title: Community-supported agriculture

text: As CSAs have increased in both number and size since they were first developed, they have also changed ideologically. While original CSAs and some more current CSAs are still philosophically oriented, most CSAs today are commercially oriented and community-supported agriculture is predominantly seen as a beneficial marketing strategy. This has led to three ideologically based types of CSAs. The first type is instrumental, the CSA is considered a market in the traditional sense, instead of an alternative form of economy and relationship. The second type is functional; there is a relationship of solidarity between the farmer and the subscribers, but this extends mostly to social functions, not managerial or administrative functions. This is the most common type of CSA. The final type is collaborative; this is the closest to the original aims of CSAs where the relationship between the farmer and the subscribers is seen as a partnership.


title: Community-supported agriculture

text: Shares of a CSA originally and predominantly consist of produce. In more recent years, shares have diversified and include non-produce products including eggs, meat, flowers, honey, dairy and soaps. Share prices vary from CSA to CSA. Shares are sold as full shares, which feed 2 to 5 people, and half shares, which feed 1 to 3 people. Prices range from $200 to $500 per season. Full shares are sold at a median of $400 and half shares are sold at a median of $250. Share prices are mostly determined by overhead costs of production, but are also determined by share prices of other CSAs, variable costs of production, market forces, and income level of the community. Many CSAs have payment plans and low-income options.


title: Community-supported agriculture

text: Shares are distributed in several different ways. Shares are most often distributed weekly. Most CSAs allow share pick up at the farm. Shares are also distributed through regional dropoff, direct home or office dropoff, farmers' markets, and community center/church dropoff. For example, the new "Farmie Markets" of upstate New York take orders online and have a number of farmers who send that week's orders to a central point in a limited region, for distribution by the organizers.


title: Community-supported agriculture

text: CSAs market their farms and shares in different ways. CSAs employ different channels of marketing to diversify their sales efforts and increase subscriptions. CSAs use local farmers' markets, restaurants, on-farm retail, wholesale to natural food stores, and wholesale to local groceries in addition to their CSAs to market shares. One problem that CSAs encounter is over-production, so CSAs often sell their produce and products in ways other than shares. Often, CSA farms also sell their products at local farmers' markets. Excess products are sometimes given to food banks.


title: Community-supported agriculture

text: Many CSA farmers can capitalize on a closer relationship between customers and their food, since some customers will pay more (an economic rent if this puts the price above the cost of production) if they know where it is coming from, who is involved, and have special access to it. However, some farmers participating in community-supported agriculture do not experience the economic benefits that they are perceived to obtain by participating in an alternative community-based arrangement. Galt's 2013 study of CSA farmers found that many farmers charged lower fees and prices for their goods than would provide them with financial security. This study suggested that farmers may charge less than they need to earn fair wages due to undervaluing their expenses and to offset the high costs of CSA products and make it more affordable for customers; see moral economy.


title: Century Series

text: The Century Series is a popular name for a group of US fighter aircraft representing models designated between F-100 and F-106 which went into full production. They included the first successful supersonic aircraft designs in the United States Air Force's service, which remained in active service well into the 1970s and 1980s with the Air Force Reserve and Air National Guard. Three later variants, the QF-100, QF-102 and QF-106, also continued in service, primarily as aerial target drones, until the late 1990s. The F-104G stayed in service with the Italian military until 2004. The NASA airborne science program maintains a group of F-104G in airworthy condition for use as test platforms and chase aircraft.


title: Century Series

text: The name "Century Series" stems from the fighter (F-) designation number being in the 100–109 range. The term became popular to refer to a group of generally similar designs of the 1950s and early 1960s.


title: Century Series

text: As it evolved, the attribution of the Century Series moniker reflects models designated between F-100 and F-106 which went into full production:


title: Century Series

text: The term "Century Series" does not include less successful models between the F-100 and F-109 that did not go past design or prototype stage: the Republic XF-103 and North American XF-108 Rapier interceptor concepts, the North American F-107 tactical fighter prototype (cancelled in favor of the F-105), and designation "F-109" which was originally assigned to the F-101B Voodoo and later requested but not granted for the Bell XF-109 VTOL concept.


title: Century Series

text: The F- series number sequence used in USAF was a continuation of the pre-USAF pursuit aircraft (P- series) numbering, stretching back as far as to the 1920s. The numbering would continue sequentially up to the General Dynamics F-111, and after this number the 1962 United States Tri-Service aircraft designation system restarted the numbering back from 1. The McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II fighter-bomber was briefly known as the F-110 Spectre. The USAF continued the naming convention with the Constant Peg program as an operations security measure. The last known aircraft with a F-1xx designation is the Lockheed F-117 Nighthawk stealth attack aircraft, which is unrelated to other F-1xx aircraft but received the designation as an additional layer of obscuration for this highly secretive program.


title: Century Series

text: The Century Series aircraft represented a mix of fighter-bombers (F-100, F-101A, F-105) and pure interceptors (F-101B, F-102, F-104, F-106).


title: Century Series

text: The unifying characteristic of the Century Series aircraft was advanced performance and avionics when they were introduced. The F-100 was the first aircraft in the USAF capable of exceeding the speed of sound in level flight. The F-101 was the first aircraft in the USAF capable of exceeding 1,000 mph (1,600 km/h). The F-102 was the first aircraft in the world to utilize area rule in its design. The F-104 was the first combat aircraft capable of Mach 2 flight, and the only aircraft in history to simultaneously hold the world speed and altitude records. Three of the Century Series aircraft—F-101, F-102, and F-106—were armed with nuclear air-to-air missiles. These weapons, designed to destroy incoming nuclear-armed Soviet bombers even when not scoring a clear hit (due to the nuclear explosion radius, shock wave and radiation burst), were the only nuclear weapons in USAF arsenal at the time to be under sole control of their pilots (during a mission).


title: Century Series

text: Similar advancements were made in this period by the United States Navy and United States Marine Corps with the Douglas F4D Skyray (later F-6), Vought F8U Crusader and F4H Phantom II carrier-based aircraft, but US Naval Aviation lacked a similar naming group.


title: Execution of Clayton Lockett

text: The death of Clayton Derrell Lockett occurred on April 29, 2014, when he suffered a heart attack during an execution by lethal injection in the U.S. state of Oklahoma. Lockett, aged 38, was convicted in 2000 of murder, rape, and kidnapping.


title: Execution of Clayton Lockett

text: Lockett was administered an untested mixture of drugs that had not previously been used for executions in the United States. Although the execution was stopped, Lockett died 43 minutes after being sedated. He writhed, groaned, convulsed, and spoke during the process and attempted to rise from the execution table fourteen minutes into the procedure, despite having been declared unconscious.


title: Execution of Clayton Lockett

text: Clayton Lockett was born in 1975 to a drug-using mother. She abandoned him when he was three years old, and he was then raised by his father who severely physically abused Lockett throughout his childhood, gave him drugs starting at age three, and encouraged him to steal and not be caught.


title: Execution of Clayton Lockett

text: In 1992, at the age of sixteen, Lockett pleaded guilty in Kay County to burglary and knowingly concealing stolen property. He received a seven-year prison sentence. Earlier that year, he pleaded no contest to two counts of intimidating state witnesses.


title: Execution of Clayton Lockett

text: While imprisoned at age 16 at the Oklahoma State Penitentiary, a prison for adults, Lockett was gang raped by three adult male prisoners.


title: Execution of Clayton Lockett

text: In 1996, Lockett was sentenced to four years in prison for a conviction in Grady County, for conspiracy to commit a felony.


title: Execution of Clayton Lockett

text: In June 1999, Lockett kidnapped and shot Stephanie Neiman, a 19-year-old high school graduate, a friend of Lockett's other victims, and a witness to his crimes. He used duct tape to bind her hands and cover her mouth. After being kidnapped and driven to a remote area, Neiman stated that she would go to the police as soon as he released her. Lockett walked her into a ravine and had his accomplices help her over a barbed wire fence, where Lockett shot her from a distance of approximately six feet with a 1/4-ounce slug from a sawed-off 12-gauge shotgun. The impact from the slug tore into her chest and shoulder, knocking her to the ground, then Lockett's gun jammed. Lockett then walked back to his vehicle, used a screwdriver to unjam his shotgun, walked back to where Neiman lay, and shot her in the chest at a distance of about two feet. That shot also was not fatal. Lockett stated, "I ain't going to shoot her again," and instead instructed an accomplice to bury her alive. She then died from the wounds.


title: Execution of Clayton Lockett

text: On June 4, 1999, Lockett and his two accomplices, Alfonzo Veasey Lockett and Shawn Mathis were arrested in Enid, Oklahoma by Perry Police Detective Lieutenant David Farrow at a convenience store located on South Van Buren Street. The shotgun used in the murder was hidden in a box spring mattress inside of a garage behind a house where Lockett had been staying. Farrow's investigation uncovered approximately 86 individual pieces of evidence that were presented at Lockett's trial to include, the 12 gauge shotgun used, DNA from the murder victim, fingerprints from the duct tape used to bind his victims, and eyewitness testimony. At his 1999 murder trial, this evidence led to Lockett and his accomplices' convictions. In 2000, he and his accomplices were convicted of murder, rape, forcible sodomy, kidnapping, assault, and battery. Clayton Lockett was sentenced to death, while his two accomplices, Alfonzo Veasey Lockett and Shawn Mathis, to life in prison.


title: Execution of Clayton Lockett

text: From 1890 to 2010, the rate of botched lethal injections in the United States was 7.1%, higher than any other form of execution, with firing squads at 0%, the electric chair at 1.9%, hanging at 3.1%, and the gas chamber at 5.4%.


title: Execution of Clayton Lockett

text: In 2011, Hospira announced that it would stop manufacturing sodium thiopental, due to use by American prisons for executions. "Virtually all" death rows in the US were left without a steady supply of the drug, which is used to numb the pain of potassium chloride stopping the heart. Some states bartered supplies of execution drugs, while other states were accused of illegally buying drugs from India and other sources. The Drug Enforcement Administration seized supplies of sodium thiopental from several states in spring and summer 2011, questioning how they were imported. Other manufacturers have also refused to provide pharmaceutical drugs for the purpose of execution, and a European export ban added to problems obtaining the necessary drugs.


title: Execution of Clayton Lockett

text: Due to the supply issues, Oklahoma used an untested mixture of midazolam (to make the victim fall unconscious), vecuronium bromide (to paralyse), and potassium chloride (used to stop the heart) for Lockett's execution. While Florida had previously used the same three drugs in a 2013 execution, they used 500 mg of midazolam rather than the 100 mg used by Oklahoma. Secrecy laws in Oklahoma prevent the public knowing more than which three drugs were used. The state refused to explain why that drug combination was chosen, what the drug specifics were as to labelling, and how they were obtained. Reportedly, the drugs were bought with petty cash, making the transaction harder to track and to challenge legally.


title: Execution of Clayton Lockett

text: In a recent Florida case, experts testified that midazolam would not cause unconsciousness. Instead of sedating some patients, midazolam can make them violent. Dennis McGuire took 25 minutes to die; he gasped and snorted. The U.S. Supreme Court has ruled that if the first drug does not make the inmate unconscious there is an unacceptable risk of suffocation and pain from the two following drugs. Potassium chloride causes severe pain if used without an anesthetic. Pharmacology professor, Craig Stevens of Oklahoma State University asked why anesthesiology or pharmacology experts were not consulted. "Midazolam has no analgesic properties. It's a whole different drug class than sodium thiopental or barbiturates," Stevens said. Stevens described dying from the other two drugs without anesthetic as "horrific". The drug combination used is considered too painful to euthanise animals. "Veterinarians in at least one state are barred from using a three-drug formula which has been used on several inmates, including Clayton Lockett."


title: Execution of Clayton Lockett

text: Oklahoma Governor Mary Fallin had strongly pushed for the execution to take place despite the lack of standard drugs, initially issuing an executive order to proceed despite a stay by the Supreme Court of Oklahoma. Republican allies of Fallin started impeachment proceedings against the justices who tried to delay the execution; the stay was later lifted. Lockett's lawyers also unsuccessfully sought to force Oklahoma to reveal the source of the drugs, which the state refused. Oklahoma officials testified that the drugs to be used in Lockett's execution had been legally obtained and had not expired.


title: Execution of Clayton Lockett

text: Before the execution, Lockett's stepmother LaDonna Hollins was reported as saying, "I want to know what mixture of drugs are you going to use now? Is this instant? Is this going to cause horrible pain?" and "I know he's scared. He said he's not scared of the dying as much as the drugs administered."


title: Execution of Clayton Lockett

text: Lockett's failed execution occurred at Oklahoma State Penitentiary in McAlester, Oklahoma, on April 29, 2014, after he had been tasered by staff and attempted to cut himself earlier that day.<ref name="Guardian01/05/2014"></ref> A paramedic tried twice to put an IV needle into Lockett's left arm but failed. She then tried to insert the needle into his brachial vein in his biceps but also failed. She asked for help from a doctor in attendance, Johnny Zellmer, who tried three times to get the IV into the jugular vein in Lockett's neck but failed. He then tried the subclavian vein adjacent to Lockett's collar bone but failed again. The paramedic tried two veins in the left foot but failed. Zellmer then inserted the needle into the femoral vein in the groin.


title: Execution of Clayton Lockett

text: The execution began at 6:23p.m. CDT, when the first drug midazolam (sedative), was administered. After Lockett was declared unconscious at 6:33p.m., the next two drugs, vecuronium bromide (paralytic) and potassium chloride (to stop the heart beating), were injected. However, at 6:36p.m., three minutes after being declared unconscious, Lockett started to struggle violently and was able to raise his head and speak, saying "Oh, man", "I'm not..." and according to some sources "something's wrong". He attempted to rise from the table at 6:37p.m. and loudly exhaled. A lawyer for Lockett reportedly said, "It looked like torture." Oklahoma Department of Corrections Director Robert Patton said one of the doctors present stopped the execution when it became clear Lockett had a "vein failure". The execution was halted at 6:56p.m. Lockett was declared dead at 7:06p.m. due to a heart attack.


title: Execution of Clayton Lockett

text: A subsequent investigation found that all three drugs had been properly administered to Lockett. However, it was a cloth, which had been placed over Lockett's groin to prevent witnesses from viewing the area, that had stopped staff from spotting that the IV connection in the groin had failed because of the collapsed vein. After an attending doctor stated that Lockett had not received enough of the drugs to cause death and there were not enough of the drugs left to attempt to continue, the execution was halted after 33 minutes. Prison officials reportedly discussed taking Lockett to a hospital before he died of a heart attack. Patton stated "the chemicals did not enter into the offender". The report noted:


title: Execution of Clayton Lockett

text: According to the Department of Corrections, the time for an inmate to be pronounced dead was 6 to 12 minutes in the previous 19 executions before Lockett.


title: Execution of Clayton Lockett

text: Following Lockett's death, a fourteen-day stay of execution was granted for Charles Frederick Warner, an Oklahoma convict who had been scheduled for execution two hours after Lockett with the same combination of drugs. Governor of Oklahoma Mary Fallin also requested a review of the execution process involved in Lockett's death. Fallin's intervention led to the execution which possibly violated separation of powers within the state. Warner ultimately was executed on January 15, 2015.


title: Execution of Clayton Lockett

text: Dean Sanderford, Lockett's lawyer, witnessed the execution and expressed concern that "the planned review would not be independent". Sanderford feared "investigation by state employees or agencies would not restore confidence in the execution process". Lawyers representing the next set of prisoners scheduled to be executed called for a moratorium on all executions. Madeline Cohen, an attorney for Warner, condemned the way Lockett was executed, noting that "Clayton Lockett was tortured to death," also denouncing the state's refusal to disclose "basic information" about the drugs for the lethal injection procedures.<ref name="Guardian30/04/2014"></ref> Democratic state representative, Joe Dorman called for outside investigation into how Lockett died. He feared the planned review could “lead to suppression of critical evidence in the unlikely event that criminal wrongdoing is uncovered.”


title: Execution of Clayton Lockett

text: A timeline issued by Robert Patton, director of the Oklahoma Department of Corrections, revealed that Clayton Lockett was tasered after refusing to be restrained and escorted to a medical room for an X-ray exam as part of the protocol leading up to his execution. During his medical exam officials found a cut on his right arm, but staff determined that sutures were not needed. The timeline also revealed that Lockett refused a food tray twice. Patton also recommended in the letter to governor Mary Fallin that the state conduct a complete review of execution protocols, indefinitely suspend all executions, and investigate the circumstances surrounding the execution.


title: Execution of Clayton Lockett

text: The White House said the execution "fell short of humane standards". President Barack Obama declared the action "deeply disturbing" and ordered attorney general Eric Holder to review the policy on executions. Obama cited uneven application of the death penalty in the United States, including racial bias (Lockett was African-American) and cases in which murder convictions were later overturned, as grounds for further study of the issue.


title: Execution of Clayton Lockett

text: Media coverage portrayed the execution as "botched", "The Telegraph" calling it "barbarism" and "inappropriate in a civilized society", noting "the idea of actually spectating while the victim is killed surely clashes with basic humanity."


title: Execution of Clayton Lockett

text: The executive director of the Death Penalty Information Center, Richard Dieter, said the attempted execution of Lockett was a “torturous action” and might "lead to a halt in executions until states can prove they can do it without problems". He said the death penalty advocates should be “concerned about whether the state knows what it is doing”.


title: Execution of Clayton Lockett

text: The Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights suggested that the execution may have been "cruel, inhuman and degrading treatment" according to international law and may have been cruel and unusual punishment under the Constitution of the United States.<ref name="Guardian2/5/2014"></ref> The government of the United Kingdom issued a statement reiterating its opposition to capital punishment through its embassy in Washington. It said "its use undermines human dignity, there is no conclusive evidence of its deterrent value, and any miscarriage of justice leading to its imposition is irreversible and irreparable" and called on the United States to cease its use.


title: Execution of Clayton Lockett

text: Human rights organizations also condemned the killing and called on the government to end using it. Ryan Kiesel, the executive director of the American Civil Liberties Union of Oklahoma, said that by using a “science experiment” to cause Lockett to "die in pain" over the course of more than 40 minutes, the state had “disgraced itself before the nation and world”. US advocacy director of Human Rights Watch Antonio Ginatta said "people convicted of crimes should not be test subjects for a state’s grisly experiments" and that the "botched execution was nothing less than state-sanctioned torture".


title: Execution of Clayton Lockett

text: A month after the execution Oklahoma state had not released the official log of the incident. Oklahoma State University professor and freedom of information campaigner Joey Senat said, “They’re not complying with the law by this kind of delay.”


title: Execution of Clayton Lockett

text: Lockett's lawyers released the preliminary results of an independent autopsy on Lockett, conducted by forensic pathologist Joseph Cohen and commissioned by Lockett's legal team. It suggested that the execution team failed to ensure the IV had been properly inserted. According to Cohen, the execution team made several attempts to insert IVs into Lockett's arms and groin before inserting an IV in his femoral vein. However, they failed to ensure the IV went in all the way, resulting in the drugs being absorbed into Lockett's muscle. The report also challenged the official claim that Lockett's veins failed, saying that his veins were perfectly healthy.


title: Assimilation (phonology)

text: Assimilation is a sound change in which some phonemes (typically consonants or vowels) change to become more similar to other nearby sounds. A common type of phonological process across languages, assimilation can occur either within a word or between words.


title: Assimilation (phonology)

text: It occurs in normal speech but becomes more common in more rapid speech. In some cases, assimilation causes the sound spoken to differ from the normal pronunciation in isolation, such as the prefix "in-" of English "input" pronounced with phonetic [m] rather than [n]. In other cases, the change is accepted as canonical for that word or phrase, especially if it is recognized in standard spelling: "implant" pronounced with [m], composed historically of "in" + "plant".


title: Assimilation (phonology)

text: English "handbag" (canonically ) is often pronounced in rapid speech because the and sounds are both bilabial consonants, and their places of articulation are similar. However, the sequence - has different places but similar manner of articulation (voiced stop) and is sometimes elided, which sometimes causes the canonical phoneme to assimilate to before the . The pronunciations or are, however, common in normal speech.


title: Assimilation (phonology)

text: In contrast, the word "cupboard", although it is historically a compound of "cup" and "board" , is always pronounced , never *, even in slow, highly-articulated speech.


title: Assimilation (phonology)

text: Like in those examples, sound segments typically assimilate to a following sound, but they may also assimilate to a preceding one. Assimilation most commonly occurs between immediately adjacent-sounds but may occur between sounds that are separated by others.


title: Assimilation (phonology)

text: Assimilation can be synchronic, an active process in a language at a given point in time, or diachronic, a historical sound change.


title: Assimilation (phonology)

text: A related process is coarticulation in which one segment influences another to produce an allophonic variation, such as vowels becoming nasalized before nasal consonants () when the soft palate (velum) opens prematurely or becoming labialized as in "boot" or "ball" in some accents. This article describes both processes under the term "assimilation".


title: Assimilation (phonology)

text: The physiological or psychological mechanisms of coarticulation are unknown, and coarticulation is often loosely referred to as a segment being "triggered" by an assimilatory change in another segment. In assimilation, the phonological patterning of the language, discourse styles and accent are some of the factors contributing to changes observed.


title: Assimilation (phonology)

text: Although all four occur, changes in regard to a following adjacent segment account for virtually all assimilatory changes and most of the regular ones. Assimilations to an adjacent segment are vastly more frequent than assimilations to a nonadjacent one. Those radical asymmetries might contain hints about the mechanisms involved, but they are not obvious.


title: Assimilation (phonology)

text: If a sound changes with reference to a following segment, it is traditionally called "regressive assimilation". Changes with reference to a preceding segment are traditionally called "progressive". Many find those terms confusing, as they seem to mean the opposite of the intended meaning. Accordingly, a variety of alternative terms have arisen, not all of which avoid the problem of the traditional terms. Regressive assimilation is also known as right-to-left, leading, or anticipatory assimilation. Progressive assimilation is also known as left-to-right, perseveratory, preservative, lagging, or lag assimilation. The terms anticipatory and lag are used here.


title: Assimilation (phonology)

text: Occasionally, two sounds (invariably adjacent) may influence each other in reciprocal assimilation. When such a change results in a single segment with some of the features of both components, it is known as coalescence or fusion.


title: Assimilation (phonology)

text: Assimilation occurs in two different types: complete assimilation, in which the sound affected by assimilation becomes exactly the same as the sound causing assimilation, and partial assimilation, in which the sound becomes the same in one or more features but remains different in other features.


title: Assimilation (phonology)

text: Tonal languages may exhibit tone assimilation (in effect tonal umlaut), but sign languages also exhibit assimilation when the characteristics of neighbouring cheremes may be mixed.


title: Assimilation (phonology)

text: Anticipatory assimilation to an adjacent segment is the most common type of assimilation by far, and typically has the character of a conditioned sound change, i.e., it applies to the whole lexicon or part of it.


title: Assimilation (phonology)

text: For example, in English, the place of articulation of nasals assimilates to that of a following stop ("handkerchief" is pronounced , "handbag" in rapid speech is pronounced ).


title: Assimilation (phonology)

text: Italian "otto", "letto" and "sotto" are examples of historical restructuring: "otto" and "letto" no longer contain /kt/ pronounced [tt], and "sotto" is no longer the structure /bt/ subject to the partial assimilation of devoicing of /b/ and full assimilation to produce [tt]. Over time, phonetic [tt] as a frequent assimilation of /kt/ and /bt/ was rather reinterpreted as reflecting /tt/. The structural sequence /kt/ is now all but absent in Italian, since all items in popular speech underwent the same restructuring, /kt/ > /tt/. On the rare occasion that Italian /kt/ is encountered, however, the same assimilation that triggered the restructuring can occur at the phonetic level. For example, the medical term "ictus" 'stroke', a relatively recent direct borrowing from Latin, is usually pronounced [ˈiktus] in deliberate speech, but [ˈittus] is frequent in more casual registers.


title: Assimilation (phonology)

text: There has been a notable change recognized across a variety of English dialects regarding the pronunciation of the and consonant clusters. Starting around the mid-20th century, the alveolar stop in has slowly been replaced by a post-alveolar affricate instead, resulting in the all-postalveolar consonant clusters and . This phenomenon also occurs in , resulting in the all-postalveolar consonant cluster . The affrication of has been seen in American English, British English, Australian English, and New Zealand English. It is suspected that this change has occurred due to assimilation.


title: Assimilation (phonology)

text: One of the first papers that discussed the affrication of is "Pre-School Children's Knowledge of English Phonology" by Charles Read, published in 1971. The study discussed in this paper focuses on how children in pre-school analyze the phonetic aspect of language in order to determine the proper spelling of English words. Read noticed that many of the children involved in the study misspelled words that began with , spelling words like "troubles" and "dragon" as "chribls" and "jragin", respectively. In a different test, Read also found that many of the children believed that words like "train" and "chicken" both started with .


title: Assimilation (phonology)

text: Anticipatory assimilation at a distance is rare and usually merely an accident in the history of a specific word.


title: Assimilation (phonology)

text: However, the diverse and common assimilations known as umlaut in which the phonetics of a vowel are influenced by the phonetics of a vowel in a following syllable, are common and in the nature of sound laws. Such changes abound in the histories of Germanic languages, Romance, Insular Celtic, Albanian, and many others.


title: Assimilation (phonology)

text: For example, in the history of English, a back vowel became front if a high front vowel or semivowel (*i, ī, j) was in the following syllable, and a front vowel became higher unless it was already high:


title: Assimilation (phonology)

text: On the other hand, Proto-Germanic and > respectively before in the following syllable (Germanic a-mutation) although that had already happened significantly earlier:


title: Assimilation (phonology)

text: Another example of a regular change is the sibilant assimilation of Sanskrit in which if there were two different sibilants as the onset of successive syllables, a plain was always replaced by the palatal :


title: Assimilation (phonology)

text: Proto-Indo-European becomes in both Germanic and Italic: "hill" > PreLat. > Lat. ; > PGmc > OE > "hill". The enclitic form of English "is", eliding the vowel, becomes voiceless when adjacent to a word-final voiceless nonsibilant: "it is" , "that is" > "it's" , "that's" .


title: Assimilation (phonology)

text: Because of a similar process, Proto-Indo-Iranian became in Avestan: Old Avestan 'horse' corresponds to Sanskrit


title: Assimilation (phonology)

text: Lag assimilation at a distance is rare and usually sporadic (except when part of something broader, as for the Sanskrit - example, above): Greek > Lat. "lily".


title: Assimilation (phonology)

text: In vowel harmony, a vowel's phonetics is often influenced by that of a preceding vowel. Thus, for example, most Finnish case markers come in two flavors, with (written ) and (written ), depending on whether the preceding vowel is back or front. However, it is difficult to know where and how in the history of Finnish an actual "assimilatory change" took place. The "distribution" of pairs of endings in Finnish is just that and is not in any sense the operation of an assimilatory innovation, but it was probably the outbirth of such an innovation long ago.


title: Assimilation (phonology)

text: In the opposite direction, in umlaut, a vowel is modified to conform more closely to the vowel in the next syllable.


title: Assimilation (phonology)

text: Proto-Celtic shows up in Old Irish in initial position as , thus "sister" > OIr , > *"swinea"- > *"swine" "nipple" > . However, when preceded by a vowel, the *"sw" sequence becomes : "my sister", "a cow with three teats". There is also the famous change in P-Celtic of -> "p". Proto-Celtic also underwent the change -> "b".


title: Haniel

text: Haniel (, "Ḥannīʾēl", "God is my grace"; "Ananiēl"; , '), also known as Hananel, Anael, Hanael or Aniel"', is an angel in Jewish lore and angelology, and is often included in lists as being one of the seven archangels. Haniel is generally associated with the planet Venus, and is the archangel of the sephirah Netzach. The name Haniel derives from the Hebrew "Ḥēn" (חֵן), meaning "grace, favour, charm" (qualities associated with Venus) + the suffix "-ʾĒl," "God". It is equivalent to the Phoenician name "Hannibal." Haniel is one of the archangels encrypted in the Sigillum Dei Aemeth of Dr. John Dee and Edward Kelly.


title: Hellenistic art

text: Hellenistic art is the art of the Hellenistic period generally taken to begin with the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC and end with the conquest of the Greek world by the Romans, a process well underway by 146 BCE, when the Greek mainland was taken, and essentially ending in 30 BCE with the conquest of Ptolemaic Egypt following the Battle of Actium. A number of the best-known works of Greek sculpture belong to this period, including "Laocoön and His Sons", "Venus de Milo", and the "Winged Victory of Samothrace". It follows the period of Classical Greek art, while the succeeding Greco-Roman art was very largely a continuation of Hellenistic trends.


title: Hellenistic art

text: The term "Hellenistic" refers to the expansion of Greek influence and dissemination of its ideas following the death of Alexander – the "Hellenizing" of the world, with Koine Greek as a common language. The term is a modern invention; the Hellenistic World not only included a huge area covering the whole of the Aegean Sea, rather than the Classical Greece focused on the Poleis of Athens and Sparta, but also a huge time range. In artistic terms this means that there is huge variety which is often put under the heading of "Hellenistic Art" for convenience.


title: Hellenistic art

text: One of the defining characteristics of the Hellenistic period was the division of Alexander's empire into smaller dynastic empires founded by the diadochi (Alexander's generals who became regents of different regions): the Ptolemies in Egypt, the Seleucids in Mesopotamia, Persia, and Syria, the Attalids in Pergamon, etc. Each of these dynasties practiced a royal patronage which differed from those of the city-states. In Alexander's entourage were three artists: Lysippus the sculptor, Apelles the painter, and Pyrgoteles the gem cutter and engraver. The period after his death was one of great prosperity and considerable extravagance for much of the Greek world, at least for the wealthy. Royalty became important patrons of art. Sculpture, painting and architecture thrived, but vase-painting ceased to be of great significance. Metalwork and a wide variety of luxury arts produced much fine art. Some types of popular art were increasingly sophisticated.


title: Hellenistic art

text: There has been a trend in writing history to depict Hellenistic art as a decadent style, following the "Golden Age" of Classical Greece. The 18th century terms Baroque and Rococo have sometimes been applied to the art of this complex and individual period. A renewed interest in historiography as well as some recent discoveries, such as the tombs of Vergina, may allow a better appreciation of the period.


title: Hellenistic art

text: In the architectural field, the dynasties following Hector resulted in vast urban plans and large complexes which had mostly disappeared from city-states by the 5th century BC. The Doric Temple was virtually abandoned. This city planning was quite innovative for the Greek world; rather than manipulating space by correcting its faults, building plans conformed to the natural setting. One notes the appearance of many places of amusement and leisure, notably the multiplication of theatres and parks. The Hellenistic monarchies were advantaged in this regard in that they often had vast spaces where they could build large cities: such as Antioch, Pergamon, and Seleucia on the Tigris.


title: Hellenistic art

text: It was the time of gigantism: thus it was for the second temple of Apollo at Didyma, situated twenty kilometers from Miletus in Ionia. It was designed by Daphnis of Miletus and Paionios of Ephesus at the end of the fourth century BC, but the construction, never completed, was carried out up until the 2nd century AD. The sanctuary is one of the largest ever constructed in the Mediterranean region: inside a vast court (21.7 metres by 53.6 metres), the "cella" is surrounded by a double colonnade of 108 Ionic columns nearly 20 metres tall, with richly sculpted bases and capitals.


title: Hellenistic art

text: The Corinthian order was used for the first time on a full-scale building at the Temple of Olympian Zeus.


title: Hellenistic art

text: The ancient city of Olynthus was one of the architectural and artistic keystones in establishing a connection between the Classical and Hellenistic worlds.


title: Hellenistic art

text: Over 100 homes were found at the Olynthus city site. Interestingly, the homes and other architecture were incredibly well preserved. This allows us to better understand the activities that took place in the homes and how space inside the homes was organized and utilized.


title: Hellenistic art

text: Homes in Olynthus were typically squarer in shape. The desired home was not necessarily large or extravagant, but rather comfortable and practical. This was a mark of civilization that was extremely prominent in Greek culture during the Hellenistic period and beyond. Living a civilized life involved maintaining a sturdy living space, thus many brick-like materials were used in the construction of the homes. Stone, wood, mudbrick, and other materials were commonly used to build these dwellings.


title: Hellenistic art

text: Another element that was increasingly popular during the Hellenistic period was the addition of a courtyard to the home. Courtyards served as a light source for the home as Greek houses were closed off from the outside to maintain a level of privacy. There have been windows found at some home sites, but they are typically high off the ground and small. Because of the issue of privacy, many individuals were forced to compromise on light in the home. Well-lit spaces were used for entertaining or more public activity while the private sectors of the home were dark and closed off which complicated housework.


title: Hellenistic art

text: Courtyards were typically the focus of the home as they provided a space for entertaining and a source of light from the very interior of the home. They were paved with cobblestones or pebbles most often, but there have been discoveries of mosaicked courtyards. Mosaics were a wonderful way for the family to express their interests and beliefs as well as a way to add décor to the home and make it more visually appealing. This artistic touch to homes at Olynthus introduces another element of civilized living to this Hellenistic society.


title: Hellenistic art

text: Pergamon in particular is a characteristic example of Hellenistic architecture. Starting from a simple fortress located on the Acropolis, the various Attalid kings set up a colossal architectural complex. The buildings are fanned out around the Acropolis to take into account the nature of the terrain. The agora, located to the south on the lowest terrace, is bordered by galleries with colonnades (columns) or "stoai". It is the beginning of a street which crosses the entire Acropolis: it separates the administrative, political and military buildings on the east and top of the rock from the sanctuaries to the west, at mid-height, among which the most prominent is that which shelters the monumental Pergamon Altar, known as "of the twelve gods" or "of the gods and of the giants", one of the masterpieces of Greek sculpture. A colossal theatre, able to contain nearly 10,000 spectators, has benches embedded in the flanks of the hill.


title: Hellenistic art

text: Pliny the Elder, after having described the sculpture of the classical period notes: "Cessavit deinde ars" ("then art disappeared"). According to Pliny's assessment, sculpture declined significantly after the 121st Olympiad (296–293 BC). A period of stagnation followed, with a brief revival after the 156th (156–153 BC), but with nothing to the standard of the times preceding it.


title: Hellenistic art

text: During this period sculpture became more naturalistic, and also expressive; there is an interest in depicting extremes of emotion. On top of anatomical realism, the Hellenistic artist seeks to represent the character of his subject, including themes such as suffering, sleep or old age. Genre subjects of common people, women, children, animals and domestic scenes became acceptable subjects for sculpture, which was commissioned by wealthy families for the adornment of their homes and gardens; the "Boy with Thorn" is an example.


title: Hellenistic art

text: Realistic portraits of men and women of all ages were produced, and sculptors no longer felt obliged to depict people as ideals of beauty or physical perfection. The world of Dionysus, a pastoral idyll populated by satyrs, maenads, nymphs and sileni, had been often depicted in earlier vase painting and figurines, but rarely in full-size sculpture. The Old Drunkard at Munich portrays without reservation an old woman, thin, haggard, clutching against herself her jar of wine.


title: Hellenistic art

text: The period is therefore notable for its portraits: One such is the Barberini Faun of Munich, which represents a sleeping satyr with relaxed posture and anxious face, perhaps the prey of nightmares. The Belvedere Torso, the "Resting Satyr", the Furietti Centaurs and "Sleeping Hermaphroditus" reflect similar ideas.


title: Hellenistic art

text: Another famous Hellenistic portrait is that of Demosthenes by Polyeuktos, featuring a well-done face and clasped hands.


title: Hellenistic art

text: Another phenomenon of the Hellenistic age appears in its sculpture: privatization, seen in the recapture of older public patterns in decorative sculpture. Portraiture is tinged with naturalism, under the influence of Roman art. New Hellenistic cities were springing up all over Egypt, Syria, and Anatolia, which required statues depicting the gods and heroes of Greece for their temples and public places. This made sculpture, like pottery, an industry, with the consequent standardization and some lowering of quality. For these reasons many more Hellenistic statues have survived than is the case with the Classical period.


title: Hellenistic art

text: Hellenistic sculpture repeats the innovations of the so-called "second classicism": nude sculpture-in-the-round, allowing the statue to be admired from all angles; study of draping and effects of transparency of clothing, and the suppleness of poses. Thus, Venus de Milo, even while echoing a classic model, is distinguished by the twist of her hips.


title: Hellenistic art

text: The multi-figure group of statues was a Hellenistic innovation, probably of the 3rd century, taking the epic battles of earlier temple pediment reliefs off their walls, and placing them as life-size groups of statues. Their style is often called "baroque", with extravagantly contorted body poses, and intense expressions in the faces. The Laocoön Group, detailed below, is considered one of the prototypical examples of the Hellenistic baroque style.


title: Hellenistic art

text: Pergamon did not distinguish itself with its architecture alone: it was also the seat of a brilliant school of sculpture known as Pergamene Baroque. The sculptors, imitating the preceding centuries, portray painful moments rendered expressive with three-dimensional compositions, often V-shaped, and anatomical hyper-realism. The Barberini Faun is one example.


title: Hellenistic art

text: Attalus I (269–197 BC), to commemorate his victory at Caicus against the Gauls;— called Galatians by the Greeks – had two series of votive groups sculpted: the first, consecrated on the Acropolis of Pergamon, includes the famous Gaul killing himself and his wife, of which the original is lost; the second group, offered to Athens, is composed of small bronzes of Greeks, Amazons, gods and giants, Persians and Gauls. Artemis Rospigliosi in the Louvre is probably a copy of one of them; as for copies of the Dying Gaul, they were very numerous in the Roman period. The expression of sentiments, the forcefulness of details – bushy hair and moustaches here – and the violence of the movements are characteristic of the Pergamene style.


title: Hellenistic art

text: These characteristics are pushed to their peak in the friezes of the Great Altar of Pergamon, decorated under the order of Eumenes II (197–159 BC) with a gigantomachy stretching 110 metres in length, illustrating in the stone a poem composed especially for the court. The Olympians triumph in it, each on his side, over Giants – most of which are transformed into savage beasts: serpents, birds of prey, lions or bulls. Their mother Gaia comes to their aid, but can do nothing and must watch them twist in pain under the blows of the gods.


title: Hellenistic art

text: One of the few city states who managed to maintain full independence from the control of any Hellenistic kingdom was Rhodes. After holding out for one year under siege by Demetrius Poliorcetes (305–304 BCE), the Rhodians built the Colossus of Rhodes to commemorate their victory. With a height of 32 meters, it was one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. Progress in bronze casting made it possible for the Greeks to create large works. Many of the large bronze statues were lost – with the majority being melted to recover the material.


title: Hellenistic art

text: Discovered in Rome in 1506 and seen immediately by Michelangelo, beginning its huge influence on Renaissance and Baroque art. Laocoön, strangled by snakes, tries desperately to loosen their grip without affording a glance at his dying sons. The group is one of very few non-architectural ancient sculptures that can be identified with those mentioned by ancient writers. It is attributed by Pliny the Elder to the Rhodian sculptors Agesander, Athenodoros, and Polydorus.


title: Hellenistic art

text: Johann Joachim Winckelmann, who first articulated the difference between Greek, Greco-Roman and Roman art, drew inspiration from the "Laocoön". Gotthold Ephraim Lessing based many of the ideas in his 'Laocoon' (1766) on Winckelmann's views on harmony and expression in the visual arts.


title: Hellenistic art

text: The fragmentary Sperlonga sculptures are another series of "baroque" sculptures in the Hellenistic style, perhaps made for the Emperor Tiberius, who was certainly present at the collapse of the seaside grotto in southern Italy that they decorated. The inscriptions suggest the same sculptors made it who made the Laocoön group, or possibly their relations.


title: Hellenistic art

text: The "Baroque" traits in Hellenistic art, predominately sculpture, have been contrasted with a contemporary trend that has been described as "Rococo". The concept of a Hellenistic "Rococo" was coined by Wilhelm Klein in the early 20th century. Unlike the dramatic "Baroque" sculptures, the "Rococo" trend emphasized playfull motifs, such as satyrs and nymphs. Wilhelm Klein considered the sculpture group "The Invitation to the Dance" to be a prime example of the trend. Also lighthearted depictions of Aphrodite, the goddess of love, and Eros, were seen as typical (as seen, for instance, in the so-called Slipper Slapper Group depicted below). It has later been argued that the preference for the "Rococo" motifs in Hellenistic sculpture can be tied to a changed use of sculpture in general. Private sculpture collecting became more common during the later Hellenistic period, and in such collections there seems to have been a preference for the kinds of motifs characterized as "Rococo".


title: Hellenistic art

text: From the 2nd century the Neo-Attic or Neo-Classical style is seen by different scholars as either a reaction to baroque excesses, returning to a version of Classical style, or as a continuation of the traditional style for cult statues. Workshops in the style became mainly producers of copies for the Roman market, which preferred copies of Classical rather than Hellenistic pieces.


title: Hellenistic art

text: Paintings and mosaics were important mediums in art, but no examples of paintings on panels have survived the fall to the Romans. It is possible to get some idea of what they were like from related media, and what seem to be copies of or loose derivations from paintings in a wider range of materials.


title: Hellenistic art

text: Perhaps the most striking element of Hellenistic paintings and mosaics is the increased use of landscape. Landscapes in these works of art are representative of familiar naturalistic figures while also displaying mythological and sacro-idyllic elements. Landscape friezes and mosaics were commonly used to display scenes from Hellenistic poetry such as that by Herondas and Theocritos. These landscapes that expressed the stories of Hellenistic writers were utilized in the home to emphasize that family's education and knowledge about the literary world.


title: Hellenistic art

text: Sacro-idyllic means that the most prominent elements of the artwork are those related to sacred and pastoral themes. This style that emerged most prevalently in Hellenistic art combines sacred and profane elements, creating a dreamlike setting. Sacro-idyllic influences are conveyed in the Roman mosaic "Nile Mosaic of Palestrina" which demonstrates fantastical narratives with a color scheme and commonplace components that illustrate the Nile in its passage from Ethiopia to the Mediterranean. The inclusion of Hellenistic backgrounds can also be seen in works throughout Pompeii, Cyrene, Alexandria. Moreover, specifically in Southern Russia, floral features and branches can be found on walls and ceilings strewn in a disordered yet conventional manner, mirroring a late Greek style. In addition, "Cubiculum" paintings found in Villa Boscoreale include vegetation and a rocky setting in the background of detailed paintings of grand architecture.


title: Hellenistic art

text: Wall paintings began appearing more prominently in the Pompeian period. These wall paintings were not just displayed in places of worship or in tombs. Often, wall paintings were used to decorate the home. Wall paintings were common in private homes in Delos, Priene, Thera, Pantikapaion, Olbia, and Alexandria.


title: Hellenistic art

text: Few examples of Greek wall paintings have survived the centuries. The most impressive, in terms of showing what high-quality Greek painting was like, are those at the Macedonian royal tombs at Vergina. Though Greek painters are given tribute to bringing fundamental ways of representation to the Western World through their art. Three main qualities unique to Hellenistic painting style were three-dimensional perspective, the use of light and shade to render form, and "trompe-l'œil" realism. Very few forms of Hellenistic Greek painting survive except for wooden pinakes panels and those painted on stone. The most famously known stone paintings are found on the Macedonian Tomb at Agios Athanasios.


title: Hellenistic art

text: Researchers have been limited to studying the Hellenistic influences in Roman frescoes, for example those of Pompeii or Herculaneum. In addition, some of the paintings in Villa Boscoreale clearly echo lost Hellenistic, Macedonian royal paintings.


title: Hellenistic art

text: Recent excavations from the Mediterranean have revealed the technology used in Hellenistic painting. Wall art of this period utilized two techniques: secco technique and fresco technique. Fresco technique required layers of lime-rich plaster to then decorate walls and stone supports. On the other hand, no base was necessary for the secco technique, which used gum arabic and egg tempera to paint finalizing details on marble or other stone. This technique is exemplified in the Masonry friezes found in Delos. Both techniques used mediums that were locally accessible, such as terracotta aggregates in the base layers and natural inorganic pigments, synthetic inorganic pigments, and organic substances as colorants.


title: Hellenistic art

text: Recent discoveries include those of chamber tombs in Vergina (1987) in the former kingdom of Macedonia, where many friezes have been unearthed. For example, in Tomb II archaeologists found a Hellenistic-style frieze depicting a lion hunt. This frieze found in the tomb supposedly that of Philip II is remarkable by its composition, the arrangement of the figures in space and its realistic representation of nature. Other friezes maintain a realistic narrative, such as a symposium and banquet or a military escort, and possibly retell historical events.


title: Hellenistic art

text: There is also the recently restored 1st-century Nabataean ceiling frescoes in the Painted House at Little Petra in Jordan. As the Nabataeans traded with the Romans, Egyptians, and Greeks, insects and other animals observed in the paintings reflect Hellenism while various types of vines are associated with the Greek god, Dionysus.


title: Hellenistic art

text: Recent archaeological discoveries at the cemetery of Pagasae (close to modern Volos), at the edge of the Pagasetic Gulf have brought to light some original works. The excavations of this site led by Dr. Arvanitopoulos may be connected to various Greek painters in the 3rd and 4th centuries and depict scenes that allude to the reign of Alexander the Great.


title: Hellenistic art

text: In the 1960s, a group of wall paintings was found on Delos. It is evident that the fragments of friezes found were created by a community of painters who lived during the late Hellenistic period. The murals emphasized domestic decoration, conveying the belief these people held that the Delian establishment would remain stable and secure enough for this artwork to be enjoyed by homeowners for many years to come.


title: Hellenistic art

text: Certain mosaics, however, provide a pretty good idea of the "grand painting" of the period: these are copies of frescoes. This art form has been used to decorate primarily walls, floors, and columns.


title: Hellenistic art

text: The development of mosaic art during the Hellenistic Period began with Pebble Mosaics, best represented in the site of Olynthos from 5th century BC. The technique of Pebble Mosaics consisted of placing small white and black pebbles of no specific shape, in a circular or rectangular panel to illustrate scenes of mythology. The white pebbles -in slightly different shades- were placed on a black or blue background to create the image. The black pebbles served to outline the image.


title: Hellenistic art

text: In the mosaics from the site of Pella, from the 4th century BC, it is possible to see a more evolved form of the art. Mosaics from this site display the use of pebbles that were shaded in a wider range of colors and tones. They also show early use of terra-cotta and lead wire to create a greater definition of contours and details to the images in the mosaics.


title: Hellenistic art

text: Following this example, more materials were gradually added. Examples of this extended use of materials in mosaics of the 3rd century BC include finely cut stones, chipped pebbles, glass and baked clay, known as tesserae. This improved the technique of mosaics by aiding the artists in creating more definition, greater detail, a better fit, and an even wider range of colors and tones.


title: Hellenistic art

text: Despite the chronological order of the appearance of these techniques, there is no actual evidence to suggest that the tessellated necessarily developed from the pebble mosaics.


title: Hellenistic art

text: "Opus vermiculatum" and "opus tessellatum" were two different techniques used during this period of mosaic making. "Opus tessellatum" refers to a redacted tessera ("a small block of stone, tile, glass, or other material used in the construction of a mosaic)" size followed by an increased variety in shape, color, and material as well as "andamento"––or the pattern in which the tessera was laid. "Opus vermiculatum" is oftentimes partnered with this technique but differs in complexity and is known to have the highest visual impact.


title: Hellenistic art

text: The majority of mosaics were produced and laid on site. However, a number of floor mosaics display the use of the "emblemata" technique, in which panels of the image are created off-site in trays of terra-cotta or stone. These trays were later placed into the setting-bed on the site.


title: Hellenistic art

text: At Delos, colored grouts were used on opus vermiculatum mosaics, but in other regions this is not common. There is one example of colored grout used in Alexandria on the Dog and Askos mosaic. At Samos, the grouts and the tesserae are both colored.


title: Hellenistic art

text: Scientifics research has been a source of interesting information with regard to the grouts and tesserae used in Hellenistic Mosaics. Lead strips were discovered on mosaics as a definiting characteristic of the surface technique. Lead strips are absent from the mosaics here. At Delos, lead strips were common on mosaics in the opus tessellatum style. These strips were used to outline decorative borders and geometric decorative motifs. The strips were extremely common on opus vermiculatum mosaics from Alexandria. Because lead strips were present in both styles of surface types, they cannot be the sole characteristic of one type or the other.


title: Hellenistic art

text: A rare example of virtuoso Hellenistic style picture mosaic found in the Levantine coast. Through a technical analysis of the mosaic, researchers suggest that this mosaic was created by itinerant craftsman working in situ. Since 2000, over 200 fragments of the mosaic have been discovered at the headline of Tel Dor, however, the destruction of the original mosaic is unknown. Excavators suggest that earthquake or urban renewal is the cause. Original architectural context is unknown, but stylistic and technical comparisons suggest a late Hellenistic period date, estimating around the second half of the second century B.C.E. Analyzing the fragments found at the original site, researchers have found that the original mosaic contained a centralized rectangle with unknown iconography surrounded by a series of decorative borders consisting of a perspective meander followed by a mask-and-garland border. This mosaic consists of two different techniques of mosaic making, "opus vermiculatum" and "opus tessellatum".


title: Hellenistic art

text: An example is the Alexander Mosaic, showing the confrontation of the young conqueror and the Grand King Darius III at the Battle of Issus, a mosaic from a floor in the House of the Faun at Pompeii (now in Naples). It is believed to be a copy of a painting described by Pliny which had been painted by Philoxenus of Eretria for King Cassander of Macedon at the end of the 4th century BC, or even of a painting by Apelles contemporaneous with Alexander himself. The mosaic allows us to admire the choice of colors along with the composition of the ensemble using turning movement and facial expression.


title: Hellenistic art

text: The Stag Hunt Mosaic by Gnosis is a mosaic from a wealthy home of the late 4th century BC, the so-called "House of the Abduction of Helen" (or "House of the Rape of Helen"), in Pella, The signature ("Gnosis epoesen", i.e. Gnosis created) is the first known signature of a mosaicist.


title: Hellenistic art

text: The emblema is bordered by an intricate floral pattern, which itself is bordered by stylized depictions of waves. The mosaic is a pebble mosaic with stones collected from beaches and riverbanks which were set into cement. As was perhaps often the case, the mosaic does much to reflect styles of painting. The light figures against a darker background may allude to red figure painting. The mosaic also uses shading, known to the Greeks as "skiagraphia", in its depictions of the musculature and cloaks of the figures. This along with its use of overlapping figures to create depth renders the image three dimensional.


title: Hellenistic art

text: The Hellenistic period is equally the time of development of the mosaic as such, particularly with the works of Sosos of Pergamon, active in the 2nd century BC and the only mosaic artist cited by Pliny. His taste for "trompe-l'œil" (optical illusion) and the effects of the medium are found in several works attributed to him such as the "Unswept Floor" in the Vatican museum, representing the leftovers of a repast (fish bones, bones, empty shells, etc.) and the "Dove Basin" (made of small opus vermiculatum tesserae stones) at the Capitoline Museum, known by means of a reproduction discovered in Hadrian's Villa. In it one sees four doves perched on the edge of a gilt bronze basin filled with water. One of them is watering herself while the others seem to be resting, which creates effects of reflections and shadow perfectly studied by the artist. The "Dove Basin" mosaic panel is an emblema, designed to be the central point of an otherwise plain mosaic floor. The emblema was originally an import from the Hellenistic eastern Mediterranean, where, in cities such as Pergamom, Ephesus and Alexandria, there were artists specializing in mosaics. One of them was Sosos of Pergamon, the most celebrated mosaicist of antiquity who worked in the second century BC.


title: Hellenistic art

text: According to the French archaeologist François Chamoux, the mosaics of Delos in the Cyclades represent the zenith of Hellenistic-period mosaic art employing the use of tesserae to form complex, colorful scenes. This style of mosaic continued until the end of Antiquity and may have had an impact on the widespread use of mosaics in the Western world during the Middle Ages.


title: Hellenistic art

text: The Hellenistic Age comes immediately after the great age of painted Ancient Greek pottery, perhaps because increased prosperity led to more use of fine metalware (very little now surviving) and the decline of the fine painted "vase" (the term used for all vessel shapes in pottery). Most vases of the period are black and uniform, with a shiny appearance approaching that of varnish, decorated with simple motifs of flowers or festoons. The shapes of the vessels are often based on metalwork shapes: thus with the lagynos, a wine jar typical of the period. Painted vase types that continued production into the Hellenistic period include Hadra vases and Panathenaic amphora.


title: Hellenistic art

text: It is also the period of so-called Megarian ware: mold-made vases with decoration in relief appeared, doubtless in imitation of vases made of precious metals. Wreaths in relief were applied to the body of the vase. One finds also more complex relief, based on animals or legendary creatures.


title: Hellenistic art

text: Red-figure painting had died out in Athens by the end of the 4th century BC to be replaced by what is known as West Slope Ware, so named after the finds on the west slope of the Athenian Acropolis. This consisted of painting in a tan coloured slip and white paint on a fired black slip background with some incised detailing.


title: Hellenistic art

text: Representations of people diminished, replaced with simpler motifs such as wreaths, dolphins, rosettes, etc. Variations of this style spread throughout the Greek world with notable centres in Crete and Apulia, where figural scenes continued to be in demand.


title: Hellenistic art

text: Gnathia vases however were still produced not only in Apulian, but also in Campanian, Paestan and Sicilian vase painting.


title: Hellenistic art

text: In Canosa di Puglia in South Italy, in 3rd century BC burials one might find vases with fully three-dimensional attachments. The distinguishing feature of Canosa vases are the water-soluble paints. Blue, red, yellow, light purple and brown paints were applied to a white ground.


title: Hellenistic art

text: The Centuripe ware of Sicily, which has been called "the last gasp of Greek vase painting", had fully coloured tempera painting including groups of figures applied after firing, contrary to the traditional practice. The fragility of the pigments prevented frequent use of these vases; they were reserved for use in funerals, and many were purely for display, for example with lids that did not lift off. The practice perhaps continued into the 2nd century BC, making it possibly the last vase painting with significant figures. A workshop was active until at least the 3rd century BC. These vases are characterized by a base painted pink. The figures, often female, are represented in coloured clothing: blue-violet chiton, yellow himation, white veil. The style is reminiscent of Pompeii and draws more from grand contemporary paintings than on the heritage of the red-figure pottery.


title: Hellenistic art

text: Bricks and tiles were used for architectural and other purposes. Production of Greek terracotta figurines became increasingly important. Terracotta figurines represented divinities as well as subjects from contemporary life. Previously reserved for religious use, in Hellenistic Greece the terracotta was more frequently used for funerary and purely decorative, purposes. The refinement of molding techniques made it possible to create true miniature statues, with a high level of detail, typically painted.


title: Hellenistic art

text: Several Greek styles continued into the Roman period, and Greek influence, partly transmitted via the Ancient Etruscans, on Ancient Roman pottery was considerable, especially in figurines.


title: Hellenistic art

text: Tanagra figurines, from Tanagra in Boeotia and other centers, full of lively colours, most often represent elegant women in scenes full of charm. At Smyrna, in Asia Minor, two major styles occurred side-by-side: first of all, copies of masterpieces of great sculpture, such as the Farnese Hercules in gilt terracotta.


title: Hellenistic art

text: In a completely different genre, there are the "grotesques", which contrast violently with the canons of "Greek beauty": the "koroplathos" (figurine maker) fashions deformed bodies in tortuous poses – hunchbacks, epileptics, hydrocephalics, obese women, etc. One could therefore wonder whether these were medical models, the town of Smyrna being reputed for its medical school. Or they could simply be caricatures, designed to provoke laughter. The "grotesques" are equally common at Tarsus and also at Alexandria.


title: Hellenistic art

text: One theme which emerged was the "negro", particularly in Ptolemaic Egypt: these statuettes of Black adolescents were successful up to the Roman period. Sometimes, they were reduced to echoing a form from the great sculptures: thus one finds numerous copies in miniature of the Tyche (Fortune or Chance) of Antioch, of which the original dates to the beginning of the 3rd century BC.


title: Hellenistic art

text: Hellenistic pottery designs can be found in the city of Taxila in modern Pakistan, which was colonized with Greek artisans and potters after Alexander conquered it.


title: Hellenistic art

text: Because of so much bronze statue melting, only the smaller objects still exist. In Hellenistic Greece, the raw materials were plentiful following eastern conquests.


title: Hellenistic art

text: The work on metal vases took on a new fullness: the artists competed among themselves with great virtuosity. The Thracian Panagyurishte Treasure (from modern Bulgaria), includes Greek objects such as a gold amphora with two rearing centaurs forming the handles.


title: Hellenistic art

text: The Derveni Krater, from near Thessaloniki, is a large bronze volute krater from about 320 BC, weighing 40 kilograms, and finely decorated with a 32-centimetre-tall frieze of figures in relief representing Dionysus surrounded by Ariadne and her procession of satyrs and maenads. The neck is decorated with ornamental motifs while four satyrs in high relief are casually seated on the shoulders of the vase.


title: Hellenistic art

text: The evolution is similar for the art of jewelry. The jewelers of the time excelled at handling details and filigrees: thus, the funeral wreaths present very realistic leaves of trees or stalks of wheat. In this period the insetting of precious stones flourished.


title: Hellenistic art

text: It was in the Hellenistic period that the Greeks, who until then only knew molded glass, discovered the technique of glass blowing, thus permitting new forms. Beginning in Syria, the art of glass developed especially in Italy. Molded glass continued, notably in the creation of intaglio jewelry.


title: Hellenistic art

text: The art of engraving gems hardly advanced at all, limiting itself to mass-produced items that lacked originality. As compensation, the cameo made its appearance. It concerns cutting in relief on a stone composed of several colored layers, allowing the object to be presented in relief with more than one color. The Hellenistic period produced some masterpieces like the Gonzaga cameo, now in the Hermitage Museum, and spectacular hardstone carvings like the Cup of the Ptolemies in Paris.


title: Hellenistic art

text: Spurred by the Roman acquisition, elite consumption and demand for Greek art, both Greek and Roman artists, particularly after the establishment of Roman Greece, sought to reproduce the marble and bronze artworks of the Classical and Hellenistic periods. They did so by creating molds of original sculptures, producing plaster casts that could be sent to any sculptor's workshop of the Mediterranean where these works of art could be duplicated. These were often faithful reproductions of originals, yet other times they fused several elements of various artworks into one group, or simply added Roman portraiture heads to preexisting athletic Greek bodies.


title: Javier Solís

text: Gabriel Siria Levario (4 September 1931 – 19 April 1966), known professionally as Javier Solís, was a Mexican singer and actor. He specialized in the musical genres of bolero and ranchera.


title: Javier Solís

text: Gabriel Siria Levario was the first of three children of Francisco Siria Mora, a baker and butcher, and Juana Levario Plata, a trader. Juana had a stall at a public market and as her spouse had allegedly abandoned her, she had little time save for work. After a time, she decided to leave her son at the household of his uncle Valentín Levario Plata and his wife, Ángela López Martínez, whom Gabriel considered his real parents.


title: Javier Solís

text: Siria had to drop out of school before his teens to support his family, after the death of his aunt Angela. Due to his aunt's death Gabriel only completed the first five years of primary school in Tacubaya in Mexico City, where he used to participate in singing contests. After dropping out of school he worked collecting bones and glass. Later he worked in a supermarket transporting merchandise. He worked as a baker, a butcher, a carpenter's helper and a car washer. In his spare time, he trained as an amateur boxer, with aspirations of going professional, but after suffering a few defeats, he was urged to work at something "more decent".


title: Javier Solís

text: Solis began singing in competitions under the pseudonym of "Javier Luquín" in which the winner would be awarded a new pair of shoes; he was eventually banned from participating because he so dominated the competition. At that time he was working as a butcher, and sang while he worked. His boss, David Lara Ríos, heard him and was so impressed with his talent that he urged Siria to dedicate himself to his music and recommended him to a voice coach, even paying for singing lessons with Noé Quintero.


title: Javier Solís

text: At age 16, Solis went to Puebla to sing with the Mariachi Metepec, but he did not get his first professional break until two years later when Julito Rodríguez and Alfredo Gil of the famous singing trio, Los Panchos, discovered him and took him to audition at CBS Records. There in 1950, he signed a contract and recorded his first album. He was singing at the same time at the Teatro Lirico in Mexico City when he met dancer Blanca Estela Saenz who would later become his wife. His first hit, "Llorarás", came two years later, and it was his then-producer Felipe Valdes Leal who gave Siria his stage name, "Javier Solís".


title: Javier Solís

text: Solís began to receive international acclaim in 1957 when he began appearing in the United States and Central and South America. He was among the first artists to sing in the new style now known as bolero-ranchera. He sang boleros typically associated with trio music but which now were accompanied by mariachis. Solís was a versatile interpreter singing not only boleros, but rancheras, corridos, danzones, waltzes, and tangos, among others. His hit recordings included "Sombras", "Payaso", "Vereda Tropical", "En Mi Viejo San Juan", and "Amanecí En Tus Brazos", the latter a re-recording of the hit written and recorded by José Alfredo Jiménez.


title: Javier Solís

text: Solís began his acting career in 1959 and appeared in more than 20 films, working with such artists as Pedro Armendáriz, María Victoria, Antonio Aguilar, and Lola Beltrán. His last movie, "Juan Pistolas", was finished in 1965, the same year that his film, "Sinful", was released. During his lifetime, he was considered a better singer than actor by his public, who rated him alongside such accomplished artists as Jorge Negrete and Pedro Infante who with Solis, made up the "Three Mexican Roosters" of Mexican music and cinemas.


title: Javier Solís

text: Following the 1957 death of Pedro Infante in a plane crash in Mérida, Yucatán, Solís experienced a surge of popularity, not least because he was considered the last of the "Three Mexican Roosters" who along with Infante and Jorge Negrete, had been the idols of Mexican music and cinema. Between 1961 and 1966 (the year of his death), he had 12 No. 1 hits on the Mexican charts.


title: Javier Solís

text: On 12 April 1966 (only seven days before his death), Solís performed the song "Perdóname mi vida" live on a TV Show, making notorious pain gestures during the performance. On 19 April 1966, Solís died at the age of 34 in Mexico City from complications due to gallbladder surgery. He is buried in the Panteón Jardín cemetery in Mexico City, Mexico.


title: Javier Solís

text: Javier Solís was a prolific artist, leaving an extensive discography, and like Infante, most of his albums are still in print.


title: Thirsk

text: Thirsk is a market town and civil parish in the Hambleton district of North Yorkshire, England known for its racecourse; quirky yarnbomber displays, and depiction as local author James Herriot's fictional Darrowby.


title: Thirsk

text: Archeological finds indicate there was a settlement in Thirsk around 500–600 BC. The town's name is derived from the Old Norse word "þresk" meaning fen or lake.


title: Thirsk

text: Thirsk is mentioned twice in the 1086 "Domesday Book" as "Tresche", in the "Yarlestre" wapentake, a village with ten households. At the time of the Norman invasion the manor was split between "Orm" and "Thor", local Anglo-Saxon landowners. Afterwards, it was split between "Hugh, son of Baldric" and the Crown.


title: Thirsk

text: Most of Thirsk was granted to a Robert from Montbray for whose descendant House of Mowbray the vale of Mowbray is named.


title: Thirsk

text: By 1145, what is now Old Thirsk, gained a Market charter giving it town and borough status. The remaining land in the parish was still under manorial rights.


title: Thirsk

text: The Mowbray family built a castle on the north side of Castlegate. It is not mentioned in the Domesday Book and an exact date is not recorded for construction but it was known to be completely destroyed by 1176 following an uprising against Henry II.


title: Thirsk

text: William de Mowbray, 6th Baron of Thirsk, 4th Baron Mowbray, was one of the 25 executors of the Magna Carta in 1215. The Mowbrays built a manor house on the old castle site, this was destroyed by the Scots in 1322. The manor itself continued to be in the Mowbrays possession, despite several claims, until the death of the 16th Lord Mowbray in 1476.


title: Thirsk

text: After the War of the Roses, Henry VII raised taxes, and that caused uprisings in the north. This led to the murder of Henry Percy, 4th Earl of Northumberland, allegedly on The Little Green, when he was sent to collect the taxes. However, other evidence points to the murder occurring in nearby South Kilvington.


title: Thirsk

text: With no direct succession, the daughter of Thomas de Mowbray, 1st Duke of Norfolk inherited the manor, who had married into the Berkeley family. Her son William de Berkeley, 1st Marquess of Berkeley inherited it on her death. For some years, the manor was held by "Thomas Stanley Earl of Derby, whose successors held it after the death of William Lord de Berkeley until 1723".


title: Thirsk

text: In that year, it was sold by James Earl of Derby to Ralph Bell (MP) of Sowerby, "whose descendants thereafter held the manor". It remained in the Bell family into the 20th century.


title: Thirsk

text: Thirsk Hall in Kirkgate is a grade II* listed three-storey town house built in 1720 and extended in 1770 by York architect John Carr.


title: Thirsk

text: A 1767 Act of Parliament provided for building a navigable waterway to the town from the River Swale along Cod Beck. The project ran out of funds and was never completed, although remains can be seen of the wharf and a lock near Lock Bridge. The Thirsk Poor Law Union was formed in 1837 and covered a large part of the North Riding of Yorkshire. A workhouse was erected in Sutton Road in 1838.


title: Thirsk

text: A rail crash occurred at Manor House signal box on 2 November 1892, on the North Eastern Railway about north of Thirsk railway station, when an express train collided with the back of a goods train, both heading south in fog. There were 10 people killed and 43 injured. Another took place on 31 July 1967 on the East Coast Main Line. On that occasion an express train travelling north collided with a derailed freight train. Seven people were killed and 45 injured.


title: Thirsk

text: Thirsk has been in the Thirsk and Malton Parliamentary constituency since its creation for the 2010 general election. Kevin Hollinrake was elected MP at the 2015 UK general election.


title: Thirsk

text: The town was a parliamentary borough that had representation in 1295 and then from 1547 to 1885. For the majority of the latter period, it was represented by two members until 1882 when it was reduced to one member.


title: Thirsk

text: The constituency of Thirsk and Malton was originally created for the 1885 General Elections by the Redistribution of Seats Act of 1885 and existed until 1983. During that period it returned six Conservative party members to parliament, which included one by-election in 1915.


title: Thirsk

text: The Civil Parish of Thirsk was created by the Local Government Act 1894. The Local Government Act 1972 afforded Parish Councils the opportunity to change titles. Thirsk renamed itself a "Town Council". In so doing, the Chairman was also renamed as "Mayor". The council is represented by eleven Councillors. The town council meets at Thirsk and Sowerby Town Hall.


title: Thirsk

text: Thirsk is in the Vale of Mowbray and situated around the Cod Beck. Within Thirsk, Norby lies to the north-west, and Old Thirsk to the north-east. The separate parish of Sowerby abuts to the south.


title: Thirsk

text: Nearby villages with names of Danish origin, identified by the suffix "by" meaning village or farmstead, include Thirlby, Boltby and Borrowby.


title: Thirsk

text: The 2011 UK Census recorded the population as 4,998, an increase of 33% over the past 120 years, with a density of 3.9 people per hectare. Of the total population, 48.9% were male and 51.1% were female. The ethnic make up of the town was 94.3% White British, 3.0% Other White, 0.9% Asian British and 0.2% Black/Mixed and other Ethnic Groups. The religious composition of the town was 71.7% Christian, 27.4% None or no religion stated, 0.3% Muslim, 0.2% Buddhist, 0.1% Hindu, 0.1% Jewish and 0.0% Sikh.


title: Thirsk

text: Thirsk's medieval market place in the town centre hosts an open-air market each Monday and Saturday. The market was established in 1145 and remains a focal point for traders and visitors. Tourism and hospitality are major parts of the town's economy.


title: Thirsk

text: The town had a reputation for its leather tanning and saddlery trade, but by the 19th century was better known for the production of agricultural implements.


title: Thirsk

text: The World of James Herriot is a visitor attraction in the former home and veterinary surgery of author James Herriot.


title: Thirsk

text: Thirsk railway station is north of York on the East Coast Main Line and situated from the centre of Thirsk, in Carlton Miniott.


title: Thirsk

text: National Express Coaches as well as bus services for York, Ripon, Northallerton and local villages stop in Thirsk market place.


title: Thirsk

text: The A61, passes through Thirsk market place. Since 1972 the A19 has bypassed Thirsk to the east of the town.


title: Thirsk

text: The town has many primary schools, Thirsk Community Primary, the others being in adjoining Sowerby and All Saints RC Primary School. It is within the catchment area of Thirsk School and Sixth Form College for secondary education. The current primary school was opened in 1979 with an extension added in 1991 to house extra classrooms, nursery section and medical facilities. Due to rises in the school population, some temporary build classrooms have also been erected on site. It is a mixed gender school catering for pupils between the ages of 3 and 11. It has a student capacity of 315 and as of 2013 was at 90.5% of that.


title: Thirsk

text: St Mary's Church is a Grade I listed, 15th-century church. There are gouges created by sharpening arrows and knives in the porch, and by the altar in the chancel.


title: Thirsk

text: Thirsk Racecourse is a thoroughbred horse racing venue consisting of a left handed oval of about one mile and two furlongs. The present course opened in 1923, but racing had taken place on the old course at nearby Black Hambleton over 200 years earlier. The racecourse serves flat racing in the spring and summer months.


title: Thirsk

text: Thirsk Cricket Club was founded in 1851 and play in the middle of Thirsk Racecourse. The club was a founder member of the York & District League in which they still compete.


title: Thirsk

text: Thirsk Hockey Club have been affiliated to the Yorkshire Hockey Association since 1923. Until Thirsk School laid a floodlit, artificial pitch they played on grass pitches on the out field of the Cricket Club. They still share the Cricket Clubhouse for social facilities.


title: Thirsk

text: Thirsk Falcons FC compete in the Teesside Football League, which is at the 13th level of the English football league system.


title: Fish ball

text: Fish balls are rounded meat balls made from fish paste which are then boiled or deep fried. Similar in composition to fishcake, fish balls are often made from fish mince or surimi, salt, and a culinary binder such as tapioca flour, corn, or potato starch.


title: Fish ball

text: Fish balls are popular in East and Southeast Asia, where they are eaten as a snack or added to soups or hotpot dishes. They are usually attributed to Chinese cuisine and the fish ball industry is largely operated by people of Chinese descent. European versions tend to be less processed, sometimes using milk or potatoes for binding. Nordic countries also have their own variation.


title: Fish ball

text: There are two variants of fish balls, each differing in its textures, production method, and primary regions of production:


title: Fish ball

text: While the ingredients and methods are similar between countries, differences can be noted in terms of elasticity, colour, and flavour. Fish balls in Hong Kong and the Philippines can be more firm, darker, and have more fishy taste and aroma than their Malay and Singaporean counterparts. Taiwanese fish balls have more bounce and more air incorporated to allow for soaking up soups or sauces.


title: Fish ball

text: Typically fish are shredded, coarsely ground, or pounded, then undergo prolonged mixing with added salt and crushed ice until a smooth texture is attained. Other ingredients are added, such as sugar, monosodium glutamate, transglutaminase, or starches, and then water is added to ensure the ball has a "soft, springy texture." This technique, similar to the process of making surimi, uncoils and stretches previously wound and tangled protein strands in the fish, which produces food with a firm "bouncy" texture. In Taiwan, the term "Q" is used to describe this ideal bouncy texture.


title: Fish ball

text: In commercial production, the balls are shaped by an extruding machine, and set in water between 30 and 45C before boiling, cooling, then packaging. The setting time is an important part of manufacture because in addition to giving it a translucent appearance, the shape will be maintained after packaging. They can be sold as uncooked (after setting), boiled, or fried (after being boiled).


title: Fish ball

text: The variety of fish used in surimi can effect commercial fish ball production, due to the difference in thermal stability between tropical fish and cold water fish. Economically, fish ball production adds value to lower-priced fish.


title: Fish ball

text: Scandinavian fish balls are made of completely pureed fish, milk, and potato flour (or potato starch), and they are shaped without additional processing, which produces a softer textured food. This type of fish ball usually comes in metal cans or transparent plastic containers containing stock or brine and also requires a setting period prior to canning.


title: Fish ball

text: Fish balls are perishable, and have a different shelf life based on the amount of processing and the inclusion of additives. Uncooked fish balls have a shelf life of 4 to 5 days when stored at 5 °C. A fried, marinated fish ball can last up to 135 days at ±4 °C.


title: Fish ball

text: While fish balls can contain other seafood or meat products (such as squid, cuttlefish, or shrimp balls), studies conducted on processed seafood have revealed significant amounts of mislabeling. A 2017 study in Italy and Spain detected mollusks used in surimi products, which is a concern for shellfish allergies. A 2013–2016 study in the Philippines that identified the genetic code of a variety of fish balls concluded that large, well-established companies generally adhered to labelling standards, but unknown, small producers typically supplying street hawkers revealed seafood balls that contained pig or chicken meat. A 2019 study by the National University of Singapore showed a 7.8% mislabeling rate for single-type seafood products, and 38.5% mislabeling for products containing multiple meat sources. The study also identified seafood balls containing pig DNA, although none of the samples were labeled as a halal or kosher food, which would pose a significant concern for the country's Muslim population.


title: Fish ball

text: Fish balls have a long history in China, and the introduction of fish balls throughout Asia is often attributed to Chinese immigrants. Fish balls can also contain a wide array of seafood and other meats such as beef or pork.


title: Fish ball

text: In Hubei, fish balls are made from freshwater fish surimi. A Fuzhou variety () is made from fish with a minced pork filling. The variation from Fuqing is much larger. Shark is also used, about 50% of shark caught in China is used for fish ball production with a small amount used for export.


title: Fish ball

text: Fish balls are one of Hong Kong's most popular and representative "street foods", eaten plain or cooked in a curry sauce. Readily available in traditional markets and supermarkets, fish balls are also a popular ingredient in hot pot.


title: Fish ball

text: Flathead mullet () and daggertooth pike conger () are common fish varieties used for fish balls. Originally they were likely made by mixing and frying the remaining materials of Chaozhou fish ball () or stale fish, although more recently they are mainly imported by wholesalers and the texture is more consistent.


title: Fish ball

text: There are three kinds of fish balls, known as (literally "fish eggs"), sold in Hong Kong and Macau. They are yellow, white, and golden. Yellow fish balls are most commonly sold as street food. White fish balls are larger in size and made with white fish, such as Spanish mackerel, with an elastic (bouncy) and fluffy texture and a strong taste of fish. This kind is usually served to complement noodles at Cháozhōu-style noodle restaurants, and at some "cha chaan tengs", which also sell beef balls () and cuttlefish balls (). White fish balls from traditional fish ball restaurants are made from fresh fish and are normally hand-made () by the owners using traditional techniques. Golden fish ball is a snack in Cheung Chau. Distinguishing features include size, sauce and texture. They can be fist-sized and are served with a special curry sauce, and they are mainly made from fresh fish which makes the texture smoother.


title: Fish ball

text: During the 1970s and 1980s, "fish ball girl" became a euphemism for underage female sex workers. The 2016 Mong Kok civil unrest, which escalated from the government's crackdown on unlicensed street hawkers during the Chinese New Year holidays, has been referred to by some media outlets and social media platforms as the "Fishball Revolution" ().


title: Fish ball

text: Milkfish balls () are frequently found in Taiwan. The natural texture and aroma of the milkfish give this variant a unique taste. This is one of the main ways milkfishes' lesser-prized yet highly abundant white meat is consumed. Other fishes used include shark, lizard fish, pike eel, and marlin.


title: Fish ball

text: Fish balls with roe () are served at hot pot restaurants. They have a sweet and salty taste with a popping element from the roe's texture. There is also a fried golden version.


title: Fish ball

text: Traditionally, fish balls were made from locally sourced fish such as coral fish and Dorab. Production scale varies from individual hawker stalls to large corporate factories which supply the local and export markets. Due to higher labour costs and limited local fish supplies, surimi are mostly imported, and fish balls are produced at a lower cost by mixing surimi with fresh leached fish mince. Higher quality fish balls are made from wolf herring, coral fish, Spanish mackerel, and Conger eel.


title: Fish ball

text: As of 2002, Singapore consumes approximately 10 kg of fish balls per capita per year, possibly the country with the highest consumption of fish balls in the world. They can be served with soup and noodles like the Chiuchow style or with "yong tau foo" (). They can also be served with noodles called "mee pok".


title: Fish ball

text: "Bak chor mee", a popular Singaporean dish which comes in both dry and soup versions, was listed as the top world street food by World Street Food Congress. In some cases, it is also fried and served on a stick. Fish balls are the second most processed fish-based product in Singapore, roughly 10% of the total produced.


title: Fish ball

text: In Indonesia, fish balls are called "bakso ikan" (fish "bakso") and often served with tofu, vegetables, and fish "otak-otak" in clear broth soup as "tahu kok". It may be thinly sliced as additional ingredient in "mie goreng", "kwetiau goreng", "nasi goreng" and "cap cai". A similar dish is called "pempek," in which surimi is shaped into logs and fried"." There are some dishes of fish ball soup called "bakso kakap" (snapper fish ball soup) from Semarang and "bakso ikan marlin" (sailfish or blue marlin fish ball soup) from Pesisir Barat, Lampung.


title: Fish ball

text: In Malaysia, you could find fish balls cuisine almost everywhere that has hawker stall. Local citizen used to eat Fish Ball Noodle ( 鱼丸粉） as their breakfast / lunch / dinner. In Malaysia, they have this dish serve in clear soup or dry version that mixed with soy sauce. It is a non spicy food that even children likes to eat.


title: Fish ball

text: In the Philippines, there are fish balls and a similar dish called "bola-bola", which is the same meat paste as fish cake, but wrapped in a wonton skin. Yellowtail fusilier, corn starch and baking powder are common ingredients.


title: Fish ball

text: In Thailand, fish balls are fried or grilled as snacks. In main dishes, fish balls are in Chinese style noodle soups and curry dishes such as "Kaeng khiao wan luk chin pla," a green curry.


title: Fish ball

text: The most common varieties of fish used are threadfin bream, bigeye snapper, croaker, lizard fish, goatfish, and "Pla krai (Chitala ornata)".


title: Fish ball

text: Known as "Fiskbullar" in Sweden and "fiskeboller" in Norway and Denmark, Nordic fish balls are white and without breading.


title: Fish ball

text: Gefilte fish, typical of Ashkenazi Jewish cuisine, has origins in 14th century non-Jewish Germanic cookery. Originally a stuffed fish dish, it suited the dietary cultural needs for Jewish celebrations, being an acceptable form of meat as well as already deboned which adheres to the restriction on picking through bones on the Sabbath. Jewish communities have their own versions based on local ingredients, such as the addition of sugar in Poland, black pepper in Lithuania, and cooking it in a tomato sauce in Libya.


title: Fish ball

text: A classic English variant (as well as in the US) uses cooked mashed potato and egg as a binder, and is pan fried. Cod is a popular fish for this style. "The Lone Fish-ball" was published in 1855 by George Martin Lane referencing this type of fish ball popular in New England.


title: Fish ball

text: Italian fish balls, known locally as , are fried with parmesan and breadcrumbs, and they are usually served with a tomato sauce. They can be found both as rounded balls and as patties.


title: Rudolph Isley

text: Rudolph Bernard Isley (born April 1, 1939 in Cincinnati, Ohio) is an American singer-songwriter and is one of the founding members of The Isley Brothers.


title: Rudolph Isley

text: Born and raised in Cincinnati, Ohio, Rudy began singing in church at a young age. By his teen years, he was singing as member of The Isley Brothers with Kelly, Ronnie and Vernon. In 1957, following Vernon's death, the remaining three elder Isleys moved to New York to seek a recording deal, later recording for smaller labels until landing a deal with RCA Records in 1959 where they wrote, recorded and released their first significant recording, "Shout". By the summer of that year, the Isley family had moved from Cincinnati to a home in Englewood, New Jersey.


title: Rudolph Isley

text: Following "Shout", the brothers recorded for other labels with modest success with exceptions including the top 40 hit, "Twist & Shout" and the Motown hit, "This Old Heart of Mine (Is Weak for You)". In the 1960s, Rudy and his brothers founded the T-Neck Records label to promote their recordings. Following their split with Motown, they reactivated the label and scored a Grammy-winning smash with "It's Your Thing" in 1969. While Ron Isley was the prominent lead singer of the group, Rudy did record a few lead vocals on some Isley Brothers songs, following the reactivation of T-Neck. After the group reorganized into a band after the inclusion of younger brothers Ernie and Marvin Isley and in-law Chris Jasper, Rudy was known for wearing hats and fur-attired clothing and was also known for carrying a cane. Rudy would share lead vocals with his brothers Ron and Kelly on hits such as "Fight the Power" and "Livin' in the Life". Rudy also sung full lead on other tunes such as "You Still Feel the Need" from the album, "Harvest for the World", and their 1979 hit, "It's a Disco Night (Rock Don't Stop)". In 1986, Rudy's eldest brother Kelly suddenly died of a heart attack in his sleep. Kelly's death devastated Rudy as the brothers had been close. After recording the albums, "Smooth Sailin'" and "Spend the Night", Rudy Isley left the group and the music industry for good in 1989 to follow a lifelong goal of being a Christian minister. Rudy was inducted as member of the Isleys to the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1992.