("2 + 2 is", 2 + 2)
```

The first argument is the string `"2 + 2 is"` and the second argument is
the *arithmetic expression* `2 + 2`, which is one kind of *expression*.

What is important to note is that a string is printed as is (without the
enclosing double quotes), but an *expression* is *evaluated*, or
converted to its actual value.

Python has seven basic operations for numbers:

  Operation                Symbol   Example
  ------------------------ -------- -------------------------------
  Power (exponentiation)   `**`     `5 ** 2 == 25`
  Multiplication           `*`      `2 * 3 == 6`
  Division                 `/`      `14 / 3 == 4.666666666666667`
  Integer Division         `//`     `14 // 3 == 4`
  Remainder (modulo)       `%`      `14 % 3 == 2`
  Addition                 `+`      `1 + 2 == 3`
  Subtraction              `-`      `4 - 3 == 1`

Notice that there are two ways to do division, one that returns the
repeating decimal, and the other that can get the remainder and the
whole number. The order of operations is the same as in math:

-   parentheses `()`
-   exponents `**`
-   multiplication `*`, division `/`, integer division `//`, and
    remainder `%`
-   addition `+` and subtraction `-`

So use parentheses to structure your formulas when needed.

### Commenting in Python

Often in programming, you are doing something complicated and may not in
the future remember what you did. When this happens the program should
probably be commented. A *comment* is a note to you and other
programmers explaining what is happening. For example:

``` python
# Not quite PI, but a credible simulation
print(22 / 7)
```

Which outputs

`3.14285714286`

Notice that the comment starts with a hash: `#`. Comments are used to
communicate with others who read the program and your future self to
make clear what is complicated.

Note that any text can follow comment and that when the program is run,
the text after the `#` through to the end of that line is ignored. The
`#` does not have to be at the beginning of a new line:

``` python
# Output PI on the screen
print(22 / 7) # Well, just a good approximation
```

### Examples

Each chapter (eventually) will contain examples of the programming
features introduced in the chapter. You should at least look over them
and see if you understand them. If you don\'t, you may want to type them
in and see what happens. Mess around with them, change them and see what
happens.

**Denmark.py**

``` python
print("Something's rotten in the state of Denmark.")
print("                -- Shakespeare")
```

Output:

`Something's rotten in the state of Denmark.`\
`                -- Shakespeare`

**School.py**

``` python
# This is not quite true outside of USA
# and is based on my dim memories of my younger years
print("Firstish Grade")
print("1 + 1 =", 1 + 1)
print("2 + 4 =", 2 + 4)
print("5 - 2 =", 5 - 2)
print()
print("Thirdish Grade")
print("243 - 23 =", 243 - 23)
print("12 * 4 =", 12 * 4)
print("12 / 3 =", 12 / 3)
print("13 / 3 =", 13 // 3, "R", 13 % 3)
print()
print("Junior High")
print("123.56 - 62.12 =", 123.56 - 62.12)
print("(4 + 3) * 2 =", (4 + 3) * 2)
print("4 + 3 * 2 =", 4 + 3 * 2)
print("3 ** 2 =", 3 ** 2)
```

Output:

`Firstish Grade`\
`1 + 1 = 2`\
`2 + 4 = 6`\
`5 - 2 = 3`\
\
`Thirdish Grade`\
`243 - 23 = 220`\
`12 * 4 = 48`\
`12 / 3 = 4`\
`13 / 3 = 4 R 1`\
\
`Junior High`\
`123.56 - 62.12 = 61.44`\
`(4 + 3) * 2 = 14`\
`4 + 3 * 2 = 10`\
`3 ** 2 = 9`

### Exercises

1.  Write a program that prints your full name and your birthday as
    separate strings.
2.  Write a program that shows the use of all 7 arithmetic
    operations.

------------------------------------------------------------------------

#### Footnotes

```{=html}
<references/>
```
ca:Python 3 per a no programadors/Hola,
món

[^1]: Here is a great
    list of the famous \"Hello, world!\" program in many programming
    languages. Just so you know how simple Python can be\...