DFKI-SLT/copious huggingface dataset:
FISHERY RESOURCES OF THE PHILIPPINES, I. 515 for canning operations could be secured at an' of the following places: Manila, Jolo, Zamboanga, Sitanki, Puerto Princesa, and perhaps a dozen other places not yet examined. They abound at all seasons. THE MACKERELS. Family Scombridae. (PI. IV) There are at least eight different species of the mackerel family found in the Philippines, all of them good food fishes and of commercial importance. In this family is the tanguingue, also called tangili or tangi (Moro), which is a true Spanish mackerel Scomberomorus commersoni Lacepede) By many people this is regarded as the finest food fish in the Philippine waters. This fish is fairly abundant, and can usually be found in the markets, where it sells from 1 to 4 pesos, Philippine currency (50 cents to 2 dollars United States currency) per fish. At Zamboanga it is nothing unusual to see ten or a dozen of these fish in the market at one time, all of them measuring 90 centimeters or more in length. They are frequently cut up and sold by slices. The major part of the tanguingue are caught off shore witli a hook and line, a good fishing ground being located off the east coast of Basilan. At Manila they are usually caught in nets. Another Spanish mackerel taken in these waters is Scomheromorus honam (Bleeker), which is scarcely distinguishable from the above. Other important members of the family are the chub mackerels (alu-mahan or cavallas), Scomber microlepidotus Riippell, and the hasa-hasa (Scomber japonicus Houttuyn). These fish run in great shoals throughout the Islands, following small fish, upon which they feed. They enter Manila Bay in March and the inhabitants along the shore-line of the bay are kept awake during the nights by the noisy clatter of the fishermen beating with their paddles against the sides of their boats in order to frighten these much desired fish into the nets or hastily' constructed corrals. Still other members of this family represented in these waters are the small bonitoes (lobed or iuliiujan) Gymnosarda pelamis (Linn), the great tunnies (also called sound), and the albacore Germo alalunga Bleeker) All of these fish may be caught with hook and line, in nets or corrals. They are so abundant that it is unusual to make a trip among the Islands without sighting one or more shoals of fish belonging to this family. They are especially common about the Cuyo group and along the shores of Palawan. The market at Zamboanga is usually well stocked with all members of the family. They are with few exceptions fishes of the deep water. The purse-seine in my opinion could be profitably employed in their capture.
516 SEALE. THE MUD FISHES. Family Opliioccphalida. (Pi. V) The mud fishes, dalag (dalah in Moro), are of considerable importance, especially in the vicinity of Manila where they form a large part of the food of the native population. They are usually sold alive in the markets. In fact, it is their ability to stay alive out of water that attracts attention to them. They are primarily a fresh-or brackish-water fish, and after a rain almost all the little pools by the wayside, as Mell as the paddies and rivers are well filled with dalag. They have the habit of burying themselves in the mud as the ponds drj-up and thus of lying dormant until the next rain. They take the hook free), and it is no imcommon sight to see the natives fishing for them in the rice-fields, or in the most unlikely and recently formed pools. They frequently travel overland in the wet grass and can live for hours out of water. The eggs are deposited in holes in the bank; the mother exercises a care over the young fish. In India these are regarded as one of the most wholesome fishes and are given to invalids. In Manila they are looked upon more as scavengers andre not much eaten by the Americans. These mud fish are distinctly carnivorous, feeding on small fish, refuse, etc. They are well distributed over the Islands, being found in almost all the lakes and rivers. THE s-vprers. Family Lutiankhc. (PI. VI) There are about twenty different species of this family in the Philippine waters, all of them important as food fishes. They range when full grown from 35 to 90 centimeters in length. They are distributed over the entire group), some running up rivere to the interior lakes to feed. Several of the species are bright red in color and are called red snappers, one of the most abundant being the bataan Lutianus dodecacanthus (Bleeker). Another snapper called the lamangbuhu (Lutianus ftisccsccns Cuv. et Val) can usually le found in the markets, especially in Zamboanga. A very important member of the family is the aids (katumhang in Moro) (Lutianus gcmbra Bloch et Schn). These are caught in great numbers in the Tanjan Kiver at Bates, Mindoro. The adults weigh from 8 to 20 pounds each. I saw 108 of these fish caught in one-half day at the Bates corral. The best banks for red snapper fishing seem to be in the -vicinity of Zamboanga. Dapa and manager are other Moro names applied to the red snapper. They are usually caught by hook and line, or in the corral. In Zamboanga a red snapper 3-5 centimeters long can be bought for 40 centavos.
FISHERY RESOURCES OF THE PHILIPPINES, I. 517 THE POMPANOS. Family Caranyidw. (PI. VII) There are thirty-six different species of the pompano family' known in the Philippines. All of them are valuable commercial fishes. The cavallas (Caranx) are the most important branch of the family. They are termed talahitoh in Tagalog and daingputi in Moro. These fish are very abundant in almost all markets. They range from 33 to 36 centimeters in length. As a Iule they are caught in corrals. Another abundant species is the Uson Gamnx ignobilis (Forskal). These fish are dried in large numbers by the Moros. The ballangoan. termed cuhal-cuhal Megalaspis cordyla Linn) is another very abundant food fish of fine flavor, belonging to this family. These are reported to reach the length of 155 centimeters; ordinarily those in the market measure about 45 centimeters. They are caught in corrals. THE SEA BASSES. Family Serranidae. (PI. VIII) There are thirty-three Species of this important family of food fish reported from the Philippines. One of the most familiar is the apahap (taxon in Moro) Lacs calcarifer (Bloch), one of our largest sea basses. Specimens weighing from 25 to 35 kilos are frecpiently brought into the market. This fish would afford good sport for local anglers. The largest branch of the family is constituted by the groupers Epinephelus) called lap-lap in Tagalog, garopa in Visayan, and kukkut in Moro. (PI. VIII) Ordinarily this name is given to the most common species, Epincphelus mcgraw Bloch, Ijut it is also a23plied to at least three others which closely resemble E. menu. These fish bring a high price in the Manila market; they are a favorite sea food for many Americans. Another rather common species is the blue-spotted grouper Cephalopjiolis stiginatopomus (Richardson), which is especially abundant in the Zamboanga market. The fishes of this family are usually caught with hook and line in water of considerable depth; sometimes they are taken by net or corral. Gill-nets set in about 50 feet of water frequently quite good catches. THE MULLETS. Family Muguidw. (PI. IX) There are ten different species of mullet recorded from the Philippines, the most abundant being the banana (Mugil cephalus Linn). This fish can always be found in the market and when quite fresh and properly cooked is most delicious. It is very common throughout the entire Archipelago. The mullet is a strictly vegetable feeder-, and is usually
FISHERY RESOURCES OF THE PHILIPPINES, I. 521 a board. This operation is not necessarily done at any particular season, but whenever the condition demands it. The Oedogonium is sometimes purchased and placed in an exhausted pond. A small ianca load is worth one peso. A so-called "medicine" for the young fish (apparently used only in small ponds where the water is contaminated by close proximity to houses) is the Lemna minor Linn, the floating roots of which are greedily devoured. When the fr' are to be planted in the pond, the water is again allowed to drain off and the alga is partially killed by the hot sun. This, it is claimed, renders the Oedogonium soft and fragile for the tiny mouths. Eventually, the young amigos are removed to the great pond where their quantity is largely governed by the supply of the food alga. The average value of the ponds about Manila Bay is probably 40 centavos per square meter, giving a total of more than 6,000,000 pesos for the pond value alone, which I am convinced is a conservative estimate. I chose one pond which measured 140 by 170 meters as an average of the twenty or more shown on a surveyor's map compiled from data obtained from the owners of the properties. METHODS OF FISHING It has been my privilege to make personal observations of the methods employed in the fisheries of various pai-ts of the world, in the United States, Alaska, New Zealand, Australia, Honolulu, and numerous Pacific Islands, also to some extent in Japan. Some time ago at the instance of the Secretary of the Interior, Mr. Dean C. Worcester and before I assumed my position in the Bureau of Science, I made a more detailed examination of the methods employed in the fisheries of the eastern United States in order to secure the latest information regarding the various kinds of nets and apparatus that could with profit be used to develop the commercial fisheries of the Philippine Islands. It may not be out of place, therefore, to give brief descriptions of such apparatus as seems to me to be of especial value and short suggestions as to its use. SEINES. In the Atlantic fisheries a great man)-more fish are caught with the various kinds of spines than in any other way. In 1904, the New York fisheries alone captured by this method 214,099,735 pounds of fish, with a value of 836597 dollars. United States currency. A full description as to detailed method of construction, size of twine, niesli, hanging of net and methods of using can be obtained by applying to the United States Division of Fisheries.
FISHERY RESOURCES OP THE PHILIPPINES, I. 523 fathoms in length, and 20 to 25 fathoms in widtli wlien it is hung, it being deeper in the center than at the extreme wings. The boat end of one wing is from 1 to 10 fathoms deep; the other end varies from 7 to 15 fathoms. It is made of three kinds of twine. The baiung-piece, which is a section of the net occupy3dng about 10 to 12 fathoms along the center of the cork line and having about the same depth as length, is made of the stoutest twine. Beneath this, composing the remainder of the middle of the seine and extending to the bottom of the net, is a section knit of twine a size smaller. There is also a band of large twine, 15 meshes in depth, extending along the cork line of the seine on either side of the bailing-piece to the extremity of each wing. The remainder of the net is made of lighter twine. The lead and cork line are in the same position as in ordinary spines. This net is operated by a series of pursing ropes and rings, by means of which the bottom of the seine is drawn up and closed. Formerly this net was taken out in fishing schooners and when a shoal of fish was seen, it was placed in a seining boat, the shoal was surrounded by the net, the latter at once pursed, the vessel then brought alongside and the fish dipped out. Now, in some cases, the net is carried on a revolving table at the stern of a small steam-vessel or launch, and the surrounding of the shoal and pursing of the net is all done quickly and efficiently by steam. Frequently more fish are taken in this way than can be used in one day. In this event, they are put into a "spiller" or pocket, which is a form of live-box made of stout, coarse twine, and is attached to the side of the vessel, where it is kept in position by wooden poles or outriggers extending 15 feet from the vessel's side. This apparatus is nothing more than a big net bag 36 feet long, 15 feet wide, and 30 feet deep. This size will hold 200 barrels of live mackerel, but of course the spiller may be constructed of any dimensions. The purse net could probably be used with profit in catching the various kinds of mackerel viasangui, etc) found in Philippine waters.
XIII, A. 6 King: Philippine Coir and Coir Cordage 333 coir ropes broke their moorings during severe tropical storms and were carried high on the beach. As a result the Filipinos have learned that, while coir and other cheap ropes made of maguey, bamboo, etc, may serve for everyday use, abaca rope is the most dependable for emergencies. Mr. Don Strong, fiber expert of the Bureau of Agriculture, relates that in 1912 the small steamer Camiguin, 53 tons gross, ran on a coral reef off the Masbate coast while loaded with abaca fiber. Mr. Strong, who was on board, secured the assistance of a lighthouse tender, whose captain first passed a new 12-inch coir rope to the Camiguin. An attempt was made to pull off the steamer, with the result that the coir rope began to stretch excessively, visibly became reduced in diameter, and finally parted at several places. During the attempt not the slightest tremor passed through the reef-bound vessel. A 7-inch abaca rope was then made fast to the Camiguin and after a single attempt the steamer was successfully pulled off the reef into deep water. When a coir rope breaks there is very little reaction, for the rupture occurs almost imperceptibly. On the other hand, an abaca rope made of good grade fiber -gives a sharp report at the instant of rupture and violent reaction occurs which, in the case of ropes having a circumference of 75 millimeters or more, jars and shakes the testing machines. This violent reaction is due to the giving back of a relatively large amount of potentially stored resilient energy. Coir is not used at all in Manila at the present time, due to the unsatisfactory results that have been obtained. Cordage made of abaca, of which there are numerous grades, has supplanted the little for that was once used. Even though abaca rope costs considerably more than coir cordage, the more expensive fiber is the more economical in the end. Abaca is much stronger, less bulky, more reliable, and much more elastic and resilient than for. I have inquired for coir cordage in several places in Manila, but was unable to get quotations or even to see a specimen. Even the small Chinese retailers who handle the most unexpected kinds of merchandise did not have supplies of coir rope, though other nonstandard fiber cordage was procurable. Among the latter, small coils of rope made of the black stiff fiber locally called "cabo negro" obtained from a palm (Arenga saccharifera) were on sale in nearly all of the Chinese stores dealing in fiber products. Unless the difference in price of coir and abaca rope is large enough to create a demand for the former on the basis of price alone, coir cordage will never find extensive sale.
246 The Philippine Journal of Science i9i8 sional scales of lighter and darker color. Wing membranes darker with numerous (usually) roundish spots of bluish to yellowish green, the outer edge light salmon washed with gray. Head with the interorbital dark spot; the nuchal spot absent; dark markings either present or absent on the sides of the head. Below, belly and wing membranes salmon to brick-red, usually with only one large or small dark spot in the outer margin of wing ; gular appendage canary yellow at tip, the remainder bright purple to wine color with a green wash at base ; throat and chin with darker reticulations; belly with very dim reticulations of darker color either present or absent. The males can make extremely rapid changes of color. They change from light to dark green, then to black or reddish brown in less than a minute and vice versa. When the brown specimens are placed in alcohol, the green returns largely and when fixed is blue green to blue, the salmon largely disappearing below. In consequence of the color changes the head markings vary considerably in preserved specimens. The species was abundant in the coconut groves near the mountains in Zamboanga. Specimens were also taken on Bongao and Simonor. On the latter island they were especially numerous in the coconut trees. With the aid of the Small a large series was collected in the village of Tubig Indangan. The species was seen in Jolo, but no specimens were acquired. Draco bimaculatus Giinther. Plate II, figs. 1 and 2, A single specimen was obtained in the mountains near Zamboanga (city) It is the smallest species of the genus found in the Islands. It was also observed in Tawitawi. The paper-white gular appendage and the slender body render it easily identified at a considerable distance. Draco cornutus Giinther. This species has been reported from Jolo by Werner I failed to find it there. Mabuya multifasciata Gray. Specimens were taken in Zamboanga, Bubuan (Tapiantana Group), Jolo, Bubuan (Tapian Group), Papahag, and Bongao. Specimens from the last two localities have a broad brilliant brick-red stripe beginning behind the eye and continuing some distance along the side. It is present in both sexes. Those found on the other islands sometimes have an orange or light spot laterally, but it is absent in females. 'Mitt. Natur. Mits. Hamb. (1910), 27 (2), 9.
A BIOLOGICAL AND SYSTEMATIC STUDY OF PHILIPPINE PLANT GALLS 1 By Leopoldo B. Uichanco (From the College of Agriculture, University of the Philippines, Los Banos) FIFTEEN PLATES INTRODUCTION Galls are abnormal growths on the stems, leaves, roots, or other parts of plants, caused by the action of insects, arachnids, or fungi, or by unknown agencies. Just how these peculiar structural developments are brought about is still open to discussion and speculation, experimental proofs being, up to the present, too deficient to warrant our drawing any definite conclusion. These malformations have been ascribed to various causes, the more commonly accepted, in the absence of more reasonable, explanations being the following: 2 1, a severe mechanical injury to certain parts of the plant ; 2, a continuous mechanical irritation; 3, secretion of chemical stimulus by the causal animal or fungus. One, or a combination of two or all, of these causes may give rise to the production of galls. In the formation of zobcecidia, the third factor — that is, the action of the virus secreted at the time of oviposition or during the development of the parasite — is probably the most important, the first two being of minor or absolutely no use whatever. This fact was shown by Molliard in connection with his experiments on Aulax papaveris Perris, a cynipid gall maker on the pistil of Papaver rhoeas Pall. 3 From time to time he removed a small quantity of the virus secreted by the developing Aulax larva, and injected the fluid into the growing pistils of Papaver. This artificial treatment resulted in the formation of galls which resembled in all respects those formed in the presence of the larva itself. He was thus enabled to draw the conclusion that the virus alone, without the influence of mechanical irritation from the presence of the animal within, is sufficient to produce the characteristic Papaver gall. The importance of chemical stimuli, as related to gall formation, was recognized as early as 1686 by Malpighi, 1 Thesis presented in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science, University of the Philippines, 1918. 1 Cook, M. T, Insect Galls of Indiana. Dept. Geol. and Nat. Resources, Indiana, 29th Ann. Rep. (1904) 801. Compt. Rend. Acad. Sci. 165 (1917) 160. 527
530 Philippine Journal of Science 1919 need the specimens in the preserving fluid, the galls and insects being given the same number in the accession record. Longitudinal and cross sections were made of the mature galls, and these were drawn to show the details in structure and the mechanism peculiar to each case. No hard and fast rule can be laid down as to the methods to be followed in breeding the insects from their galls. Conditions were different in each case, and laboratory methods had to be modified accordingly. In general, battery jars with fine muslin held on by elastic bands at the top proved to be the best form of breeding receptacle, a decided advantage in favor of these being that the green parts of the plants were kept adequately exposed to the light and that inspection and cleaning were easy. During dry months the materials had to be moistened at least once a day by spraying them with water from a small hand atomizer. Care was taken not to wet the plants too much, for then decay would set in, or the adult insects on emergence would be entrapped by the film of water on the plant surface or the inner wall of the jar and spoiled. The jars were inspected every morning and the adults caught by means of a short test tube. The removal of the adults as soon as they emerged was a necessary measure, because when allowed to stay in the vessel for a longer time many of them would be lost or badly mutilated among the moist plant materials. Throughout the progress of the work precautions were taken against certain small spiders which, when accidentally introduced into the jar with the plant materials, would prey upon the gall insects as fast as the latter emerged. As a measure against this pest, the pieces of plants were thoroughly shaken, one by one, before being placed into the jars, and a constant watch was kept for the appearance of any of the spiders that might have hatched from eggs accidentally introduced. Another piece of apparatus used consisted of a light-tight cardboard box with the mouth ends of test tubes or vials inserted into one side. This device was supposed to work on the principle that most insects are attracted to the light ; and the interior of the box being dark, except at the insertion of the glass tubes, the insects on emerging were supposed to enter the latter. The apparatus had been used with good results and had been indorsed by the California Board of Horticulture and by the cotton-boll weevil investigators. 9 The results with this device in Banks, Nathan, Directions for Collecting and Preserving Insects, Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus. 67 (1909) 115, with figure.
THE BLACK HALICTINE BEES OF THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS By T. D. A. COCKERELL Of the University of Colorado The black halictine bees of the Philippines have all been referred to the genus Halictus; but the subgenus Nesohalictus, of Crawford, remarkable for its very long tongue, may be elevated to generic rank. Genus NESOHALICTUS Crawford Halictus subgenus Nesohalictus Crawford, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 38 (1910) 120. "Closely resembles Halictus, but differs by the greatly elongate tongue, which is about as long as the antennae, by having the inner spur of the hind tibiae in the male armed with a few large teeth, and by having all the transverso-cubital veins, the cubitus beyond the second transverse cubital, and the upper two-thirds of the second recurrent vein, obsolescent" (Crawford) This diagnosis was based on the male. The female is larger (about 75 millimeters long), with the basitarsi piceous (they are ferruginous in the male) ; the hind spur has long spines. On account of the long linear tongue the genus is related to Thrinchostoma, but it differs in the structure of the hind legs, the absence of the hair patch on the wings of the male, and in other ways. The clypeus of the male is entirely black, flattened and shining in the middle. Nesohalictus robbii (Crawford). Halictus (Nesohalictus) robbii Crawford, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 38 (1910) 120. Luzon, Manila (M. L. Robb and R. E. Brown) Laguna Province, Mount Maquiling (C. F. Baker), Los Baiios (Baker). Panay, Antique Province, Culasi (R. C. Mcgregor) June, 1918 ; Maralison Island Mcgregor), June 18, 1918. Mindanao, Dapitan, Davao, and Cagayan (Baker). Another species of this genus, Nesohalictus lativentris (Halictus lativentris Friese), occurs in Java. Genus HALICTUS Latreille The metallic species have been previously described, but one described below (H. opisthochlorus) is partly metallic. The 167148 1 269