title: Fee simple

text: In English law, a fee simple or fee simple absolute is an estate in land, a form of freehold ownership. A "fee" is a vested, inheritable, present possessory interest in land. A "fee simple" is real property held without limit of time (i.e., permanently) under common law, whereas the highest possible form of ownership is a "fee simple absolute," which is without limitations on the land's use (such as qualifiers or conditions that disallow certain uses of the land or subject the vested interest to termination).


title: Fee simple

text: The rights of the fee-simple owner are limited by government powers of taxation, compulsory purchase, police power, and escheat, and may also be limited further by certain encumbrances or conditions in the deed, such as, for example, a condition that required the land to be used as a public park, with a reversion interest in the grantor if the condition fails; this is a fee simple conditional.


title: Fee simple

text: The word "fee" is related to the term fief, meaning a feudal landholding. Feudal land tenures existed in several varieties, most of which involved the tenant having to supply some service to his overlord, such as knight-service (military service). If the tenant's overlord was the king, grand serjeanty, then this might require providing many different services, such as providing horses in time of war or acting as the king's ceremonial butler. These fiefs gave rise to a complex relationship between landlord and tenant, involving duties on both sides. For example, in return for receiving his tenant's fealty or homage, the overlord had a duty to protect his tenant. When feudal land tenure was abolished, all fiefs became "simple", without conditions attached to the tenancy.


title: Fee simple

text: In English common law, the Crown had radical title or the allodium of all land in England, meaning that it was the ultimate "owner" of all land in the past feudal era. Allodial title is reserved to governments under a civil law structure.


title: Fee simple

text: However, the Crown can grant ownership in an abstract entity - called an estate in land - which is what is owned rather than the land it represents. The fee simple estate is also called "estate in fee simple" or "fee-simple title", or sometimes simply "freehold" in England and Wales. From the start of the Norman period, when feudalism was introduced to England, the tenant or "holder" of a fief could not alienate (sell) it from the possession of his overlord. However, a tenant could separate a parcel of the land and grant it as a subordinate fief to his own sub-tenant, a process known as sub-enfeoffing or "subinfeudation". The 1290 Statute of Quia Emptores abolished subinfeudation and instead allowed the sale of fee simple estates.


title: Fee simple

text: William Blackstone defined fee simple as the estate in land that a person has when the lands are given to him and his heirs absolutely, without any end or limit put to his estate. Land held in fee simple can be conveyed to whomsoever its owner pleases; it can also be mortgaged or put up as security.


title: Fee simple

text: Owners of real property in fee simple have the privilege of interest in the property during their lifetime and typically have a say in determining who gets to own an interest in the property after their death.


title: Fee simple

text: Historically, estates could be limited in time. Common temporal limitations include life estate, a land ownership that terminates upon the grantee's (or another person's) death even if the land had been granted to a third party, or a term of years, a lease for a specified term, such as in an estate for years. A fee also could be limited through the method of its inheritance, such as by an "entailment", which created a fee tail. Traditionally, fee tail was created by words of grant such as "to N. and the male heirs of his body", which would restrict those who could inherit the property. If no heirs could be found, then the property would revert to the original grantor's heirs. Most common law countries have abolished entailment by statute.


title: Fee simple

text: An estate in fee simple denotes the maximum ownership in land that can be legally granted; it is the greatest possible aggregate of rights, powers, privileges and immunities available in land. The three hallmarks of the fee simple estate are that it is alienable, devisable and descendible.


title: Fee simple

text: Rules requiring words of general inheritance to create fee simple by conveyance have been abolished by statute in the United States. To convey an estate in fee simple at common law, the deed or will must state "to B and his heirs." Anything short of those words transferred a smaller estate.


title: Fee simple

text: Modern deeds usually follow a standardized form. There is a presumption that the testator intends to convey his or her property in fee simple unless the will indicates an intention to transfer a smaller estate, such as a life estate.


title: Fee simple

text: Many jurisdictions retain the possibility of creating a life estate, although this is uncommon. In the United States, life estates are most commonly used either to grant someone use of the property for the remainder of that person's life in a will, or by a grantor to reserve the right to continue using the property for the remainder of the grantor's life after it is sold. The right to ownership of the property after the death of the life estate owner is called the "remainder estate". In England and Wales fee simple is the only freehold estate that remains; a life estate can only be created in equity and is not a right in property.


title: Fee simple

text: In the United States, retained life estates are often used by donors who intend to leave property as bequests to charitable organizations while retaining the use of the property during their lifetimes. The donor receives a tax deduction for the gift of their remainder interest in the property, and at the donor's death, the property passes to the organization without being subject to probate. Retained life estate gifts often involve agreements about acceptable uses of the property, payment of real estate taxes, property maintenance, etc. during the donor's lifetime.


title: Fee simple

text: If previous grantors of a fee simple estate do not create any conditions for subsequent grantees, then the title is called fee simple absolute. A fee simple absolute is the highest estate permitted by law, and it gives the holder full possessory rights and obligations now and in the future. Other fee simple estates in real property include fee simple defeasible (or fee simple determinable) estates. A defeasible estate is created when a grantor places a condition on a fee simple estate (in the deed). When a specified event happens, the estate may become void or subject to annulment. There are two types of defeasible estates: fee simple determinable and the fee simple subject to a condition subsequent. If the grantor uses durational language in the condition such as "to A. as long as the land is used for a park", then upon the happening of the specified event (in this case if the land is used for anything other than a park), the estate will automatically terminate and revert to the grantor or the grantor's estate; this is called a fee simple determinable. If the grantor uses language such as "but if alcohol is served", then the grantor or the heirs have a right of entry if the condition occurs, but the estate does not automatically revert to the grantor; this is a fee simple subject to a condition subsequent. In most jurisdictions in the United States these concepts have been modified by statute. Fee simple determinable was generally preferred by courts in the common law of the early United States. Recently, that trend has reversed, and most courts in the United States will find a fee simple subject to condition subsequent in situations where the conveying document's language is unclear.


title: Fee simple

text: The claim that no rent or similar obligations are due from the owner of property in fee simple is only partially true. For example, a rentcharge may exist requiring a freeholder to pay a fixed sum of money closely resembling rent, and many jurisdictions have created financial obligations that may be imposed on a freehold estate. England and Wales impose an estate charge. In the United States, fee simple owners are usually subject to property tax and the revenue generated is directed to the municipality's general fund. Other local tax assessments called "special purpose taxes" may be assessed in addition to the property taxes for specific purposes such as infrastructure improvements. Real estate owned as a condominium is usually similarly owned in fee simple, but typically subject to rules in the declaration of condominium or created by the condominium association, such as paying required monthly fees for maintaining the property's common areas; however, these are generally treated legally as covenants running with the land (contracts binding on the possessors of real property) imposing an affirmative duty to pay money rather than as rent for property held in fee simple.


title: Fee simple

text: The English word "fee" ultimately goes back to the Indo-European root "*peku", which refers to moveable wealth, that is, cattle. The Latin word "pecunia", money, also comes from this root and becomes "pecuniary" in English. The root appears in Modern German as "Vieh", cattle, beast.


title: L.A. Takedown

text: L.A. Takedown, also called L.A. Crimewave and Made in L.A., is a 1989 crime thriller. Originally filmed as an unsuccessful pilot for an NBC television series, it was reworked and aired as a stand-alone TV film. The film was later released on VHS and, in Region 2, on DVD. "L.A. Takedown" was written and directed by Michael Mann and its ensemble cast includes Scott Plank, Alex McArthur, Michael Rooker, Daniel Baldwin, and Xander Berkeley. Scott Plank starred as Vincent Hanna, a detective on the hunt for professional criminal Patrick McLaren, played by McArthur; the story was based on the real-life investigation of Chicago criminal Neil McCauley. The film is best known as the basis for the 1995 film "Heat". The film was moderately well received in retrospective reviews, but remains overshadowed by its remake.


title: L.A. Takedown

text: Los Angeles robbery-homicide sergeant Vincent Hanna (Plank) is on the trail of a gang of ruthless professional criminals, led by the methodical Patrick McLaren (McArthur), whose only mistake in the last heist was the killing of armored car guards by the new recruit, Waingro (Berkeley), who is a loose cannon. But Hanna is soon surprised when he discovers that he and McLaren have quite a lot in common. While McLaren and his gang plan another heist, Hanna and his colleagues keep surveillance. Hanna is facing a personal problem, as the police work is straining his relationship with his wife, Lillian (Pouget). Moreover, McLaren is also facing a similar problem when he finds himself falling in love with Eady (Harrington), which he condemns due to the commitment required to his profession.


title: L.A. Takedown

text: Things then take a turn for the worse, as McLaren unsuccessfully attempts to kill Waingro, who in turn betrays the team to the police. When Hanna arrives on the scene unexpectedly with the police, McLaren and his crew engage them in a mid-street shootout, in which most of McLaren's crew are killed. After making an unlikely escape, McLaren is presented with an opportunity to leave Los Angeles for a new life with Eady, but he decides to first take revenge for Waingro's betrayal. After McLaren tracks down Waingro to a hotel room, he is ambushed by Hanna and his team. Waingro takes advantage of the confusion to shoot McLaren through a closed door. While Hanna advises Waingro of his options in jail, for a string of previous murders, Waingro resists arrest and tries to pull a gun. In self-defence, Hanna forces Waingro through a hotel window, and Waingro falls fifteen floors to his death. In the final sequences, Hanna is reunited with his wife.


title: L.A. Takedown

text: The majority of the main cast appeared as guest stars in episodes of one or both of Michael Mann's two shows produced in the 1980s, "Miami Vice" and "Crime Story".


title: L.A. Takedown

text: The origins of "L.A. Takedown" lay in real life. Michael Mann, the film's producer and screenwriter, cited producer, screenwriter and Chicago ex-police officer Chuck Adamson as an inspiration for the character of Vincent Hanna. Mann, who collaborated with Adamson on "Miami Vice" and "Crime Story" and several minor projects, was told of an investigation Adamson partook in. In 1963, he was investigating Neil McCauley, a professional robber. According to Mann, "one day they simply bumped into one another. [Adamson] didn't know what to do: arrest him, shoot him or have a cup of coffee." Adamson later killed McCauley in a stand-off after a failed robbery.


title: L.A. Takedown

text: In 1979, Mann wrote an early 180-page draft for the screenplay. After making his first feature film, "Thief", he re-wrote the draft. In a 1983 interview, he mentioned he was planning to make a film based on the draft, and was looking for someone to direct it. He later offered the director position to Walter Hill, but Hill refused. In the late 1980s, NBC commissioned Mann to produce a new television series. Mann felt the draft would make a good pilot episode, but decided to set the story in Los Angeles, deeming the L. A. Robbery–Homicide Division a better basis for a TV show. He took the 180-page screenplay and edited out roughly 110 pages to make room for a 90-minute pilot. However, the new series was not picked up by the network. Instead, it was released as a television film entitled "L.A. Takedown".


title: L.A. Takedown

text: The pilot was shot in nineteen days, with ten days of pre-production, which was noted atypically fast for Mann. The film score was written by Tim Truman, and cinematography done by Ron Garcia. The soundtrack also featured the song "L.A. Woman" performed by Billy Idol.


title: L.A. Takedown

text: Mann had cast Scott Plank in the role of Hanna, which was not well received by NBC. They expressed interest in buying the series on the condition of finding a new lead actor, but Mann refused, leading to NBC's rejecting the show. The unsuccessful pilot was, however, aired as a television film on NBC on August 27, 1989 at 9:00 pm. In 1990, it was released on VHS in Finland, with several other European countries following in the early 1990s. On March 19, 2008, a DVD of the movie was released in Germany, featuring several scene selections as bonus content.


title: L.A. Takedown

text: "L.A. Takedown" received mixed-to-positive reviews from film critics, with its acting being the most poorly received. On its first airing, "The Globe and Mail" gave the film a two star rating. Hal Erickson of "AllRovi" compared the film to Mann's cult TV series "Miami Vice", but felt it emphasized style over substance. Dragan Antulov for "Movie Reviews in Croatian" (), in comparing the film with its remake, "Heat", praised Mann's choice to hire unknown actors for "L.A. Takedown", which contrasted with big stars in "Heat". Although he derided Berkeley's performance as Waingro, he concluded that it was "a fine companion piece to "Heat"." A reviewer from "Lexikon des Internationalen Films" of Germany was less enthusiastic, citing routine action sequences and a confusing plot due to the overly large cast. Lol Frost of "Empire" gave "L.A. Takedown" two out of five stars, acknowledging the worthiness of the plot, but citing lack of Mann's typical filming style. Frost concluded that the film was "a bit of a dud, but a noble effort."


title: L.A. Takedown

text: After directing "The Last of the Mohicans", Mann decided to remake "L.A. Takedown" into a wide release cinema feature. He viewed the film as a dry run for the original story, which was a complex, multi-layered crime drama edited out of the script for the television film. He consulted a longer 1986 draft to work on the remake. Having made "L.A. Takedown", Mann felt he had a much better idea of how he wanted to structure the remake, saying: "I charted the film out like a 2 hr 45 min piece of music, so I'd know where to be smooth, where not to be smooth, where to be staccato, where to use a pulse like a heartbeat."


title: L.A. Takedown

text: On April 5, 1994, Mann was reported to have abandoned an earlier plan to produce a James Dean biographical film in favor of the "L.A. Takedown" remake, entitled "Heat". "Heat" was made on a budget with a strong cast, and released in 1995. It featured Al Pacino as Vincent Hanna, Robert De Niro in the role of Patrick McLaren, now renamed Neil McCauley, Val Kilmer as Chris Shiherlis, Mykelti Williamson as Arriaga, now renamed Drucker, Diane Venora in the role of Lillian, now renamed Justine, and Ted Levine as Schwartz, now renamed Bosko. (Xander Berkeley, who played Waingro in "L.A. Takedown", makes a brief appearance as a man who has a one-night stand with Justine.) The film was met with critical acclaim and grossed , becoming a financial success.


title: L.A. Takedown

text: Not only featuring a bigger budget and well-known actors, "Heat" also had significant storyline differences when compared to "L.A. Takedown". Among other things, the remake included Chris Shiherlis' gambling addiction, the subplot concerning Roger Van Zant and his attempt to double-cross the crew (in this film Waingro plots against the crew by himself), and Hanna's troubled stepdaughter—plot elements not present in the original film. Because of this, "Heat" runs nearly twice the length of "L.A. Takedown". Nowadays, "L.A. Takedown" is best known for being the basis of "Heat", and is often compared to it in an unfavorable light.


title: Tilt–shift photography

text: Tilt–shift photography is the use of camera movements that change the orientation or position of the lens with respect to the film or image sensor on cameras.


title: Tilt–shift photography

text: Sometimes the term is used when a large depth of field is simulated with digital post-processing; the name may derive from a perspective control lens (or tilt–shift lens) normally required when the effect is produced optically.


title: Tilt–shift photography

text: "Tilt–shift" encompasses two different types of movements: rotation of the lens plane relative to the image plane, called "tilt", and movement of the lens parallel to the image plane, called "shift".


title: Tilt–shift photography

text: Tilt is used to control the orientation of the plane of focus (PoF), and hence the part of an image that appears sharp; it makes use of the Scheimpflug principle. Shift is used to adjust the position of the subject in the image area without moving the camera back; this is often helpful in avoiding the convergence of parallel lines, as when photographing tall buildings.


title: Tilt–shift photography

text: Movements have been available on view cameras since the early days of photography; they have been available on smaller-format cameras since the early 1960s, usually by means of special lenses or adapters. Nikon introduced a lens providing shift movements for their 35 mm SLR cameras in 1962, and Canon introduced a lens that provided both tilt and shift movements in 1973; many other manufacturers soon followed suit. Canon and Nikon currently offer four lenses that provide both movements. Such lenses are frequently used in architectural photography to control perspective, and in landscape photography to get an entire scene sharp.


title: Tilt–shift photography

text: Some photographers have popularized the use of tilt for in applications such as portrait photography. The selective focus that can be achieved by tilting the plane of focus is often compelling because the effect is different from that to which many viewers have become accustomed. Ben Thomas, Walter Iooss Jr. of "Sports Illustrated", Vincent Laforet and many other photographers have used this technique.


title: Tilt–shift photography

text: In photography, a perspective-control lens allows the photographer to control the appearance of perspective in the image; the lens can be moved parallel to the film or sensor, providing the equivalent of corresponding view camera movements. This movement of the lens allows adjusting the position of the subject in the image area without moving the camera back; it is often used to avoid convergence of parallel lines, such as when photographing a tall building. A lens that provides only shift is called a shift lens, while those that can also tilt are called tilt–shift lenses. The terms "PC" and "TS" are also used by some manufacturers to refer to this type of lens.


title: Tilt–shift photography

text: Short-focus perspective-control (PC) lenses (i.e., 17 mm through 35 mm) are used mostly in architectural photography; longer focal lengths may also be used in other applications such as landscape, product, and closeup photography. PC lenses are generally designed for single-lens reflex (SLR) cameras, as rangefinder cameras do not allow the photographer to directly view the effect of the lens, and view cameras allow for perspective control using camera movements.


title: Tilt–shift photography

text: A PC lens has a larger image circle than is required to cover the image area (film or sensor size). Typically, the image circle is large enough, and the mechanics of the lens sufficiently limited, that the image area cannot be shifted outside of the image circle. However, many PC lenses require a small aperture setting to prevent vignetting when significant shifts are employed. PC lenses for 35 mm cameras typically offer a maximum shift of 11 mm; some newer models offer a maximum shift of 12 mm.


title: Tilt–shift photography

text: The mathematics involved in tilt lenses are described as the Scheimpflug principle, after an Austrian military officer who developed the technique for correcting distortion in aerial photographs.


title: Tilt–shift photography

text: The first PC lens manufactured for an SLR camera in any format was Nikon's 1961 3.5 35 mm PC-Nikkor; it was followed by an 2.8 35 mm PC-Nikkor (1968), an 4 28 mm PC-Nikkor (1975), and an 3.5 28 mm PC-Nikkor (1981). In 1973, Canon introduced a lens, the TS 35 mm 2.8 SSC, with tilt as well as shift functions.


title: Tilt–shift photography

text: Other manufacturers, including Venus Optics Laowa, Olympus, Pentax, Schneider Kreuznach (produced as well for Leica), and Minolta, made their own versions of PC lenses. Olympus produced 35 mm and 24 mm shift lenses. Canon currently offers 17 mm, 24 mm, 50 mm, 100 mm and 135 mm tilt/shift lenses. Nikon currently offers 19 mm, 24 mm, 45 mm, and 85 mm PC lenses with tilt and shift capability. Venus Optics Laowa offers the world's widest 15mm shift lens with an extremely good optical distortion control.


title: Tilt–shift photography

text: When the camera back is parallel to a planar subject (such as the front of a building), all points in the subject are at the same distance from the camera, and are recorded at the same magnification. The shape of the subject is recorded without distortion. When the image plane is not parallel to the subject, as when pointing the camera up at a tall building, parts of the subject are at varying distances from the camera; the more distant parts are recorded at lesser magnification, causing the convergence of parallel lines. Because the subject is at an angle to the camera, it is also foreshortened.


title: Tilt–shift photography

text: When the camera back is not parallel to a planar subject, it is not possible to have the entire subject in focus without the use of tilt or swing; consequently, the image must rely on the depth of field to have the entire subject rendered acceptably sharp.


title: Tilt–shift photography

text: With a PC lens, the camera back can be kept parallel to the subject while the lens is moved to achieve the desired positioning of the subject in the image area. All points in the subject remain at the same distance from the camera, and the subject shape is preserved. If desired, the camera back can be rotated away from parallel to the subject, to allow some convergence of parallel lines or even to increase the convergence. Again, the position of the subject in the image area is adjusted by moving the lens.


title: Tilt–shift photography

text: The earliest perspective control and tilt–shift lenses for 35 mm format were 35 mm focal length, which is now considered too long for many architectural photography applications. With advances in optical design, lenses of 28 mm and then 24 mm became available and were quickly adopted by photographers working in close proximity to their subjects, such as in urban settings.


title: Tilt–shift photography

text: The Arri motion-picture camera company offers a shift and tilt bellows system that provides movements for PL-mount lenses on motion-picture cameras.


title: Tilt–shift photography

text: Canon currently offers five lenses with tilt and shift functions: the TS-E 17 mm 4, the TS-E 24 mm 3.5L II, the TS-E 50mm f/2.8L MACRO, the TS-E 90 mm 2.8L MACRO, and the TS-E 135 mm f/4L MACRO. The lenses are supplied with the tilt and shift movements at right angles to each other; they can be modified so that the movements operate in the same direction. Canon filed a patent in 2016 for an autofocus system for use in a Tilt-Shift lens, but has not yet released such a lens as of 2022.


title: Tilt–shift photography

text: The 17 mm and the 24 mm version II lenses allow independent rotation of the tilt and shift movements. The 50 mm, the 90 mm and the 135 mm providing macro capability of 0.5×, with extension tube some up to 1.0×. All five lenses provide automatic aperture control.


title: Tilt–shift photography

text: Laowa released the 15mm f/4.5 Shift-only lens in 2020. With the +/-11mm shift movement, it is currently the widest shift lens ever made for full frame cameras and mounts for all major camera brands are available.


title: Tilt–shift photography

text: Hartblei makes tilt-and-shift lenses to fit various manufacturers’ camera bodies. It currently offers four Super-Rotator Tilt/Shift lenses for 35 mm bodies: the TS-PC Hartblei 35 mm 2.8, the TS-PC Hartblei 65 mm 3.5, the TS-PC Hartblei 80 mm 2.8, and the TS-PC Hartblei 120 mm 2.8. It also offers the TS-PC Hartblei 45 mm 3.5 to fit several medium-format camera bodies. The tilt and shift movements can be independently rotated in any direction.


title: Tilt–shift photography

text: Hasselblad offers a tilt-and-shift adapter, the HTS 1.5, for use with the HCD 28 mm 4, HC 35 mm 3.5, HC 50 mm 3.5, HC 80 mm 2.8 and HC 100 mm 2.2 lenses on H-System cameras. To allow infinity focus, the adapter includes optics that multiply the lens focal lengths by 1.5. Autofocus and focus confirmation are disabled when using the adapter.


title: Tilt–shift photography

text: Leica is currently providing the TS-APO-ELMAR-S 1:5,6/120 mm ASPH lens for its new S-System of digital SLRs.


title: Tilt–shift photography

text: Minolta offered the 35mm 2.8 Shift CA lens for its manual focus SR-mount cameras in the 1970s and 1980s. The lens was unique among perspective-control lenses in that, rather than offering a combination of tilt-and-shift, Minolta designed the lens with variable field curvature, which could make the field of focus either convex or concave (essentially a three-dimensional, spherical form of tilt).


title: Tilt–shift photography

text: Nikon offers several PC lenses, all of which feature tilt and shift functions: a new (Oct. 2016) PC-E Nikkor 19mm 4.0 ED lens, a PC-E Nikkor 24 mm 3.5D ED lens, PC-E Micro-Nikkor 45 mm 2.8D ED, and PC-E Micro Nikkor 85 mm 2.8D ED. The 45 mm and 85 mm "Micro" lenses offer close focus (0.5 magnification) for macrophotography. In 2016, Nikon added the PC NIKKOR 19mm f/4E ED extra wide angle view lens with a magnification factor of 0.18 and 25 cm focus distance. The PC-E lenses offer automatic aperture control with the Nikon D3, D300, and D700 cameras. With some earlier camera models, a PC-E lens operates like a regular Nikon PC (non-E) lens, with preset aperture control by means of a pushbutton; with other earlier models, no aperture control is provided, and the lens is not usable.


title: Tilt–shift photography

text: The mechanisms providing the tilt and shift functions can be rotated 90° to the left or right so that they operate horizontally, vertically, or at intermediate orientations. The lenses are supplied with the tilt and shift movements at right angles to each other; they can be modified by Nikon so that the movements operate in the same direction.


title: Tilt–shift photography

text: In Pentax high-end DSLRs (K-7, K-5, K-5 II, K-5 IIs and K-30) the shake reduction hardware unit can be manually adjusted in the X/Y direction to achieve a shift effect with any lens using the Composition Adjust function in the menu system. Although available for any lens that fits the camera body, this adjustment can not fully replace regular shift lenses as those may provide a larger shift movement.


title: Tilt–shift photography

text: Schneider-Kreuznach offers the PC-Super Angulon 28 mm 2.8 lens that provides shift movements, with preset aperture control. The lens is available with mounts to fit cameras by various manufacturers, and also with 42 mm screw mount.


title: Tilt–shift photography

text: All perspective-control and tilt–shift lenses are manual-focus prime lenses, but are quite expensive compared to regular prime lenses. Some medium format camera makers, such as Mamiya, have addressed this problem by offering shift adapters that work with the maker's other prime lenses.


title: Tilt–shift photography

text: In 2013, Samyang Optics introduced one of the cheapest today tilt–shift lenses, the Samyang T-S 24mm f/3.5 ED AS UMC, which can tilt up to 8.5 degrees and shift up to 12mm of axis.


title: Tilt–shift photography

text: ARAX introduced a 35 mm f/2.8 and an 80 mm f/2.8 tilt–shift lens, which are available for several camera mounts. Both lenses retail for less than the Samyang T-S 24mm. ARAX also produces a 50 mm f/2.8 tilt–shift lens for Micro 4/3 and Sony NEX mounts.


title: Tilt–shift photography

text: Most SLR cameras provide "automatic aperture control", which allows viewing and metering at the lens's maximum aperture, stops the lens down to the working aperture during exposure, and returns the lens to maximum aperture after exposure. For perspective-control and tilt–shift lenses, the mechanical linkage is impractical, and automatic aperture control was not offered on the first such lenses. Many PC and TS lenses incorporated a feature known as a "preset" aperture, which lets the photographer set the lens to working aperture, and then quickly switch between working aperture and full aperture without looking at the aperture control. Though slightly easier than stopped-down metering, operation is less convenient than automatic operation.


title: Tilt–shift photography

text: When Canon introduced its EOS line of cameras in 1987, the EF lenses incorporated electromagnetic diaphragms, eliminating the need for a mechanical linkage between the camera and the diaphragm. Because of this, the Canon TS-E tilt–shift lenses include automatic aperture control.


title: Tilt–shift photography

text: In 2008, Nikon introduced its PC-E perspective-control lenses with electromagnetic diaphragms. Automatic aperture control is provided with the D300, D500, D600/610, D700, D750, D800/810, D3, D4 and D5 cameras. With some earlier cameras, the lenses offer preset aperture control by means of a pushbutton that controls the electromagnetic diaphragm; with other earlier cameras, no aperture control is provided, and the lenses are not usable.


title: Tilt–shift photography

text: A camera lens can provide sharp focus on only a single plane. Without tilt, the image plane (containing the film or image sensor), the lens plane, and the plane of focus are parallel, and are perpendicular to the lens axis; objects in sharp focus are all at the same distance from the camera. When the lens plane is tilted relative to the image plane, the plane of focus (PoF) is at an angle to the image plane, and objects at different distances from the camera can all be sharply focused if they lie in the same plane. With the lens tilted, the image plane, lens plane, and PoF intersect at a common line;


title: Tilt–shift photography

text: this behavior has become known as the Scheimpflug principle. When focus is adjusted with a tilted lens, the PoF rotates about an axis at the intersection of the lens's front focal plane and a plane through the center of the lens parallel to the image plane; the tilt determines the distance from the axis of rotation to the center of the lens, and the focus determines the angle of the PoF with the image plane. In combination, the tilt and focus determine the position of the PoF.


title: Tilt–shift photography

text: The PoF can also be oriented so that only a small part of it passes through the subject, producing a very shallow region of sharpness, and the effect is quite different from that obtained simply by using a large aperture with a regular camera.


title: Tilt–shift photography

text: Using tilt changes the shape of the depth of field (DoF). When the lens and image planes are parallel, the DoF extends between parallel planes on either side of the PoF. With tilt or swing, the DoF is wedge shaped, with the apex of the wedge near the camera, as shown in Figure 5 in the Scheimpflug principle article. The DoF is zero at the apex, remains shallow at the edge of the lens's field of view, and increases with distance from the camera. For a given position of the PoF, the angle between the planes that define the near and far limits of DoF (i.e., the angular DoF) increases with lens "f"-number; for a given "f"-number and angle of the PoF, the angular DoF decreases with increasing tilt. When it is desired to have an entire scene sharp, as in landscape photography, the best results are often achieved with a relatively small amount of tilt. When the objective is selective focus, a large amount of tilt can be used to give a very small angular DoF; however, the tilt fixes the position of the PoF rotation axis, so if tilt is used to control the DoF, it may not be possible to also have the PoF pass through all desired points.


title: Tilt–shift photography

text: View camera users usually distinguish between rotating the lens about a horizontal axis (tilt), and rotation about a vertical axis ("swing"); small- and medium-format camera users often refer to either rotation as "tilt".


title: Tilt–shift photography

text: If a subject plane is parallel to the image plane, parallel lines in the subject remain parallel in the image. If the image plane is not parallel to the subject, as when pointing a camera up to photograph a tall building, parallel lines converge, and the result sometimes appears unnatural, such as a building that appears to be leaning backwards.


title: Tilt–shift photography

text: Shift is a displacement of the lens parallel to the image plane that allows adjusting the position of the subject in the image area without changing the camera angle; in effect the camera can be aimed with the shift movement. Shift can be used to keep the image plane (and thus focus) parallel to the subject; it can be used to photograph a tall building while keeping the sides of the building parallel. The lens can also be shifted in the opposite direction and the camera tilted up to accentuate the convergence for artistic effect.


title: Tilt–shift photography

text: Shifting a lens allows different portions of the image circle to be cast onto the image plane, similar to cropping an area along the edge of an image.


title: Tilt–shift photography

text: Again, view camera users usually distinguish between vertical movements ("rise" and "fall") and lateral movements (shift or "cross"), while small- and medium-format users often refer to both types of movements as "shift".


title: Tilt–shift photography

text: Whereas the image circle of a standard lens usually just covers the image frame, a lens that provides tilt or shift must allow for displacement of the lens axis from the center of the image frame, and consequently requires a larger image circle than a standard lens of the same focal length.


title: Tilt–shift photography

text: On a view camera, the tilt and shift movements are inherent in the camera, and many view cameras allow a considerable range of adjustment of both the lens and the camera back. Applying movements on a small- or medium-format camera usually requires a tilt–shift lens or perspective control lens. The former allows tilt, shift, or both; the latter allows only shift. With a tilt–shift lens, adjustments are available only for the lens, and the range is usually more limited.


title: Tilt–shift photography

text: Tilt–shift and perspective-control lenses are available for many SLR cameras, but most are far more expensive than comparable lenses without movements. The Lensbaby SLR lens is a low-cost alternative for providing tilt and swing for many SLR cameras, although the effect is somewhat different from that of the lenses just described. Because of the simple optical design, there is significant curvature of field, and sharp focus is limited to a region near the lens axis. Consequently, the Lensbaby's primary application is selective focus and toy camera–style photography.


title: Tilt–shift photography

text: can be used to direct the viewer's attention to a small part of the image while de-emphasizing other parts.


title: Tilt–shift photography

text: With tilt, the effect is different from that obtained by using a large "f"-number without tilt. With a regular camera, the PoF and the DoF are perpendicular to the line of sight; with tilt, the PoF can be almost parallel to the line of sight, and the DoF can be very narrow but extend to infinity. Thus parts of a scene at greatly different distances from the camera can be rendered sharp, and selective focus can be given to different parts of a scene at the same distance from the camera.


title: Tilt–shift photography

text: With tilt, the depth of field is wedge shaped. As noted above, using a large amount of tilt and a small "f"-number gives a small angular DoF. This can be useful if the objective is to provide selective focus to different objects at essentially the same distance from the camera. But in many cases, effective use of tilt for selective focus requires a careful choice of what is sharp as well as what is unsharp, as Vincent Laforet has noted.


title: Tilt–shift photography

text: Because the tilt also affects the position of the PoF, it may not be possible to use a large amount of tilt and have the PoF pass through all desired points. This may not be a problem if only one point is to be sharp; for example, if it is desired to emphasize one building in a row of buildings, the tilt and "f"-number can be used to control the width of the sharp area, and the focus used to determine which building is sharp. But if it is desired to have two or more points sharp (for example, two people at different distances from the camera), the PoF must include both points, and it usually is not possible to achieve this while also using the tilt to control DoF.


title: Tilt–shift photography

text: Selective focus using tilt appears in motion pictures such as "Minority Report", (2002). Director of photography Janusz Kamiński says he prefers using tilt–shift lenses to digital post-production as too much digital can detract and "It doesn’t look organic."


title: Tilt–shift photography

text: Selective focus via tilt is often used to simulate a miniature scene, so much that "tilt-and-shift effect" has been used as a general term for some miniature faking techniques.


title: Tilt–shift photography

text: Basic digital post-processing techniques can give results similar to those achieved with tilt, and afford greater flexibility and control, such as choosing the region that is sharp and the amount of blur for the unsharp regions. Moreover, these choices can be made after the photograph is taken. One advanced technique, Smallgantics, is used for motion-pictures; it was first seen in the 2006 Thom Yorke music video "Harrowdown Hill", directed by Chel White. Artist Olivo Barbieri is well known for his miniature-faking skills in the 1990s. Artist Ben Thomas's series Cityshrinker extended this concept to miniature faking major cities around the world, his book "Tiny Tokyo: The Big City Made Mini" (Chronicle Books, 2014), depicts Tokyo in miniature.


title: Tilt–shift photography

text: When making photographs of a building or other large structure from the ground, perspective can be eliminated by keeping the film plane parallel to the building. With ordinary lenses, this results in capturing only the bottom part of the subject.


title: Tilt–shift photography

text: Tilting the camera upwards results in a perspective effect that causes the top of the building to appear smaller than its base, which is often considered undesirable. The perspective effect is proportional to the lens's angle of view.


title: Tilt–shift photography

text: With a perspective control lens, however, the lens may be shifted upwards in relation to the image area, placing more of the subject within the frame. The ground level, the camera's point of perspective, is shifted towards the bottom of the frame.


title: Tilt–shift photography

text: Another use of shifting is in taking pictures of a mirror. By moving the camera off to one side of the mirror, and shifting the lens in the opposite direction, an image of the mirror can be captured without the reflection of the camera or photographer. Shifting can similarly be used to photograph “around” an object, such as a building support in a gallery, without producing an obviously oblique view.


title: Tilt–shift photography

text: Computer software (such as Photoshop's "perspective" and "distort" functions) can be used to control perspective effects in post-production. However, this technique does not allow the recovery of lost resolution in the more distant areas of the subject, or the recovery of lost depth of field due to the angle of the film/sensor plane to the subject. Areas of the image enlarged by these digital techniques may suffer from the visual effects of pixel interpolation, depending on the original image resolution, degree of manipulation, print/display size, and viewing distance.


title: Tilt–shift photography

text: The effect of using tilt or swing movements is less easily accomplished in post-production. If every part of the image is within the depth of field, it is fairly easy to simulate the effect of shallow depth of field that could be achieved by using tilt or swing; however, if the image has a finite depth of field, post-production cannot simulate the sharpness that could be achieved by using tilt or swing to maximize the region of sharpness.


title: Sandra Hess

text: Sandra Hess (born 27 March 1968) is a Swiss actress and fashion model. She is best known for her role as Sonya Blade in the film "", and Lieutenant Alexandra "Ice" Jensen on the television series "".


title: Sandra Hess

text: Hess began modeling and working on television commercials when she was 15. After completing high school, she entered the University of Zurich to study law but before completing her degree she came to the United States to build an acting career.


title: Sandra Hess

text: Once settled in Los Angeles, Hess started taking acting classes. Her first role was in the 1992 film "Encino Man", playing a cave-woman to Brendan Fraser's caveman character. In 1997, she played the role of Sonya Blade in the film "Mortal Kombat: Annihilation", taking over the role played by Bridgette Wilson in the first film. In 1998, she portrayed Immortal bounty hunter Reagan Cole, a friend of Duncan MacLeod's, in the ninth episode of the sixth season of "".


title: Sandra Hess

text: She also portrayed Andrea von Strucker / Viper in the TV movie "" and Alexandra "Ice" Jensen in "". Her guest spots include the series "", Sliders (Season 4 – Genesis), "SeaQuest DSV", and "".


title: Sandra Hess

text: She married actor Michael Trucco in July 2009; they were wed in Mexico. She and Trucco both played the parts of lieutenants in the same unit of the Marines in the "" series.


title: SPFS

text: SPFS () is a Russian equivalent of the SWIFT financial transfer system, developed by the Central Bank of Russia. The system has been in development since 2014, when the United States government threatened to disconnect Russia from the SWIFT system.


title: SPFS

text: The first transaction on the SPFS network involving a non-bank enterprise was executed in December 2017. In March 2018, over 400 institutions (mostly banks) were part of the network.


title: SPFS

text: Compared to SWIFT, the system faces a number of challenges, especially higher transaction costs though in March 2018 transaction fee was radically reduced to 0,80–1,00 ₽ (0.012–0.015 $) per transaction. The system only works within Russia, though there were plans afoot in 2018 to integrate the network with the China-based Cross-Border Inter-Bank Payments System.


title: SPFS

text: The Russian Government is also in talks to expand SPFS to developing countries such as Turkey and Iran. Owing to its limitations, the SPFS system is seen as a last resort, rather than as a replacement for the SWIFT network. Since 2019 many agreements have been reached to link SPFS to other countries' payment systems in China, India, Iran, as well as the countries inside the EAEU who are planning to use SPFS directly.


title: SPFS

text: At the end of 2020, there were 23 foreign banks connected to the SPFS from Armenia, Belarus, Germany, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and Switzerland.


title: SPFS

text: On March 17, 2022, Anatoly Aksakov, Chairman of the State Duma Committee on the Financial Market, announced that the Bank of Russia and the People's Bank of China are working on connecting the Russian and Chinese financial messaging systems. He also pointed to the beginning of the development of information transfer schemes using blockchains, including the digital ruble and the digital yuan.


title: SPFS

text: On March 31, 2022, the Economic Times of India published information that the Indian government has offered Russia a new transaction system with the transfer of trade to the ruble and SPFS, which will work through the Reserve Bank of India and Russia's Vnesheconombank. According to the same data, the system will be put into operation within a week.


title: SPFS

text: In April 2022, Russian Central Bank governor said most Russian financial institutions and 52 foreign organizations from at least 12 countries were successfully integrated with the SPFS.


title: Love Parade

text: The Love Parade () was a popular electronic dance music festival and technoparade that originated in 1989 in West Berlin, Germany. It was held annually in Berlin from 1989 to 2003 and in 2006, then from 2007 to 2010 in the Ruhr region. Events scheduled for 2004 and 2005 in Berlin and for 2009 in Bochum were canceled.


title: Love Parade

text: On 24 July 2010, a crowd crush at the Love Parade in Duisburg caused the deaths of 21 people, with at least 500 others injured. As a consequence, the organizer of the festival announced that no further Love Parades would be held and that the festival was permanently canceled.


title: Love Parade

text: The parade first occurred in July 1989, when 150 people took to the streets in Berlin. It was started by the Berlin underground at the initiative of Matthias Roeingh (also known as "Dr Motte") and his then girlfriend Danielle de Picciotto. It was conceived as a political demonstration for peace and international understanding through love and music. It was supposed to be a bigger birthday party for Roeingh, and the motto "Friede, Freude, Eierkuchen" (in English — "Peace, Joy, Pancakes") stood for disarmament (peace), music (joy) and a fair food production/distribution (pancakes). Roeingh dissociated himself from the parade in 2006 because of the commercialization of the event.


title: Love Parade

text: The parade was held on the Berlin Kurfürstendamm until 1996. Because of overcrowding on this street, the festival moved to the Straße des 17. Juni in the Großer Tiergarten park in the center of Berlin. The festival became centered around the "Siegessäule" in the middle of the park; and the golden angel atop the column became the parade's emblem.


title: Love Parade

text: Many people from Germany and abroad traveled to Berlin to take part in the Parade — over a million attended in the years 1997 through 2000 and 800,000 in 2001. Attendance at the 2001 festival was significantly lower because the date of the parade was changed with little advance notice. 2002 and 2003 also saw lower figures, and in 2004 and 2005 the parade was canceled because of funding difficulties. The parade had inspired opposition because of the damage to the Tiergarten by attendees, who were provided with insufficient toilet facilities. Opponents allegedly complicated matters for organisers by booking their own events in Berlin and so to exclude the parade from being able to register with city police. In 2004, however, a scaled-down version took place which served more as a mini-protest and was promoted with the title "Love Weekend". Dozens of clubs promoted the weekend-long event all over the city, with various clubs staying open for three days straight without closing. In 2006, the parade made a comeback with the help of German exercise studio McFit.


title: Love Parade

text: The Love Parade 2007 was planned for 7 July 2007 in Berlin. However, the Berlin event was canceled in February because the Senate of Berlin did not issue the necessary permits at that time. After negotiations with several German cities, on 21 July, it was announced that the parade would move to the Ruhr Area for the next five years. The first event took place in Essen on 25 August. The parade in Essen saw 1.2 million visitors in comparison to the 500,000 who attended the 2006 parade in Berlin.


title: Love Parade

text: In 2008, the festival took place in Dortmund on 19 July on the Bundesstraße 1 under the motto "Highway of Love". The event was planned as a "Love Weekend", with parties throughout the region. The official estimate is that 1.6 million visitors attended, making it the largest parade to date.


title: Love Parade

text: The 2009 event, planned for Bochum, was canceled; a year later, the deaths of 21 attendees at the Duisburg venue prompted the parade's organiser Rainer Schaller to declare an end to the festival. "The Love Parade has always been a peaceful party, but it will forever be overshadowed by the accident, so out of respect for the victims the Love Parade will never take place again," Schaller said. The parade was one of the oldest and largest festivals of electronic music, together with Zürich's Streetparade, Mayday and Nature One.


title: Love Parade

text: On 9 July 2022, the Love Parade Founder took part in the Rave the Planet parade in Berlin to call for the city’s electronic music culture to be added to a World Heritage list.


title: Love Parade

text: The music played at the events was predominantly electronic dance music — in this case mainly house & techno, and schranz music. Attempts to introduce other music styles, such as hip hop, have failed. Hardcore and gabber music were part of the parade in early years, but were later removed. They are now celebrated separately on a counter-demonstration called "Fuckparade".


title: Love Parade

text: The parade was seen to be louder and more crowded than most concerts. With its water-cooled sound systems on every truck, the parade produced an extremely loud sound floor. After the 2001 arrangement, veterinarians at the Berlin Zoo blamed the parade for giving more than half of its animals diarrhea. Chairman Heiner Kloes said veterinarians told him the heavy bass was to blame for disturbing the animals. The parade consisted of the sound trucks that usually featured local, or important, clubs and their DJs. It had become a rule that only trucks that had sponsors from a techno-related field, such as clubs, labels or stores, were allowed, but advertising space was increased after the 2006 event to offset the high costs of equipping a truck. The trucks were usually open on top and featured dancers, with box-systems mounted on the side or rear.


title: Love Parade

text: The parade was a place where some exhibited and enjoyed other people's exhibitionist tendencies. Some attendees enjoyed carrying around toys or other items such as dummies (pacifiers) or face masks. Often the crowd was imaginative in terms of clothing (or lack thereof) and appearance.


title: Love Parade

text: One famous picture from the parade is people sitting and dancing on streetlamps, trees, commercial signs, telephone booths, which gave the event's nickname "the greatest amateur circus on earth".


title: Love Parade

text: The demonstration concluded with the so-called "Abschlusskundgebung" which were sets of the world's leading top DJs such as DJ Tiesto, Paul Van Dyk, Carl Cox, Armin Van Buuren, DJ Rush, DJ Hell, Westbam, Drum Connection, Miss Djax, Marusha or Chris Liebing. During this time all trucks (usually about 40) were connected to each other and set online to the statue of victory where the turntables are. This was one of the few chances a DJ can ever have to play for a crowd of about one million people.


title: Love Parade

text: The parade was quite peaceful for an event of its size, seeing few arrests. In 2008, for example, charges were pressed for six robberies, three sexually related offences and forty thefts. Twenty-three attendees were caught with drugs and forty-nine were charged with bodily harm. There were 177 parade visitors provisionally arrested by the police. Arrests were usually related to drug crimes and most other incidents featured people passing out due to dehydration or hyperthermia. In 2000, after the parade, a girl under the influence of ecstasy was run over by an S-Bahn after she had been leaning on the door too hard.


title: Love Parade

text: At the 2010 Love Parade in Duisburg, the number of people attending allegedly reached 1.4 million – the original expectation was around 800,000 – whereas police believed around 400,000 people were present. 21 people were killed, and more than 600 injured, in an incident on an overcrowded ramp leading from a tunnel into the festival. All of the victims were crushed to death, according to officials.


title: Love Parade

text: Safety experts and a fire service investigator had previously warned that the site was not suitable for the numbers expected to attend. Rainer Schaller, the festival's organizer and chief executive officer, later said the festival would not continue in future.


title: Love Parade

text: A preliminary investigation of the ministry of the interior placed heavy blame on the organizers around Rainer Schaller. Schaller in turn claimed that errors by the police in controlling streams of visitors led to the accident.


title: Love Parade

text: Similar festivals have taken place in other cities of Germany and many other countries worldwide. Large spin-off festivals in Europe include Zürich's Street Parade, Geneva's Lake Parade, Paris's Techno Parade, Rotterdam's FFWD Dance Parade, Munich's Union Move, Hamburg's Generation Move, Hannover's Reincarnation, Bremen's Vision Parade and the Love Parade and the Freeparade in Vienna. In 1994, 1995 and 1996 an event called Love Parade was held in Melbourne, Australia. Unlike its overseas counterparts, this was a smaller "rave party" version of the festival. In 1996 it was held at Festival Hall in West Melbourne and included a parade that made the evening news. It was followed in 1997 by a Love Parade in Sydney, Australia, likewise a smaller rave party, held at the infamous Graffiti Hall of Fame in Redfern. In 1999 and 2000 technoparades named "Buenos Aires Energy Parade" took place in Buenos Aires, Argentina under the motto "Love, Peace and Dance". On Saturday 8 July 2000 a Love Parade was held in Roundhay Park, Leeds, United Kingdom sponsored by BBC Radio 1. In 2001, the official UK parade had moved to Newcastle upon Tyne which was to have seen a parade through the streets of Newcastle before ending up on Town Moor but was canceled after the police refused a license: BBC Radio 1 still hosted a more contained event, however. Since then no Love Parade has taken place in the United Kingdom. In Summer 2000 one of the first public events that took place in post-war Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, was Futura, Festival of Electronic Music. Some of the world's most famous DJs, including the organizers of the Berlin Love Parade, performed in a bombed and burnt out factory.


title: Love Parade

text: After being held in the North-American Continent for the first time in Mexico (2002), in the fall of 2004 the Love Parade was held in San Francisco. They had held their inaugural Parade in September 2004 with 37,000 attending. The parade was held again in San Francisco in September 2005 as a rousing success drawing over 50–60,000 people. In 2006, the parade was held on 23 September and was renamed Love Fest because the Loveparade Berlin organization did not renew any of their worldwide licenses not already under contract so they could focus on their own event. 2009 was the biggest success of the parade now renamed Lovevolution with over 100,000 people. The first Love Parade in Santiago was held in 2005 and gathered over 100,000 people; the 2006 version gathered over 200,000 people. The first Love Parade in Caracas was held in June 2007 and gathered over 25,000 people.


title: Love Parade

text: Under German law the state has to pay for security during political demonstrations as well as cleaning up the streets after the demonstration. In the case of a commercial event however, the organizer must cover these expenses. For a large event like the Love Parade the costs are quite high: an estimated €300,000 to €400,000.


title: Love Parade

text: The Love Parade was initially held as a political demonstration to save costs; however it was organized by two companies set up just for the Love Parade. Due to this there was a dispute between the organizers and the city of Berlin every year about the status of the Love Parade and who should bear what costs. Finally in 2001, the courts ruled that the Love Parade had to be held as commercial event.


title: Love Parade

text: According to media reports, the attendance figures had been misstated by the organizers for years. Accurate counts are not available since entry is free and uncontrolled. The mayor of Dortmund and the police confirmed the number of attendees in Dortmund.


title: Liouville's theorem (Hamiltonian)

text: In physics, Liouville's theorem, named after the French mathematician Joseph Liouville, is a key theorem in classical statistical and Hamiltonian mechanics. It asserts that "the phase-space distribution function is constant along the trajectories of the system"—that is that the density of system points in the vicinity of a given system point traveling through phase-space is constant with time. This time-independent density is in statistical mechanics known as the classical a priori probability.


title: Liouville's theorem (Hamiltonian)

text: There are related mathematical results in symplectic topology and ergodic theory; systems obeying Liouville's theorem are examples of incompressible dynamical systems.


title: Liouville's theorem (Hamiltonian)

text: The Liouville equation describes the time evolution of the "phase space distribution function". Although the equation is usually referred to as the "Liouville equation", Josiah Willard Gibbs was the first to recognize the importance of this equation as the fundamental equation of statistical mechanics. It is referred to as the Liouville equation because its derivation for non-canonical systems utilises an identity first derived by Liouville in 1838.


title: Liouville's theorem (Hamiltonian)

text: Consider a Hamiltonian dynamical system with canonical coordinates formula_1 and conjugate momenta formula_2, where formula_3. Then the phase space distribution formula_4 determines the probability formula_5 that the system will be found in the infinitesimal phase space volume formula_6. The Liouville equation governs the evolution of formula_7 in time formula_8:


title: Liouville's theorem (Hamiltonian)

text: Time derivatives are denoted by dots, and are evaluated according to Hamilton's equations for the system. This equation demonstrates the conservation of density in phase space (which was Gibbs's name for the theorem). Liouville's theorem states that


title: Liouville's theorem (Hamiltonian)

text: A uses the "n"-dimensional divergence theorem. This proof is based on the fact that the evolution of formula_10 obeys an "2n"-dimensional version of the continuity equation:


title: Liouville's theorem (Hamiltonian)

text: That is, the 3-tuple formula_12 is a conserved current. Notice that the difference between this and Liouville's equation are the terms


title: Liouville's theorem (Hamiltonian)

text: where formula_14 is the Hamiltonian, and Hamilton's equations as well as conservation of the Hamiltonian along the flow have been used. That is, viewing the motion through phase space as a 'fluid flow' of system points, the theorem that the convective derivative of the density, formula_15, is zero follows from the equation of continuity by noting that the 'velocity field' formula_16 in phase space has zero divergence (which follows from Hamilton's relations).


title: Liouville's theorem (Hamiltonian)

text: Another illustration is to consider the trajectory of a cloud of points through phase space. It is straightforward to show that as the cloud stretches in one coordinate – formula_2 say – it shrinks in the corresponding formula_18 direction so that the product formula_19 remains constant.


title: Liouville's theorem (Hamiltonian)

text: In ergodic theory and dynamical systems, motivated by the physical considerations given so far, there is a corresponding result also referred to as Liouville's theorem. In Hamiltonian mechanics, the phase space is a smooth manifold that comes naturally equipped with a smooth measure (locally, this measure is the 6"n"-dimensional Lebesgue measure). The theorem says this smooth measure is invariant under the Hamiltonian flow. More generally, one can describe the necessary and sufficient condition under which a smooth measure is invariant under a flow. The Hamiltonian case then becomes a corollary.


title: Liouville's theorem (Hamiltonian)

text: We can also formulate Liouville's Theorem in terms of symplectic geometry. For a given system, we can consider the phase space formula_23 of a particular Hamiltonian formula_14 as a manifold formula_25 endowed with a symplectic 2-form


title: Liouville's theorem (Hamiltonian)

text: The volume form of our manifold is the top exterior power of the symplectic 2-form, and is just another representation of the measure on the phase space described above.


title: Liouville's theorem (Hamiltonian)

text: On our phase space symplectic manifold we can define a Hamiltonian vector field generated by a function formula_27 as


title: Liouville's theorem (Hamiltonian)

text: In this formalism, Liouville's Theorem states that the Lie derivative of the volume form is zero along the flow generated by formula_31. That is, for formula_25 a 2n-dimensional symplectic manifold,


title: Liouville's theorem (Hamiltonian)

text: In fact, the symplectic structure formula_34 itself is preserved, not only its top exterior power. That is, Liouville's Theorem also gives


title: Liouville's theorem (Hamiltonian)

text: The analog of Liouville equation in quantum mechanics describes the time evolution of a mixed state. Canonical quantization yields a quantum-mechanical version of this theorem, the von Neumann equation. This procedure, often used to devise quantum analogues of classical systems, involves describing a classical system using Hamiltonian mechanics. Classical variables are then re-interpreted as quantum operators, while Poisson brackets are replaced by commutators. In this case, the resulting equation is


title: Liouville's theorem (Hamiltonian)

text: When applied to the expectation value of an observable, the corresponding equation is given by Ehrenfest's theorem, and takes the form


title: Liouville's theorem (Hamiltonian)

text: where formula_38 is an observable. Note the sign difference, which follows from the assumption that the operator is stationary and the state is time-dependent.


title: Liouville's theorem (Hamiltonian)

text: In the phase-space formulation of quantum mechanics, substituting the Moyal brackets for Poisson brackets in the phase-space analog of the von Neumann equation results in compressibility of the probability fluid, and thus violations of Liouville's theorem incompressibility. This, then, leads to concomitant difficulties in defining meaningful quantum trajectories.


title: Liouville's theorem (Hamiltonian)

text: Consider an formula_39-particle system in three dimensions, and focus on only the evolution of formula_40 particles. Within phase space, these formula_40 particles occupy an infinitesimal volume given by


title: Liouville's theorem (Hamiltonian)

text: We want formula_43 to remain the same throughout time, so that formula_44 is constant along the trajectories of the system. If we allow our particles to evolve by an infinitesimal time step formula_45, we see that each particle phase space location changes as


title: Liouville's theorem (Hamiltonian)

text: where formula_47 and formula_48 denote formula_49 and formula_50 respectively, and we have only kept terms linear in formula_45. Extending this to our infinitesimal hypercube formula_52, the side lengths change as


title: Liouville's theorem (Hamiltonian)

text: To find the new infinitesimal phase-space volume formula_54, we need the product of the above quantities. To first order in formula_45, we get the following:


title: Liouville's theorem (Hamiltonian)

text: So far, we have yet to make any specifications about our system. Let us now specialize to the case of formula_39 formula_58-dimensional isotropic harmonic oscillators. That is, each particle in our ensemble can be treated as a simple harmonic oscillator. The Hamiltonian for this system is given by


title: Liouville's theorem (Hamiltonian)

text: By using Hamilton's equations with the above Hamiltonian we find that the term in parentheses above is identically zero, thus yielding


title: Liouville's theorem (Hamiltonian)

text: The question remains of how the phase-space volume actually evolves in time. Above we have shown that the total volume is conserved, but said nothing about what it looks like. For a single particle we can see that its trajectory in phase space is given by the ellipse of constant formula_14. Explicitly, one can solve Hamilton's equations for the system and find


title: Liouville's theorem (Hamiltonian)

text: where formula_65 and formula_66 denote the initial position and momentum of the formula_67-th particle.


title: Liouville's theorem (Hamiltonian)

text: For a system of multiple particles, each one will have a phase-space trajectory that traces out an ellipse corresponding to the particle's energy. The frequency at which the ellipse is traced is given by the formula_34 in the Hamiltonian, independent of any differences in energy. As a result, a region of phase space will simply rotate about the point formula_69 with frequency dependent on formula_34. This can be seen in the animation above.


title: Liouville's theorem (Hamiltonian)

text: One of the foundational assumptions of Liouville's theorem is that the system obeys the conservation of energy. In the context of phase space, this is to say that formula_10 is constant on phase-space surfaces of constant energy formula_72. If we break this requirement by considering a system in which energy is not conserved, we find that formula_10 also fails to be constant.


title: Liouville's theorem (Hamiltonian)

text: As an example of this, consider again the system of formula_39 particles each in a formula_58-dimensional isotropic harmonic potential, the Hamiltonian for which is given in the previous example. This time, we add the condition that each particle experiences a frictional force. As this is a non-conservative force, we need to extend Hamilton's equations as


title: Liouville's theorem (Hamiltonian)

text: where formula_77 is a positive constant dictating the amount of friction. Following a very similar procedure to the undamped harmonic oscillator case, we arrive again at


title: Liouville's theorem (Hamiltonian)

text: Calculating our new infinitesimal phase space volume, and keeping only first order in formula_45 we find the following result:


title: Liouville's theorem (Hamiltonian)

text: We have found that the infinitesimal phase-space volume is no longer constant, and thus the phase-space density is not conserved. As can be seen from the equation as time increases, we expect our phase-space volume to decrease to zero as friction affects the system.


title: Liouville's theorem (Hamiltonian)

text: As for how the phase-space volume evolves in time, we will still have the constant rotation as in the undamped case. However, the damping will introduce a steady decrease in the radii of each ellipse. Again we can solve for the trajectories explicitly using Hamilton's equations, taking care to use the modified ones above. Letting formula_82 for convenience, we find


title: Liouville's theorem (Hamiltonian)

text: where the values formula_65 and formula_66 denote the initial position and momentum of the formula_67-th particle.


title: Liouville's theorem (Hamiltonian)

text: As the system evolves the total phase-space volume will spiral in to the origin. This can be seen in the figure above.


title: Ambient 1: Music for Airports

text: Ambient 1: Music for Airports is the sixth studio album by the English musician Brian Eno, released in 1978 by Polydor Records. It is the first of Eno's ambient music albums, a term he coined to describe music intended to "induce calm and a space to think" while remaining "as ignorable as it is interesting". While not Eno's earliest entry in the style, it is credited with establishing the term.


title: Ambient 1: Music for Airports

text: The album consists of four compositions created by layering tape loops of differing lengths, and was designed to be continuously looped as a sound installation, with the intent of defusing the tense, anxious atmosphere of an airport terminal. Eno defined his approach in opposition to "canned" Muzak and easy listening practices. The album was the first of four albums released in Eno's Ambient series, which concluded with 1981's "".


title: Ambient 1: Music for Airports

text: In 2004, "Rolling Stone" credited the album with defining the ambient genre. In 2016, "Pitchfork" ranked it the greatest ambient album of all time.


title: Ambient 1: Music for Airports

text: Eno became interested in ambience when he suffered an automobile accident that sent him to the hospital in the mid-1970s. His friend Judy Nylon visited Eno in the hospital and left an album playing quietly before leaving. The sound blended with the rain outside the room and, unable to get up and adjust the volume, Eno allowed it to create an ambience aligned with his fluctuating attention. The album "Discreet Music" (1975), per Eno's own judgement, was his first foray into ambient music.


title: Ambient 1: Music for Airports

text: After spending several hours waiting for a flight at Germany's Cologne Bonn Airport and becoming annoyed by its uninspired atmosphere, Eno conceived an album of music "designed for airports". He intended for the album to still function within various other situations. Ambient music was then a "relatively modest field", "more a concept than a genre", and mostly created against the context of dominant muzak practices. Eno's concept was distinct from elevator music and easy listening's "derivative" background noise approach, and was instead to be used as a means of creating space for thought. In the album's liner notes, Eno explained:


title: Ambient 1: Music for Airports

text: Whereas conventional background music is produced by stripping away all sense of doubt and uncertainty (and thus all genuine interest) from the music, Ambient Music retains these qualities. And whereas their intention is to `brighten' the environment by adding stimulus to it (thus supposedly alleviating the tedium of routine tasks and levelling out the natural ups and downs of the body rhythms) Ambient Music is intended to induce calm and a space to think. Ambient Music must be able to accommodate many levels of listening attention without enforcing one in particular; it must be as ignorable as it is interesting.


title: Ambient 1: Music for Airports

text: Eno later named the Ray Conniff Singers and the "Borgesian idea" of a self-generated "world in reverse" which is centered around music as inspirations during this period.


title: Ambient 1: Music for Airports

text: All tracks were composed by Eno except "1/1", which was co-composed by Eno with former Soft Machine drummer and vocalist Robert Wyatt and with producer Rhett Davies.


title: Ambient 1: Music for Airports

text: "Music for Airports" makes use of spliced tape loops. Recalling its creation, Eno said it was "conceived as deliberately austere and unemotional" and "was essentially made by machines". He began work during the creation of David Bowie's "Low". With regards to their instrumentation, dynamic range, timbre, harmony, tonality and texture, the tracks are confining and feature a "contained repertory of pitches, gestural shapes, and motivic content that lasts throughout its entirety". Variations of timbre are seen when comparing the tracks, such as the warm "1/1" contrasting with the cold and dark "1/2". They are without backing rhythms and instead irregular repetition.


title: Ambient 1: Music for Airports

text: He has stated a connection to death. Not wanting it to be "all bright and cheerful", Eno, a self-proclaimed "nervous flyer", considered the feelings that arise from being at an airport, including the supposed mortality salience and hoped the album would bring solace: "Really, it’s music to resign you to the possibility of death". John L. Waters described the album as a "logical progression from the work of the experimental and systems-based 'serious' musicians (John White, Gavin Bryars, Christopher Hobbs, Michael Parsons, Michael Nyman) that Eno recorded and championed for his label Obscure". David Stubbs noted similarities to the work of Erik Satie.


title: Ambient 1: Music for Airports

text: "1/1", features piano loops performed in an arrhythmic manner – piano being the dominant instrument throughout the album. The track arose from two pianists improvising whereby neither could clearly hear the other, leading to separate yet complimentary melodies being played. Various motifs, played in a fitful manner, are featured. Philosopher of art John Lysaker, while discussing the album's general sense of aimless direction, noted that "1/1" "holds together no better (and no worse) than a cloud". The music throughout is down-tempo, without "distinct melodic or harmonic development[;] no highs or lows". "1/1" is the only track to feature a melody.


title: Ambient 1: Music for Airports

text: "2/1" and "1/2" make use of vocal loops; the former designed to have them fluctuate in synchrony. The disparate lengths of "2/1" were the result of each singer's differing capabilities. He modified the tape recordings offhandedly to loops, desiring "a silence at least twice as long as the sound" and "complicated rather than simple relationships". "And then I started all the loops running, and let them configure in the way they chose to configure". Music professor Victor Szabo described the track as "ghostly", writing that the "non-vibrato" tape loops are "uncannily lifeless": "Through such compositional techniques and affective-expressive codes, ‘2/1’ intimates human absence more overtly than any other track".


title: Ambient 1: Music for Airports

text: The first album of ambient music to become popular – and later recognised as the "first deliberately 'ambient' recording" – it was initially dismissed by critics, audiences and some of Eno's peers alike, bewildering some of the former. It only became more favoured by the 1990s, having "entered the modern musical canon".


title: Ambient 1: Music for Airports

text: Blandness was a very common critique in the initial reviews, a possible by-product of its unvarying and populist conception, wrote Szabo. In a 1979 review for "Rolling Stone", Michael Bloom found "Ambient 1" self-indulgent and lacking focus. "There's a good deal of high craftsmanship here," Bloom said. "But to find it, you've got to thwart the music's intent by concentrating." In another contemporary review for "The Village Voice", critic Robert Christgau wrote that "these four swatches of modestly 'ambient' minimalism have real charms as general-purpose calmatives. But I must also report that they've fared unevenly against specific backgrounds." He later called it "a bore". Writing for "The Globe and Mail", around the time of its release, Alan Niester categorized the album as alien, calling it "background grunge" that was best suited for "dish-doing [and] bed-making". In a 1979 interview with Eno for "Musician", critic Lester Bangs described "Music for Airports" as having "a crystalline, sun-light-through windowpane quality that makes it somewhat mesmerising even as you half-listen to it," and recounted a personal experience in which the album induced him into a dream state featuring Charles Mingus.


title: Ambient 1: Music for Airports

text: "PopMatters" journalist John Davidson was enthusiastic in a retrospective review, deeming "Music for Airports" a masterpiece whose value "can only be appreciated by listening to it in a variety of moods and settings. Then you are likely struck by how the music allows your mind the space to breathe", Davidson wrote, "and in doing so, adapts itself to your mood". AllMusic reviewer Linda Kohanov stated that "like a fine painting, these evolving soundscapes don't require constant involvement on the part of the listener [...] yet the music also rewards close attention with a sonic richness absent in standard types of background or easy listening music." Sasha Frere-Jones wrote that, by strength of its compositions, "Music for Airports" fails to facilitate an easily disregarded listening experience: "the album is too beautiful to ignore". Sal Cinquemani of "Slant Magazine" described the effect of the compositions as "sheer weightlessness." "Q" described it as "soothing and sublime, a useful album when you're feeling particularly delicate." In a positive review, "Pitchfork"s Liam Singer wrote that the album "gives the listener nothing to hold onto, remaining as transitory as its location", and added that it "realizes music's capacity to unify contrasting conceptions of time."


title: Ambient 1: Music for Airports

text: "Ambient 1" was included in the book "1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die". Chuck Eddy from "Spin" later named it the fourth most essential ambient album. In September 2016, "Pitchfork" named the record the best ambient album of all time.


title: Ambient 1: Music for Airports

text: The album has been recognized as a seminal and influential release, an icon of the genre and Eno's discography. J. D. Considine wrote in "The Rolling Stone Album Guide" that the record defined the ambient aesthetic while providing a name for the genre. Chris Richards of "The Washington Post" wrote that it "taught an entire generation of musicians to consider music as a texture". Reflecting on the album, Jon Caramanica called it the best of Eno's work which shortly followed Roxy Music. Due in part to "Music for Airports", perception of Eno's career shifted and he became aligned with highly influential minimalist composers: Steve Reich, Philip Glass, Terry Riley, and La Monte Young. Artists such as Pauline Oliveros, Riley and Harold Budd would expand on Eno's style of ambient music, which would feature prominently on his following albums; "Music for Airports" acted as a genesis for Eno and collaborators exploring the style, such as in the numbered "Ambient" series (1978–82). His conception would soon become more mallable and less reliant upon locations.


title: Ambient 1: Music for Airports

text: Over the years, the album has sold over 200,000 copies, making it one of his best-selling solo albums.


title: Ambient 1: Music for Airports

text: The album has been installed and performed in at least five airports; it has been met with resistance from some travellers and workers, who deem it disruptive. Clinics and hospitals have used the albums to soothe patients. In 1998, Bang on a Can performed the album live, favouring a "technicolour style". Discussing their performance, Eno described it as the ensemble "trying to act like machines, but they don't sound like machines at all, they sound like people and it's quite touching when that appears". He felt the rendition's emotive quality was the result of the supposed human element; it moved him to tears, he said, and others he knew – such as Lou Reed and Laurie Anderson – had similar reactions. Critics echoed Eno's praise, including that of the rendition's superiority.


title: Ambient 1: Music for Airports

text: In 2010, The Black Dog, by means of their ninth studio album, "Music for Real Airports", issued a "musical rebuttal", chastising the perceived dehumanisation of airports and Eno's supposed intention of "lull[ing] customers".


title: Ambient 1: Music for Airports

text: The track labelling refers to the album's first release (1978) as an LP, and so the first track means "first track, first side", and so on. The CD pressing adds 30 seconds of silence after every track, including "2/2".


title: Ambient 1: Music for Airports

text: The album's back cover features four abstract graphic notation images, one for each track, representing their structure and instrumentation.


title: State of charge

text: State of charge (SoC) is the level of charge of an electric battery relative to its capacity. The units of SoC are percentage points (0% = empty; 100% = full). An alternative form of the same measure is the depth of discharge (DoD), the inverse of SoC (100% = empty; 0% = full). SoC is normally used when discussing the current state of a battery in use, while DoD is most often seen when discussing the lifetime of the battery after repeated use.


title: State of charge

text: In a battery electric vehicle (BEV), hybrid vehicle (HV), or plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV), SoC for the battery pack is the equivalent of a fuel gauge.


title: State of charge

text: It is important to mention that state of charge, presented as a gauge or percentage value on any vehicle dashboard, especially in plug-in hybrid vehicles, may not be representative of a real level of charge. In that particular case, some noticeable amount of energy stored in the electric battery is not shown on the dashboard, and is reserved for hybrid-work operations. It permits a vehicle to accelerate with electric motors mainly using battery energy, while the petrol engine serves as a generator and recharges the battery to the minimum level needed for such operation. Examples of such cars are Mitsubishi Outlander PHEV (all versions/years of production), where 0% of the state of charge presented to the driver is a real 20-22% of charge level (assuming zero level as the lowest level of charge permitted by car producer). Another one is BMW i3 REX (Range Extender version), where about 6% of SOC is reserved for PHEV-alike operations. Tesla has stated that their SoC should be less than 95%, with some commentators saying between 30%-80% . There is some data to back this up as well.


title: State of charge

text: The state of charge (SOC) can help to reduce electrical car's owners' anxiety when they are waiting in the line or stay at home since it will reflect the progress of charging and let owners know when it will be ready.


title: State of charge

text: Usually, SoC cannot be measured directly but it can be estimated from direct measurement variables in two ways: offline and online. In offline techniques, the


title: State of charge

text: battery desires to be charged and discharged in constant rate such as Coulomb-counting. This method gives precise estimation of battery SoC, but they are protracted, costly, and interrupt main battery performance. Therefore, researchers are looking for some online techniques. In general there are five methods to determine SoC indirectly:


title: State of charge

text: This method works only with batteries that offer access to their liquid electrolyte, such as non-sealed lead acid batteries. The specific gravity or pH of the electrolyte can be used to indicate the SoC of the battery.


title: State of charge

text: Hydrometers are used to calculate the specific gravity of a battery. To find specific gravity, it is necessary to measure out volume of the electrolyte and to weigh it. Then specific gravity is given by (mass of electrolyte [g]/ volume of electrolyte [ml])/ (Density of Water, i.e. 1g/1ml). To find SoC from specific gravity, a look-up table of SG vs SoC is needed.


title: State of charge

text: More recently immersion refractometry has been shown to be a viable method for continuous monitoring of the state of charge. The refractive index of the battery electrolyte is directly relatable to the specific gravity or density of the electrolyte of the cell. Sensors, vol.22, no.1, p. 10, January 2005, US patent 10,145,789.


title: State of charge

text: This method converts a reading of the battery voltage to SoC, using the known discharge curve (voltage vs. SoC) of the battery. However, the voltage is more significantly affected by the battery current (due to the battery's electrochemical kinetics) and temperature. This method can be made more accurate by compensating the voltage reading by a correction term proportional to the battery current, and by using a look-up table of battery's open circuit voltage vs. temperature.


title: State of charge

text: In fact, it is a stated goal of battery design to provide a voltage as constant as possible no matter the SoC, which makes this method difficult to apply.


title: State of charge

text: This method, also known as "Coulomb counting", calculates the SoC by measuring the battery current and integrating it in time.


title: State of charge

text: Since no measurement can be perfect, this method suffers from long-term drift and lack of a reference point: therefore, the SoC must be re-calibrated on a regular basis, such as by resetting the SoC to 100% when a charger determines that the battery is fully charged (using one of the other methods described here).


title: State of charge

text: Maxim Integrated touts a combined voltage and charge approach that is claimed superior to either method alone; it is implemented in their ModelGauge m3 series of chips, such as MAX17050, which is used in the Nexus 6 and Nexus 9 Android devices, for example.


title: State of charge

text: To overcome the shortcomings of the voltage method and the current integration method, a Kalman filter can be used. The battery can be modeled with an electrical model which the Kalman filter will use to predict the over-voltage, due to the current. In combination with coulomb counting, it can make an accurate estimation of the state of charge. The strength of a Kalman filter is that it is able to adjust its trust of the battery voltage and coulomb counting in real time.


title: State of charge

text: This method can be used with certain NiMH batteries, whose internal pressure increases rapidly when the battery is charged. More commonly, a pressure switch indicates if the battery is fully charged. This method may be improved by taking into account Peukert's law which is a function of charge/discharge rate or ampere.


title: Mahadaji Shinde

text: Mahadaji Shinde (b. 23 December 1730 – 12 February 1794), later known as Mahadji Scindia or Madhava Rao Sindhia, was a Maratha statesman and ruler of Ujjain in Central India. He was the fifth and the youngest son of Ranoji Rao Scindia, the founder of the Scindia dynasty.


title: Mahadaji Shinde

text: Mahadaji was instrumental in resurrecting Maratha power in North India after the Third Battle of Panipat in 1761, and rose to become a trusted lieutenant of the Peshwa, leader of the Maratha Empire. Along with Madhavrao I and Nana Fadnavis, he was one of the three pillars of Maratha Resurrection. During his reign, Gwalior became the leading state in the Maratha Empire and one of the foremost military powers in India. After accompanying Shah Alam II to Delhi in 1771, he restored the Mughals in Delhi and became the Naib Vakil-i-Mutlaq" (Deputy Regent of the Empire). Mahadji Shinde's principal advisors were all Shenvis.


title: Mahadaji Shinde

text: He annihilated the power of Jats of Mathura and during 1772-73 he destroyed the power of Pashtun Rohillas in Rohilkhand and captured Najibabad. His role during the First Anglo-Maratha War was greatest from the Maratha side since he defeated the British in the Battle of Wadgaon which resulted in the Treaty of Wadgaon and then again in Central India, single handed, which resulted in the Treaty of Salbai in 1782, where he mediated between the Peshwa and the British.


title: Mahadaji Shinde

text: In 1787, Mahadji attempted to invade Rajputana but he was repulsed by the Rajput armies at Lalsot. However, he regrouped he forces and in 1790, he defeated the Rajput kingdoms of Jodhpur and Jaipur in the battles of Patan and Merta, thus capturing all of Rajputana.


title: Mahadaji Shinde

text: After the British defeat, Hastings through Murre proposed a new treaty, known as the Treaty of Salbai, between the Peshwa and the British that would recognize Sawai Madhavrao as the Peshwa and grant Raghunath Rao a pension. The treaty also returned to Shinde all his territories west of the Yamuna and so was made to withdraw to Ujjain. A resident, Mr. David Anderson (1750-1825), of St. Germains (who had negotiated the treaty) was at the same time appointed to Mahadji's court.


title: Mahadaji Shinde

text: After the Treaty of Salbai in 1782, he invaded and overpowered the Rajput states, particularly Jodhpur and Jaipur through the Battle of Patan and the Battle of Merta.


title: Mahadaji Shinde

text: Mahadji became "Naib Vakil-i-Mutlaq" (Deputy Regent of the empire) of Mughal affairs, and the Mughals also gave him the title of "Amir-ul-Umara" (head of the amirs) in 1784.


title: Mahadaji Shinde

text: In 1788, Isma'il Beg, a Persian who served as a general in the Mughal army along with a few hundred Mughal and Rohilla troops led a revolt against the Maratha Empire, the major power which dominated North India at the time. The reason for this revolt is unknown but most suspect that he was trying to bring the Mughals glory back to North India and depose the Marathas. However the revolt was crushed when Ismail Beg along with his soldiers was destroyed and killed by Mahadji Scindia's armies. After his death, a Rohilla chief named Ghulam Kadir and an ally of Isma'il Beg, took over Delhi, capital of the Mughal dynasty and deposed and blinded the Mughal emperor Shah Alam II, placing a puppet on the Delhi throne. However on 2 October 1788, Mahadji Scindia, upon hearing this news, quickly assembled his army and recaptured Delhi, killing Ghulam Kadir and restoring Shah Alam II to the throne and acting as his protector.


title: Mahadaji Shinde

text: He remained loyal to the English during the revolt of 1781 and played an important role in capturing Maharaja Chait Singh of Benares and crushing the revolt


title: Mahadaji Shinde

text: After the peace made with Tipu Sultan of Mysore in 1792, Mahadji exerted his influence to prevent the completion of a treaty between the British, the Nizam of Hyderabad, and the Peshwa, directed against Tipu.


title: Mahadaji Shinde

text: After the Battle of Lakheri, Mahadji was now at the zenith of his power, when he died, at his military camp at Wanavdi near Pune on 12 February 1794. He left no heir, and was succeeded by Daulat Rao Scindia.


title: Mahadaji Shinde

text: Keeney, the English biographer of Mahadaji Shinde, has described Mahadaji as "the greatest man in India in the 18th century". Mahadaji Shinde's role was instrumental in establishing Maratha supremacy over North India.


title: Mahadaji Shinde

text: Shinde Chhatri, located in Wanawadi, in Pune is a memorial dedicated to Mahadji Shinde. It is a hall that marks the spot of Mahadji Shinde's cremation on 12 February 1794. The three storied memorial in Rajput architectural style, is one of the most significant landmarks in the city.


title: Gregg v. Georgia

text: Gregg v. Georgia, Proffitt v. Florida, Jurek v. Texas, Woodson v. North Carolina, and Roberts v. Louisiana, 428 U.S. 153 (1976), is a landmark decision of the U.S. Supreme Court. It reaffirmed the Court's acceptance of the use of the death penalty in the United States, upholding, in particular, the death sentence imposed on Troy Leon Gregg. The case is referred to by a leading scholar as the July 2 Cases, and elsewhere referred to by the lead case Gregg. The court set forth the two main features that capital sentencing procedures must employ in order to comply with the Eighth Amendment ban on "cruel and unusual punishments". The decision essentially ended the "de facto" moratorium on the death penalty imposed by the Court in its 1972 decision in "Furman v. Georgia" .


title: Gregg v. Georgia

text: All five cases share the same basic procedural history. After the "Furman" decision, the states of Georgia, Florida, Texas, North Carolina, and Louisiana amended their death penalty statutes to meet the "Furman" guidelines. Subsequently, the five named defendants were convicted of murder and sentenced to death in their respective states. The respective state supreme courts upheld the death sentence. The defendants then asked the U.S. Supreme Court to review their death sentence, asking the Court to go beyond "Furman" and declare once and for all the death penalty to be "cruel and unusual punishment" and thus in violation of the Constitution; the Court agreed to hear the cases.


title: Gregg v. Georgia

text: In the July 2 Cases, the Court's goal was to provide guidance to states in the wake of "Furman". In "Furman" only one basic idea could command a majority vote of the Justices: capital punishment, as then practiced in the United States, was cruel and unusual punishment because there were no rational standards that determined when it was imposed and when it was not. The question the Court resolved in these cases was not whether the death sentence imposed on each of the individual defendants was cruel, but rather whether the process by which those sentences were imposed was rational and objectively reviewable.


title: Gregg v. Georgia

text: The defendants in each of the five cases urged the Court to go further than it had in "Furman" by holding once and for all that capital punishment was cruel and unusual punishment that violated the Eighth Amendment. However the Court responded that "The most marked indication of society's endorsement of the death penalty for murder is the legislative response to "Furman"." Both Congress and 35 states had complied with the Court's dictates in "Furman" by either specifying factors to be weighed and procedures to be followed when imposing a death sentence, or dictating that the death penalty would be mandatory for specific crimes. Furthermore, a referendum in California had overturned the California Supreme Court's earlier decision ("California v. Anderson") holding that the death penalty violated the California constitution. The fact that juries remained willing to impose the death penalty also contributed to the Court's conclusion that American society did not believe in 1976 that the death penalty was unconstitutional.


title: Gregg v. Georgia

text: The Court also found that the death penalty "comports with the basic concept of human dignity at the core of the [Eighth] Amendment". The death penalty serves two principal social purposes—retribution and deterrence." In part, capital punishment is an expression of society's moral outrage at particularly offensive conduct". But this outrage must be expressed in an ordered fashion, for America is a society of laws. Retribution is consistent with human dignity, because society believes that "certain crimes are themselves so grievous an affront to humanity that the only adequate response may be the penalty of death". And although it is difficult to determine statistically how much crime the death penalty actually deters, the Court found that in 1976 there was "no convincing empirical evidence" supporting either the view that the death penalty is an effective deterrent to crime or the opposite view. Still, the Court could not completely discount the possibility that for certain "carefully contemplated murderers", "the possible penalty of death may well enter into the cold calculus that precedes the decision to act".


title: Gregg v. Georgia

text: Finally, the Court considered whether the death penalty is "disproportionate in relation to the crime for which it is imposed". Although death is severe and irrevocable, the Court could not say that death was always disproportionate to the crime of deliberately taking human life. "It is an extreme sanction, suitable to the most extreme of crimes."


title: Gregg v. Georgia

text: The Court was determined to simultaneously save capital punishment in the United States and impose some reasoned basis for carrying it out. That reasoning flows from the Eighth Amendment's cruel and unusual punishment clause. Although capital punishment, per se, was not found by the Court to be cruel and unusual, it must still be carried out in a manner consistent with the evolving standards of decency that mark the progress of a maturing society. In the Court's view, the country's history with capital punishment suggests that those evolving standards of decency could not tolerate a return to the mandatory death penalty for murder that had prevailed in medieval England.