# Miskito/Introduction

## Welcome to *Miskitu Aisas!*

!Flag of the Miskito
Nation{width="250"}

*Miskitu Aisas!* (\"Speak Miskito!\"), a language course in Wikibooks,
is an elementary introduction to the Miskito language, spoken in parts
of Nicaragua and Honduras. The course focuses primarily on presenting
the grammar basics through carefully graded and didactically presented
lessons. *Miskitu Aisas!* assumes no prior knowledge of the language and
no specialised knowledge of linguistics, although at least a general
background in \"school grammar\" will no doubt be helpful, as will any
previous experience at learning foreign languages.

As well as an understanding of the language\'s overall structure,
*Miskitu Aisas!* will also provide you with a knowledge of some basic
vocabulary, and will give you the essential preparation needed to
continue studying Miskito by other means, if you should wish to do so. A
variety of exercises at every step in the learning path will help you
gradually to assimilate both grammar and vocabulary, and to check your
progress through comparison of the answers provided. A handy feature
that makes this on-line course more interactive is found in the
Show/Hide toggle switches that accompany model sentences, exercises and
vocabularies. These allow you to customise each page and adapt it to
your progress and learning pace by either displaying or concealing
translations, answers and meanings.

In the rest of this introduction you can read about who the Miskito
people are and what their language is, and how to use this course, as
well as quick links to some key pages in the course.

## The Miskito people and their language

!Location of Central America and the
Caribbean{width="250"}
!Map of Central America and the
Caribbean{width="220"}

The Miskito people inhabit an area along the Caribbean (Atlantic) coast
of Central America. This area, known as the Mosquito Coast, is mostly
within the state of Nicaragua, with a northern section in a neighbouring
region of Honduras. The territory extends from Cape Cameron in the north
to Río Grande in the south. In origin the Miskitos were a local
indigenous people, but in the post-colonial era a great deal of racial
mixing occurred. A major component of the present population is
descended from escaped slaves from other areas who sought refuge among
the Miskito people.

Because of the inaccessibility of the Miskitos\' territory, Spanish
settlers did not begin to arrive until 1787 and even after this the
Miskitos, who already had an experienced army and an established
political structure, continued to dominate the land, which consequently
suffered only limited influence from the Spanish conquest. The Miskitos
remained independent until 1894 when their land became part of
Nicaragua, but the Nicaraguans, like the Spanish before them, exercised
little control and many Miskitos, even today, do not consider themselves
Nicaraguan. !Former British
Protectorate{width="415"
height="415"} On the other hand, the Miskito people entered into contact
with British colonists as early as the beginning of the seventeenth
century, and during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries they
continued to be influenced by the British, who had economic interests in
the area, particularly in the territory of Belize to the northwest (the
colonial name for which was British Honduras). As allies of the British
the Miskitos were sucked into the slave trade, often being involved in
raids against Spanish settlements in Honduras. Such activities brought
the Miskitos into contact with other indigenous groups, to whom the
Miskitos tended to consider themselves culturally superior. The Miskitos
were ruled by their own kings who took on English names (the earliest
recorded king, named Oldman, received an audience with king Charles I),
and emulated European dress. Following a formal Treaty of Friendship and
Alliance between the Miskitos and Britain in 1740, the Miskito Nation
was formally a British protectorate until 1787, and British interest in
the region continued until the mid-nineteenth century.

In addition to the Miskitos\' native language, Miskito, large numbers of
Miskitos speak other languages, particularly Miskito Creole English
(which arose through contact with the British), neighbouring indigenous
languages such as Rama, and Spanish.

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**buk**

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*book*

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**dur**

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*door*

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**hilp**

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*help*

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**kî**

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*key*

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**laik**

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*like*

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**lalah**

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*money*

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`<small>`{=html}dollar`</small>`{=html}

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**lan**

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*learn*

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`<small>`{=html}learn`</small>`{=html}

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**nu**

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*know*

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`<small>`{=html}know`</small>`{=html}

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**pain**

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*well*

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`<small>`{=html}fine`</small>`{=html}

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**prias**

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*religious observance*

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`<small>`{=html}prayers`</small>`{=html}

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**sap**

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*shop, store*

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**skul**

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*school*

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**tibil**

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*table*

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**truk**

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*car, vehicle*

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**want**

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*want*

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**wark**

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*work*

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**windar**

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*window*

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With nearly 200,000 speakers, Miskito is the most widely spoken of a
family of languages of Nicaragua and Honduras that has come to be known
as Misumalpan. This name is formed from parts of the names of the
family\'s subgroups: MIskito, SUmo, MAtagaLPAN. Although some aspects of
the internal family tree within this family are uncertain, it is clear
that Miskito stands apart from Sumo and Matagalpan, which seem to share
a common lower node, and that in the past Miskito was heavily influenced
by other Misumalpan languages. Sumo is thought to have been dominant in
the area before the period of Miskito ascendancy. Today the relationship
has been reversed: many former Sumo speakers have shifted to Miskito,
which has in turn heavily influenced the Sumo dialects. Several of these
(Tawahka, Panamahka and Tuahka) constitute the Mayangna sub-branch of
Sumo, while the Ulwa language is in another sub-branch. The Matagalpan
branch of Misumalpan contains two languages that are now extinct:
Matagalpa and Cacaopera. The latter was formerly spoken in parts of
eastern El Salvador.

In addition to many elements borrowed from other Misumalpan languages,
Miskito has a large number of loanwords from English via Creole, such as
those in the table on the left. All the above words occur in the first
ten lessons of *Miskitu Aisas!* Notice how their sounds are adapted to
the Miskito language, which only has three vowels: *a, i, u*.

Even though Spanish is the official language of Nicaragua and Honduras,
its influence on Miskito is much more recent and hence more
superficial.\
\
\
\

## How to use the course

### Contents and navigation

There are basically two ways to move around inside this course: (1) use
the Table of Contents, or (2) move from page to page using the
navigation links.

#### The table of contents

You can get to the table of contents from the course\'s front page, and
also from any other page in the course through a navigation link (see
below). You can look at the table of contents
right now, if you wish. You are recommended to open it up in a separate
browser window so that you can continue reading this page while you
inspect the table of contents.

Every page that you need to see as part of the course has a link from
the table of contents. Notice how the table of contents page is
organised. On the right-hand side there is a list with a darker
background, with the heading **\"The project\"** at the top. This
section has information about the project of creating this course which
may or may not interest you as a user (rather than an author) of the
course. A little lower down you see another section, **\"Author\'s
workbench\"**, which contains more technical information that is
important for people working on development of the course, but probably
unnecessary for other readers. The rest of the table of contents, with a
paler blue background, includes everything that people using the course
to learn (or learn about) Miskito will need. This is also divided into
several sections which will now be mentioned.

The **\"Getting started\"** section is where you are now, and as well as
this introduction it also includes a guide to pronouncing and spelling
the language. These are the pages you will probably want to have at
least a quick look at before starting on the lessons. You can always
come back to them later on for more detailed study whenever you feel the
need.

Next comes the biggest and most important section, **\"The lessons\"**.
The links to the first ten lessons are placed where you can\'t miss
them: in the middle of the screen, immediately after the \"Getting
started\" section. When you get through those, you can scroll down a
little to see the rest of the lessons currently available.

Near the bottom of the table of contents there are two more sections:
**\"Reference section\"** (with vocabularies, appendices, a list of
abbreviations and a subject index) and **\"More about Miskito\"** (an
external links page and a discussion page).

#### Page-to-page navigation

At the top of every page in the course you will see the flag of the
historical Miskito Nation, which is the logo of the course, together
with the title of the page or lesson. Notice the three links to the left
of the flag logo:

-   a \"backwards\" link which will usually take you to the previous
    page (assuming you are following the pages of the course in order)
-   a \"forwards\" link (marked **\>Next**) which takes you to the next
    page in order
-   a \"Contents\" link, which takes you back to the table of contents
    from any page in the course

You can use these to get around the course. If the \"backwards\" or
\"forwards\" link takes you where you want to go, you are there with one
click. If not, you can go to the table of contents and from there to
wherever you want (two clicks away!).

Notice too that there are some links over the vocabulary lists in each
lesson providing short cuts to the general vocabularies, the list of
abbreviations and the subject index. These will often help you to look
up things that you can\'t remember and are not in the lesson\'s
vocabulary list.

### Structure of the course

If you are a new user of this course, it would be a good idea to open up
**Lesson 1** (or any other lesson, if you
prefer) in a separate browser window so that you can examine it while
reading the following description.

Each lesson consists of several learning points, which form the main
part of the lesson. At the end of the lesson there is a final section
containing a list of the new words in the lesson (the Vocabulary) and a
practice activity (a review exercise or a reading). At the beginning of
the lesson the table of contents lists the learning points.

Each learning point consists of three components: (1) model sentences,
(2) comments and (3) a short practice activity or exercise. Different
people learn in different ways, so it is up to each learner to decide
exactly how to use these. If we think of the comments as \"rules\", then
the model sentences act as \"examples\" to illustrate them. Some people
like to study the examples first and read the rules afterwards. If you
are able to infer the rule from the model sentences, then the comment
will serve to confirm your hypothesis, if it was right, or correct it,
if it wasn\'t. If you follow this procedure, you will probably want to
look at the translations of the model sentences, unless you can guess
them, by clicking on the \"Show\" switch on the right.

If, on the other hand, you prefer to work from rules to examples, then
leave the translations hidden at first. After reading the comments, see
if you can work out what the examples mean before looking up their
meanings. You may like to consult the vocabulary at the end of the
lesson as you do this; it will give you a better chance of getting them
right.

Don\'t skip the practice activity. You can use it to check whether you
understand the point, to test yourself, or to get accustomed to the
mechanisms of the language. The exercises will also help you to acquire
the vocabulary. Always try the exercise with the answers hidden first
before clicking on \"Show\" to see if you were right.

When you come to the vocabulary list, if you have already worked through
the preceding points and gone through the model sentences and exercises
you should already know most of the words on the list by now. In fact,
you can easily give yourself a vocabulary test, since the meaning of
each word will not be visible until you click on the corresponding
\"Show\" button.

The exercise or reading that follows the vocabulary will touch on
several of the points you have studied in the lesson and also reviews
both old and new vocabulary items. Once again, hide or display the
answers as it suits you.

## Where to next?


# Japanese/Introduction

Japanese is spoken by 130 million people. This makes it the ninth most
spoken language by
native speakers. Linguists debate over the classification of the
Japanese language, and one general theory asserts that Japanese is an
isolated language and thus a language family of its own, known as
Japonic languages. Another major theory includes Japanese as part of a
hypothetical Altaic language family which spans most of Central Asia and
would also include Turkic, Mongolic, Tungusic, and Korean languages.
Neither of these theories has yet been generally accepted.

Japan is the only country where Japanese is the sole official language
(though the island of Angaur has Japanese as one
of three official languages). There are, however, numerous speakers in
other countries. These are largely due to emigration, most notably to
the United States of America (California and Hawaii, in particular),
Brazil and the Philippines. Furthermore, when Japan occupied and
colonized much of East Asia, Southeast Asia, and the Pacific, the locals
were educated in the Japanese language. Many elderly locals in Korea,
Taiwan, and parts of China still speak Japanese.

Japan has steadily developed for many centuries and, unlike many other
cultures, has not been seriously affected by any major invasions until
recent times. A substantial part of the vocabulary, though, has been
borrowed over the years from Chinese, Portuguese, Dutch, German, French,
and most recently English.

## Grammar

While Japanese grammar is very regular, it is markedly different from
English. Japanese has been deemed a subject--object--verb (SOV) and
topic-prominent language, whereas English is a subject--verb--object
(SVO) and subject-prominent language.

To illustrate, the English sentence "Cats eat mice" contains a subject
(cats), a verb (eat), and an object (mice), in an SVO order, where the
"-s" is a *plural marker*, and "mouse" → "mice" is a plural marker by
ablaut, but only the word order indicates which
is the subject and the object---i.e. which is dining and which is the
meal.

+-------------------+----+---------------------+----+-------------------+
| Japanese culture and society is based on a hierarchy of higher status
(目上 *meue*) and lower status (目下 *meshita*). As such, there are
three varying levels of politeness. Because Japanese is primarily a
\"vertical\" society, all relationships contain an element of relative
station. For example, a student is a lower station than a teacher, and
therefore a student would use polite language when speaking to a
teacher, but the teacher would use plain language when speaking to a
student. A salesperson talking to a customer would place himself/herself
far below the customer, and would therefore use honorific language,
whereas the customer would use either plain or polite language.

Honorific language is not a separate category from plain and polite
language, but a separate concept that uses different rules. When using
honorific language, a Japanese speaker modifies nouns, verbs, and
adjectives to either lower himself/herself and their associates, or
exalt someone else and that individual\'s associates. Whereas the use of
plain or polite language is determined by the relative station of the
person *to* whom you are speaking, the use of honorific language is
determined by the relative station of the person *about* whom you are
speaking. Exalted language is applied when you are speaking about
someone who is due respect, such as a professor, an executive, a
political official, or a customer. Exalted language is only applied to
other people, never to oneself. Humble language, however, is *only*
applied to oneself and people associated with oneself. It would be
inappropriate, for example, to use humble language to describe a beggar,
even though they would be extremely low on the social ladder.

## The Japanese writing system

Japanese is written mostly using three writing scripts, *kanji*,
*hiragana* and *katakana*. Kanji are Chinese characters that were first
introduced to Japan in the 4th century. Unlike Chinese, Japanese is a
highly inflected language with words changing their ending depending on
case, number, etc. For this reason, the hiragana and katakana
syllabaries were created. The hiragana serve largely to show the
inflection of words, as conjunctions and such. The katakana are mainly
used for loan-words from other languages.

### Kanji

The Japanese writing system is derived from the Chinese ideographic
character set (Japanese: 漢字 *kanji*, Mandarin: 汉字 *hanzi*). They are
usually very similar to Traditional Chinese characters. Though kanji are
Chinese in origin their use is dictated by Japanese grammar. Each
character may be read in different ways depending on the context it is
in.

The number of existing Chinese characters has been variously estimated
at between 40,000 and 80,000; however, only a small subset is commonly
used in modern Japanese. An educated Japanese person will generally be
able to read between 2,000 and 4,000 characters. In order to be literate
in the Japanese language, the student should strive to master at least
the 2,136 general-use characters (常用漢字 -- *jōyō
kanji*) established by the Ministry of
Education.

### Hiragana and katakana

The syllabaries, known as *kana* (),
were developed around 900 AD by simplifying kanji to form the *hiragana*
(ひらがな, or 平仮名) and the more angular *katakana* (カタカナ, or
片仮名). Hiragana can be recognized by the characteristic curved shapes,
while katakana are identifiable by their sharp edges and straight lines.
The creation of one of the scripts has been attributed to Kūkai
(774-835, alias Kōbō Daishi) the famous monk who introduced Shingon
Buddhism to Japan.

Hiragana and katakana are almost completely phonetic---much more so than
the English alphabet. Each set, however, is referred to as a *syllabary*
rather than an alphabet because each character represents an entire
syllable with only a single consonant (which is a more recent addition)
(see ../Pronunciation/ for more). The
syllabary charts in Japanese are referred to as the *gojūon*
(), meaning \"fifty sounds\"
because they are written in a five by ten chart. However, there are a
few gaps in the table where certain sounds have fallen out of use.
Modern Japanese can be written using 46 kana.

In practical use, hiragana is used to write, for example,
inflectional endings for adjectives and verbs
(送り仮名 *okurigana*), grammatical particles (助詞 *joshi*) and
auxiliaries (助動詞 *jodōshi*), Japanese words that have no kanji (or
not commonly known kanji), and annotations to kanji to indicate
pronunciation (振り仮名 *furigana*). Katakana is used to write, for
example, foreign words and names,
onomatopoeia, emphasized words (somewhat
like italicized words in English text), and technical and scientific
words, such as plant, animal, and mineral names.

Contents

## References

[^1]: 「食べる」


# Japanese/Study methods

As with the study of any subject, you need to have self-discipline. Set
a certain amount of time that will be devoted to the study of Japanese,
and try to make a regular schedule. Don\'t rush yourself and set
yourself achievable goals. The ideal method to study a language is to be
exposed to the native environment with access to native speakers and
have your own personal tutor. These are, however, not necessary and
self-study can be rewarding in itself.

## Setting Goals

Setting goals is vital.

## Kana

If you are serious about learning to read and write Japanese, you must
first master kana (hiragana & katakana). These are the two syllabaries,
and are phonetic just like the English alphabet. Unlike English,
however, Japanese pronunciation is almost perfectly regular, meaning
that for the most part, one symbol stands for one sound, and there are
very few pronunciation rules to learn. As a result, hiragana and
katakana can easily be mastered, though fluency in reading will take
longer.

The kana are few enough that one can learn them by rote. To reach
fluency, one eventually has to drop mnemonic devices anyway. For that
transition period, or even for the few that prove difficult to memorise,
mnemonics can come in handy.

Once you have mastered the kana, you will be able to pronounce all the
kana characters you come across, even if you don\'t know the meaning.
Not to worry, though, once you build up your vocabulary, you\'ll be
amazed how much more you can comprehend.

## Kanji

You should begin to learn kanji immediately, as it is very
time-consuming. The sooner you start, the sooner you will become
proficient.

There are a number of ways to learn the kanji.

-   In Japanese skills, they are taught by
    **rote.**
-   One can learn the **radicals**.
-   There are **etymology-based** mnemonics, and
-   **pictorial-based** mnemonics.
-   Calligraphy (書道 shodō) can be a mnemonic and pleasurable way to
    practice kanji.

To learn via *radicals* (the pieces that make them up), you only need to
learn the relatively few components (approximately 200), and pretty soon
you will be able to guess the meaning and pronunciation of a new
character with some accuracy just by looking at it.

Writing kanji is an entirely different business; think of kanji as
something elegant, an art. Calligraphy is commonly studied and a highly
revered art in Japan. Skillfully written characters and proverbs are
often hung on walls or displayed in museums, and sell for as much as
paintings do in the West.

A good strategy to learning all of these characters is to realize that
it isn\'t anything like English, Spanish, or other European languages.
When memorizing the sounds of a character, try to forget your native
language, and think phonetically, rather than in your native alphabet.

**Note:** As mentioned earlier, it is important not to rush yourself.
The more you try to learn in one go, the easier it is for you to forget.

## See also

-   How to Learn a Language
-   Lang Infinity; Write in Japanese, or any
    language, and get your entries critiqued by natives.


# Japanese/Practical Lessons

## Lesson Plan

A Syllabus exists for
this lesson plan.

### Lesson Structure

Each lesson *should* have the following sections specified:

1.  **Lesson:** Lesson name.
    1.  **Function:** One or more functions, appropriate to the stage of
        learning, chosen from the
        Syllabus.
    2.  **Topic:** A topic, appropriate to the stage of learning, chosen
        from the
        Syllabus.
    3.  **Vocabulary:** Number of new words covered in the lesson,
        chosen from the
        Syllabus.
    4.  **Kanji:** Number of new Kanji covered in the lesson, chosen
        from the
        Syllabus.
    5.  **Grammar:** One or more grammar topics covered in lesson,
        chosen from the
        Syllabus.

### Stage I Lessons

#### Reading and Writing Hiragana

1.  **Lesson:** Hiragana
    overview
    1.  Voiced Consonants
    2.  Long vowel sounds
    3.  Consonant doubling: small つ
    4.  small や、ゆ、よ
2.  **Lesson:** Hiragana
    vowels
    1.  あいうえお
    2.  Long vowel sounds
3.  **Lesson:** Hiragana k
    row
    1.  かきくけこ
    2.  Voiced Consonants
    3.  がぎぐげご
4.  **Lesson:** Hiragana s
    row
    1.  さしすせそ
    2.  ざじずぜぞ
5.  **Lesson:** Hiragana t
    row
    1.  たちつてと
    2.  だぢづでど
    3.  Consonant doubling: small つ
6.  **Lesson:** Hiragana n
    row
    1.  なにぬねの
7.  **Lesson:** Hiragana h
    row
    1.  はひふへほ
    2.  ばびぶべぼ
    3.  ぱぴぷぺぽ
8.  **Lesson:** Hiragana m
    row
    1.  まみむめも
9.  **Lesson:** Hiragana y
    row
    1.  や、ゆ、よ
    2.  small や、ゆ、よ
10. **Lesson:** Hiragana r
    row
    1.  らりるれろ
11. **Lesson:** Hiragana wa, wo,
    n
    1.  わをん
12. **Lesson:** Historical
    Hiragana
    1.  ゐゑ

#### Reading and Writing Katakana

1.  **Lesson:** Katakana
    overview
    1.  Voiced Consonants
    2.  Long vowel sounds
    3.  Consonant doubling: small つ
    4.  small ヤユヨ
2.  **Lesson:** Katakana
    vowels
    1.  アイウエオ
    2.  Long vowel sounds
    3.  small アイウエオ
3.  **Lesson:** Katakana k
    row
    1.  カキクケコ
    2.  ガギグゲゴ
4.  **Lesson:** Katakana s
    row
    1.  サシスセソ
    2.  ザジズゼゾ
5.  **Lesson:** Katakana t
    row
    1.  タチツテト
    2.  ダヂヅデド
6.  **Lesson:** Katakana n
    row
    1.  ナニヌネノ
7.  **Lesson:** Katakana h
    row
    1.  ハヒフヘホ
    2.  バビブベボ
    3.  パピプペポ
8.  **Lesson:** Katakana m
    row
    1.  マミムメモ
9.  **Lesson:** Katakana y
    row
    1.  ヤユヨ
    2.  small ヤユヨ
10. **Lesson:** Katakana r
    row
    1.  ラリルレロ
11. **Lesson:** Katakana wa, wo,
    n
    1.  ワヲン
12. **Lesson:** Historical
    Katakana
    1.  ヰヱ
13. **Lesson:** Differences between Katakana and English

#### Dialogue Lessons

1.  **Lesson:** Will you be my
    friend?
    1.  **Topic:** Friends
    2.  **Function:** Greet and respond to greetings
        1.  \"Good morning/afternoon/evening.\" (Goodstuff:
            Unnecessary?)
        2.  \"How are you?\" (Goodstuff: Unnecessary?)
    3.  **Function:** Introduce and respond to introductions
        1.  \"Nice to meet you.\" (Goodstuff: Unnecessary?)
    4.  **Vocabulary:** 20 Words
    5.  **Kanji:** 10 Kanji
    6.  **Grammar:** (Goodstuff: grammar topic chosen from syllabus,
        need help here!)
        1.  The declarative 「だ」
        2.  The copula 「です」
            1.  Negative Tense
        3.  The question marker 「か」
        4.  Introduction to particles
            1.  Topic Particle 「は」
            2.  Inclusive Topic Particle 「は」
2.  **Lesson:** Hobbies
    1.  **Topic:** Hobbies
    2.  **Function:** Express like and dislike
        1.  \"What are your hobbies?\"
        2.  \"What kind of \[noun\] do you like?\"
    3.  **Vocabulary:** 25 Words
    4.  **Kanji:** 10 Kanji
    5.  **Grammar:** (Goodstuff: grammar topic chosen from syllabus,
        need help here!)
        1.  Na-adjectives and i-adjectives
            1.  Negative Tense
        2.  Identifier Particle 「が」
3.  **Lesson:** Sports
    1.  **Topic:** sport
    2.  **Function:** expressing action
    3.  **Vocabulary:** 20 Words
    4.  **Kanji:** 10 Kanji
        1.  音読み and 訓読み
        2.  Stroke Orders
    5.  **Grammar**
        1.  Ru-verbs（一段動詞）/u-verbs（五段動詞）/exception verbs
            1.  Negative Verbs Tenses
            2.  Polite conjugations （～ます）
        2.  Object Particle 「を」
        3.  Target Particle 「に」
        4.  Directional Particle 「へ」
        5.  Context Particle 「で」
        6.  Specifying Time and Date
            1.  Numbers and Counters
        7.  Using 「から」 and 「まで」
4.  **Lesson:** I\'m a Cat
    Person
    1.  **Topic:** Pets and Animals
    2.  **Function:** Expressing Ownership
        1.  \"Whose cat is this?\"
        2.  \"This is my cat\"
    3.  **Grammar**
        1.  The 「の」 particle
            1.  Nominalizing subordinate clauses （のが／のは）
            2.  Numbers and Counters
5.  **Lesson:** Not
    Today
    1.  **Topic:** health
    2.  **Function:** obtain information, begin to provide information
        1.  \"What did you do yesterday?\"
        2.  \"I didn\'t feel good last night.\"
    3.  **Grammar**
        1.  Past tense conjugations
            1.  Nouns/Adjectives
            2.  Verbs


# Japanese/Pronunciation

Japanese is characterised largely by its small number of vowels and
consonants (five and fourteen, respectively). Pronunciation of each
syllable is highly regular with the written system and there are only a
few exceptions such as vowel devoicing. This is in stark contrast to
English where the written and spoken language can differ a great deal
(e.g. the vowel digraph \"ou\" in \"noun\" and \"cough\" and the
consonant \"g\" in \"goat\" and \"giraffe\").

Apart from a single isolated consonant (the moraic nasal, \"n\") and
double consonants (e.g. \"i**tt**e\" and \"ke**kk**on\") all consonants
must be followed by a vowel to form syllables. Double consonants are
always a pair of the same consonant, though vowel devoicing sometimes
makes different consonants sound one after the other (e.g.
\"**s**u**ki**\" and \"**s**u**teki**\").

Japanese has a great deal of homophones that make correct pronunciation
quite important. While language learners may have difficulty hearing the
difference between nuances like long and short vowels, native speakers
are used to these and might not understand incorrectly pronounced words.

## The syllabary

There are five vowels in Japanese, normally transcribed into the English
alphabet as: \"a\", \"i\", \"u\", \"e\" and \"o\".

+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+
| Vowel    | **a**    | **i**    | ```{=me  | **e**    | ```{=me  |
|          |          |          | diawiki} |          | diawiki} |
|          |          |          | {{       |          | {{       |
|          |          |          | Audio|Ja |          | Audio|Ja |
|          |          |          | -U.oga|' |          | -O.oga|' |
|          |          |          | ''u'''|h |          | ''o'''|h |
|          |          |          | elp=no}} |          | elp=no}} |
|          |          |          | ```      |          | ```      |
|          |          |          | \*       |          |          |
+==========+==========+==========+==========+==========+==========+
| App      | f        | meat`<u> | f`    | `<u>`{   | `<u>`{   |
| roximate | `<u>`{=h | `{=html} | `{=html} | =html}*e | =html}*o |
| sound    | tml}*a*` | *y*` | oo`</u>` | *`</u>`{ | *`</u>`{ |
|          | `{=h | `{=html} | {=html}d | =html}gg | =html}ld |
|          | tml}ther |          |          |          |          |
+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+

\*This sound is pronounced
compressed, for
which there is no approximation in English. See:
<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Close_back_rounded_vowel#Close_back_compressed_vowel>
Spanish and Italian speakers may note that Japanese vowels produce the
same sounds as their Spanish and Italian equivalents.

Japanese vowels always represent distinct phonemes and don\'t form
digraphs --- i.e. they don\'t blend together or sound differently when
joined. When one vowel follows another they are pronounced separately.
Examples are the names *Sae* (sa.e) and *Aoi* (a.o.i)

The rest of the syllabary is formed by combining the above vowels with a
consonant.

Clear

Voiced

Plosive

Clear medial y

Voiced medial y

Plosive medial y

a

i

u

e

o

a

i

u

e

k

ka

ki

ku

ke

ko

g

ga

gi

gu

ge

s

sa

su

se

so

z

za

ji

zu

ze

t

ta

te

to

d

da

ji

zu

de

n

na

nu

ne

no

ni

nya

nyu

nyo

h

ha

he

ho

b

ba

bi

bu

be

m

ma

mi

mu

me

mo

mi

mya

myu

y

ya

yu

yo

r

ri

rya

ryu

ryo

w

wa

o

Note that the sound which is written with a \"y\" is not considered a
vowel, but a consonant. This will come as little surprise to German
speakers where the same sound is written with a \"j\".

The -i line (ki, gi, shi, ji, chi, ni, hi, bi, pi, mi, ri) can be
combined with the y- line (ya, yu, yo) to create the *medial y*
combinations. These are just like regular consonant + vowel syllables,
in that they should be pronounced as one mora (syllabic sound).

```{=html}
<div style="border: 2px solid #fd9;">
```
From this table one can see that the Japanese syllabary is highly
systematic. There are a few exceptions, though, and these have been
bolded in the table:

-   \"si\" becomes \"**shi**\"
-   \"ti\" becomes \"**chi**\" and \"tu\" becomes \"**tsu**\"
-   \"zi\" and \"di\" become \"**ji**\", and \"du\" becomes \"**zu**\"
-   \"hu\" becomes \"**fu**\"
-   \"wo\" becomes \"**o**\"

```{=html}
</div>
```
## Mora

Japanese is quite regular in the timing and stress of its syllables. The
basic timing unit is called mora. Each mora is pronounced with equal
stress and should take about the same amount of time. Two morae should
sound twice as long as a single one.

The following take up one mora:

-   a short vowel
-   a consonant followed by a short vowel
-   a medial y
-   a moraic nasal

Whereas these take up two morae:

-   a long vowel
-   a double consonant

### Examples

-   *a-o-i* / あおい (*e.* blue): three morae, each vowel is short
-   *mi-do-ri* / みどり (*e.* green): three morae.
-   *sha-shu* / しゃしゅ (*e.* car model): two morae.
-   *ni-n-ji-n* / にんじん (*e.* a carrot): four morae.
-   *ī-e* / いいえ (*e.* no): three morae (note the long vowel \"i\",
    denoted by a macron)
-   *a-k-ka* / あっか (*e.* to worsen): three morae (note that the
    double consonant isn\'t pronounced twice, just twice as long).

The medial y often takes a long vowel.

-   *gyūnyū* / ぎゅうにゅう (*e.* milk): four morae.

## Long vowels

A long vowel takes two morae. In rōmaji it\'s written with a macron: *ā,
ī, ū, ē and ō*.

In hiragana, it\'s written with an extra
\"あ\" (a), \"い\" (i) or \"う\" (u) depending on the vowel. In
katakana, it\'s marked by appending a
dash-like symbol \"ー\".

+----------+----------+------------+--------------------------------+
| Word     | Japanese | Meaning    | Soundbyte                      |
+==========+==========+============+================================+
| *Ōsaka*  | 大阪     | Osaka city | There are a couple of consonants that are pronounced differently from
English:

  Consonant   Approximate sound                                                    Notes
  ----------- -------------------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
  g           _*g*_ive or si_*ng*_   approximately halfway between these sounds, it is made almost like *ng* depending on the age of the speaker and, in certain cases, dialect. Nowadays, it is beginning to sound more like our guttural g, but the older folks may still say *ng*, which was also taught in many Japanese grammar classes.
  sh, ch, j                                                                        sound is made further back along the tongue than in English
  ts          ba_*ts*_                                      try saying \"fatso\" without the \"fa\"
  f           _*wh*_o (in British English)                  blown between the lips, not between the lips and teeth; as if it were a combination of both H+F
  r                                                                                similar to a rolling *r*, but only trilled once making it sound deceptively like a *D* to untrained listeners. The sound is often described as being between \"r\" and \"l\".

Except for the doubled consonants and the *n* (which we will cover
later), consonants can never end a syllable. They can only begin it.

## Moraic nasal

Normally, Japanese consonants must be followed by a vowel except where
they double. There is an exception to this: the *moraic nasal* which is
transliterated as n. It is usually found at the end of words, but can be
found in the middle of composite words.

The difference between the moraic nasal and the syllables \"na\",
\"ni\", \"nu\", \"ne\" and \"no\" can be difficult for language learners
to spot, while native speakers may have difficulty understanding
incorrect pronunciation.

-   *kin\'en* (*ki-n-e-n*) no smoking vs. *kinen* (*ki-ne-n*)
    commemoration.
-   *hon\'ya* (*ho-n-ya-*) bookstore (not *ho-nya*)

The pronunciation of the moraic nasal changes depending on what sound
follows it. This is not so much an irregularity as a shortcut to bridge
the sounds between the two morae. When followed by the bilabial
plosives, \"b\" and \"p\", the moraic nasal is pronounced like an \"m\".
An example:

-   \"shinbun\" is read as: *shi**m**bun*

(OggVorbis, 151 KB)

1.  At the end of a word:
    -   *dan* 段 \"level\"
    -   *kin* 金 \"gold\"
    -   *fun* 糞 \"dung\"
    -   *zen* 善 \"goodness\"
    -   *hon* 本 \"book\"
2.  Directly before a consonant:
    -   *banzai* 万歳 \"hurrah\", \"long live (the Emperor)\"
    -   *kingyo* 金魚 \"goldfish\" (pronounced like \"ng\")
    -   *kunrei* 訓令 \"directive\"
    -   *zenchi* 全知 \"omniscience\" (pronounced like \"n\")
    -   *honten* 本店 \"main office\" (pronounced like \"n\")
3.  Before *m*, *b*, *p*
    -   *genmai* 玄米 \"unmilled rice\"
    -   *honbu* 本部 \"headquarters\"
    -   *tenpura* 天ぷら (battered and fried vegetables or fish)
4.  Before *a*, *i*, *e*, *y*
    -   *zen\'aku* 善悪 \"good and evil\"
    -   *ken\'i* 権威 \"authority\"
    -   *han\'ei* 反映 \"reflection\"
    -   *sen\'you* 専用 \"exclusive use\"
5.  Note that before *a*, *i*, *e*, and *y*, moraic n is written *n*\'
    (with an apostrophe). This is to distinguish it from the regular
    consonant *n*, which is pronounced differently and can produce
    different words. Some examples of cases where this becomes important
    are:
    -   *kani* 蟹 \"crab\" **vs.** *kan\'i* 簡易 \"simplicity\"
    -   *kinyuu* 記入 \"fill in\" **vs.** *kin\'yuu* 金融 \"finances\"
    -   *konyakku* コニャック \"cognac\" **vs.** *kon\'yaku* 婚約
        \"engagement (to be married)\"

## Consonant doubling (gemination)

There are four consonants that can become geminates (get doubled) in
native Japanese words: /p/, /t/, /k/, and /s/. The geminate (represented
linguistically as \"Q\") takes up an extra mora, with the general effect
being to insert a pause that sounds as long as a regular syllable with a
short vowel. The geminate is /t/ before ch and ts, /s/ before sh.

+--------------+---------------------+---------------------------------------+
| Word         | Meaning             | Soundbyte                             |
+==============+=====================+=======================================+
| ta**kk**yū   | table tennis        |     (OggVorbis, 75 KB)

  Word          Japanese   Meaning
  ------------- ---------- ------------------------------------------------
  akai          赤         red
  *iro*         色         color
  *egaku*       描く       draw (a picture)
  *utsu*        打つ       hit, beat
  *osameru*     治める     govern
  *oya*         親         parent(s)
  *wabi*        侘び       (the Japanese aesthetic of subdued refinement)
  *pari*        パリ       Paris (France)
  *tomodach*i   友達       friend
  *hana*        花         flower
  *shiji*       指示       instruction
  *hiza*        膝         knee
  *tsumori*     積もり     intention

### Long and double vowels

(OggVorbis, 125 KB) Note in particular that \"deiri\" and \"koushi\" are
not long vowels since the vowels are split between composite words.

  Word                     Japanese   Meaning
  ------------------------ ---------- ------------------
  *sā*                     さあ       come now
  *ai*                     愛         love
  *au*                     会う       meet
  *hae*                    蠅         fly (insect)
  *aoi*                    青い       blue, green
  *ī*                      いい       good
  *iu*                     言う       say
  *ie*                     家         house
  *shio*                   塩         salt
  *shurui*                 種類       type, kind
  *nū*                     縫う       sew
  *ue*                     上         above
  *uo*                     魚         fish
  *rē*                     例         example
  *supein*                 スペイン   Spain
  *urei*                   憂い       grief
  *deiri* (*de* + *iri*)   出入り     coming and going
  *dēta*                   データ     data
  *oi*                     甥         nephew
  *sō*                     そう       that way, so
  *omou*                   思う       think
  *koushi*                 仔牛       calf (baby cow)
  *moeru*                  燃える     burn
  *hō*                     頬         cheek (facial)

### Compound consonants

Audio missing

  Word         Japanese   Meaning
  ------------ ---------- ----------------------------------
  *toukyou*    東京       Tokyo
  *gyouza*     餃子       pot-stickers (Chinese dumplings)
  *gyuunyuu*   牛乳       milk (from a cow)
  *hyou*       表         chart
  *byouin*     病院       hospital
  *denpyou*    伝票       voucher
  *myou*       妙         strange
  *muryou*     無料       free (as in beer)
  *ryuu*       龍         dragon
  *takkyuu*    卓球       table tennis
  *happyou*    発表       announcement

### Moraic nasal

-       (OggVorbis, 91 KB)

  Word         Japanese   Meaning
  ------------ ---------- ------------------------------
  *tenki*      天気       weather
  *renshuu*    練習       practice
  *zangyou*    残業       overtime (work)
  *anshin*     安心       relief
  *sunnari*    すんなり   slender
  *denpa*      電波       reception (cell phone, etc.)
  *senbei*     煎餅       Japanese hard rice cake
  *genmai*     玄米       unprocessed rice
  *sen*        千         thousand
  *hon*        本         book
  *sen\'you*   専用       exclusive use
  *hon\'ya*    本屋       bookstore
  *san\'en*    三円       three yen
  *tan\'i*     単位       unit, (course) credit

### Comparisons of similarly pronounced words

(OggVorbis, 190 KB)

1.  *yuki* 雪 \"snow\" and *yuuki* 勇気 \"courage\"
2.  *soto* 外 \"outside\" and *souto* 僧徒 \"Buddhist disciple\"
3.  *soto* 外 \"outside\" and *sotou* 粗糖 \"unrefined sugar\"
4.  *soto* 外 \"outside\" and *soutou* 相当 \"suitable\"
5.  *soto* 外 \"outside\" and *sotto* そっと \"softly\"
6.  *sotto* そっと \"softly\" and *sottou* 卒倒 \"fainting\"
7.  *maki* 巻 \"scroll\" and *makki* 末期 \"last period\"
8.  *hako* 箱 \"box\" and *hakkou* 発行 \"publish\"
9.  *issei* 一斉 \"all at once\" and *isei* 異性 \"opposite sex\"
10. *tani* 谷 \"valley\" and *tan\'i* 単位 \"unit\", \"(course) credit\"
11. *san\'en* 三円 \"three yen\" and *sannen* 三年 \"three years\"
12. *kinyuu* 記入 \"fill out\" and *kin\'yuu* 金融 \"finances\"
13. *kinen* 記念 \"commemoration\" and *kin\'en* 禁煙 \"no smoking\"

### Normal speech

The narration of the following excerpt of Natsume
Soseki\'s classic novel
*Botchan* is spoken at a
natural pace which may be difficult to follow for unaccustomed
listeners.

-       (OggVorbis, 674KB)

:   *Oyayuzuri no muteppou de kodomo no toki kara son bakari shite iru.
    Shougakkou ni iru jibun gakkou no nikai kara tobiorite isshuukan
    hodo koshi o nukashita koto ga aru. Naze sonna muyami o shita to
    kiku hito ga aru kamoshirenu. Betsudan fukai riyuu demo nai.
    Shinchiku no nikai kara kubi o dashite itara, doukyuusei no hitori
    ga joudan ni, \"Ikura ibatte mo, soko kara tobioriru koto wa
    dekimai. Yowamushi yaai,\" to hayakashita kara de aru. Kozukai ni
    obusatte kaette kita toki, oyaji ga ookina me o shite \"Nikai gurai
    kara tobiorite koshi o nukasu yatsu ga aru ka,\" to itta kara,
    \"Kono tsugi wa nukasazu ni tonde misemasu,\" to kotaeta.*

```{=html}
<!-- -->
```

:   *Shinrui no mono kara seiyousei no naifu o moratte kirei na ha o hi
    ni kazashite, tomodachi ni misete itara, hitori ga \"Hikaru koto wa
    hikaru ga, kiresou mo nai,\" to itta. \"Kirenu koto ga aru ka,
    nandemo kitte miseru,\" to ukeatta. \"Sonnara, kimi no yubi o kitte
    miro,\" to chuumon shita kara, \"Nan da yubi gurai kono toori da,\"
    to migi no te no oyayubi no kou o hasu ni kirikonda. Saiwai naifu ga
    chiisai no to, oyayubi no hone ga katakatta node, imadani oyayubi wa
    te ni tsuite iru. Shikashi kizuato wa shinu made kienu.*


# Japanese/Pitch accent

Japanese uses **pitch accent**, where every mora can either be
pronounced with a high or low pitch. Not all dictionaries will indicate
this, but pitch accent is certainly important, because it can make the
difference between different words.

For example, using **bold** for high pitches:

**い**ま (今) - \"now\"\
い**ま** (居間) - \"living room\"

Pitch is, however, to some extent a characteristic of regional accents,
so a Kanto speaker may be using the opposite pitches to a Kansai
speaker. Where pitch is taught, it will be standard Japanese
(essentially the Tokyo dialect). Pitchless Japanese is easily understood
by native speakers and incorrect pitch will at most sound somewhat odd.
Studying pitch, therefore, isn\'t essential to the learning Japanese and
is perhaps best picked up by conversing with native speakers.

Linguists, however, tend to classify Japanese as having a falling pitch
following what is considered the stressed vowel.

## Mora Counting

A common misconception is that moras in Japanese are the same as
syllables in English. Moras differ from syllables because of how they
are counted.

Consonant-Vowel Combinations written as Digraphs count as 1 mora. These
are cases where you have き、ぎ、し、じ、ち、に、ひ、び、ぴ、み、り
combined with や、ゆ、and よ to form Digraphs like きゃ, しゅ, ちょ,
etc.

So, the **ちゅ** in 中国\[**ちゅ**うごく\] accounts for **1 mora**. The
whole word is 4 moras.

A vowel combination counts as 2 moras. Combinations like おう、えい are
2 moras. This also includes a vowel being written or said twice, like
おお、いい, etc.

Ex. the **せい** in the word 人生\[じん**せい**\] or the おう in だろう
would count as **2 moras**.

The mora **ん** counts as **1 mora**

Ex. The **ん** in 先生\[せんせい\] is the 2nd mora in the word, and the
whole word has 4 moras.

The small tsu (**っ**) which doubles a consonant adds **1 mora**.

Ex. the word 学校(がっこう) has 4 moras.

There is a unique set of mora known as \"special mora\" (特殊拍) which
consist of small tsu \"っ\", the kana \"ん\" and long vowel symbol
\"ー\", the last high pitch can not occur on any of these \"special
mora\".

This is all important information to know when reading pitch accent, and
counting Japanese moras.

## Pitch classification

When dictionaries give pitch accent, they\'ll usually indicate it with a
number. The number tells you the mora where the **last high pitch** is.
To figure out the pitch pattern, put a low onto the first mora (unless
the last high pitch is on that mora), put high pitches onto all the mora
that follows, until you hit the last high pitch. After that, put low
pitches.

Even more helpful dictionaries will do all of this work for you, by
telling you exactly where all the pitches rise or fall.

So, to give some examples.

+----------------------------------------------------------------------+
| `<span style="font-weight: normal">`{=html}low`</span>`{=html}       |
| **HIGH HIGH\...**                                                    |
|                                                                      |
| ```{=html}                                                           |
| <div style="float: left">                                            |
| ```                                                                  |
| \(0\)                                                                |
|                                                                      |
| ```{=html}                                                           |
| </div>                                                               |
| ```                                                                  |
+======================================================================+
| こ**ども**                                                           |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------+
| わ**たし**                                                           |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------+
| と**もだち**                                                         |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------+
| ざ**っし**                                                           |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------+
| あ**かい**                                                           |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------+
| が**っこう**                                                         |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------+
| **HIGH** `<span style="font-weight: normal">`{=html}low              |
| low\...`</span>`{=html}                                              |
|                                                                      |
| ```{=html}                                                           |
| <div style="float: left">                                            |
| ```                                                                  |
| \(1\)                                                                |
|                                                                      |
| ```{=html}                                                           |
| </div>                                                               |
| ```                                                                  |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------+
| **ちゅ**うごく                                                       |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------+
| **じ**しょ                                                           |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------+
| **な**に                                                             |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------+
| **は**し                                                             |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------+
| **パン**フレット                                                     |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------+
| `<span style="font-weight: normal">`{=html}low`</span>`{=html}       |
| **HIGH** `<span style="font-weight: normal">`{=html}low              |
| low\...`</span>`{=html}                                              |
|                                                                      |
| ```{=html}                                                           |
| <div style="float: left">                                            |
| ```                                                                  |
| \(2\)                                                                |
|                                                                      |
| ```{=html}                                                           |
| </div>                                                               |
| ```                                                                  |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------+
| こ**こ**ろ                                                           |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------+
| じ**て**んしゃ                                                       |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------+
| プ**レ**ゼント                                                       |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------+
| `<span style="font-weight: normal">`{=html}low`</span>`{=html}       |
| **HIGH HIGH** `<span style="font-weight: normal">`{=html}low         |
| low\...`</span>`{=html}                                              |
|                                                                      |
| ```{=html}                                                           |
| <div style="float: left">                                            |
| ```                                                                  |
| \(3\)                                                                |
|                                                                      |
| ```{=html}                                                           |
| </div>                                                               |
| ```                                                                  |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------+
| せ**んせ**い                                                         |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------+
| お**おき**い                                                         |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------+
| た**くさ**ん                                                         |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------+
| `<span style="font-weight: normal">`{=html}low`</span>`{=html}       |
| **HIGH HIGH HIGH** `<span style="font-weight: normal">`{=html}low    |
| low\...`</span>`{=html}                                              |
|                                                                      |
| ```{=html}                                                           |
| <div style="float: left">                                            |
| ```                                                                  |
| \(4\)                                                                |
|                                                                      |
| ```{=html}                                                           |
| </div>                                                               |
| ```                                                                  |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------+
| あ**たらし**い                                                       |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------+
| う**つくし**い                                                       |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------+
| お**とうと**                                                         |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------+
|                                                                      |
+----------------------------------------------------------------------+

Notice how と**もだち** (0) and お**とうと** (4) look as though they
have the same pitch pattern despite the different numbers. The
difference is based on the grammatical pattern like -は added afterward.
Therefore, the continuation of both pitch pattern becomes と**もだちは**
and お**とうと**は.


# Japanese/Dialects

```
!A map of Japanese
copula.{width="320"} Many
learners of Japanese begin their studies thinking that the language is a
single standard, spoken across the whole nation. While it is true that
nearly all Japanese nationals can speak the standard language, it is by
no means their every day language. This long and mountainous archipelago
has over the centuries given rise to a great number of dialects with
their own distinct accent, intonation and vocabulary.

Before the Tokugawa Shogun (徳川将軍) moved to Edo (江戸, modern day
Tokyo) in 1603, the main place of government was Kyoto (京都), and
standard Japanese was the ancestor of today\'s Kyoto dialect. Modern
standard Japanese, hyōjungo (標準語) is basically the dialect of Tokyo.
This is used in schools and media throughout the country. Other
varieties of Japanese are often considered provincial and like in every
language, each bears connotations of archetypes.

!A map of Japanese
dialects.{width="320"}

## Eastern Japanese

-   Hokkaidō Dialect
-   Tōhoku Dialect
    -   Northern
        -   Tsugaru
            Dialect
    -   Southern
-   Kantō Dialect
    -   (Japanese/Dialects/Yokohama?)
-   Tōkai Dialect
    -   (Japanese/Dialects/Mikawa)
-   Hokuriku Dialect
    -   Japanese/Dialects/Ishikawa
    -   Japanese/Dialects/Toyama

## Western Japanese

-   Hokuriku Dialect
    (Talk:Japanese/Dialects/Ishikawa?)
    -   (Japanese/Dialects/Toyama)
-   Kinki (Kansai) Dialect
    -   Japanese/Dialects/Osaka
-   Chūgoku Dialect
-   Umpaku Dialect
-   Shikoku Dialect
-   Kyūshū
-   Hōnichi Dialect
-   Hichiku Dialect
-   Satsugū Dialect

## Hachijō Island

-   Hachijō Dialect

## Ryūkyū

-   (Japanese/Dialects/Okinawa?)


# Japanese/Kana chart

  ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------
  Base Kana *(clear sounds)*               Compound sounds
  あ ***a*** ア                            い ***i*** イ
  か ***ka*** カ                           き ***ki*** キ
  さ ***sa*** サ                           し ***shi*** シ
  た ***ta*** タ                           ち ***chi*** チ
  な ***na*** ナ                           に ***ni*** ニ
  は ***ha*** ハ                           ひ ***hi*** ヒ
  ま ***ma*** マ                           み ***mi*** ミ
  や ***ya*** ヤ
  ら ***ra*** ラ                           り ***ri*** リ
  わ ***wa*** ワ                           **ゐ** **\'\'wi**\'\' **ヰ**
  ん ***n*** ン
  Voiced consonants *(turbid sounds)*      Turbid compound sounds
  が ***ga*** ガ                           ぎ ***gi*** ギ
  ざ ***za*** ザ                           じ ***ji*** ジ
  だ ***da*** ダ                           ぢ ***ji*** ヂ
  ば ***ba*** バ                           び ***bi*** ビ
  Stop consonants *(half turbid sounds)*   Half turbid compound sounds
  ぱ ***pa*** パ                           ぴ ***pi*** ピ
  ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------

  : ひらがな - Romaji - カタカナ

  -------------
  Miscellanea
  っ    ッ
  -------------

`<small>`{=html}The grayed kana are no longer applicable in standard
Japanese, but still may be encountered within certain contexts, for
example older names and works of fiction.`</small>`{=html}

## External Links

-   Kana Copybook (PDF) --- Memorize the
    Kana through handwriting.


# Japanese/Vocabulary

## Elementary vocabulary

-   /Colors/
-   /Clothes and accessories/
-   /Animals/
-   /Numbers/
-   /Time/ and dates
-   Directions
-   Food and drink
    -   /Sushi/
-   /Body parts/
-   /Family and people/
-   Weather and seasons
-   /Verbs/
-   /Adjectives/

## Proper

-   Countries and languages
-   Regions and prefectures of Japan

## Specialized

-   /Academic Subjects/
    -   /Astronomy/
    -   /Biology/
    -   /Chemistry/
    -   /Glaciology/
    -   /Mathematics/
    -   /Linguistics/
    -   /Law/
-   /Aviation/
-   /Business/
-   /Banking/
-   /Computing/
-   /Health/
-   Government and politics
-   /Punctuation/
-   /Vocations/
-   /Units/

### Cultural

-   /Music/
-   /Videogame/

## By origin

-   /Gairaigo/
-   /Onomatopoeia/

bn:জাপানি ভাষা শিক্ষা/অভিধান


# Japanese/Grammar

## Word order

Japanese is a SOV
(Subject-Object-Verb) language. English is typically
SVO (Subject-Verb-Object). In
Japanese, the verb *always* appears at the end of clauses and sentences.
Japanese parts of speech are usually marked with words called
\"particles\" that follow the word they modify. These particles identify
the word\'s or phrase\'s function in the sentence---for example, topic,
subject, direct/indirect object, location of action, etc.

Japanese is flexible in terms of word-order due to use of particles.
Sentences, however, generally have the following structure:

:   **Sentence Topic, Time, Location, Subject, Indirect Object, Direct
    Object, Verb.**

## Context sensitivity

Japanese is highly *context-sensitive*. Words or phrases obvious to both
the speaker and listener are often omitted. It could be considered a
\"minimalist\" language. For example, the statement: \"I\'m going to
watch a movie.\" could be translated as 「映画を見る。」 (*eiga o
miru.*); literally, \"Movie watch.\" \[I\] is implied, as it is the
speaker who is making the statement. Depending on the context, however,
this phrase could also be translated as \"s/he is going to watch a
movie\", \"we will watch a movie\", etc.

Japanese has many levels of formality and depends not only on what is
said, but also on who is saying it and to whom. The language is socially
striated to the point that different forms of speech exist for men and
women.

## Parts of speech

Japanese parts of speech, although no more complicated than those of
other languages, do not fit well into typical labels such as verb, noun,
and adjective. Keep that in mind over the course of your studies.

### Nominals

#### Nouns

Nouns in Japanese are fairly immutable. They do not take definite or
indefinite articles, gender, and do not change for number.

Although there is no true plural in Japanese, a small number of nouns
may take one of several collective suffixes.

:   *Tanaka-san (Mr. Tanaka), Tanaka-san-tachi (Mr. Tanaka and his
    group)*

Certain nouns may take a prefix in polite
speech. Most often, native Japanese
words (和語) are preceded by \"o-\" (\"お\"), and Sino-Japanese words
(漢語) are preceded with \"go-\" (\"ご\"). Both are readings of the
kanji \"御\". Though primarily used for adding politeness or distance,
some words more commonly appear with the prefix than others, and in some
cases, never appear without it (e.g., お茶 \[*ocha*\], \"green tea\").

Many nouns may be converted into verbs simply by affixing 「する」
(*suru*) to the end.

:   *\"benkyō\" () is a noun
    meaning \"study/studies\" while \"benkyō-suru\"
    () is the verb \"to
    study\".*

Nouns may also function as adjectives when the
particle の (*no*) or な (\"na\") is appended.

:   *\"ki\" (木) means \"wood\" with \"ki no tatemono\"
    (の)
    meaning \"wooden building\".*

#### Pronouns

Unlike many other languages, Japanese has no true pronouns; since words
that are clear from context are usually elided, there is less need for
them. In general, natural-sounding Japanese tends to avoid the use of
nouns that refer to people except when explicitly needed. This is often
a point of confusion for beginners. Pronominals are not grammatically
distinct from ordinary nominals: notably, they may take adjectives,
which pronouns cannot.

:   *\"watashi\", \"boku\", \"ore\", \"watakushi\" all mean \"I\"; and
    \"anata\", \"kimi\" mean \"you\"*

#### Na-adjectives

A Na-adjective is a nominal that often precedes a copula (such as
\'na\'). Due to the common occurrence of na-adjectives, many Japanese
dictionaries write nominals with the \'na\' included. Na-adjectives are
generally adjectival in meaning, as most cannot exist in context without
a previously denoted subject; however, one might simply say \"げんき　な
(genki na)\" to describe a subject that is understood within the current
conversation\'s context (this situation is limited to casual or somewhat
informal conversation; using full sentences is almost always necessary
when speaking to anyone of higher status). Examples of na-adjectives:
\"heta na:\" unskilled, bad at; \"genki na:\" healthy, energetic;
\"orijinaru na:\" original

### Verbals

#### Verbs

Verbs are where most of the action in Japanese sentences takes place.
They are the primary means for controlling levels of politeness in
speech,...

Japanese verbs inflect directly for tense, negation, mood, aspect,
politeness, and honorific speech.

Unlike English, conjugation of Japanese verbs is extremely regular, with
few exceptions. The system takes some getting used to, but once the
kana have been learned, a uniform pattern
emerges. Verbs are placed into one of three groups: 五段 (*godan*, aka
Type I), 一段 (*ichidan*, aka Type II), and 不規則 (*fukisoku*,
irregular).

Only two verbs are generally considered irregular in the modern
language, 来る (*kuru*, to come) and する (*suru*, to do). Despite being
such, even they are somewhat regular in their irregularity.

#### I-adjectives

These inflect for tense, politeness, and honorific speech as well
(although not aspect or mood, as they are all stative verbs); an -i
adjective will always end in -ai, -ī, -ui, or -oi. (Note that there are
also stative -u verbs.)

:   \'\'\"utsukushī\": beautiful; \"ī\": good; \"sugoi\": amazing;
    \"ureshī\": happy

#### The copula

Although the copula is not strictly a verb, most of its forms derive
from \"de aru\", but inflects somewhat irregularly. It retains an
\"attributive form\", na, used to modify the noun it stands before:
however, this form is almost exclusively used after na-adjectives.

### Other

**Particles**: Also called **postpositions** or *joshi*, particles show
the case of nouns in Japanese: that is, they mark nouns as being the
subject, object, indirect object, etc. (English typically uses word
order or prepositions for the same effect.) Particles follow the noun
they modify.

-   *wa* (**は**): topic
-   *ga* (**が**): subject
-   *o* (**を**): direct object
-   *no* (**の**): possession,
    apposition
-   *ni* (**に**): indirect object,
    direction \"to\", location of existence, etc.
-   *kara* (**から**): direction
    \"from\"
-   *made* (**まで**): \"until\",
    \"as far as\"
-   *de* (**で**): means, location
    of an action

Some particles are used after sentences instead:

-   *ka* (**か**): question marker
-   *yo* (**よ**): marker for
    giving new information or showing emphasis or certainty
-   *ne* (**ね**): marker for
    seeking agreement
-   *tte* (**って**): informal
    quotation marker

**Adverbs**: Adverbs typically modify the entire sentence, although most
Japanese quantifiers (including numbers) are actually adverbs, rather
than adjectives as in English.

-   *aikawarazu* as always;
-   *sukoshi* (**少し**) a little,
    few
-   *mō sugu* soon, before long;
-   *sō* thus, so

**Conjunctions**: Japanese conjunctions typically either apply to
nominals (like English \"except\") or to predicates (like English
\"when\"), not both (like English \"and\").

-   *mata wa* or (n.);
-   *soshite* (**そして**)
    and then, and also (pr.);
-   *ga* but (pr.)

**Interjections**: Common to every language.

-   *wā!* \"wow!\"
-   *are?* \"huh?\", \"wha?\"
-   *ē to* \"um, er\"
-   *anō* \"um\"

## Sentence examples

  -------
  遅い
  Osoi.
  late
  -------

*\[You\'re\] late.*

  -------- -----
  綺麗     だ
  Kirei    da.
  Pretty   is
  -------- -----

:   *\[It\] is pretty.*

  ------ --------- ------ -------
  これ   は        本     です
  Kore   wa        hon    desu.
  This   *topic*   book   is.
  ------ --------- ------ -------

:   *This is a book.*

  ---------- --------- ------------
  富士山     は        美しい
  Fuji-san   wa        utsukushī.
  Mt. Fuji   *topic*   beautiful
  ---------- --------- ------------

:   *Mt. Fuji is beautiful.*

  ------- --------- -------- ----------------- -------
  今日    は        あまり   寒くない          です
  Kyou    wa        amari    samuku-nai        desu.
  Today   *topic*   very     cold-NEG-POLITE   is
  ------- --------- -------- ----------------- -------

:   *It\'s not very cold today. / Today isn\'t very cold.*

  ----- ---------- ----------------
  海    を         見ました
  Umi   o          mimashita.
  Sea   *object*   look at-*past*
  ----- ---------- ----------------

:   *\[I\] gazed out at the ocean.*

  ---------- --------- ------- ---------------- ------------------
  お母さん   は        店      に               行きました
  Okāsan     wa        mise    ni               ikimashita.
  Mother     *topic*   store   *place/method*   went-PAST-POLITE
  ---------- --------- ------- ---------------- ------------------

:   \'\'\[Her\] mother went to the store.

  -------- ----------- ------------------
  夏       が          来ました
  Natsu    ga          kimashita.
  Summer   *subject*   come-PAST-POLITE
  -------- ----------- ------------------

:   *Summer has come.*


# XForms/Examples Wanted

Here are some examples were are still looking for:

## Examples Wanted

Here is list of the example progams we are looking for in rough order of
priority (highest priority examples are first)

1.  **Example to format currency** - We would like an example that
    formats based on numeric picture formats such as \"\$#,###.##\".
2.  **Validate Field by Character Set** - We would like to validate a
    field base on a pattern character set. So for example we would like
    to mark a field invalid if it has special characters such as
    non-alpha or non-numerics. How do you specify this in a binding
    rule? Can you bind it to an XML Schema data type?
3.  **Full CRUD Example on dynamic file** Demonstrate the full create,
    read, update delete (CRUD) cycle for some form data selected from a
    file local file system. The example load the form data from a file
    (use the upload control) into an instance document and (similar to
    using the src=\"\" attribute), view the data, edit the data and save
    the data back to a file using a submit to a file. For doing this on
    a static file see ../Read and write with get and
    put/
4.  **Display required elements from Schema** - A XML Schema file can
    tell you exactly what fields are required (if the minOccurs is not
    zero). Demonstrate how these fields can be automatically be
    displayed using CSS and the :required pseudo element
5.  **Instance validation** - An example based on an external XML
    schema. Validate an instance using the XML Schema file.
    ../Validate/
6.  **XMLEvents** Demonstrate how XML Events work with event
    propagation. Show how events bubble up the event responder tree.
7.  Use industry standard forms (IRS tax forms, ACORD insurance forms
    etc).
8.  A XForms example incorporating XML Signing in XHTML preferably with
    digital filters too.
9.  **Full CRUD Example using any Database** Demonstrate the full
    create, read, update delete (CRUD) cycle for some form data selected
    from a database. The example load the form data from a database into
    an instance document and (similar to using the src=\"\" attribute),
    view the data, edit the data and save the data back to a database
    using a submit

## Non FireFox Examples

FireFox does not have Pseudo_element_support for
`<b>`{=html}`::value```{=html},
`<b>`{=html}`::repeat-item```{=html}, and
`<b>`{=html}`::repeat-index```{=html}. See Pseudo element support
in
FireFox
Are their any other systems that will support this that we can get
examples from?

## Finished Examples

1.  Get information from an XHTML web page - use the instance src to
    extract a value from an XHTML file. See ../Read and write with get
    and put/
2.  Web Service Examples using REST - Examples of calling a web service
    using the simplified REST protocol where web service arguments are
    just passed in a URL. See ../Search
    flickr and ../Search
    Amazon
3.  Call a web service from a form using the submit command. We would
    like an example that does not require the students to register to
    use a web service. See ../Web service/
4.  ../Load from XML Schema - Load
    an XML Schema and use the data types in the XML Schema to validate
    data types in a form.
5.  ../Facet Validation/ - We would
    like to have a family of example programs that validate based on the
    facets of an XML Schema file but it appears that the FireFox
    extension does not yet support facet validation (restrictions based
    on length, minLength, maxLength, etc) so this is somewhat difficult
    to demonstrate easily in a classroom setting when the students are
    just running the FireFox browser.
6.  Set textarea size. Use the CSS to set the area of a textarea size
    differently of many boxes. See ../Textarea with
    style/


# XForms/Conditional Actions

## Motivation

You want to conditionally perform an action based on an XPath
Expression.

## Method

We will use the **if** attribute of an action that is part of the XForms
1.1 specification. We will set up an event that will be triggered every
time an instance becomes empty. We will create an action and set the
observer attribute to watch for changes in the people instance.

Here is the code for the action itself:

``` xml
<xf:action
   ev:event="xforms-delete"
   ev:observer="people"
   if="not(person)">
        <xf:insert origin="instance('person-template')" context="."/>
</xf:action>
```

This says to watch the **people** instance and if there is not a person
in the people instance then insert one using the person-template
instance.

``` xml
<html
    xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"
    xmlns:xf="http://www.w3.org/2002/xforms"
    xmlns:xsd="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-datatypes"
    xmlns:ev="http://www.w3.org/2001/xml-events">
  <head>
    <title>Test of populating a repeat if it becomes empty</title>

    <xf:model id="m">
      <xf:instance id="people">
        <people xmlns="">
          <person>
            <name>John</name>
            <email>j...@example.org</email>
          </person>
          <person>
            <name>Bethany</name>
            <email>beth...@example.org</email>
          </person>
        </people>
      </xf:instance>

      <xf:instance id="person-template">
        <person xmlns=""><name/> <email/></person>
      </xf:instance>
    </xf:model>
  </head>

  <body>
    <h1>Test of populating a repeat if it becomes empty</h1>

    <xf:group ref="instance('people')">
      <xf:repeat nodeset="person">
        <xf:input ref="name"><xf:label>Name: </xf:label></xf:input><br/>
        <xf:input ref="email"><xf:label>Email address: </xf:label></xf:input>

        <xf:trigger>
          <xf:label>Delete</xf:label>

          <xf:delete ev:event="DOMActivate" nodeset="."/>
        </xf:trigger>
      </xf:repeat>

      <xf:action ev:event="xforms-delete" ev:observer="people"
                 if="not(person)">
        <xf:insert origin="instance('person-template')" context="."/>
      </xf:action>
    </xf:group>
  </body>
</html>
```

## Acknowledgments

This example was posted on the Mozilla XForms newsgroup by John L. Clark
in December 10th of 2008.


# XForms/A Trigger for Inserting BBcode into a Textarea box

## Using Trigger to Add BBcode or Other Text to Input or Textarea Controls

Here is a simple way to use a button (trigger) to add commonly used text
to your xforms-input or xforms-textarea controls. This could be many
things such as BBcode (bold/unbold codes), date-time stamps, frequently
used formatted text such as a letterhead, signature blocks, special
codes that aren\'t easy to remember\-- all depending on the purpose of
your form and your specific needs.

## Link to working XForms Application

Load Example XForms
Application

A more advanced example for inserting at the beginning or end of text
(with some additional code inserts such as links and images)

Load Example XForms
Application

## Program Structure

For simplification, we are using a single `<text/>`{=html} element in
our model/instance to hold our example input. The style is not really
necessary other than to give one a larger text area to test with.

The real power, and simplicity, of the form is in the value attribute of
the xforms-setvalue element which itself is placed inside an
xforms-trigger:

`  value="concat(//text,'whatever you desire goes here')"`

## Sample Program

``` html
   <html
   xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"
   xmlns:xf="http://www.w3.org/2002/xforms"
   xmlns:ev="http://www.w3.org/2001/xml-events">
   <head>
      <title>Insert BB code</title>
         <style type="text/css">  <!--mozilla specific style-->
         @namespace xf url('http://www.w3.org/2002/xforms');
         xf|textarea .xf-value{ width:25em; height:20ex; }
         </style>
      <xf:model>
         <xf:instance>
            <data xmlns="">
               <text/>
            </data>
         </xf:instance>
      </xf:model>
   </head>
   <body>
      <xf:trigger><xf:label>Bold</xf:label>
         <xf:action ev:event="DOMActivate">
            <xf:setvalue ref="//text" value="concat(//text,'[b][/b] ')"/>
            <xf:setfocus control="textArea"/>
         </xf:action>
      </xf:trigger><br/>
      <xf:textarea id="textArea" ref="//text">
          <xf:label>Post:</xf:label>
      </xf:textarea>
   </body>
   </html>
```

## Discussion

This solution will only append the inserted code/text to the end of the
current text in the text box. To have it always at the beginning, simply
change the order of the arguments in your concat function (see the
second example link above).

Limitation: This solution cannot insert code/text into the middle of the
current text in the text box.

You can use html entities to do complex formats like a letterhead (if
you need to preserve space or bold etc..) (!!note: the ampersand-& is
replaced by the percent-% as I couldn\'t figure out how to escape html
entities in this wikibook)

``` xml
   <xf:setvalue ref="//text" value="concat(//text,'
      %lt;div xmlns=%quot;http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml%quot;%gt;
         %lt;p%gt;%lt;b%gt;Testing insert with HTMLentities%lt;/b%gt;
         %lt;/p%gt;
         %lt;p%gt;%lt;i%gt;Testing Insertwith HTMLenitites%lt;/i%gt;
         %lt;/p%gt;
         %lt;pre%gt;     Indent Here%lt;/pre%gt;
      %lt;/div%gt;')"/>
```

In such a case, make sure your xforms-output has a mediatype attribute
like so:

``` xml
   <xf:output ref="//text" mediatype="application/xhtml+xml"/>
```

## Discussion


# XForms/SVG

## Motivation

You want to dynamically load and render SVG.

## Sample Program

``` html
<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"
      xmlns:ev="http://www.w3.org/2001/xml-events"
      xmlns:xsd="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema"
      xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance"
      xmlns:xf="http://www.w3.org/2002/xforms"
      xmlns:svg="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg">
  <head>
    <title>SVG Browser</title>
    <style type="text/css">
      #svgimg .xforms-value {
        width: 400px;
        min-width: 400px;
        height: 400px;
        min-height: 400px;
      }
    </style>
    <xf:model>
      <xf:instance id="current">
        <current xmlns=""/>
      </xf:instance>
      <xf:instance id="names">
        <names xmlns="">
          <name fname="mozilla.svg">Mozilla</name>
          <name fname="wii.svg">Wii</name>
          <name fname="duke.svg">Duke</name>
          <name fname="git.svg">Git</name>
          <name fname="cartman.svg">Cartman</name>
          <name fname="tiger.svg">Tiger</name>
          <name fname="gcheck.svg">GCheck</name>
          <name fname="pencil.svg">Pencil</name>
          <name fname="python.svg">Python</name>
          <name fname="ietf.svg">IETF</name>
          <name fname="osgr_pie.svg">OSGR Pie</name>
        </names>
      </xf:instance>
      <xf:instance id="inlinesvg">
        <svg xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg'/>
      </xf:instance>
      <xf:submission id="loadsvg"
                     method="get"
                     replace="instance"
                     instance="inlinesvg"
                     serialization="none"
                     mode="synchronous">
        <xf:resource value="concat('svg/',.)"/>
      </xf:submission>

      <xf:action ev:event="xforms-ready">
        <xf:setvalue ref="." value="instance('names')/name[1]/@fname"/>
        <xf:send submission="loadsvg"/>
      </xf:action>
    </xf:model>
  </head>
  <body>
    <h1>SVG Browser</h1>
    <xf:select1 ref="." appearance="minimal" incremental="true">
      <xf:label>Select SVG: </xf:label>
      <xf:itemset nodeset="instance('names')/name">
        <xf:label ref="."/>
        <xf:value ref="@fname"/>
      </xf:itemset>
      <xf:send ev:event="xforms-value-changed" submission="loadsvg"/>
    </xf:select1>

    <xf:trigger>
      <xf:label>Next</xf:label>
      <xf:setvalue ev:event="DOMActivate"
                   ref="."
                   value="if(
                          instance('names')/name[
                            preceding-sibling::name[1]/@fname
                            = current()
                            ],
                          instance('names')/name[
                            preceding-sibling::name[1]/@fname
                            = current()
                            ]/@fname,
                          instance('names')/name[1]/@fname)"/>
    </xf:trigger>

    <br/>
    <xf:output id="svgimg"
               value="xf:serialize(instance('inlinesvg'))"
               mediatype="image/svg+xml"/>
  </body>
</html>
```

## Credits

This was created by Alain Couthures on the XSLTForms mailing list. A
working copy can currently be found on the AgenceXML web
site.


# XForms/FireFox Extension

## Motivation

Your users all can run the FireFox browser on MS-Windows and you want
very fast XForms loading.

## The Mozilla Firefox Plugin

This plugin was developed over several years with the support of IBM and
Novell. It is now obsolete and is no longer supported.

The official version is available from
addons.mozilla.org.

Nightly and other (testing) builds are available at Philipp Wagner\'s
Web Site

## References

-   Mozilla FireFox XForms
    page
    Note that this web page was last updated in April 14th, 2014.

## Discussion


# XForms/Picoforms

## Getting XForms to work with Picoforms

Picoforms is commercial XForms client that is designed to work with
mobile phones and IE 6.0 as a plugin.

To get IE to see the forms you have to do the following:

If your forms are stored in the server with an XHTML extension you must

1.  Make sure that IE knows to render .XHTML files as html file types.
    This can be done by using the registry edit tool.
2.  Add the following processing instruction for picoforms AFTER the
    html element

## IE 6.0 Registry MIME-Type Fix

To change the IE registry to allow IE to know that .xhtml files should
be rendered as html. To do this do the following. From the Windows start
menu click Start/Run. Enter \"regedit\" and press enter. Use the
Registry browser to navigate to the HKEY_CLASSES_ROOT folder and then
find the MIME/Daatabase/Content Type folder.

From their add the following:

Binding for xhtml files:

    [HKEY_CLASSES_ROOT\MIME\Database\Content Type\application/xhtml+xml]
    "CLSID"="{25336920-03F9-11cf-8FD0-00AA00686F13}"
    "Extension"=".xhtml"
    "Encoding"=hex:08,00,00,00

Binding for xq files:

    [HKEY_CLASSES_ROOT\MIME\Database\Content Type\application/xhtml+xml]
    "CLSID"="{25336920-03F9-11cf-8FD0-00AA00686F13}"
    "Extension"=".xq"
    "Encoding"=hex:08,00,00,00

The CLSID above is for HTML rendering. You can copy this from the .htm
MIME-type. If you want it to render in xml use the binding for XML
files.

## Sample HTML Header

``` xml
<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"
    xmlns:xf="http://www.w3.org/2002/xforms"
    xmlns:xs="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema"
    xmlns:ev="http://www.w3.org/2001/xml-events" >
    <?import namespace="xf" implementation="#default#pxf"?>
    <head>
...
```

Note that if you are using eXist to generate your forms you need to put
the PI inside braces and serialize as html.

``` xml
declare option exist:serialize "method=html media-type=text/html indent=yes omit-xml-declaration=yes";
...
<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"
      xmlns:xf="http://www.w3.org/2002/xforms"
      xmlns:xs="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema"
      xmlns:ev="http://www.w3.org/2001/xml-events" >
      {<?import namespace="xf" implementation="#default#pxf"?>}
      <head>...
```

Also, make sure if you make changes you should be sure to use
SHIFT-reload to clear the IE cache.

## CSS Issues

Note that IE6 does not recognize the \@namepsace directive in CSS files.
These CSS files will need to be converted use **xf\\:** instead of the
CSS **\|** standard.

## References

Picoforms Web
Site


# XForms/Best practice

This cookbook identifies example programs that demonstrate best
practices. An XForms Best Practice is a specific way of solving a
general problem that has been selected from among posible solutions by
various authors. There are a variety of reasons for best practices but
in general best practices increase program modularity, maintainability
and flexibility.

The following logo will appear next to sample programs that constitute a
best practice:
![](XForms-best-practice.jpg "XForms-best-practice.jpg"){width="50"}.

These should also be some reason in each example why this solution is
usually preferred by developers over other solutions as well as give
some indication of why this may not be appropriate in some situations.

Although a best practice is usually the preferred way of solving a given
problem, it is not always the right choice for all circumstances. For
example developers frequently put a style sheet in an external file but
if you are doing training and want the example to contain the CSS file,
there are good reasons to put the CSS file directly in the html header.


# XForms/Debugging Tips

If you are a newcomer to XForms and you are having problems debugging
XForms you are not alone. XForms debugging can be tricky especially for
newcomers. If you follow the newsgroups on XForms you will see several
problems come up frequently.

## Common Problems

These problems, roughly sorted in terms of frequency include the
following:

1.  Make sure to name your files with the
    `<b>`{=html}`.xhtml``</b>`{=html} extension. Many browsers including
    FireFox do not look for XML tags in files with the .htm or .html
    extension.
2.  Problems related to forgetting to associate instance data with a
    namespace or the default namespace. This can be fixed by adding the
    `xmlns=""` parameter to your instance variable
3.  Incorrect or missing namespaces in the body of a document. For
    example, if the default namespace is html the tag `<input>`{=html}
    is valid but the browser will look at it as `<html:input>`{=html}
    not `<xf:input>`{=html}. This happens frequently when users copy
    XForms example code from places that use XForms as the default
    namespace. This is a good reason that tutorial and training
    developers should not use XForms as the default namespace.
4.  Incorrect binding between the model and the view. This usually
    occurs because the \"ref\" or \"nodeset\" attributes are not
    correctly defined or that the group or repeat changes the path
    prefix of a data element.
5.  Failure to bind to the form to the instance because the XForms
    processor cannot find one or more instance specific namespaces. If
    you have customised your XForm with an XSLT or an XQuery before
    streaming it to your user, the processor might relegated the
    declaration of some of your namespaces to the instance where they
    first occur because it treats the contents of the ref and bind
    attributes on your xform as just content. However, your XForms
    processor probably expects the definition of the namespaces in your
    ref attributes to be on the parent axis and may not look in the
    model instances for any declarations. When this happens you will
    need to manually construct the root xhtml:html node, explicitly
    declaring any namespaces that appear in your form.

## Using an XForms Validator

Some people have found this XForms validator helpful:

<http://xformsinstitute.com/validator>

This program will find common errors in XForms examples.

## Using Eclipse to validate XPath

There is a nice eclipse plugin for XSLT providing also an XPath
validation \"view\". See: <http://wiki.eclipse.org/XSLT_Project>

## Debugging Tools for Firefox

One of the most useful Firefox extensions is the XForms Buddy debugger.
This tool allows you to visually inspect all of the instances in the
model while the XForms are running in the Firefox browser. This is
especially useful for ensuring that instance values that are dynamically
configured are correctly set by the XForms. The link to the site is:
here

## Printing your Bindings Using JavaScript

There is also a way to visually view your binding from within your
JavaScript code.

These interfaces are documented here:

nsIXFormsAccessors

## Mozilla Debugging Tips

Here are some suggestions for people that are debugging XForms:

Mozilla XForms Troubleshooting
page

## Testing Submissions

Sometimes when you are creating complex submissions to web services you
need to make sure that what the XForms application is generating is
exactly what the web service is expecting. Sometimes a web service
vendor will provide a sample web forms client that correctly calls their
service but the documentation on calling that service is somewhat
lacking. One solution to this problem it to watch the HTTP packets leave
the working application and compare them with the HTTP packets with your
XForms. This can be done using an HTTP proxy tools such as
Charles which also runs as a Firefox
extension.

The \"network\" tab of standard web development debuggers, like
Firebug and Google Chrome Javascript Console
can be used to watch incoming and outgoing network traffic to and from
the browser, allowing you to verify that the content of submissions,
their methods, and HTTP error codes are what would be expected.

## Using an HTTP Proxy With Firefox

A Proxy is a tools that \"stands in\" for a web server. It puts itself
in between your web browser and the server and tells you what the
browser just sent to the web server. To do this you have to set your web
browser to use the proxy (by telling it to forward everything to another
IP address) and the proxy then forwards it to the service.

When you are finished using the proxy, make sure you remember to disable
the proxy by going to the Firefox Tools/Options/General/Connection
Settings and click the Direction Connection to the Internet. If you do
not your web browser will no longer function when Charles or Tamper Data
shuts down.

## Debugging WebDAV and Subversion

There are some XForms that are designed to use HTTP put, HTTP post and
\[w:WebDAV:WebDAV\]. The WebDAV allows you to store not just the first
version of a form but go back and see prior versions. Subversion FAQ
1 suggests
you run the Wireshark packet sniffer and
look at the data in the HTTP messages.

## Verifiying that a file is well-formed

To verify that a data file is well formed, you can use the RUWF (Are
you well-formed)? The XML Syntax
Checker

## Setting Mime-type in Internet Explorer Version 6.0

Some versions of IE 6.0 do not have the correct mime-type set for IE6.
TO fix this you must add an entry to the Microsoft Windows Registry:

Open the Command Shell Enter the command \"regedit\"

    [HKEY_CLASSES_ROOT\MIME\Database\Content Type\application/xhtml+xml]
    "CLSID"="{25336920-03F9-11cf-8FD0-00AA00686F13}"
    "Encoding"=hex:08,00,00,00
    "Extension"=".xhtml"

## Discussion


# Latin/How to study a language on the Internet and in your head

How do you think about languages as you study them? Typically, you will
consider every punctuation mark and letter, all the verbs and nouns,
adverbs and adjectives, and study them in order to make connections.
Ideally, you will have a teacher to point you in the right direction,
and help you make those connections. But when you have no teacher, those
connections are left for you to discover. They may be clear or hidden,
but either way you will have to make them yourself. As you explore this
Wikibook, it will require the skill of critical thinking.

You can never go wrong studying a language if you remember that exposing
yourself to a language, even if you stumble in practice, is itself
learning it. Looking things up too much can sometimes impede progress.
Stretch your memory, read slowly, and re-read. As you will soon
discover, you are about to study a language that is rich and full of
meaning, the ancestor of the Romance languages, such as Spanish, French,
Portuguese, Italian, and Romanian, and an outsized influence on many
other languages besides, including English.

## So do not assume that\...

\...Latin is like any other language. Do not assume ancient Roman
culture is entirely unlike other cultures, however. The Romans grappled
with issues that are universally dealt with.

We, the authors, endorse memorization, and after that, immersion. You
must develop Latin muscles, and a willingness to write or type things
out, or drill using software, or with a friend. Note the patterns after
you have memorized the forms, not before. Allow yourself to be
mesmerized by them. Similarly, seek out explanation only after you have
memorized forms. Memorize forms, then make sentences, then use your
knowledge to speak or to write the language.

## See also

-   How to learn a language


# Latin/Special consideration: How to use a Wikibook when progress may mean inaccuracy

The current rule for dealing with inaccuracy in this book is: if you are
skilled enough then simply delete or fix what you don\'t understand or
you think is wrong (but then add a full description before committing
your changes) else try to note your level of schooling and your country
of origin writing (in the summary box) about what confused you . Also
try to use the \"revert?\" keyword near the confusing text.

In other words, do not tolerate inaccuracy!