title: Naval Air Station Fallon

text: The Navy relocated its Navy Fighter Weapons School, or TOPGUN, from NAS Miramar to NAS Fallon in 1996, following the transfer of NAS Miramar to the Marine Corps and its redesignation as MCAS Miramar. This move resulted in the construction of a new ramp, hangars and academic buildings. The new command, the Naval Strike and Air Warfare Center (NSAWC), was established on 11 July 1996 and was a unification of TOPGUN, Strike University (Strike U), the Naval Strike Warfare Center, and TOPDOME, the Carrier Airborne Early Warning Weapons School. In addition to transferring the NSAWC squadron, a Navy Reserve adversary squadron, Fighter Squadron Composite THIRTEEN (VFC-13), the "Saints," was also permanently relocated from its former base at NAS Miramar to NAS Fallon. As a result, VFC-13 replaced the disestablished VFA-127 in the fighter adversary role.


title: Naval Air Station Fallon

text: Associated bombing ranges checker the surrounding Lahontan Valley and Dixie Valley, which is the next valley to the east. Dixie Valley also contains a simulated air defense network, including approximately 20 operational radar installations. Many demilitarized armored vehicles, including some exotics, have been scattered throughout the area, presumably for ambiance. Most of this area is publicly accessible, with the exception of areas immediately surrounding the radar installations. The entire training area surrounding NAS Fallon is known as the Fallon Range Training Complex (FRTC).


title: Naval Air Station Fallon

text: Between 1956 and 1975, the United States Air Force Air Defense Command (ADC) operated a General Surveillance Radar station at NAS Fallon. The Air Force area was named Fallon Air Force Station (AFS) and designated ADC site SM-156 (later NORAD site Z-156). The 858th Aircraft Control and Warning Squadron moved to Fallon AFS from Hamilton Air Force Base (AFB), California in the south central section of NAS Fallon in 1956. It initially activated AN/MPS-7 search and AN/MPS-14 height-finder radar sets, and initially the station functioned as a Ground Control Intercept (GCI) and warning station. As a GCI station, the squadron's role was to guide interceptor aircraft toward unidentified intruders picked up on the unit's radar scopes. An AN/FPS-3 search set briefly saw service in 1959.


title: Naval Air Station Fallon

text: During 1962 Fallon AFS joined the Semi Automatic Ground Environment (SAGE) system, initially feeding data to DC-16 at Stead AFB, Nevada. After joining, the squadron was redesignated as the 858th Radar Squadron (SAGE) on 1 December 1962. The radar squadron provided information 24/7 the SAGE Direction Center where it was analyzed to determine range, direction altitude speed and whether or not aircraft were friendly or hostile. Also in this time frame, the radar site was relocated from the original location in the south central part of the Naval Air Station grounds to the far southwest corner. At the new SAGE radar site, the squadron used an AN/FPS-35 search radar that replaced the AN/MPS-7 set in 1963. In 1964 an AN/FPS-6 height-finder radar was added.


title: Naval Air Station Fallon

text: In addition to the main facility at NAS Fallon, the squadron also operated a remote AN/FPS-14 Gap Filler site:


title: Naval Air Station Fallon

text: Around 1965, Fallon became an FAA/ADC joint-use facility. The AN/MPS-14 radar was retired in 1969. In the early 1970s, the AN/FPS-35 was replaced with an AN/FPS-66A.


title: Naval Air Station Fallon

text: Over the years, the equipment at the station was upgraded or modified to improve the efficiency and accuracy of the information gathered by the radars. The 858th Radar Sq was inactivated and replaced by the 858th Air Defense Group in March 1970. The upgrade to group status was done because of Fallon AFS' status as a Backup Interceptor Control (BUIC) master control center site. BUIC sites were alternate control sites in the event that SAGE Direction Centers became disabled and unable to control interceptor aircraft. The group was inactivated and replaced by the 858th Radar Squadron. as defenses against manned bombers were reduced only to be inactivated in June 1975. The group was disbanded in 1984. The FAA retained the AN/FPS-66A search radar, still in-use today and is networked into the Joint Surveillance System (JSS); the radar tower still is painted with red-and-white checkerboard.


title: Naval Air Station Fallon

text: Since 1972 the base has had its own search and rescue team. Originally named Desert Angels and later renamed Longhorns, the team's mission was to provide SAR support for visiting Carrier Air Groups and other NAS Fallon tenant commands. The Longhorns flew the Bell UH-1N from 1972 to 2009 and the Sikorsky SH-60F from 2009 to 2011. The team flew the Sikorsky MH-60S. The Longhorns frequently supported civilian search, rescue and medical evacuation efforts in conjunction with local law enforcement, medical and search and rescue agencies. The unit was disbanded during February 2022 with the aircraft being transferred to the NAWDC at Fallon.


title: Ayisha Issa

text: Ayisha Issa is a Canadian actress and martial arts practitioner born in Montreal, Quebec. She has played a number of roles in both English- and French-language television series and films, such as "Dark Matter", "Unité 9", and "Brick Mansions". She is a practitioner of Brazilian jiu-jitsu who won at the International Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu Federation World Championships twice, once in 2010 as a white belt, and again in 2014 as a blue belt; she currently holds the rank of brown belt and owns a dojo in Toronto named 4Points. She also did voice acting for Ubisoft's "Far Cry Primal" and "", which was developed by Supermassive Games and published by Bandai Namco Entertainment, receiving a BAFTA Award for Performer in a Supporting Role nomination.


title: Ayisha Issa

text: In 2022 she won the Canadian Screen Award for Best Supporting Actor in a Drama Series at the 10th Canadian Screen Awards, for her regular role as Dr. June Curtis in "Transplant".


title: Ayisha Issa

text: Issa was born and raised in Montreal, Quebec, growing up as an Anglophone on Montreal's West Island. She had a troubled childhood, and at one point lived in a group home. When she was 15, she was a client with the Batshaw Youth and Family Centres, a local nonprofit assisting troubled youth. As a teenager, she suffered from depression, anxiety, and eating disorders, but despite this, she began working toward a modeling career, which proved to be unsuccessful, something she attributed to her athletic build. In her twenties, she worked as the assistant front-desk manager at a Montreal hotel before being fired. Looking for a new career, she shifted her focus toward athletics, and after a brief time in kickboxing, began to practice Brazilian jiu-jitsu. By 2010, she had won the heavyweight adult female white belt (novice) category at the International Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu Federation World Championships. Around this time, she landed a breakthrough role in a major picture, "Immortals" (2011), through old modeling connections.


title: Ayisha Issa

text: Her role in "Immortals" was followed immediately with a role in "L'appât" (), a French-language buddy cop action comedy film where she plays a "kind of Ninja assassin" who pursues the main characters. Her television debut, in 2011, was a small role on the French-language series "30 vies". This was followed by a number of minor roles in English-language films like "Warm Bodies" and "Betty and Coretta" (both 2013), as well as "Brick Mansions" (2014), which was Paul Walker's penultimate film. In 2014 she landed a major role in the French-language television series "Unité 9" (), broadcast on Ici Radio-Canada Télé. Sometimes compared to "Orange Is the New Black", the series is also set in a women's prison. Issa played Bouba, a "mean piece of work who makes life a living hell for the other female prisoners." This role raised her profile considerably in Montréal and Québec.


title: Ayisha Issa

text: She won again at the 2014 International Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu Federation World Championships, this time competing as a heavyweight blue belt. She subsequently decided to withdraw from competition to focus on her acting career.


title: Ayisha Issa

text: In the latter half of the 2010s, she made a number of other appearances on English-language Canadian-produced television series such as "12 Monkeys" on Syfy in 2016, "Dark Matter" on Syfy and Space in 2017, and in 2019, "Workin' Moms" on CBC, "Shadowhunters" on ABC, and "The Expanse" on Amazon Prime Video. She also played roles in films such as "The Hummingbird Project" (2018) and "Polar" (2019). Issa also began venturing into videogame work, starting with voice acting for Ubisoft's "Far Cry Primal" (2016), which involved learning to speak lines in the developers' reconstructed version of Proto-Indo-European, a hypothesized ancestor of the Indo-European languages. This was followed by motion-capture work for "" (2018), where she supplied the movements for many of the female characters. Rounding out the decade, she played the role of Fliss, a boat captain, in the interactive drama survival horror videogame "" (2019), which was developed by Supermassive Games and published by Bandai Namco Entertainment.


title: Ayisha Issa

text: Her most recent work is a role in the CTV series "Transplant", which is a medical drama set in Toronto. She was a Canadian Screen Award nominee for Best Supporting Actress in a Drama Program or Series at the 10th Canadian Screen Awards in 2022.


title: Tumi Inc.

text: Tumi Holdings, Inc., is a manufacturer of high-end suitcases and bags for travel based in Edison, New Jersey. Founded in 1975 by Charlie Clifford after a stint in the Peace Corps in Peru, the company is named after a Peruvian tumi ceremonial knife used for sacrifices. Tumi, Inc. was a unit of Doughty Hanson & Co. from 2004 until after its 2012 initial public offering.


title: Tumi Inc.

text: Tumi's products are known for their black-on-black ballistic nylon. Tumi is available at department stores and specialty stores, as well as over 120 Tumi stores and 200 shops around the world.


title: Tumi Inc.

text: Tumi also supplies accessories such as belts, pens, and electronic equipment. The company teamed with designer Anish Kapoor in 2006 to produce the PowerPack Backpack that incorporated solar technology for charging phones and PDAs. The company also had a licensing agreement with the Italian motorcycle manufacturer Ducati to launch a collection of eight co-branded pieces in 2006, sold through both of the brands' retail outlets.


title: Tumi Inc.

text: Tumi puts a metal plate with a unique 20-digit registration number in each of its bags. Customers can register for the Tumi Tracer program to have their contact information entered into a central database so they can be reunited with their bag if it is found.


title: Tumi Inc.

text: In 2004, Doughty Hanson & Co, a London-based private equity firm, took over Tumi for $276M. The takeover came with a price drop in their products and a change in warranty from their famed lifetime warranty to 5 years. However, beyond the 5 years, the brand does still offer its customers a lifetime service and repair warranty, with possible assessed fees and costs.


title: Tumi Inc.

text: On April 19, 2012, Tumi made an initial public offering of 18,779,865 shares, as Tumi Holdings, Inc. (NYSE: TUMI). In December 2013, Joseph R. Gromek was named Chairperson of Board of Directors.


title: Tumi Inc.

text: On March 4, 2016, Samsonite announced it would acquire Tumi in an all-cash transaction worth US$1.8Bn.


title: Interlagos Circuit

text: The Autódromo José Carlos Pace, better known as Interlagos, is a motorsport circuit located in the city of São Paulo, in the neighborhood of Interlagos. It was inaugurated on 12 May 1940, by the federal intervener Adhemar de Barros. The traditional name of the circuit and of the neighborhood itself comes from the fact that it is located in a region between two large artificial lakes, Guarapiranga and Billings, which were built in the beginning of the 20th century to supply the city with water and electricity. In 1985 the circuit was renamed to honor the Formula 1 driver José Carlos Pace, who died in a plane crash in 1977. Attached to its facilities there is a Kart circuit named after Ayrton Senna. The circuit runs counterclockwise.


title: Interlagos Circuit

text: It is internationally known for hosting the Formula 1 Brazilian Grand Prix stage and the Lollapalooza music festival. It has hosted the Formula One Brazilian Grand Prix since 1973. It also hosted the Brazilian motorcycle Grand Prix in 1992, the Deutsche Tourenwagen Meisterschaft in 1996, the FIA GT1 World Championship in 2010, and the FIA World Endurance Championship from 2012 to 2014. As the major racetrack in the country it also hosted many previous and active national championships such as Stock Car Brasil, Campeonato Sudamericano de GT, Fórmula Truck, Copa Truck, Formula 3 Sudamericana, Brazilian Formula Three Championship, and Mil Milhas Brasil. In addition, the Prova Ciclística 9 de Julho road cycling race was held at the venue from 2002 to 2006 and from 2008 to 2013.


title: Interlagos Circuit

text: The land on which the circuit is located was originally bought in 1926 by property developers who wanted to build housing. Following difficulties partly due to the 1929 stock market crash, it was decided to build a racing circuit instead, construction started in 1938 and the track was inaugurated on 12 May 1940. The design was inspired by the tracks of Indianapolis Motor Speedway and Roosevelt Raceway (1937 layout) in the United States, Brooklands in England, and Montlhéry in France.


title: Interlagos Circuit

text: The traditional name of the circuit (literally, "between lakes") comes from its location on the neighborhood of Interlagos, a region between two large artificial lakes, Guarapiranga and Billings, which were built in the early 20th century to supply the city with water and electric power. The name of this region was suggested by the French architect and urban planner Alfred Agache after the Interlaken region located in Switzerland. It was renamed in 1985 from "Autódromo de Interlagos" to its current name to honor the Brazilian Formula One driver José Carlos Pace, who died in a plane crash in 1977.


title: Interlagos Circuit

text: Formula One started racing there in 1972, the first year being a non-championship race, won by Argentinean Carlos Reutemann. The first World Championship Brazilian Grand Prix was held at Interlagos in 1973, the race won by defending Formula One World Champion and São Paulo local Emerson Fittipaldi. Fittipaldi won the race again the following year in bad weather and Brazilian driver José Carlos Pace won his only race at Interlagos in 1975.


title: Interlagos Circuit

text: Due to safety concerns with the circuit, including the bumpy track surface and the inadequate barriers, deep ditches, and embankments, the last Formula One race held on the original Interlagos was in 1980, the race was nearly cancelled after protests by many Formula One drivers including defending world champion Jody Scheckter. The safety concerns were directed towards the track surface, which BBC commentator Murray Walker described as "appallingly bumpy". Most of the ground-effect cars of 1980 were designed in such a way that bumpy surfaces were barely tolerable for the drivers. These factors meant that Formula One would move back to the Jacarepaguá circuit in Rio de Janeiro, hometown of established star Nelson Piquet and where the Brazilian Grand Prix was held in 1978. After Formula One moved away, the only major race being held at Interlagos was the Mil Milhas Brasil, and the last major race on the original circuit was the 1989 Mil Milhas Brasil. Formula One returned to the circuit in 1990 after it had been shortened and modified at a cost of $15 million. The track layout, aside from the pit exit being extended along the "Curva do Sol" over the years has remained the same since 1990. The ascendancy of another São Paulo local, Ayrton Senna, has also influenced the return of Formula One to Interlagos, and it has stayed there ever since.


title: Interlagos Circuit

text: The circuit is often witness to dramatic results when it hosts the Formula One Brazilian Grand Prix, especially since its move to an end of season slot in 2004. Fernando Alonso won both the 2005 and 2006 world titles in Brazil, with Renault also clinching the constructors' title in 2006. Kimi Räikkönen won the 2007 World Championship here after being seven points down and in third place in the championship entering the final race of the season. Felipe Massa almost won the 2008 Driver's World Championship when he finished the 2008 Brazilian Grand Prix as winner, but after he finished, Lewis Hamilton overtook Timo Glock and was crowned World Champion. Despite Rubens Barrichello's pole position in 2009, Mark Webber won the race and Jenson Button won the championship for Brawn after starting 14th. Williams got their first pole since 2005 here at the 2010 Brazilian Grand Prix with Nico Hülkenberg. The race was won by Sebastian Vettel, and with Mark Webber coming second, Red Bull secured the constructors title; however the driver's title was not confirmed until the last race of the season.


title: Interlagos Circuit

text: One the main characteristics of Interlagos is that it was not built on flat terrain, but follows the ups and downs of hilly ground, which makes it harder to drive and demands more power from the cars' engines. The races therefore can be tough on the car and physically demanding on the drivers, especially since the circuit runs counterclockwise, where the centrifugal forces in the many hard left turns push the drivers' necks to the right, instead of left as in most of the circuits on the F1 calendar. The hilly course is also a good feature for road cycling races, which are usually held at the circuit.


title: Interlagos Circuit

text: Additionally to the physical aspects there is also a climate component to the venue, the region where the track is located is known for having rapid changes in weather with outbursts of rain being common, which can vary from a short lived drizzle to a torrential storm. This can add a degree of unpredictability to the races and it's classic associated with the circuit. The city of São Paulo itself where Interlagos is located is known by the nickname "Land of the Drizzle".


title: Interlagos Circuit

text: In 1979 upgrading work was done and the pit lane was extended past the first left-hand turn (1), making the corner more narrow, and the pit lane ended right in the middle of turn 1 and 2. The present design of the track dates back to 1990, when the original circuit was shortened from to . As a consequence of the reduction, the track lost three long straight sections and nine fast curves (5 were lost forever, 4 were made slower and are still present). The original track was full of fast corners and it allowed cars to keep maximum speed for up for many seconds, it was considered dangerous, and in 1990 the old layout was mostly revised. The new track still had a very long top-speed section that contained bumps, high-speed turns and little run-off area though the track was very wide at this point.


title: Interlagos Circuit

text: For the 2007 Brazilian Grand Prix, the largest-scale repairs in the last 35 years were carried out at the circuit, to fundamentally solve problems with the track surface. The existing asphalt was entirely replaced, resulting in a much smoother track surface. At the same time, the pit lane entrance was enhanced to improve safety and to add a new fixed grand stand. To facilitate the work, the circuit was closed and no events were held in the five months immediately preceding the race.


title: Interlagos Circuit

text: On 17 October 2007, Companhia Paulista de Trens Metropolitanos (CPTM) began to operate the new station of the Line C (currently called Line 9), "Autódromo", near the circuit. The Line C had been extended to improve the access between the center of São Paulo and southern region of the Greater São Paulo including the circuit, improving circuit accessibility.


title: Interlagos Circuit

text: Shortly before the 2011 Brazilian Grand Prix, FIA race director Charlie Whiting detailed several planned upgrades of the circuit, including a new pit entrance and expanded run-off at the final corner, as a response to several fatal accidents at the circuit in 2011. In June 2012, further details of the proposed plans emerged, calling for the construction of a brand new pit building and the relocation of the start line from its current position between Arquibancadas and the Senna 'S' to Reta Oposta. However, later it was decided to keep start/finish straight at its current location along with the new pit building.


title: Interlagos Circuit

text: Interlagos has one of the longest pit-lanes ever used in Formula One, starting just before the start-finish straight and rejoining the main course after Curva do Sol. Entering the pits was originally not a trivial task, as the high speed and the left turning may force the car rightwards, out of the pits. The pit lane entrance received some changes to become safer for the 2007 Formula One Brazilian Grand Prix, and later for the 2014 Formula One Brazilian Grand Prix, when a chicane was added.


title: Interlagos Circuit

text: Race start is in the "Tribunas" section and features a long straight with an upward inclination, then comes "S do Senna" (the Senna S) [1,2], a pair of alternating downward turns (left then right) that exhibit different attack angles and inclinations.


title: Interlagos Circuit

text: "S do Senna" connects with "Curva do Sol" (Curve of the Sun) [3], a round-shaped large-radius left turn that leads to "Reta Oposta" (Opposite Straight) the track's longest (but not the fastest) straight. Reta Oposta is succeeded by a pair of downhill left turns that are called "Descida do Lago" (Lake's Descent) [4,5] into a short straight section that climbs up towards the back of the pit buildings.


title: Interlagos Circuit

text: This is followed by a slow section, with small, kart-like turns and elevation changes. The first of these turns is known as "Ferradura" (Horseshoe) [6,7] downhill and right into "Laranjinha" (Little Orange) [8], another right turn and the slowest point of the circuit; the next turn leads into "Pinheirinho" (Little Pine Tree) [9], left on a plain field; then comes "Bico de Pato" (Duck Bill) [10] a right turn with a tight hairpin like shape; and then "Mergulho" (Dive) [11], a constant-radius left-hand turn that slings the driver straight into a harder left at "Junção" (Junction) [12].


title: Interlagos Circuit

text: Turn [13] "Café" (Coffee), is a left up-hill kink and marks the start of the long top-speed section. Rising up through "Subida dos Boxes" (Up to the Pits) [14], the driver encounters a long uphill left turn with a gradient of 10% that demands a lot of power from the cars. At the end of it comes Arquibancadas (Bleachers) [15], a wide high velocity left turn that connects to the "Tribunas" straight to complete the final section of the track.


title: Interlagos Circuit

text: The series of left turns from the exit of "Junção" all the way to Turn 1 is typically taken at full throttle and treated as a long straight. This section is one of the longest full-throttle stretches on the Formula 1 calendar, and thus demanding of the engine's reliability. Other notable stretches of this nature are the "Rettifilo Tribune" straight at Autodromo Nazionale di Monza and the Kemmel Straight at Circuit de Spa-Francorchamps.


title: Interlagos Circuit

text: List of the corners with their names (the numbers correspond to the current layout, from start to finish line):


title: The Grand Illusion

text: The Grand Illusion is the seventh studio album by American rock band Styx. Recorded at Paragon Recording Studios in Chicago, the album was released on July 7, 1977, by A&M Records. (Intentionally choosing the combination 7th on 7-7-77 for luck). The release was a smash worldwide, selling three million copies in the US (Triple Platinum) alone. Some estimates have the album at over 6 million copies sold. The album launched the band to stardom and spawned the hit singles "Come Sail Away" and "Fooling Yourself." The title track also received substantial FM airplay, but was never released as an official single.


title: The Grand Illusion

text: As with much of Styx's catalog, many of the songs have quasi-medieval/fantasy lyrics and themes. Some are allegories and commentaries on contemporary American life and the members' experiences in an American rock band in the mid-to-late 1970s, such as "Castle Walls", "Superstars", "Miss America" and the title track, which touches on "The Grand Illusion" of fame and fortune and how they are not what they appear.


title: The Grand Illusion

text: "Classic Rock" critic Malcolm Dome rated the title track as Styx all-time greatest song. He also rated "Come Sail Away" as the band's 7th greatest song.


title: The Grand Illusion

text: Tommy Shaw wrote the emotionally deep song "Man in the Wilderness" after watching a Kansas performance in Detroit, which they had played as the opening act. He has called it "Epic! Unlike any presentation of rock music I'd ever experienced. To go that big opened up all kinds of ideas in my mind, and the next time I was alone with my acoustic, the song more or less unfolded itself." The lyrics stem from his experiences of rising to fame with Styx as well as his brother being sent off to fight in the Vietnam War, as a pawn for the strategies of politicians in Washington, D.C.


title: The Grand Illusion

text: "Come Sail Away" uses sailing as a metaphor to achieve one's dreams and the yearning to sail away. The lyrics touch on nostalgia of "childhood friends," escapism, and a religious theme symbolized by "a gathering of angels" singing "a song of hope." The ending lyrics explain a transformation from a sailing ship into a starship: "They climbed aboard their starship and headed for the skies," words evoking biblical verses from Ezekiel (1:1-28). However, DeYoung revealed on "In the Studio with Redbeard" (which devoted an entire episode to the making of "The Grand Illusion") that he was depressed when he wrote the track because Styx's first two A&M offerings, "Equinox" and "Crystal Ball", had sold fewer units than expected after the success of the single "Lady". Musically, it combines a plaintive, ballad-like opening section (including piano and synthesizer interludes) with a bombastic, guitar-heavy second half. In the middle of the second half it features a minute-long instrumental break on synthesizer, characteristic of progressive rock, after which the guitar returns with a catchy chorus.


title: The Grand Illusion

text: "Fooling Yourself (The Angry Young Man)" was written by Shaw. It was originally based on Shaw's initial perception of DeYoung who was an "angry young man" who viewed the group's successes with a wary eye and grew angry or depressed with every setback. It was only in later years that Shaw began to see himself in the lyrics, and the song took on a more personal meaning to him.


title: History of hospitals

text: The history of hospitals began in antiquity with hospitals in Greece, the Roman Empire and on the Indian subcontinent as well, starting with precursors in the Asclepian temples in ancient Greece and then the military hospitals in ancient Rome. The Greek temples were dedicated to the sick and infirm but did not look anything like modern hospitals. The Romans did not have dedicated, public hospitals. Public hospitals, per se, did not exist until the Christian period. Towards the end of the 4th century, the "second medical revolution" took place with the founding of the first Christian hospital in the eastern Byzantine Empire by Basil of Caesarea, and within a few decades, such hospitals had become ubiquitous in Byzantine society. The hospital would undergo development and progress throughout Byzantine, medieval European and Islamic societies from the 5th to the 15th century. European exploration brought hospitals to colonies in North America, Africa, and Asia. Early Chinese and Japanese hospitals were established by Western missionaries in the 1800s. In the early modern era care and healing would transition into a secular affair in the West for many hospitals. During World War I and World War II, many military hospitals and hospital innovations were created. Government run hospitals increased in Korea, Japan, China, and the Middle East after World War II. In the late 1900s and 21st century, hospital networks and government health organizations were formed to manage groups of hospitals to control costs and share resources. Many smaller, less efficient hospitals in the West were closed because they could not be sustained.


title: History of hospitals

text: The earliest documented institutions aiming to provide cures were ancient Egyptian temples. In ancient history, hospitals have been documented in Greece, Rome, the Indian subcontinent, and Persia. In ancient cultures, religion and medicine were linked.


title: History of hospitals

text: In ancient Greece, temples dedicated to the healer-god Asclepius, known as "Asclepieia" (, sing. "Asclepieion", ), functioned as centres of medical advice, prognosis, and healing. Asclepeia provided carefully controlled spaces conducive to healing and fulfilled several of the requirements of institutions created for healing. Under his Roman name Æsculapius, he was provided with a temple (291 BC) on an island in the Tiber in Rome (the Tiber Island), where similar rites were performed.


title: History of hospitals

text: At these shrines, patients would enter a dream-like state of induced sleep known as "enkoimesis" () not unlike anesthesia, in which they either received guidance from the deity in a dream. Asclepeia provided carefully controlled spaces conducive to healing and fulfilled several of the requirements of institutions created for healing. In the Asclepieion of Epidaurus, three large marble boards dated to 350 BC preserve the names, case histories, complaints, and cures of about 70 patients who came to the temple with a problem and shed it there. Some of the surgical cures listed, such as the opening of an abdominal abscess or the removal of traumatic foreign material, are realistic enough to have taken place, but with the patient in a state of enkoimesis induced with the help of soporific substances such as opium. The worship of Asclepius was adopted by the Romans.


title: History of hospitals

text: The Athenian Navy had a ship named "Therapia", and the Roman Navy had a ship named "Aesculapius", their names indicating that they may have been hospital ships.


title: History of hospitals

text: The Romans constructed buildings called "valetudinaria" for the care of sick slaves, gladiators, and soldiers around 100 BC, and many were identified by later archeology. While their existence is considered proven, there is some doubt as to whether they were as widespread as was once thought, as many were identified only according to the layout of building remains, and not by means of surviving records or finds of medical tools.


title: History of hospitals

text: The declaration of Christianity as an accepted religion in the Roman Empire drove an expansion of the provision of care. Following First Council of Nicaea in 325 AD construction of a hospital in every cathedral town was begun. Among the earliest were those built by the physician Saint Sampson in Constantinople and by Basil of Caesarea in modern-day Turkey towards the end of the 4th century. By the beginning of the 5th century, the hospital had already become ubiquitous throughout the Christian east in the Byzantine world, this being a dramatic shift from the pre-Christian era of the Roman Empire where no civilian hospitals existed. Called the "Basilias", the latter resembled a city and included housing for doctors and nurses and separate buildings for various classes of patients. There was a separate section for lepers. Some hospitals maintained libraries and training programs, and doctors compiled their medical and pharmacological studies in manuscripts. Thus in-patient medical care in the sense of what we today consider a hospital, was an invention driven by Christian mercy and Byzantine innovation. Byzantine hospital staff included the Chief Physician (archiatroi), professional nurses (hypourgoi) and the orderlies (hyperetai). By the twelfth century, Constantinople had two well-organized hospitals, staffed by doctors who were both male and female. Facilities included systematic treatment procedures and specialized wards for various diseases.


title: History of hospitals

text: King Ashoka is wrongly said by many secondary sources to have founded hospitals ca. 230 BC. Early medical practices emerged early on in the Indian subcontinent with the practice of Ayurvedic medicine, one of the earliest texts for which survive being the Sushruta Samhita. Some early Buddhist communities established monastic communities with monasteries, and many of these monasteries were centers of learning for medicine. While sick monks within the monastic communities were usually treated in their own cells, some monasteries reserved a room where sick monks could be taken care of. While some of these rooms in Buddhist monasteries may have been open to the public, the majority were closed off to the public and were reserved for treating other monks within the monastery. This ideal is reflected in the story of the monk with dysentery. The first clear reference to an actual hospital within the southeast Asian world occurs in the accounts of the traveller Fa Xian in the 5th century AD, who describes hospitals in the city of Pataliputra and a few other sites:


title: History of hospitals

text: The first clear archaeological evidence of such hospitals first appears in the eighth and ninth centuries AD. Nevertheless, it would be inaccurate to portray the period as a time where a system of hospitals had existed. Rather, rulers from time to time may have sponsored and allocated resources for particular medical care for the population in particular places. In one case, a countrywide system of hospitals was established in 12th century Cambodia under the Cambodian king Jayavarman VII, who associated it with the Buddha of healing Bhaisajyaguru.


title: History of hospitals

text: Significant and asymmetric transfers of knowledge to the southeast Asian world from the Greek one began during the reign of Alexander the Great in the late 4th century BC as Hellenization swept the continent.


title: History of hospitals

text: While usually assumed that Tibetan medicine was largely Chinese in origin, it turns out that Tibetan medicine was actually largely Westernized, at least during the first century of the Tibetan Empire in the 7th-8th centuries. Persian and Arab doctors from the Islamic Caliphate could be found all across China in this time period. It's also possible that Indian physicians played a role in a short-lived, but still one of the earliest Abbasid hospitals established by the Barkamid family.


title: History of hospitals

text: In the Medieval period the term "hospital" encompassed hostels for travellers, dispensaries for poor relief, clinics and surgeries for the injured, and homes for the blind, lame, elderly, and mentally ill. Monastic hospitals developed many treatments, both therapeutic and spiritual.


title: History of hospitals

text: During the thirteenth century an immense number of hospitals were built. The Italian cities were the leaders of the movement. Milan had no fewer than a dozen hospitals and Florence before the end of the fourteenth century had some thirty hospitals. Some of these were very beautiful buildings. At Milan a portion of the general hospital was designed by Bramante and another part of it by Michelangelo. The Hospital of Sienna, built in honor of St. Catherine, has been famous ever since. Everywhere throughout Europe this hospital movement spread. Virchow, the great German pathologist, in an article on hospitals, showed that every city of Germany of five thousand inhabitants had its hospital. He traced all of this hospital movement to Pope Innocent III, and though he was least papistically inclined, Virchow did not hesitate to give extremely high praise to this pontiff for all that he had accomplished for the benefit of children and suffering mankind.


title: History of hospitals

text: Hospitals began to appear in great numbers in France and England. Following the French Norman invasion into England, the explosion of French ideals led most Medieval monasteries to develop a hospitium or hospice for pilgrims. This hospitium eventually developed into what we now understand as a hospital, with various monks and lay helpers providing the medical care for sick pilgrims and victims of the numerous plagues and chronic diseases that afflicted Medieval Western Europe. Benjamin Gordon supports the theory that the hospital – as we know it - is a French invention, but that it was originally developed for isolating lepers and plague victims, and only later undergoing modification to serve the pilgrim.


title: History of hospitals

text: Owing to a well-preserved 12th-century account of the monk Eadmer of the Canterbury cathedral, there is an excellent account of Bishop Lanfranc's aim to establish and maintain examples of these early hospitals:


title: History of hospitals

text: But I must not conclude my work by omitting what he did for the poor outside the walls of the city Canterbury. In brief, he constructed a decent and ample house of stone…for different needs and conveniences. He divided the main building into two, appointing one part for men oppressed by various kinds of infirmities and the other for women in a bad state of health. He also made arrangements for their clothing and daily food, appointing ministers and guardians to take all measures so that nothing should be lacking for them.


title: History of hospitals

text: The Academy of Gondishapur was a hospital and medical training center at Gundeshapur in Persia. The city of Gundeshapur was founded in 271 AD by the Sassanid king Shapur I. It was one of the major cities in Khuzestan province of the Persian empire, in Iran. A large percentage of the population were Syriacs, most of whom were Christians. Under the rule of Khusraw I, refuge was granted to Greek Nestorian Christian philosophers including the scholars of the Persian School of Edessa (Urfa) (also called the Academy of Athens), a Christian theological and medical university. These scholars made their way to Gundeshapur in 529 following the closing of the academy by Emperor Justinian. They were engaged in medical sciences and initiated the first translation projects of medical texts. The arrival of these medical practitioners from Edessa marks the beginning of the hospital and medical centre at Gundeshapur. It included a medical school and hospital (bimaristan), a pharmacology laboratory, a translation house, a library and an observatory. Indian doctors also contributed to the school at Gundeshapur, most notably the medical researcher Mankah. Later after Islamic invasion, the writings of Mankah and of the Indian doctor Susruta were translated into Arabic at Baghdad's House of Wisdom.


title: History of hospitals

text: The first Muslim hospital was an asylum to contain leprosy, built in the early eighth century, where patients were confined but, like the blind, were given a stipend to support their families. The earliest general hospital was built in 805 AD in Baghdad by Harun Al-Rashid. By the tenth century, Baghdad had five more hospitals, while Damascus had six hospitals by the 15th century and Córdoba alone had 50 major hospitals, many exclusively for the military. Many of the prominent early Islamic hospitals were founded with assistance by Christians such as Jibrael ibn Bukhtishu from Gundeshapur. "Bimaristan" is a compound of “bimar” (sick or ill) and “stan” (place). In the medieval Islamic world, the word "bimaristan" referred to a hospital establishment where the ill were welcomed, cared for and treated by qualified staff.


title: History of hospitals

text: The United States National Library of Medicine credits the hospital as being a product of medieval Islamic civilization. Compared to contemporaneous Christian institutions, which were poor and sick relief facilities offered by some monasteries, the Islamic hospital was a more elaborate institution with a wider range of functions. In Islam, there was a moral imperative to treat the ill regardless of financial status. Islamic hospitals tended to be large, urban structures, and were largely secular institutions, many open to all, whether male or female, civilian or military, child or adult, rich or poor, Muslim or non-Muslim. The Islamic hospital served several purposes, as a center of medical treatment, a home for patients recovering from illness or accidents, an insane asylum, and a retirement home with basic maintenance needs for the aged and infirm.


title: History of hospitals

text: The typical hospital was divided into departments such as systemic diseases, surgery and orthopedics with larger hospitals having more diverse specialties. "Systemic diseases" was the rough equivalent of today's internal medicine and was further divided into sections such as fever, infections and digestive issues. Every department had an officer-in-charge, a presiding officer and a supervising specialist. The hospitals also had lecture theaters and libraries. Hospitals staff included sanitary inspectors, who regulated cleanliness, and accountants and other administrative staff. The hospital in Baghdad employed twenty-five staff physicians. The hospitals were typically run by a three-man board comprising a non-medical administrator, the chief pharmacist, called the shaykh saydalani, who was equal in rank to the chief physician, who served as mutwalli (dean). Medical facilities traditionally closed each night, but by the 10th century laws were passed to keep hospitals open 24 hours a day.


title: History of hospitals

text: For less serious cases, physicians staffed outpatient clinics. Cities also had first aid centers staffed by physicians for emergencies that were often located in busy public places, such as big gatherings for Friday prayers to take care of casualties. The region also had mobile units staffed by doctors and pharmacists who were supposed to meet the need of remote communities. Baghdad was also known to have a separate hospital for convicts since the early 10th century after the vizier ‘Ali ibn Isa ibn Jarah ibn Thabit wrote to Baghdad’s chief medical officer that “prisons must have their own doctors who should examine them every day”. The first hospital built in Egypt, in Cairo's Southwestern quarter, was the first documented facility to care for mental illnesses while the first Islamic psychiatric hospital opened in Baghdad in 705.


title: History of hospitals

text: Medical students would accompany physicians and participate in patient care. Hospitals in this era were the first to require medical diplomas to license doctors. The licensing test was administered by the region's government appointed chief medical officer. The test had two steps; the first was to write a treatise, on the subject the candidate wished to obtain a certificate, of original research or commentary of existing texts, which they were encouraged to scrutinize for errors. The second step was to answer questions in an interview with the chief medical officer. Physicians worked fixed hours and medical staff salaries were fixed by law. For regulating the quality of care and arbitrating cases, it is related that if a patient dies, their family presents the doctor's prescriptions to the chief physician who would judge if the death was natural or if it was by negligence, in which case the family would be entitled to compensation from the doctor. The hospitals had male and female quarters while some hospitals only saw men and other hospitals, staffed by women physicians, only saw women. While women physicians practiced medicine, many largely focused on obstetrics.


title: History of hospitals

text: Hospitals were forbidden by law to turn away patients who were unable to pay. Eventually, charitable foundations called waqfs were formed to support hospitals, as well as schools. Part of the state budget also went towards maintaining hospitals. While the services of the hospital were free for all citizens and patients were sometimes given a small stipend to support recovery upon discharge, individual physicians occasionally charged fees. In a notable endowment, a 13th-century governor of Egypt Al Mansur Qalawun ordained a foundation for the Qalawun hospital that would contain a mosque and a chapel, separate wards for different diseases, a library for doctors and a pharmacy and the hospital is used today for ophthalmology. The Qalawun hospital was based in a former Fatimid palace which had accommodation for 8,000 people - "it served 4,000 patients daily." The waqf stated, "...The hospital shall keep all patients, men and women, until they are completely recovered. All costs are to be borne by the hospital whether the people come from afar or near, whether they are residents or foreigners, strong or weak, low or high, rich or poor, employed or unemployed, blind or sighted, physically or mentally ill, learned or illiterate. There are no conditions of consideration and payment, none is objected to or even indirectly hinted at for non-payment."


title: History of hospitals

text: The first, most well known physicians in the Medieval Islamic world were polymaths Ibn Sina, (Greek: Avicenna) and Al Rhazi (Greek: Rhazes) during the 10th and 11th centuries.


title: History of hospitals

text: Medieval hospitals in Europe followed a similar pattern to the Byzantine. They were religious communities, with care provided by monks and nuns. An old French term for hospital is "hôtel-Dieu", "hostel of God." Some were attached to monasteries; others were independent and had their own endowments, usually of property, which provided income for their support. Some hospitals were multi-functional while others were founded for specific purposes such as leper hospitals, or as refuges for the poor, or for pilgrims: not all cared for the sick.


title: History of hospitals

text: Around 529 AD St. Benedict of Nursia (480-543 AD), later a Christian saint, the founder of western monasticism and the Order of St. Benedict, today the patron saint of Europe, established the first monastery in Europe (Monte Cassino) on a hilltop between Rome and Naples, that became a model for the Western monasticism and one of the major cultural centers of Europe throughout the Middle Ages. St. Benedict wrote the Rule of Saint Benedict which mandated the moral obligations to care for the sick.


title: History of hospitals

text: The first Spanish hospital, founded by the Catholic Visigoth bishop Masona in 580 CE at Mérida, was a "xenodochium" designed as an inn for travellers (mostly pilgrims to the shrine of Eulalia of Mérida) as well as a hospital for citizens and local farmers. The hospital's endowment consisted of farms to feed its patients and guests. From the account given by Paul the Deacon we learn that this hospital was supplied with physicians and nurses, whose mission included the care the sick wherever they were found, "slave or free, Christian or Jew."


title: History of hospitals

text: In 650, the "Hôtel-Dieu" was found in Paris, but its first recorded mention only dates back to 829, it is considered by many as the oldest worldwide hospital still operating today. It was a multipurpose institution which catered for the sick and poor, offering shelter, food and medical care.


title: History of hospitals

text: During the late 8th and early 9th centuries, Emperor Charlemagne decreed that those hospitals that had been well conducted before his time and had fallen into decay should be restored in accordance with the needs of the time. He further ordered that a hospital should be attached to each cathedral and monastery.


title: History of hospitals

text: During the 10th century, the monasteries became a dominant factor in hospital work. The famous Benedictine Abbey of Cluny, founded in 910, set the example which was widely imitated throughout France and Germany. Besides its infirmary for the religious, each monastery had a hospital in which externs were cared for. These were in charge of the "eleemosynarius", whose duties, carefully prescribed by the rule, included every sort of service that the visitor or patient could require.


title: History of hospitals

text: As the eleemosynarius was obliged to seek out the sick and needy in the neighborhood, each monastery became a center for the relief of suffering. Among the monasteries notable in this respect were those of the Benedictines at Corbie in Picardy, Hirschau, Braunweiler, Deutz, Ilsenburg, Liesborn, Pram, and Fulda; those of the Cistercians at Arnsberg, Baumgarten, Eberbach, Himmenrode, Herrnalb, Volkenrode, and Walkenried.


title: History of hospitals

text: No less efficient was the work done by the diocesan clergy in accordance with the disciplinary enactments of the councils of Aachen (817, 836), which prescribed that a hospital should be maintained in connection with each collegiate church. The canons were obliged to contribute towards the support of the hospital, and one of their number had charge of the inmates. As these hospitals were located in cities, more numerous demands were made upon them than upon those attached to the monasteries. In this movement the bishop naturally took the lead, hence the hospitals founded by Heribert (d. 1021) in Cologne, Godard (d. 1038) in Hildesheim, Conrad (d. 975) in Constance, and Ulrich (d. 973) in Augsburg. But similar provision was made by the other churches; thus at Trier the hospitals of Saint Maximin, Saint Matthew, Saint Simeon, and Saint James took their names from the churches to which they were attached. During the period 1207–1577 no less than one hundred and fifty-five hospitals were founded in Germany.


title: History of hospitals

text: The Ospedale Maggiore, traditionally named Ca' Granda (i.e. Big House), in Milan, northern Italy, was constructed to house one of the first community hospitals, the largest such undertaking of the fifteenth century. Commissioned by Francesco Sforza in 1456 and designed by Antonio Filarete it is among the first examples of Renaissance architecture in Lombardy.


title: History of hospitals

text: The Normans brought their hospital system along when they conquered England in 1066. By merging with traditional land-tenure and customs, the new charitable houses became popular and were distinct from both English monasteries and French hospitals. They dispensed alms and some medicine, and were generously endowed by the nobility and gentry who counted on them for spiritual rewards after death.


title: History of hospitals

text: The Hospitaller Order of St. John of Jerusalem, founded in 1099 (The Knights of Malta) itself has - as its raison d’être - the founding of a hospital for pilgrims to the Holy Land. In Europe, Spanish hospitals are particularly noteworthy examples of Christian virtue as expressed through care for the sick, and were usually attached to a monastery in a ward-chapel configuration, most often erected in the shape of a cross. This style reached a high point during the hospital building campaign of Portuguese St. John of God in the sixteenth-century, the founder of the Hospitaller Order of the Brothers of John of God.


title: History of hospitals

text: Soon many monasteries were founded throughout Europe, and everywhere there were hospitals like in Monte Cassino. By the 11th century, some monasteries were training their own physicians. Ideally, such physicians would uphold the Christianized ideal of the healer who offered mercy and charity towards all patients and soldiers, whatever their status and prognosis might be. In the 6th–12th centuries the Benedictines established many monk communities of this type. And later, in the 12th–13th centuries the Benedictines order built a network of independent hospitals, initially to provide general care to the sick and wounded and then for treatment of syphilis and isolation of patients with communicable disease. The hospital movement spread through Europe in the subsequent centuries, with a 225-bed hospital being built at York in 1287 and even larger facilities established at Florence, Paris, Milan, Siena, and other medieval big European cities. In 1120 a man named Rahere fell ill with malaria in Rome: he was taken care of by the monks of the small hospital near the church of San Bartolomeo, on the Tiber Island, and took a vow to found a hospital in case he was cured. Effectively cured, in 1123 he founded a small hospital for the poor outside London: it was the first nucleus of the famous St Bartholomew's Hospital, still active today, commonly called "Bart".


title: History of hospitals

text: In the North during the late Saxon period, monasteries, nunneries, and hospitals functioned mainly as a site of charity to the poor. After the Norman Conquest of 1066, hospitals are found to be autonomous, freestanding institutions. They dispensed alms and some medicine, and were generously endowed by the nobility and gentry who counted on them for spiritual rewards after death. In time, hospitals became popular charitable houses that were distinct from both English monasteries and French hospitals.


title: History of hospitals

text: The primary function of medieval hospitals was to worship to God. Most hospitals contained one chapel, at least one clergyman, and inmates that were expected to help with prayer. Worship was often a higher priority than care and was a large part of hospital life until and long after the Reformation. Worship in medieval hospitals served as a way of alleviating ailments of the sick and insuring their salvation when relief from sickness could not be achieved.


title: History of hospitals

text: The secondary function of medieval hospitals was charity to the poor, sick, and travellers. Charity provided by hospitals surfaced in different ways, including long-term maintenance of the infirm, medium-term care of the sick, short-term hospitality to travellers, and regular distribution of alms to the poor. Though these were general acts of charity among medieval hospitals, the degree of charity was variable. For example, some institutions that perceived themselves mainly as a religious house or place of hospitality turned away the sick or dying in fear that difficult healthcare will distract from worship. Others, however, such as St. James of Northallerton, St. Giles Hospital of Norwich, and St. Leonard's Hospital of York, contained specific ordinances stating they must cater to the sick and that "all who entered with ill health should be allowed to stay until they recovered or died". The study of these three hospitals provides insight into the diet, medical care, cleanliness and daily life in a medieval hospital of Europe.


title: History of hospitals

text: The tertiary function of medieval hospitals was to support education and learning. Originally, hospitals educated chaplains and priestly brothers in literacy and history; however, by the 13th century, some hospitals became involved in the education of impoverished boys and young adults. Soon after, hospitals began to provide food and shelter for scholars within the hospital in return for helping with chapel worship.


title: History of hospitals

text: In Europe the medieval concept of Christian care evolved during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries into a secular one. Theology was the problem. The Protestant reformers rejected the Catholic belief that rich men could gain God's grace through good works – and escape purgatory – by providing endowments to charitable institutions, and that the patients themselves could gain grace through their suffering.


title: History of hospitals

text: After the dissolution of the monasteries in 1540 by King Henry VIII the church abruptly ceased to be the supporter of hospitals, and only by direct petition from the citizens of London, were the hospitals St Bartholomew's, St Thomas's and St Mary of Bethlehem's (Bedlam) endowed directly by the crown. It was at St. Bartholomew that William Harvey conducted his research on the circulatory system in the 17th century, Percivall Pott and John Abernethy developed important principles of modern surgery in the 18th century, and Mrs. Bedford Fenwich worked to advance the nursing profession in the late 19th century.


title: History of hospitals

text: There were 28 asylums in Sweden at the start of the Reformation. Gustav Vasa removed them from church control and expelled the monks and nuns, but allowed the asylums to keep their properties and to continue their activities under the auspices of local government.


title: History of hospitals

text: In much of Europe town governments operated small Holy Spirit hospitals, which had been founded in the 13th and 14th centuries. They distributed free food and clothing to the poor, provided for homeless women and children, and gave some medical and nursing care. Many were raided and closed during the Thirty Years War (1618–48), which ravaged the towns and villages of Germany and neighboring areas for three decades.


title: History of hospitals

text: In Denmark, the beginnings of modern hospital care started during the Scanian War (1675–79) when Denmark suffered disastrous losses. Five government-run hospitals were founded around the Sound: one at Elsinore, two at Copenhagen, one at Landskrona and one at Helsingborg. The one at Landskrona was based on the old Holy Spirit institution but now it was modernised and enlarged. One of the two Copenhagen institutions was placed in a former plague hospital. The government spent vast sums on equipment, from bone saws to beds and staff. Women nursed the wounded and sick soldiers on a day-to-day basis but men were always head of these hospitals. They had various surgeons and physicians, but never enough of them. The meals were based on porridge, herring, beer and peas. After Denmark lost the war, Helsingborg and Landskrona were surrendered to the Swedes but the hospitals in Elsinore and Copenhagen continued their work.


title: History of hospitals

text: Meanwhile, in Catholic lands such as France and Italy, rich families continued to fund convents and monasteries that provided free health services to the poor. French practices were influenced by a charitable imperative which considered care of the poor and the sick to be a necessary part of Catholic practice. The nursing nuns had little faith in the power of physicians and their medicines alone to cure the sick; more important was providing psychological and physical comfort, nourishment, rest, cleanliness and especially prayer.


title: History of hospitals

text: In Protestant areas the emphasis was on scientific rather than religious aspects of patient care, and this helped develop a view of nursing as a profession rather than a vocation. There was little hospital development by the main Protestant churches after 1530. Some smaller groups such as the Moravians and the Pietists at Halle gave a role for hospitals, especially in missionary work.


title: History of hospitals

text: The first hospital founded in the Americas was the Hospital San Nicolás de Bari in Santo Domingo, Distrito Nacional Dominican Republic. Fray Nicolás de Ovando, Spanish governor and colonial administrator from 1502 to 1509, authorized its construction on December 29, 1503. This hospital apparently incorporated a church. The first phase of its construction was completed in 1519, and it was rebuilt in 1552. Abandoned in the mid-18th century, the hospital now lies in ruins near the Basilica Cathedral of Santa María la Menor in Santo Domingo.


title: History of hospitals

text: Conquistador Hernán Cortés founded the two earliest hospitals in North America: the Immaculate Conception Hospital and the Saint Lazarus Hospital. The oldest was the Immaculate Conception, now the Hospital de Jesús Nazareno in Mexico City, founded in 1524 to care for the poor.


title: History of hospitals

text: In Quebec, Catholics operated hospitals continuously from the 1640s; they attracted nuns from the provincial elite. Jeanne Mance (1606–73) founded Montreal's city's first hospital, the Hôtel-Dieu de Montréal, in 1645. In 1657 she recruited three sisters of the Religious Hospitallers of St. Joseph, and continued to direct operations of the hospital. The project, begun by the niece of Cardinal de Richelieu was granted a royal charter by King Louis XIII and staffed by a colonial physician, Robert Giffard de Moncel. The General Hospital in Quebec City opened in 1692. They often handled malaria, dysentery, and respiratory sickness.


title: History of hospitals

text: In the 18th century, under the influence of the Age of Enlightenment, the modern hospital began to appear, serving only medical needs and staffed with trained physicians and surgeons. The nurses were untrained workers. The goal was to use modern methods to cure patients. They provided more narrow medical services, and were founded by the secular authorities. A clearer distinction emerged between medicine and poor relief. Within the hospitals, acute cases were increasingly treated alone, and separate departments were set up for different categories of patient.


title: History of hospitals

text: The voluntary hospital movement began in the early 18th century, with hospitals being founded in London by the 1710s and 20s, including Westminster Hospital (1719) promoted by the private bank C. Hoare & Co and Guy's Hospital (1724) funded from the bequest of the wealthy merchant, Thomas Guy. Other hospitals sprang up in London and other British cities over the century, many paid for by private subscriptions. St. Bartholomew's in London was rebuilt in 1730, and the London Hospital opened in 1752.


title: History of hospitals

text: These hospitals represented a turning point in the function of the institution; they began to evolve from being basic places of care for the sick to becoming centres of medical innovation and discovery and the principal place for the education and training of prospective practitioners. Some of the era's greatest surgeons and doctors worked and passed on their knowledge at the hospitals. They also changed from being mere homes of refuge to being complex institutions for the provision of medicine and care for sick. The Charité was founded in Berlin in 1710 by King Frederick I of Prussia as a response to an outbreak of plague.


title: History of hospitals

text: The concept of voluntary hospitals also spread to Colonial America; the Bellevue Hospital opened in 1736, Pennsylvania Hospital in 1752, New York Hospital in 1771, and Massachusetts General Hospital in 1811. When the Vienna General Hospital opened in 1784 (instantly becoming the world's largest hospital), physicians acquired a new facility that gradually developed into one of the most important research centres.


title: History of hospitals

text: Another Enlightenment era charitable innovation was the dispensary; these would issue the poor with medicines free of charge. The London Dispensary opened its doors in 1696 as the first such clinic in the British Empire. The idea was slow to catch on until the 1770s, when many such organizations began to appear, including the Public Dispensary of Edinburgh (1776), the Metropolitan Dispensary and Charitable Fund (1779) and the Finsbury Dispensary (1780). Dispensaries were also opened in New York 1771, Philadelphia 1786, and Boston 1796.


title: History of hospitals

text: Across Europe medical schools still relied primarily on lectures and readings. In the final year, students would have limited clinical experience by following the professor through the wards. Laboratory work was uncommon, and dissections were rarely done because of legal restrictions on cadavers. Most schools were small, and only Edinburgh, Scotland, with 11,000 alumni, produced large numbers of graduates.


title: History of hospitals

text: English physician Thomas Percival (1740–1804) wrote a comprehensive system of medical conduct, "Medical Ethics; or, a Code of Institutes and Precepts, Adapted to the Professional Conduct of Physicians and Surgeons" (1803) that set the standard for many textbooks.


title: History of hospitals

text: In the mid 19th century, hospitals and the medical profession became more professionalized, with a reorganization of hospital management along more bureaucratic and administrative lines. The Apothecaries Act 1815 made it compulsory for medical students to practice for at least half a year at a hospital as part of their training. An example of this professionalization was the Charing Cross Hospital, set up in 1818 as the 'West London Infirmary and Dispensary' from funds provided by Dr. Benjamin Golding. By 1821 it was treating nearly 10,000 patients a year, and it was relocated to larger quarters near Charing Cross in the heart of London. Its Charing Cross Hospital Medical School opened in 1822. It expanded several times and 1866 added a professional nursing staff.


title: History of hospitals

text: Florence Nightingale pioneered the modern profession of nursing during the Crimean War when she set an example of compassion, commitment to patient care and diligent and thoughtful hospital administration. The first official nurses’ training programme, the Nightingale School for Nurses, was opened in 1860, with the mission of training nurses to work in hospitals, to work with the poor and to teach.


title: History of hospitals

text: Nightingale was instrumental in reforming the nature of the hospital, by improving sanitation standards and changing the image of the hospital from a place the sick would go to die, to an institution devoted to recuperation and healing. She also emphasized the importance of statistical measurement for determining the success rate of a given intervention and pushed for administrative reform at hospitals.


title: History of hospitals

text: During the middle of the 19th century, the Second Viennese Medical School emerged with the contributions of physicians such as Carl Freiherr von Rokitansky, Josef Škoda, Ferdinand Ritter von Hebra, and Ignaz Philipp Semmelweis. Basic medical science expanded and specialization advanced. Furthermore, the first dermatology, eye, as well as ear, nose, and throat clinics in the world were founded in Vienna.


title: History of hospitals

text: In Rome, where hospitality was highly patrimonial thanks to a long tradition of bequests and substantial donations ("Spedalità romane"), with a royal decree in 1896 the vast hospital patrimony was centralized in a single body: the Pio Istituto di Santo Spirito and Ospedali Riuniti, which thus became the largest in Europe.


title: History of hospitals

text: By the late 19th century, the modern hospital was beginning to take shape with a proliferation of a variety of public and private hospital systems. By the 1870s, hospitals had more than tripled their original average intake of 3,000 patients. In continental Europe the new hospitals generally were built and run from public funds. Nursing was professionalized in France by the turn of the 20th century. At that time, the country's 1,500 hospitals were operated by 15,000 nuns representing over 200 religious orders. Government policy after 1900 was to secularize public institutions, and diminish the role the Catholic Church. This political goal came in conflict with the need to maintain better quality of medical care in antiquated facilities. New government-operated nursing schools turned out nonreligious nurses who were slated for supervisory roles. During the First World War, an outpouring of patriotic volunteers brought large numbers of untrained middle-class women into the military hospitals. They left when the war ended but the long-term effect was to heighten the prestige of nursing. In 1922 the government issued a national diploma for nursing.


title: History of hospitals

text: In the U.S., the number of hospitals reached 4400 in 1910, when they provided 420,000 beds. These were operated by city, state and federal agencies, by churches, by stand-alone non-profits, and by for-profit enterprises. All the major denominations built hospitals; the 541 Catholic ones (in 1915) were staffed primarily by unpaid nuns. The others sometimes had a small cadre of deaconesses as staff. Non-profit hospitals were supplemented by large public hospitals in major cities and research hospitals often affiliated with a medical school. The largest public hospital system in America is the New York City Health and Hospitals Corporation, which includes Bellevue Hospital, the oldest U.S. hospital, affiliated with New York University Medical School.


title: History of hospitals

text: The National Health Service, the principal provider of health care in Britain, was founded in 1948, and took control of nearly all the hospitals.


title: History of hospitals

text: At the turn of the 19th century, Paris medicine played a significant role in shaping clinical medicine. New emphasis on physically examining the body led to methods such as percussion, inspection, palpation, auscultation, and autopsy. The situation in Paris was particularly unique due to the fact that there was a very large concentration of medical professionals in a very small setting allowing for a large flow of ideas and the spread of innovation. One of the innovations to come out of the Paris hospital setting was Laennec's stethoscope. Weiner states that the widespread acceptance of the stethoscope would likely not have happened in any other setting, and the setting allowed for Laennec to pass on this technology to the eager medical community that had gathered there. This invention also brought even more attention to the Paris scene.


title: History of hospitals

text: Before the start of the 19th century, there were many problems existing within the French medical system. These problems were outlined by many seeking to reform hospitals including a contemporary surgeon Jacques Tenon in his book "Memoirs on Paris Hospitals". Some of the problems Tenon drew attention to were the lack of space, the inability to separate patients based on the type of illness (including those that were contagious), and general sanitation problems. Additionally, the secular revolution led to the nationalization of hospitals previously owned by the Catholic Church and led to a call for a hospital reform which actually pushed for the deinstitutionalization of medicine. This contributed to the state of disarray Paris hospitals soon fell into which ultimately called for the establishment of a new hospital system outlined in the law of 1794. The law of 1794 played a significant part in revolutionizing Paris Medicine because it aimed to address some of the problems facing Paris Hospitals of the time.


title: History of hospitals

text: First, the law of 1794 created three new schools in Paris, Montpellier, and Strasbour due to the lack of medical professionals available to treat a growing French army. It also gave physicians and surgeons equal status in the hospital environment, whereas previously physicians were regarded as intellectually superior. This led to the integration of surgery into traditional medical education contributing to a new breed of doctors that focused on pathology, anatomy and diagnosis. The new focus on anatomy was further facilitated by this law because it ensured that medical students had enough bodies to dissect. Additionally, pathological education was furthered by the increased use of autopsies to determine a patient's cause of death. Lastly, the law of 1794 allocated funds for full-time salaried teachers in hospitals, as well as creating scholarships for medical students. Overall, the law of 1794 contributed to the shift of medical teaching away from theory and towards practice and experience, all within a hospital setting. Hospitals became a center for learning and development of medical techniques, which was a departure from the previous notion of a hospital as an area that accepted people who needed help of any kind, ill or not. This shift was consistent with much of the philosophy of the time, particularly the ideas of John Locke who preached that observation using ones senses was the best way to analyze and understand a phenomenon. Foucalt, however, criticized this shift in his book "The Birth of the Clinic," stating that this shift took attention away from the patient and objectified patients, ultimately resulting in a loss of the patient's narrative. He argued that from this point forward, in the eyes of doctors, patients lost their humanity and became more like objects for inspection and examination.


title: History of hospitals

text: The next advancement in Paris medicine came with the creation of an examination system, that after 1803, was required for the licensing of all medical professions creating a uniform and centralized system of licensing. This law also created another class of health professionals, mostly for those living outside of cities, who did not have to go through the licensing pricess but instead went through a simpler and shorter training process.


title: History of hospitals

text: Another area influenced by Paris hospitals was the development of specialties. The structure of a Paris hospital allowed physicians more freedom to pursue interests as well as providing the necessary resources. An example of a physician who used this flexibility to conduct research is Phillipe Pinel who conducted a four-year study on the hospitalization and treatment of mentally-ill women within the Salpêtriére hospital. This was the first study ever done of this magnitude by a physician, and the Pinel was the first to realize that patients dealing with similar illnesses could be group together, compared, and classified.


title: History of hospitals

text: The Protestant churches reentered the health field in the 19th century, especially with the establishment of orders of women, called deaconesses who dedicated themselves to nursing services. This movement began in Germany in 1836 when Theodor Fliedner and his wife opened the first deaconess motherhouse in Kaiserswerth on the Rhine. It became a model, and within half a century there were over 5,000 deaconesses in Europe. The Church of England named its first deaconess in 1862. The North London Deaconess Institution trained deaconesses for other dioceses and some served overseas.


title: History of hospitals

text: William Passavant in 1849 brought the first four deaconesses to Pittsburgh, in the United States, after visiting Kaiserswerth. They worked at the Pittsburgh Infirmary (now Passavant Hospital).


title: History of hospitals

text: The American Methodists made medical services a priority from the 1850s. They began opening charitable institutions such as orphanages and old people's homes. In the 1880s, Methodists began opening hospitals in the United States, which served people of all religious beliefs. By 1895, 13 hospitals were in operation in major cities.


title: History of hospitals

text: In the 1840s–1880s era, Catholics in Philadelphia founded two hospitals, for the Irish and German Catholics. They depended on revenues from the paying sick, and became important health and welfare institutions in the Catholic community. By 1900 the Catholics had set up hospitals in most major cities. In New York the Dominicans, Franciscans, Sisters of Charity, and other orders set up hospitals to care primarily for their own ethnic group. By the 1920s they were serving everyone in the neighborhood. In smaller cities too the Catholics set up hospitals, such as St. Patrick Hospital in Missoula, Montana. The Sisters of Providence opened it in 1873. It was in part funded by the county contract to care for the poor, and also operated a day school and a boarding school. The nuns provided nursing care especially for infectious diseases and traumatic injuries among the young, heavily male clientele. They also proselytized the patients to attract converts and restore lapsed Catholics back into the Church. They built a larger hospital in 1890. Catholic hospitals were largely staffed by Catholic orders of nuns, and nursing students, until the population of nuns dropped sharply after the 1960s. The Catholic Hospital Association formed in 1915.


title: History of hospitals

text: Traditionally, Chinese medicine relied on small private clinics and individual healers until the middle of the 18th century when missionary hospitals operated by western churches were first established in China. In 1870, the Tung Wah Hospital became the first hospital to offer Traditional Chinese Medicine. After the cultural revolution in 1949, most Chinese hospitals became public.


title: History of hospitals

text: Improvements in medicine, medical technology, major worldwide pandemics in 1918 and 2020, and management and consolidation of hospitals were the primary influences on hospitals during the 20th and 21st century.


title: History of hospitals

text: Since 2000 hospitals are also active on the internet and social media where communicate with major societies, evidence for example suggests that hospitals using Instagram reported better patient engagement and reputation and there is ongoing research on communication of hospitals in the digital era.


title: Buggery Act 1533

text: The Buggery Act 1533, formally An Acte for the punishment of the vice of Buggerie (25 Hen. 8 c. 6), was an Act of the Parliament of England that was passed during the reign of Henry VIII.


title: Buggery Act 1533

text: It was the country's first civil sodomy law, such offences having previously been dealt with by the ecclesiastical courts.


title: Buggery Act 1533

text: The term buggery, not defined in the text of the legislation, was later interpreted by the courts to include only anal penetration and bestiality, regardless of the sex of the participants, but not oral penetration. The act remained in force until it was repealed and replaced by the Offences against the Person Act 1828. Buggery remained a capital offence until 1861, though the last executions were in 1835.


title: Buggery Act 1533

text: The Act was piloted through Parliament by Henry VIII's minister Thomas Cromwell (though it is unrecorded who actually wrote the bill), and punished "the detestable and abominable Vice of Buggery committed with Mankind or Beast". Prior to the 1550s, the term "Buggery" was not used in a homosexual sense, rather related to any sexual activity not related to procreation, regardless of gender or species involved in the sexual act, and also covered sexual crimes of a non-consensual nature. The law was not designed to police sexual activity, rather was simply taking a canon law and making it a civil law, a test case in removing church power. "Buggery" was not further defined in the law. According to the Act:


title: Buggery Act 1533

text: the offenders being hereof convict[ed] by verdict confession or outlawry, shall suffer such pains of death, and losses and penalties of their good chattels debts lands tenements and hereditaments, as felons be accustomed to do, according to the Order of the Common Laws of this Realm; and that no person offending in any such offence shall be admitted to his Clergy ...


title: Buggery Act 1533

text: This meant that a convicted sodomite’s possessions could be confiscated by the government, rather than going to their next of kin, and that even priests and monks could be executed for the offence—even though they could not be executed for murder. In moving what had previously been an offence tried by ecclesiastical courts into the secular ones, Henry may have intended it as a simple expression of political power along with other contemporary acts such as Submission of the Clergy Act 1533 and one year before the Act of Supremacy 1534. However Henry later used the law to execute monks and nuns (thanks to information his spies had gathered) and take their monastery lands—the same tactics had been used 200 years before by Philip IV of France against the Knights Templar.


title: Buggery Act 1533

text: In July 1540, Walter Hungerford, 1st Baron Hungerford of Heytesbury, was charged with treason for harbouring a known member of the Pilgrimage of Grace movement. He was also accused of buggery, as he was suspected of raping his own daughter. Hungerford was beheaded at Tower Hill, on 28 July 1540, the same day as Thomas Cromwell.


title: Buggery Act 1533

text: Nicholas Udall, a cleric, playwright, and Headmaster of Eton College, was the first to be charged with violation of the Act alone in 1541, for sexually abusing his pupils. In his case, the sentence was commuted to imprisonment and he was released in less than a year. He went on to become headmaster of Westminster School.


title: Buggery Act 1533

text: The Act was repealed in 1553 on accession of the staunchly Catholic Queen Mary, who preferred such legal matters adjudicated in ecclesiastical courts. However, it was re-enacted by Queen Elizabeth I in 1564. Although "homosexual prosecutions throughout the sixteenth century [were] sparse" and "fewer than a dozen prosecutions are recorded up through 1660 ... this may reflect inadequate research into the subject, and a scarcity of extant legal records." In 1631 Mervyn Tuchet, 2nd Earl of Castlehaven, was beheaded because of his rank. Numerous prosecutions that resulted in a sentence of hanging are recorded in the 18th and early 19th centuries.


title: Buggery Act 1533

text: Even if the charge of sodomy was reduced for lack of evidence to a charge of attempted buggery, the penalty was severe: imprisonment and some time on the pillory. "The lesser punishment—to be stood in the pillory—was by no means a lenient one, for the victims often had to fear for their lives at the hands of an enraged multitude armed with brickbats as well as filth and curses ... the victims in the pillory, male or female, found themselves at the center of an orgy of brutality and mass hysteria, especially if the victim were a molly."


title: Buggery Act 1533

text: Periodicals of the time sometimes casually named known sodomites, and at one point even suggested that sodomy was increasingly popular. This does not imply that sodomites necessarily lived in security.


title: Buggery Act 1533

text: In "Rex v Samuel Jacobs" (1817), it was concluded that fellatio between an adult man and an underage boy was not punishable under this Act. The courts had previously established, in "Rex v Richard Wiseman" in 1716, that heterosexual sodomy was considered buggery under the meaning of the 1533 Act.


title: Buggery Act 1533

text: In light of "R v Jacobs", fellatio thus remained lawful until the passage of Labouchere Amendment in 1885, which added the charge of gross indecency to the traditional term of sodomy.


title: Buggery Act 1533

text: The last two Englishmen who were hanged for sodomy were executed in 1835, when James Pratt and John Smith died in front of the Newgate Prison in London on 27 November.


title: Buggery Act 1533

text: The Act was repealed by section 1 of the Offences against the Person Act 1828 (9 Geo.4 c.31) and by section 125 of the Criminal Law (India) Act 1828 (c.74). It was replaced by section 15 of the Offences against the Person Act 1828, and section 63 of the Criminal Law (India) Act 1828, which provided that buggery would continue to be a capital offence. The new Act expressly specified that conviction of buggery no longer required proof of completion ("emission of seed") and evidence of penetration was sufficient for conviction.


title: Buggery Act 1533

text: Buggery remained a capital offence in England and Wales until the enactment of the Offences against the Person Act 1861.


title: Buggery Act 1533

text: The United Kingdom Parliament repealed buggery laws for England and Wales in 1967 (in so far as they related to consensual homosexual acts in private), ten years after the Wolfenden report. Jurisdictions in many former colonies have retained such legislation, such as in the Anglophone Caribbean. Heterosexual sodomy, i.e. anal sex, remained a criminal offence, regardless of consent, until the Criminal Justice and Public Order Act was passed in 1994.


title: Domino effect

text: A domino effect or chain reaction is the cumulative effect generated when a particular event triggers a chain of similar events. This term is best known as a mechanical effect and is used as an analogy to a falling row of dominoes. It typically refers to a linked sequence of events where the time between successive events is relatively small. It can be used literally (an observed series of actual collisions) or metaphorically (causal linkages within systems such as global finance or politics). The term "domino effect" is used both to imply that an event is inevitable or highly likely (as it has already started to happen), and conversely to imply that an event is impossible or highly unlikely (the one domino left standing).


title: Domino effect

text: The domino effect can easily be visualized by placing a row of dominoes upright, each separated by a small distance. Upon pushing the first domino, the next domino in line will be knocked over, and so on, thus firing a linear chain in which each domino's fall is triggered by the domino immediately preceding it. The effect is the same regardless of the length of the chain. The energy used in this chain reaction is the potential energy of the dominoes due to them being in a meta-stable state; when the first domino is toppled, the energy transferred by the fall is greater than the energy needed to knock over the following domino, and so on.


title: The King's School, Canterbury

text: The King's School is a public school (English independent day and boarding school for 13 to 18 year old pupils) in Canterbury, Kent, England. It is a member of the Headmasters' and Headmistresses' Conference and the Eton Group. It is Britain's oldest public school; and is arguably the oldest continuously operating school in the world, since education on the Abbey and Cathedral grounds has been uninterrupted since AD 597.


title: The King's School, Canterbury

text: The school started as a medieval cathedral school said to have been founded during Late Antiquity in AD 597, a century after the Fall of the Western Roman Empire, by Augustine of Canterbury, considered the "Apostle to the English" and a founder of the English Church, thus making it arguably the world's oldest extant school. This is based on the fact that St Augustine founded an abbey (within the current school's grounds) where it is known that teaching took place.


title: The King's School, Canterbury

text: When the Dissolution of the Monasteries took place, the school was re-founded by royal charter in 1541. A Headmaster, a Lower Master, and fifty King's Scholars were established and the name "King's School", was used for the first time, referring to King Henry VIII. Cardinal Pole moved the school to the Mint Yard and acquired the Almonry building, which was in use for over 300 years.


title: The King's School, Canterbury

text: Throughout the next 100 years several former pupils achieved national recognition helping the school establish its reputation; these include the first headmaster, John Twyne, and Christopher Marlowe, William Harvey and John Tradescant the Younger. The buildings were improved and academic standards raised during the leadership of John Mitchinson and around this time the school became a "public school" with a national reputation.


title: The King's School, Canterbury

text: When Canon John “Fred” Shirley became headmaster in 1935 the school was suffering from the effects of the depression. He managed the school's rapid expansion to around 600 pupils over the next 30 years, constructing further buildings in the precincts and helping the school survive the war-time evacuation. The school received a new Royal Charter from King George VI and Queen Elizabeth in 1946. During this time, the reputation of the school grew, helped by its academic and sporting successes.


title: The King's School, Canterbury

text: The school was boys-only for almost 400 years, until the early 1970s, when girls were admitted to the Sixth Form for the first time, and the school has been fully co-educational since 1990. The school is also the oldest charity in the UK.


title: The King's School, Canterbury

text: In 2011, Rated as 'Good' by Ofsted. In 2017, the school was subject to its latest regular, independent inspection. The inspection team praised the "outstanding academic results" and the pupils' integrity, self-assurance, and "generosity of spirit". According to the "Good Schools Guide", the school is "Highly successful, producing excellent results". The "Guide" also stated that "You need to be creative, academically able and hard-working, as everything moves fast here."


title: The King's School, Canterbury

text: In 2019, 54% of pupils scored A*-A for their A-Levels examination, whereas 70% scored A*-A for their GCSEs.


title: The King's School, Canterbury

text: There are 16 houses at King's, 13 boarding and 3 day. Most are named after past headmasters or people of interest in the school's history, with the exception of "School House", "The Grange" and "Carlyon". The Houses of the School are:


title: The King's School, Canterbury

text: The school's Norman staircase is one of the most painted, photographed and admired sites in Canterbury. As its name suggests it dates back to the 12th century. For formal occasions, the School traditionally gathered here. Archbishops of Canterbury addressed the School from the Staircase during Visitations. King George VI, accompanied by Queen Elizabeth and Princess Elizabeth, presented the School's Royal Charter to the Dean on 11 July 1946.


title: The King's School, Canterbury

text: A festival of arts, held during the last week of the summer term, introduced by Fred Shirley in 1952. The week has featured over 100 events, ranging from classical concerts to theatre performances, held in locations around Canterbury. Events have been free to attend and required no booking and a number were broadcast live.


title: The King's School, Canterbury

text: The week has culminated in Commemoration day (known as "Commem") on the last day of the school year when the school leavers in 6a wore court dress of white tie and tails, with breeches and black stockings, or their national dress, and the whole school attended a service to commemorate the school benefactors.


title: The King's School, Canterbury

text: In 2005, the Office of Fair Trading (OFT) provisionally found that the school exchanged detailed information about prospective fee increases with approximately 50 other prominent UK independent schools, including Eton and Sevenoaks. The OFT stated that "regular and systematic exchange of confidential information as to intended fee increases was anti-competitive and resulted in parents being charged higher fees than would otherwise have been the case."


title: The King's School, Canterbury

text: The current Headmaster retires at the close of the Summer Term on Thursday, 7 July 2022. A new Head, Jude Lowson MA (Cantab.), the first female Head in the history of the School, will take over at the beginning of the 2023–2024 academic year. The interim head will be the present Senior Deputy Head, Mrs Elizabeth Worthington.


title: The King's School, Canterbury

text: The King's School has a feeder preparatory school, the Junior King's School (JKS), previously Milner Court Preparatory School. The school is a coeducational boarding and day establishment and currently has around 400 pupils aged 3 to 13. Whilst there are boarding facilities available, the majority are day pupils. JKS is now located at Milner Court in Sturry, having been originally based in the crypt of Canterbury Cathedral.


title: The King's School, Canterbury

text: The current site was donated by Lady Milner following the death of Alfred Milner, 1st Viscount Milner in 1925. The buildings on site were opened by Rudyard Kipling in 1929, in his capacity as a close friend of Alfred Milner. Wilfrid Oldaker was headmaster from 1945 to 1956 and was the last head to occupy the manor house as the headmaster's residence. Further extensions include a sports hall (1999), a CDT block (1991) and a new music department (2016).


title: The King's School, Canterbury

text: The King’s School planned to open its first overseas branch in the Nanshan district of Shenzhen, China in 2019. The school aims to blend The King's School's tradition of education with modern purpose, with design by award-winning London-based architects, Walters & Cohen. The new campus was intended to be launched in two separate phases. The Pre-Prep section for children aged 3 – 6 was planned to open in Autumn 2019, and the Main School, which will include the Junior and Senior sections for children aged 6–18, should open the following year in 2020.


title: Image Universe

text: The Image Universe (IU) is a fictional universe in which some stories published by Image Comics take place. It was introduced in the early years of the publisher, shared by the various creators who formed the Image partnership. The independent, creator-owned nature of their work led to limited interaction between their characters, and little coordination of the Image Universe as a shared setting. Instead it has mainly served as the ostensible setting of occasional crossovers between different series, including "Deathmate", "Image United", and "The Invincible War".


title: Image Universe

text: The Image Universe began with the founding of Image Comics in 1992, launching with series such as "The Savage Dragon", "Spawn", "Youngblood," and "WildC.A.T.s".


title: Image Universe

text: Image Comics' nature of allowing comic creators to retain the rights to the characters they publish with Image has led to many characters entering or exiting the Image Universe as the creators move from or to other publishers. Image co-founder and "Savage Dragon" creator Erik Larsen generally treats the Image Universe continuity as though each title exists in its own universe, and any crossovers between different creators' characters are events that occur simultaneously in each respective characters' universes.


title: Image Universe

text: When Jim Lee was an Image partner, his WildStorm properties such as "WildC.A.T.s", "Stormwatch", "Gen¹³", "Union", "Deathblow", "Wetworks", and "Backlash" regularly crossed over with other Image characters, but when he sold his studio to DC Comics, this ceased.


title: Image Universe

text: In June 1996, Erik Larsen relaunched the original "Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles" series by Mirage Studios with a third volume under the Image Comics banner, featuring supporting characters from other series and various crossovers with "The Savage Dragon" and "Spawn". The series ceased publication on a cliffhanger in 1999. After its cancellation, the series remained in publication limbo for nearly two decades, with no reprints or collected volumes. In 2018, IDW Publishing, which publishes their own "TMNT" comic series, began to reproduce the existing 23 issues in a colored version, as well as officially conclude the Image series with a final three-issue story arc, with Carlson and Fosco again taking part in this project.


title: Image Universe

text: There were several Image crossover mini-series in the 1990s, such as "Shattered Image", "Altered Image", "Big Bruisers", "Badrock & Company", "Deathmate", "Darker Image," and "Splitting Image", along with the Eclipse Comics satire "Spittin' Image". But only "Mars Attacks Image" had any direct impact on the titles represented, as the Martians' attack was also shown and referenced many times in the "Savage Dragon" series.


title: Image Universe

text: In 2009, the Image Universe had its first major crossover in several years with "Image United". However, it was canceled, with "Youngblood" being sold to Terrific Productions. "The Pact", a crossover between "Invincible", "ShadowHawk", "Noble Causes", and "Firebreather", was also produced.


title: Image Universe

text: In 2021, Todd McFarlane announced the mainline "Spawn" series to be expanded into its own shared universe, with "King Spawn", "Gunslinger Spawn" and "The Scorched". He would also like 12 more titles for Spawn's expanded universe.


title: Image Universe

text: Later on in 2021, following the success of Kyle Higgins' "Radiant Black", it was announced that it would expand into its own universe of books dubbed "The Massive-Verse". It all started with a one-shot crossover entitled "Supermassive", written by Higgins, Ryan Parrott, and Mat Groom with art by Francesco Manna and Simone Ragazzoni. The comic served as a crossover between Radiant Black, Inferno Girl Red, and Rogue Sun, with the comic marking the first appearances of the latter two. "Rogue Sun" would later launch as an ongoing in March 2022 written by Parrott and drawn by Abel, while "Inferno Girl Red" would launch as an original graphic novel, with Groom as writer and Erica D'Urso as artist in late 2022. Radiant Black would later get a spin-off of its own with "Radiant Red", a 5 issue miniseries written by Cherish Chen and art by David Lafuente. In February 2022, it was announced that another book connected to the Massive-Verse would release in August entitled "The Dead Lucky," written by Melissa Flores and art by French Carlomango.


title: Camogie

text: Camogie ( ; ) is an Irish stick-and-ball team sport played by women. Camogie is played by 100,000 women in Ireland and worldwide, largely among Irish communities.


title: Camogie

text: A variant of the game of hurling (which is played by men only), it is organised by the Dublin-based Camogie Association or An Cumann Camógaíochta. The annual All Ireland Camogie Championship has a record attendance of 33,154, while average attendances in recent years are in the region of 15,000 to 18,000. The final is broadcast live, with a TV audience of as many as over 300,000.


title: Camogie

text: UNESCO lists Camogie as an element of Intangible Cultural Heritage. The game is referenced in "Waiting for Godot" by Irish playwright Samuel Beckett.


title: Camogie

text: The game consists of two thirty-minute halves. There is a half-time interval of 15 minutes. In event of extra time, halves must consist of 10 minutes each. Each team has 15 players on the field. Within the 15 players the team must consist of one goalkeeper, three full back players, three half back players, two centre-field players, three half forward players and three full forward players. There is a minimum requirement of 12 players on the pitch at all times. The rules are almost identical to hurling, with a few exceptions.