title: Yumjaagiin Tsedenbal

text: Tsedenbal visited Bucharest on 9 September 1957, becoming the first Mongolian leader to visit Romania. His relationship with President Nicolae Ceaușescu proved to be frosty, being critical of the latter for his more independent foreign policy.


title: Yumjaagiin Tsedenbal

text: Mongolia under Tsedenbal increased its participation in international organizations, attempting first in 1955 to have the MPR join the United Nations (with the request being vetoed by Taiwan) and being admitted into the UN in 1961. Under Tsedenbal, Mongolia established ties with West Germany on January 31, 1974.


title: Yumjaagiin Tsedenbal

text: During a February 1973 visit to New Delhi, an Indo-Mongolian joint declaration was signed by Tsedenbal and Indira Gandhi. Furthermore, he supported India in the Bangladesh Liberation War of 1971, at the expense of relations with Pakistan.


title: Yumjaagiin Tsedenbal

text: He was an adamant supporter of the incorporation of Mongolia into the USSR during the first half of his career, particularly in the 1960s and 1970s. In 1950, Tsedenbal faced severe rebuke after demanding that Choibolsan petition for Mongolia's incorporation as per the example of Tuva. The only other Eastern Bloc leader with similar aspirations was Todor Zhivkov.


title: Yumjaagiin Tsedenbal

text: In his later years, he reversed his views. In an interview, his son Zorig told that Tsedenbal had once exchanged his views with Leonid Brezhnev on the topic while on vacation in Crimea at the latter's invitation. At one point, Brezhnev asked him, "Why not join us?" Initially, Tsedenbal attempted to evade the question. After Brezhnev became irritated and repeated the question, Tsedenbal responded, "As the head of state of Mongolia, I have one thing to say. We are ready to cooperate 100 percent with the Soviet Union in all areas, including the economy, culture, arts, sports and defense. On the most important condition that we remain an independent state."


title: Yumjaagiin Tsedenbal

text: Tsedenbal was forced into retirement in August 1984 in a Soviet-sponsored move, officially on the account of his old age and mental weakness but at least partly because of his opposition to the process of Sino-Soviet rapprochement that had started with Leonid Brezhnev's Tashkent speech in March 1982. Jambyn Batmönkh became the general secretary of the MPRP. Tsedenbal was removed a month after receiving Vietnamese head of state Trường Chinh and just days away before he was due to attend a ceremony in honor of the 45th anniversary of the Soviet-Mongolian victory in the Battle of Khalkhin Gol.


title: Yumjaagiin Tsedenbal

text: Tsedenbal remained in Moscow until his death. During this period, Tsedenbal repeatedly asked the Central Committee of the MPRP and the Mongolian Embassy in Moscow to visit him, but no one accepted his request. In 1990, he was deprived of the title of Hero of the MPR, Mongolian state awards and the military rank of Marshal of the MPR.


title: Yumjaagiin Tsedenbal

text: He died on 20 April 1991 at a Moscow hospital. According to a medical report, the cause of death was "bile duct cancer, purulent poisoning and chronic liver failure." After he died, his body was brought to Mongolia five days later, where he was buried with military honors. The funeral was held at the Officers' Palace on April 29, and was taken to the Altan-Ölgii National Cemetery for burial. Many complained that the government commission did not allow the public to view his body. After spats between government members arose over how he should be buried, the then-Minister of Defense, General Shagalyn Jadambaa, ordered that he be buried with the honors of a general. When Tsedenbal's wife arrived in Ulaanbaatar from Moscow to attend Tsedenbal's funeral, the Mongolian prosecutor's office attempted to interrogate her.


title: Yumjaagiin Tsedenbal

text: By the decree of President Punsalmaagiin Ochirbat in 1997, the 1990 decree that stripped him of his rank and awards was invalidated.


title: Yumjaagiin Tsedenbal

text: In Mongolia, Tsedenbal is remembered for successfully maintaining a path of relatively moderate socialism during the Cold War. A statue of Tsedenbal was built in 2000 on the plaza in front of the National Drama Academic Theater which has since been renamed to Tsedenbal Square ("Цэдэнбалын талбай"). The statue and its surroundings were refurbished in 2013. On September 21, 2016, the Erdenet Mining Corporation was named after him.


title: Yumjaagiin Tsedenbal

text: In 2019, Mongolian filmmakers produced a biographical film of Tsedenbal. His son Zorig founded the Tsedenbal Academy in Mongolia.


title: Yumjaagiin Tsedenbal

text: His Russian wife, Anastasia Filatova (), was often said to be the most powerful political figure in Mongolia due to her close relationship with the Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev. They had two children, Vladislav (7 October 1949 - c. 2000) and Zorig (born 11 March 1957). The sons' surnames were reduplicated from their patronymic in Russian (e.g. Владислав Цэдэнбалович Цэдэнбал). His granddaughter Anastasia Tsedenbal (Анастасия Зоригновна Цэдэнбал), born in 1985, graduated from the Lomonosov Moscow State University as an African researcher.


title: Hunter × Hunter: Phantom Rouge

text: The film was created by Madhouse and opened at number one in Japan on January 12, 2013. Viz Media released the film on home video in North America on February 13, 2018.


title: Hunter × Hunter: Phantom Rouge

text: The movie begins with Killua having a nightmare about his brother Illumi's warning to never make friends, claiming that eventually he will betray or get betrayed by them. He wakes up alongside Gon on an airship, where the former promises to never betray him. Upon arriving at their destination, they meet Leorio and learn that he and Kurapika were investigating a rumor about a survivor of Kurapika's Kurta Clan until they meet a young boy whom Kurapika recognized as his childhood friend Pairo, who attacks him and steals his eyes. Unconscious since then, Kurapika awakens beside the others and soon after he has visions through his stolen eyes of a man whose right palm is marked with a spider tattoo, the same used by the members of the Phantom Troupe.


title: Hunter × Hunter: Phantom Rouge

text: Based on other details seen by Kurapika in his vision, Gon and Killua leave him under Leorio's care and split up in search for Pairo's location. Gon ends up meeting and befriending a young puppeteer called Retsu and when Killua reunites with him, they realize that Retsu is a girl. Because of Killua’s loyalty towards Gon, Killua quickly becomes jealous of her. When night falls, Leorio and Kurapika are approached by Hisoka while Gon and the others are attacked by Uvogin, who was presumed to be dead and saved by Nobunaga and Machi who defeat him. It is then revealed that Uvogin was revived as a puppet by Omokage, a former member of the Phantom Troupe who was defeated and replaced by Hisoka. Omokage sends a team of puppets including one based on Pakunoda to attack his former companions but they are all destroyed by them. After Omokage retreats, Nobunaga and Machi leave as well, warning Gon and Killua to not stand between Omokage and the Phantom Troupe as they have a score to settle with him.


title: Hunter × Hunter: Phantom Rouge

text: In the next day, Retsu leads Gon and Killua to the mansion from Kurapika's vision and after leaving her behind for her safety, they meet another puppet, now based on Illumi who attacks them. Just as the Illumi doll is about to steal Killua's eyes, Gon intervenes and has his own eyes stolen instead. Ashamed for failing to protect Gon and believing that he had betrayed his friend, Killua flees and attempts suicide but is saved by Gon who had tracked him with his acute sense of smell. Gon then reveals that he had let the Illumi doll steal his eyes by his own volition so they could track down Omokage. He also states that he had long realized that Retsu was one of his puppets as well. Reunited with Leorio and Kurapika, they set for Omokage's location to confront him.


title: Hunter × Hunter: Phantom Rouge

text: Back at his hideout, Omokage reclaims his eyes from Retsu, who is revealed to be a puppet made from his deceased sister and when Gon and his friends appear, he reveals that he let them track him down by purpose as he intends to claim Leorio and Killua's eyes to use on his puppets as well. After confessing to Kurapika that he also took part in the Kurta Clan's massacre and claiming that he currently has no other scarlet eyes in his possession, Omokage sends the Pairo and Illumi dolls to attack the Hunters, but Gon and Kurapika defeat them with Leorio and Killua's help and retrieve their eyes. However, Omokage activates six other dolls based on members of the Phantom Troupe to attack them but Hisoka appears to fight by their side. While Hisoka deals with three of the puppets, Omokage absorbs the other three to attain their powers and fight Gon and co. until they join forces in a combined effort that allows Kurapika to successfully restrain him with his chain.


title: Hunter × Hunter: Phantom Rouge

text: With Omokage defeated, Kurapika offers him a chance to be spared in exchange for having his powers sealed for life, but he refuses. Killua offers himself to kill Omokage in Kurapika's place but the puppeteer is then stabbed by Retsu, who claims that he had already caused enough suffering to her and her friends. The real Phantom Troupe arrives soon after, but they decide to let Kurapika and Hisoka leave, claiming that they will settle their scores with them in another day. As the whole place is put on fire, Retsu decides to let herself be consumed by the flames along her brother and thanks Gon and Killua for the moments they spent with her. Some time later, Gon and Killua part ways with their friends as they leave to continue their adventures together.


title: Hunter × Hunter: Phantom Rouge

text: In March 2012, a source linked to the "Hunter × Hunter" anime told "Mainichi Shimbun" that a theatrical film had been green-lit. The year's 34 issue of "Weekly Shōnen Jump", released in July 2012, included the first image for "Gekijō-ban Hunter × Hunter Phantom Rouge". It depicts Kurapika's "rouge" or scarlet eye with the number four reflecting in it and revealed that the "dramatic action" film would feature the Phantom Troupe. The film's plot is based on an unpublished story creator Yoshihiro Togashi wrote around 10 years earlier. Days later, the official website for the movie went live and streamed a teaser trailer that was also shown on television. An August issue of the magazine outlined the story and revealed the second visual image. The first theatrical trailer was released in September.


title: Hunter × Hunter: Phantom Rouge

text: In October, the year's 48 issue of "Jump" unveiled the movie original character and number four of the Phantom Troupe, . Actresses Aya Hirano and Umika Kawashima voice the new characters and respectively, while music duo Yuzu provides the theme song "Reason". A second teaser was posted to the website in November. Tickets for the film, to be released on January 12, 2013, went on sale on November 3 and included clear file folders featuring artwork from the series while supplies lasted.


title: Hunter × Hunter: Phantom Rouge

text: "Hunter × Hunter" creator Yoshihiro Togashi wrote the two-part manga to act as a prequel to the film. A collected version of the story, referred to as "Volume 0" of the series, was given to the first million moviegoers. A novel adaptation of the film, written by Hajime Tanaka, was released by Shueisha on January 15, 2013.


title: Hunter × Hunter: Phantom Rouge

text: "Hunter × Hunter: Phantom Rouge" opened in 257 screens on January 12, 2013 and debuted at number one in the Japanese box office with 357,976 tickets sold and earning 456,779,000 yen (about US$5,143,930). "Phantom Rouge" grossed however fell 68.6% to only $1,655,960 in its second weekend and losing number one to Ted. It earned a total of US$12,595,288 by its sixth weekend. The home video DVD of the movie was released on July 7, 2013, selling 4,783 copies its first week for fifth place on Oricon's Japan Animation DVD chart. It sold 7,308 copies in four weeks before falling off the chart. The film received its television debut on Nippon TV on December 27, 2013 at 2:38 am, earning a 0.7% average household rating.


title: Hunter × Hunter: Phantom Rouge

text: The movie received its United States premiere on August 3, 2013 at the first Japan Film Festival of San Francisco. The Scotland Loves Anime festival screened the film in October 2013. In July 2017, Viz Media announced they had licensed "Phantom Rouge" for distribution in North America, and released it with an English language dub on February 13, 2018.


title: Ios

text: Ios, Io or Nio (, ; ; locally Nios, Νιός) is a Greek island in the Cyclades group in the Aegean Sea. Ios is a hilly island with cliffs down to the sea on most sides, situated halfway between Naxos and Santorini. It is about long and wide, with an area of . Population was 2,024 in 2011 (down from 3,500 in the 19th century). Ios is part of the Thira regional unit.


title: Ios

text: The Port of Ios is at the head of the Ormos harbour in the northwest. There is a path up the nearby hill to Chora, named after the Greek word for the main village on an island. Chora is a white and cycladic village, full of stairs and narrow paths that make it inaccessible for cars. Today, the main path through this village is completely taken over by tourism with restaurants, boutiques, bars and discothèques catering to visitors. Apart from the port and the village of Chora, Ios has a few small settlements that consist of groups of spread out houses in the background of major beaches (Theodoti, Kalamos, Manganari). Since the 1990s, the island mayor Pousseos has worked on Ios' development towards attracting different types of tourists. With the help of European Community funds some roads have been built, all of them paved, and a scenic amphitheatre was created by the German architect Peter Haupt at the top of the village hill.


title: Ios

text: According to Plutarch, it is thought that the name has derived from the Ancient Greek word for violets "Ία"(Ia) because they were commonly found on the island and it is the most accepted etymology. It is also posited that the name was derived from the Phoenician word iion, meaning “pile of stones”. Pliny the Elder also wrote that the name comes from the Ionians who lived on the island. In the Ottoman period the island was called Anza or Aina, and its present name was officially established in the 19th century after over 2000 years of usage. During the ancient times the island was also called "Φοινίκη" (Phiniki), named after and by the Phoenicians and in the 3rd century, when the island joined League of the Islanders, was likely temporarily named Arsinoe after the wife of Ptolemy II Today the inhabitants of the Cycladic Islands call the island Nio, a name deriving from the Byzantine Era. The name Little Malta, which is found in texts of travelers during the Ottoman domination, is related to the permanent presence of pirates on the island. In languages with Latin script, the island name is Nio or Io.


title: Ios

text: The shape of Ios resembles a rectangle, with an average side size of 15 km (9.3 mi) and 7 km (4.3 mi) respectively. The longest axis is in the NW direction, from the Karatza cape to the


title: Ios

text: 14 km (8.6 mi) long. Ios has 86 km (53.4 mi) of coastline, of which 32 km (19.9 mi) are sandy beaches.


title: Ios

text: The highest elevation (723 m, 2372 ft) is the Kastro () peak also called Pyrgos (), located in the center


title: Ios

text: Highest peaks: Xylodema () (660 m, 2165 ft), Kostiza () (586 m, 1923 ft) and Prophetis Elias () (490 m, 951 ft).


title: Ios

text: In case of extreme events like earthquakes and wildfires, the Municipality of Ios had prepared a general plan called Homer (Greek: Όμηρος) which includes the cooperation of all Iitians.


title: Ios

text: From the 1940s to the early 1970s, the population of the island reduced consistently. The main causes of this phenomenon were the migration movement, the epidemiological conditions of the time and to a lesser extent, the loss of men aged between 18 and 45 during the war.


title: Ios

text: The island is famous for its local cheeses. They are mainly made in the municipal creamery using milk from goats or sheep. The most famous one is the "skotíri" (σκοτύρι), a sour cheese with the smell of summer savory. Popular dishes of Ios are the "tsimediá" (τσιμεντιά , pumpkin flowers stuffed with rice) and "mermitzéli" (μερμιτζέλι, handmade barley).


title: Ios

text: In 1827 the local leaders of Ios wrote a letter to the revolutionary government of Greece requesting a school to open in the island. During the 1850s the first school opened which housed a small number of students of all ages. The type of school that operated was called Skolarcheion (Greek: Σχολαρχείον) and was equivalent to an elementary school with some high school basic courses. Most students at the time didn't graduate as their time was occupied helping their families in the fields. This resulted in a large percentage of illiterate children. The richer families sent their children to schools of the nearby islands. From 1936 the first elementary school was founded. In 1972 the first kindergarten was opened and in 1980 the first high school that had some senior high school courses. Today, in Chora there is a kindergarten, a high school, a senior high school and an EPAL high school.


title: Ios

text: Ios from the prehistoric era and thanks to its safe natural harbour played an important role on the sea roads to Crete. The early Cycladic settlement on Skarkos hill and other prehistoric sites on the island have been found by archaeologists.


title: Ios

text: Ios was under the influence of the Minoan and then of the Mycenaean civilisation. The Phoenicians most likely arrived on the island and maintained their presence until the 9th century BC.


title: Ios

text: Ios became Ionian at some point after, as testified by its membership in the Delian Amphictyony. From 534 BC the island paid taxes to Athens.


title: Ios

text: Ios was an important and strong city in Classical and Hellenistic times. Its decline began with the Roman occupation, when it was used as a place for exile, and continued in Byzantine times. The island experienced a recovery at the time of the Duchy of Naxos, but the Ottoman domination interrupted it. Palaiokastro, a ruined Venetian castle from the 15th century lies on the northern part of the island. Ios was important enough in the Roman province of Insulae to become a suffragan see of the Metropolis of Rhodes, but later faded and disappeared.


title: Ios

text: During the 3rd and 2nd century BC as Ios became part of the league of the islanders, she minted her own coins, most of them can be found in the Berlin Archaeological Museum and British Museum. There are 28 known different coins. They depict Homer, a palm tree or Athena, as she was worshiped on the island. Most of them had the writing ΙΗΤΩΝ meaning of the people of Ios.


title: Ios

text: Although Ios did not have a strong naval force, it was one of the first islands to raise the flag of revolution in when the Greek War of Independence began in 1821. Ios took part in the naval battle at Kuşadası on July 9, 1821, as well as in the Second National Assembly at Astros in 1823 and in the Third National Assembly at Troezen in 1827.


title: Ios

text: In a modern era, the island began to emerge in the 1970s as an increasingly popular tourist destination for young people in Europe. Today Ios retains its reputation as an island of youth and entertainment, with excellent tourist infrastructure, an organised marina at its harbour and an adequate road network.


title: Ios

text: Ecclesiastically, its territory is now part of the Greek Orthodox Metropolis of Thera, Amorgos and the Islands of the Church of Greece.


title: Ios

text: The island is very strongly connected with Homer, because according to the legend, Homer died in Ios. Considered the greatest epic poet of the Greeks, the legend accounts that he died because he violated a Pythian oracle. According to Pausanias, Homer visited the Delphi oracle to ask Pythia about his parents and origins. Pythia replied with the oracle "Your mother's home is the island of Ios, which will accept you when you die, but you should be careful of the enigma of the young children." The poet, however, broke the oracle and traveled to Ios. There he saw some small children fishing on the coast. He asked what they had caught and the children replied: "Whatever we get we leave it and whatever we don't get we take it with us". The children were talking about lice. Those who found them, killed them, but those who did not find them, had them to their heads. Homer did not find the answer, but he remembered the warning of Pythia. He was horrified and ran away quickly. The road was muddy and the poet in his hurry slipped and fell, hitting his head and dying almost instantaneously.


title: Ios

text: According to another version, Homer died from his sadness that he did not solve the puzzle, while a third version says he was already seriously ill and went to Ios because he knew he would die. Of course, the death of Homer is not based on historical records, but on myths and traditions that circulated from oral tradition. Pausanias simply recorded a popular narrative.


title: Ios

text: In 1771, a Dutch count named Pasch di Krienen after having read the narrative, came to Ios in order to find the grave. He was informed by a local priest of the Saint Aikaterini Chapel that there is a place with marbles and some of which had inscriptions. He was told that they were constructed long after Homer's death but he persisted and with the help of Spyridon Valetas he found three graves and the last one had inscriptions about Homer including "Ενθάδε την ιερήν κεφαλήν κατά γαία καλύπτει ανδρών ηρώων κοσμήτορα θείον Όμηρον" which means here under the earth lies the sacred head of heroic Homer. When he found this, Pasch was sure that the grave belonged to the epic poet but he realised some grammatical mistakes on the gravestone and he began doubting its authenticity. After having spent considerable time and money, he decided to give up after having also found two graves at Agia Theodoti


title: Ios

text: Ios attracts a large number of young tourists, many of whom used to sleep on their sleeping bags during the 1970s on the popular beach of Mylopotas after partying through the night. Today Mylopotas beach has been developed to an equivalent mass package tourism resort like Platys Gialos and Paradise Beach of Mykonos.


title: Ios

text: Ios has a warm-summer Mediterranean climate with mild winters and pleasant summers. Similar to other Cyclades islands, there is an almost constant breeze from the north during summer, known as meltemi, which moderates temperatures.


title: Carcinoid syndrome

text: Carcinoid syndrome is a paraneoplastic syndrome comprising the signs and symptoms that occur secondary to carcinoid tumors. The syndrome includes flushing and diarrhea, and less frequently, heart failure, vomiting and bronchoconstriction. It is caused by endogenous secretion of mainly serotonin and kallikrein.


title: Carcinoid syndrome

text: The carcinoid syndrome occurs in approximately 5% of carcinoid tumors and becomes manifest when vasoactive substances from the tumors enter the systemic circulation escaping hepatic degradation. If the primary tumor is from the gastrointestinal tract (hence releasing serotonin into the hepatic portal circulation), carcinoid syndrome generally does not occur until the disease is so advanced that it overwhelms the liver's ability to metabolize the released serotonin.


title: Carcinoid syndrome

text: Carcinoid tumors produce several vasoactive substances, most prominently serotonin. It is commonly thought that serotonin is the cause of the flushing, but this is only partially correct. The flushing also results from secretion of kallikrein, the enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of kininogen to lysyl-bradykinin. The latter is further converted to bradykinin, one of the most powerful vasodilators known.


title: Carcinoid syndrome

text: Other components of the carcinoid syndrome are diarrhea (probably caused by the increased serotonin, which greatly increases peristalsis, leaving less time for fluid absorption), a pellagra-like syndrome (probably caused by diversion of large amounts of tryptophan from synthesis of the vitamin B niacin, which is needed for NAD production, to the synthesis of serotonin and other 5-hydroxyindoles), fibrotic lesions of the endocardium, particularly on the right side of the heart resulting in insufficiency of the tricuspid valve and, less frequently, the pulmonary valve and, uncommonly, bronchoconstriction.


title: Carcinoid syndrome

text: The pathogenesis of the cardiac lesions and the bronchoconstriction is unknown, but the former probably involves activation of serotonin 5-HT2B receptors by serotonin. When the primary tumor is in the gastrointestinal tract, as it is in the great majority of cases, the serotonin and kallikrein are inactivated in the liver; manifestations of carcinoid syndrome do not occur until there are metastases to the liver or when the cancer is accompanied by liver failure (cirrhosis). Carcinoid tumors arising in the bronchi may be associated with manifestations of carcinoid syndrome without liver metastases because their biologically active products reach the systemic circulation before passing through the liver and being metabolized.


title: Carcinoid syndrome

text: In most patients, there is an increased urinary excretion of 5-HIAA (5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid), a degradation product of serotonin.


title: Carcinoid syndrome

text: The biology of these tumors differs from many other tumor types. Ongoing research on the biology of these tumors may reveal new mechanisms for tumor development.


title: Carcinoid syndrome

text: With a certain degree of clinical suspicion, the most useful initial test is the 24-hour urine levels of 5-HIAA (5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid), the end product of serotonin metabolism. Patients with carcinoid syndrome usually excrete more than 25 mg of 5-HIAA per day.


title: Carcinoid syndrome

text: For localization of both primary lesions and metastasis, the initial imaging method is Octreoscan, where indium-111 labelled somatostatin analogues (octreotide) are used in scintigraphy for detecting tumors expressing somatostatin receptors. Median detection rates with octreoscan are about 89%, in contrast to other imaging techniques such as CT scan and MRI with detection rates of about 80%. Gallium-68 labelled somatostatin analogues such as Ga-DOTA-Octreotate (DOTATATE), performed on a PET/CT scanner is superior to conventional Octreoscan.


title: Carcinoid syndrome

text: Usually, on a CT scan, a spider-like/crab-like change is visible in the mesentery due to the fibrosis from the release of serotonin. F-FDG PET/CT, which evaluate for increased metabolism of glucose, may also aid in localizing the carcinoid lesion or evaluating for metastases. Chromogranin A and platelets serotonin are increased.


title: Carcinoid syndrome

text: Transthoracic echocardiogram shows valve thickening and reduction in mobility of the valves. Cardiac MRI is useful in showing ventricular anatomy and function.


title: Carcinoid syndrome

text: Tumour localization may be extremely difficult. Barium swallow and follow-up examination of the intestine may occasionally show the tumor. Capsule video endoscopy has recently been used to localize the tumor. Often laparotomy is the definitive way to localize the tumour. Another form of localizing a tumor is the octreoscan. A tracer agent of Indium 111 is injected into a vein where then the tumors absorb the radionuclide Indium 111 and become visible on the scanner. Only the tumors absorb the somatostatin agent Indium 111 making the scan highly effective.


title: Carcinoid syndrome

text: Disease progression is difficult to ascertain because the disease can metastasize anywhere in the body and can be too small to identify with any current technology. Markers of the condition such as chromogranin-A are imperfect indicators of disease progression.


title: Carcinoid syndrome

text: Prognosis varies from individual to individual. It ranges from a 95% 5-year survival for localized disease to an 80% 5-year survival for those with liver metastases. The average survival time from the start of octreotide treatment has increased to about 12 years.


title: Satpura Range

text: The Satpura Range is a range of hills in central India. The range rises in eastern Gujarat running east through the border of Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh and ends in Chhattisgarh. The range parallels the Vindhya Range to the north, and these two east-west ranges divide Indian Subcontinent into the Indo-Gangetic plain of northern India and the Deccan Plateau of the south. The Narmada River originates from north-eastern end of Satpura in Amarkantak, and runs in the depression between the Satpura and Vindhya ranges, draining the northern slope of the Satpura range, running west towards the Arabian Sea. The Tapti River originates in the eastern-central part of Satpura, crossing the range in the center and running west at the range's southern slopes before meeting the Arabian Sea at Surat, draining the central and southern slopes of the range. Multai, the place of Tapi river origin is located about 465 kilometer far, south-westerly to Amarkantak, separated across by the hill range. The Godavari River and its tributaries drain the Deccan plateau, which lies south of the range, and the Mahanadi River drains the easternmost portion of the range. The Godavari and Mahanadi rivers flow into the Bay of Bengal. At its eastern end, the Satpura range meets the hills of the Chotanagpur Plateau. The Satpura Range is a horst mountain and is flanked by Narmada Graben in the north and much smaller but parallel Tapi Graben in the south.


title: Satpura Range

text: The eastern portion of the range receives more rainfall than the western portion, and the eastern range, together with the Eastern Ghats, constitute the eastern highlands moist deciduous forests ecoregion. The seasonally dry western portion of the range, together with the Narmada valley and the western Vindhya Range, are within the Narmada valley dry deciduous forests ecoregion.


title: Satpura Range

text: The Narmada and the Tapti are major rivers that drain into the Arabian Sea. The Narmada originates in eastern Madhya Pradesh ( India) and flows west across the state, through a narrow valley between the Vindhya Range and spurs of the Satpura Range. It flows into the Gulf of Khambhat. The Tapi (also known as Tapti) follows a shorter, parallel course, between south of the Narmada, flowing through the states of Maharashtra and Gujarat to drain into the Gulf of Khambhat.


title: Satpura Range

text: Most of the Satpura range was heavily forested; but the area has been subject to gradual deforestation in recent decades, although significant stands of forests remain. These forest enclaves provide habitat to several at risk and endangered species, including the Bengal tiger ("Panthera tigris tigris"), Barasingha, gaur ("Bos gaurus"), dhole ("Cuon alpinus"), sloth bear ("Melursus ursinus"), chousingha ("Tetracerus quadricornis"), and blackbuck ("Antilope cervicapra").


title: Satpura Range

text: However, Satpura is now famous for numerous tiger reserves. Once upon a time, it was ruled by wild Indian elephants and lion and Asiatic cheetahs.


title: Satpura Range

text: Several protected areas have been earmarked in the area, including the Kanha, Pench, Gugamal and Satpura National Parks, Pachmarhi Biosphere Reserve, Melghat Tiger Reserve and the Bori Reserve Forest.


title: Satpura Range

text: The Satpura Foundation is a grass-roots organization that coordinates conservation efforts in the area, which continue to face challenges from development and infrastructure projects, logging and poaching.


title: Satpura Range

text: The national parks, hill stations, reserves and towns in the Satpura range attract hundreds of thousands of visitors each year. Places listed here are from East to west


title: Tetley

text: Tetley is an English beverage manufacturer founded in 1837 in Yorkshire. It is the largest tea company in the United Kingdom and Canada, and the second largest in the United States by volume.


title: Tetley

text: Since 2000, Tetley has been a wholly owned subsidiary of Tata Consumer Products (formerly Tata Global Beverages), making it the second largest manufacturer of teas in the world, after Unilever.


title: Tetley

text: In 1822, brothers Joseph and Edward Tetley sold salt from a pack horse in Huddersfield, Yorkshire, England. They started to sell tea and were so successful they set up as "Joseph Tetley & Co." tea merchants in 1837. Relocating to London in 1856, they formed "Joseph Tetley & Company, Wholesale Tea Dealers", in partnership with Joseph Ackland.


title: Tetley

text: In 1952, in an early example of cross promotion, Petula Clark's single "Anytime Is Tea Time Now" was used to advertise Tetley on Radio Luxembourg. Tetley was the first company to sell tea in tea-bags in the United Kingdom in 1953. In 1989, following extensive consumer tests establishing Britons' preferences, Tetley launched the round tea bag.


title: Tetley

text: In 1973 the Tetley company was acquired by J. Lyons and Co. to form Lyons-Tetley. Following mergers, Lyons became part of Allied Lyons and then Allied Domecq.


title: Tetley

text: The Tetley Group was created in July 1995, as a result of a buy in management buy out, when a group of investors bought the worldwide beverage business from Allied Domecq. The Tetley Group was bought by India's Tata Group in February 2000, for £271 million.


title: Tetley

text: It was one of the largest overseas acquisitions by an Indian company at that time. The Tata Group is one of India's largest business conglomerates, comprising more than one hundred companies, including Tata Consumer Products. The acquisition has helped Tata's business ambitions to hold a global tea company.


title: Tetley

text: As India reduced import duties on tea, Tata Consumer Products offset its reduced share of the domestic market by gains in Europe and North America. In April 2014, Columbia Law School and "The Guardian" reported that some of Tetley's tea is harvested by workers who do not receive the minimum wage in India.


title: Tetley

text: In a statement placed on its website, Tetley's parent company, Tata Consumer Products, announced it had "appointed legal advisors to verify compliances by independent review. The legal advisors will also appoint and commission an independent third party Solidaridad to make an assessment into the living and working conditions of the workers at the APPL plantations (Amalgamated Plantations Private Limited)."


title: Tetley

text: The company has claimed that APPL is not used in Tetley tea internationally, and that it has supplied only one small shipment of Assam tea for use in Tetley in India in the last three years. In October 2014, UNICEF announced that they are working with tea companies and with the Ethical Tea Partnership (ETP) to tackle child exploitation in Indian tea communities. The three-year program is funded by a number of advocacy groups, Tata Consumer Products, and Tesco.


title: Tetley

text: Tetley's manufacturing and distribution business operates in forty countries, selling over sixty branded tea bags. In the early days of Tetley's operations, the company was solely a distributor of tea as it did not have any plantations to call its own, which meant that the company had to buy tea leaves through auctions. This led to the final product having a blend of 40 different types of tea from over 10,000 tea estates all over the world. Its premium packaging and quality helped it gain tremendous amounts of market share. By 1990, with a yearly production of 20 billion teabags, Tetley had gained the title of the second largest tea brand in the world after Lipton. It was only after the acquisition of Tetley by the then Tata Tea, that the company's supply chains were finally consolidated with those of Tata Tea's. This led to most of Tetley's tea leaves now originating from Tata's plantations across India and Sri Lanka.


title: Polysomnography

text: Polysomnography (PSG), a type of sleep study, is a multi-parameter study of sleep and a diagnostic tool in sleep medicine. The test result is called a polysomnogram, also abbreviated PSG. The name is derived from Greek and Latin roots: the Greek πολύς ("polus" for "many, much", indicating many channels), the Latin "somnus" ("sleep"), and the Greek γράφειν ("graphein", "to write").


title: Polysomnography

text: Type I polysomnography is a sleep study performed overnight while being continuously monitored by a credentialed technologist. It records the physiological changes that occur during sleep, usually at night, though some labs can accommodate shift workers and people with circadian rhythm sleep disorders who sleep at other times. The PSG monitors many body functions, including brain activity (EEG), eye movements (EOG), muscle activity or skeletal muscle activation (EMG), and heart rhythm (ECG)1. After the identification of the sleep disorder sleep apnea in the 1970s, the breathing functions, respiratory airflow, and respiratory effort indicators were added along with peripheral pulse oximetry. Polysomnography no longer includes NPT monitoring for erectile dysfunction, as it is reported that all male patients will experience erections during phasic REM sleep, regardless of dream content.


title: Polysomnography

text: Limited channel polysomnography, or unattended home sleep tests, is called Type II – IV channel polysomnography. Polysomnography should only be performed by technicians and technologists who are specifically accredited in sleep medicine. However, at times nurses and respiratory therapists perform polysomnography without specific knowledge and training in the field.


title: Polysomnography

text: Polysomnography data can be directly related to sleep onset latency (SOL), REM-sleep onset latency, the number of awakenings during the sleep period, the total sleep duration, percentages and durations of every sleep stage, and the number of arousals. But there can also be other information crucial for diagnostics, that are not directly linked with sleep, such as movements, respiration, and cardiovascular parameters. In any case, through polysomnographic evaluation, other information can be obtained (such as body temperature or esophageal pH) according to the patient's or the study's needs.


title: Polysomnography

text: Video-EEG polysomnography which combines polysomnography with video recording has been described as more effective than only polysomnography for the evaluation of sleep troubles such as parasomnias, because it allows easier correlation of EEG and polysomnography with bodily motion.


title: Polysomnography

text: Polysomnography is used to diagnose, or rule out, many types of sleep disorders, including narcolepsy, idiopathic hypersomnia, periodic limb movement disorder (PLMD), REM behavior disorder, parasomnias, and sleep apnea. Although it is not directly useful in diagnosing circadian rhythm sleep disorders, it may be used to rule out other sleep disorders.


title: Polysomnography

text: The use of polysomnography as a screening test for persons having excessive daytime sleepiness as a sole presenting complaint is controversial.


title: Polysomnography

text: A polysomnogram will typically record a minimum of 12 channels requiring a minimum of 22 wire attachments to the patient. These channels vary in every lab and may be adapted to meet the doctor's requests. There is a minimum of three channels for the EEG, one or two measure airflow, one or two are for chin muscle tone, one or more for leg movements, two for eye movements (EOG), one or two for heart rate and rhythm, one for oxygen saturation, and one each for the belts, which measure chest wall movement and upper abdominal wall movement. The movement of the belts is typically measured with piezoelectric sensors or respiratory inductance plethysmography. This movement is equated to effort and produces a low-frequency sinusoidal waveform as the patient inhales and exhales.


title: Polysomnography

text: Wires for each channel of recorded data lead from the patient and converge into a central box, which in turn is connected to a computer system for recording, storing and displaying the data. During sleep, the computer monitor can display multiple channels continuously. In addition, most labs have a small video camera in the room so the technician can observe the patient visually from an adjacent room.


title: Polysomnography

text: The electroencephalogram (EEG) will generally use six "exploring" electrodes and two "reference" electrodes, unless a seizure disorder is suspected, in which case more electrodes will be applied to document the appearance of seizure activity. The exploring electrodes are usually attached to the scalp near the frontal, central (top) and occipital (back) portions of the brain via a paste that will conduct electrical signals originating from the neurons of the cortex. These electrodes will provide a readout of the brain activity that can be "scored" into different stages of sleep (N1, N2, and N3 – which combined are referred to as NREM sleep – and Stage R, which is rapid eye movement sleep, or REM, and Wakefulness). The EEG electrodes are placed according to the International 10-20 system.


title: Polysomnography

text: The electrooculogram (EOG) uses two electrodes; one that is placed 1 cm above the outer canthus of the right eye and one that is placed 1 cm below the outer canthus of the left eye. These electrodes pick up the activity of the eyes in virtue of the electropotential difference between the cornea and the retina (the cornea is positively charged relative to the retina). This helps to determine when REM sleep occurs, of which rapid eye movements are characteristic, and also essentially aids in determining when sleep occurs.


title: Polysomnography

text: The electromyogram (EMG) typically uses four electrodes to measure muscle tension in the body as well as to monitor for an excessive amount of leg movements during sleep (which may be indicative of periodic limb movement disorder, PLMD). Two leads are placed on the chin with one above the jawline and one below. This, like the EOG, helps determine when sleep occurs as well as REM sleep. Sleep generally includes relaxation and so a marked decrease in muscle tension occurs. A further decrease in skeletal muscle tension occurs in REM sleep. A person becomes partially paralyzed to make acting out of dreams impossible, although people that do not have this paralysis can develop REM behavior disorder. Finally, two more leads are placed on the anterior tibialis of each leg to measure leg movements.


title: Polysomnography

text: Though a typical electrocardiogram (ECG or EKG) would use ten electrodes, only two or three are used for a polysomnogram. They can either be placed under the collarbone on each side of the chest or one under the collarbone and the other six inches above the waist on either side of the body. These electrodes measure the electrical activity of the heart as it contracts and expands, recording such features as the "P" wave, "QRS" complex, and "T" wave. These can be analyzed for any abnormalities that might be indicative of an underlying heart pathology.


title: Polysomnography

text: Nasal and oral airflow can be measured using pressure transducers, and/or a thermocouple, fitted in or near the nostrils; the pressure transducer is considered the more sensitive. This allows the clinician/researcher to measure the rate of respiration and identify interruptions in breathing. Respiratory effort is also measured in concert with nasal/oral airflow by the use of belts. These belts expand and contract upon breathing effort. However, this method of respiration may also produce false negatives. Some patients will open and close their mouth while obstructive apneas occur. This forces air in and out of the mouth while no air enters the airway and lungs. Thus, the pressure transducer and thermocouple will detect this diminished airflow and the respiratory event may be falsely identified as a hypopnea, or a period of reduced airflow, instead of an obstructive apnea.


title: Polysomnography

text: Pulse oximetry determines changes in blood oxygen levels that often occur with sleep apnea and other respiratory problems. The pulse oximeter fits over a fingertip or an earlobe.


title: Polysomnography

text: Snoring may be recorded with a sound probe over the neck, though more commonly the sleep technician will just note snoring as "mild", "moderate" or "loud" or give a numerical estimate on a scale of 1 to 10. Also, snoring indicates airflow and can be used during hypopneas to determine whether the hypopnea may be an obstructive apnea.


title: Polysomnography

text: For the standard test, the patient comes to a sleep lab in the early evening and over the next 1–2 hours is introduced to the setting and "wired up" so that multiple channels of data can be recorded when they fall asleep. The sleep lab may be in a hospital, a free-standing medical office, or in a hotel. A sleep technician should always be in attendance and is responsible for attaching the electrodes to the patient and monitoring the patient during the study.


title: Polysomnography

text: During the study, the technician observes sleep activity by looking at the video monitor and the computer screen that displays all the data second by second. In most labs, the test is completed and the patient is discharged home by 7 a.m. unless a Multiple Sleep Latency Test (MSLT) is to be done during the day to test for excessive daytime sleepiness.


title: Polysomnography

text: Most recently, health care providers may prescribe home studies to enhance patient comfort and reduce expense. The patient is given instructions after a screening tool is used, uses the equipment at home and returns it the next day. Most screening tools consist of an airflow measuring device (thermistor) and a blood oxygen monitoring device (pulse oximeter). The patient would sleep with the screening device for one to several days, then return the device to the health care provider. The provider would retrieve data from the device and could make assumptions based on the information given. For example, series of drastic blood oxygen desaturations during night periods may indicate some form of respiratory event (apnea). The equipment monitors, at a minimum, oxygen saturation. More sophisticated home study devices have most of the monitoring capability of their sleep lab technician run counterparts, and can be complex and time-consuming to set up for self-monitoring.


title: Polysomnography

text: After the test is completed a "scorer" analyzes the data by reviewing the study in 30-second "epochs".


title: Polysomnography

text: Once scored, the test recording and the scoring data are sent to the sleep medicine physician for interpretation. Ideally, interpretation is done in conjunction with the medical history, a complete list of drugs the patient is taking, and any other relevant information that might impact the study such as napping done before the test.


title: Polysomnography

text: Once interpreted, the sleep physician writes a report that is sent to the referring provider, usually with specific recommendations based on the test results.


title: Polysomnography

text: The below example report describes a patient's situation, the results of some tests and mentions CPAP as a treatment for obstructive sleep apnea. CPAP is continuous positive airway pressure and is delivered via a mask to the patient's nose or the patient's nose and mouth. (Some masks cover one, some both). CPAP is typically prescribed after the diagnosis of OSA is made from a sleep study (i.e., after a PSG test). To determine the correct amount of pressure and the right mask type and size, and also to make sure the patient can tolerate this therapy, a "CPAP titration study" is recommended. This is the same as a "PSG" but with the addition of the mask applied so the technician can increase the airway pressure inside the mask as needed, until all, or most, of the patient's airway obstructions are eliminated.


title: Polysomnography

text: This report recommends that Mr. J---- return for a CPAP titration study, which means a return to the lab for a second all-night PSG (this one with the mask applied). Often, however, when a patient manifests OSA in the first 2 or 3 hours of the initial PSG, the technician will interrupt the study and apply the mask right then and there; the patient is awakened and fitted for a mask. The rest of the sleep study is then a "CPAP titration." When both the diagnostic PSG and a CPAP titration are done the same night, the entire study is called "split night".


title: Polysomnography

text: Because of costs, more and more studies for "sleep apnea" are attempted as split-night studies when there is early evidence for OSA. (Note that both types of study, with and without a CPAP mask, are still polysomnograms.) When the CPAP mask is worn, however, the flow-measurement lead in the patient's nose is removed. Instead, the CPAP machine relays all flow-measurement data to the computer. The below report is an example report which might be produced from a split night study:


title: Third Anglo-Dutch War

text: The Third Anglo-Dutch War (), 27 March 1672 to 19 February 1674, was a naval conflict between the Dutch Republic and England, in alliance with France. It is considered a subsidiary of the wider 1672 to 1678 Franco-Dutch War.


title: Third Anglo-Dutch War

text: In the 1670 Secret Treaty of Dover, Charles II of England agreed to support an attack by Louis XIV of France on the Dutch Republic. By doing so, Louis hoped to gain control of the Spanish Netherlands, while Charles sought to restore the damage to his prestige caused by the 1667 Raid on the Medway. Under the treaty, Charles also received secret payments which he hoped would make him financially independent of the English Parliament.


title: Third Anglo-Dutch War

text: The French offensive in May and June 1672 quickly over-ran most of the Republic, with the exception of the core province of Holland, where they were halted by water defences. In early June, the Anglo-French fleet was badly damaged by the Dutch under Michiel de Ruyter at the Battle of Solebay, ensuring they retained control of vital trade routes. In late June, Johan de Witt resigned as Grand Pensionary, and Charles' nephew William III of Orange was appointed Stadtholder. Charles tried to persuade him to make peace, but William refused; he knew the alliance with France was unpopular in England, while fear of French success brought support from Emperor Leopold and Spain.


title: Third Anglo-Dutch War

text: By the end of 1672, the Dutch had regained much of the territory lost in May, and with hopes of a quick victory gone, Parliament refused to provide Charles with further funding for a war which the majority opposed. From June to July 1673, the Dutch and Anglo-French fleets fought three separate battles; although largely inconclusive, they ended any prospect of the Republic being conquered. Instead, Louis focused on taking the Spanish Netherlands, an objective as harmful to English interests as it was to Dutch; domestic opposition forced Charles to agree to the Second Peace of Westminster in February 1674.


title: Third Anglo-Dutch War

text: The 1652–1654 First Anglo-Dutch War was the result of commercial rivalry and Orangist support for the exiled Charles II, uncle of William of Orange. Peace terms agreed in 1654 with the English Protectorate included the permanent exclusion of the House of Orange-Nassau from public office, ensuring Republican political control. When Charles regained the English throne in 1660, his Orangist links meant Grand Pensionary Johan de Witt opposed negotiations for an Anglo-Dutch alliance; after these broke down, he agreed a treaty of assistance with Louis XIV in 1662.


title: Third Anglo-Dutch War

text: Despite their long-standing support in the Dutch Eighty Years' War against Spain, French objectives in the Low Countries threatened Dutch commercial interests. The 1648 Peace of Münster permanently closed the Scheldt estuary, benefiting De Witt's power base of Amsterdam by eliminating their closest rival, Antwerp, and keeping it shut was a vital objective. Changes in this region also concerned England, since control of ports on the North Flemish coast allowed a hostile power to blockade the Channel.


title: Third Anglo-Dutch War

text: In 1665, an attack by the Duke of York on the West-Indische Compagnie led to the Second Anglo-Dutch War; in the first 18 months, the Dutch suffered a serious naval defeat at Lowestoft, an invasion by Münster and an attempted Orangist coup, both financed by England. The prospect of an English victory led Louis to activate the 1662 treaty, although the Dutch considered the support provided inadequate. When the States of Holland blocked his requests for territorial compensation, Louis launched the War of Devolution in May 1667 and rapidly occupied much of the Spanish Netherlands and Franche-Comté.


title: Third Anglo-Dutch War

text: His refusal to recall Parliament forced Charles to pay off his fleet in early 1667, leading to the humiliating Raid on the Medway. Despite this triumph, the Dutch were more worried by French gains; they quickly negotiated an end to the war in July 1667, then started talks in London on a shared approach for reversing them. Sensing an opportunity, Charles proposed an alliance to Louis, who was unwilling to pay the subsidies demanded; however, De Witt welcomed English envoys to The Hague, seeing it as a way to put pressure on France.


title: Third Anglo-Dutch War

text: French tariffs on imports imposed in early 1667 increased opposition in the States General, who preferred a weak Spain as a neighbour to a strong France. On 23 January 1668, the Republic, England and Sweden signed the Triple Alliance, committing to mutual support in the event of an attack on one by France or Spain. A secret clause agreed to provide Spain military assistance if France continued the war. Charles disclosed the secret clause to Louis, who felt betrayed by the Dutch. Louis returned most of his acquisitions in the 1668 Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, although he retained Charleroi and Tournai.


title: Third Anglo-Dutch War

text: Concluding the Dutch would never voluntarily accept French aims in the Spanish Netherlands, Louis decided the best way to achieve them was to eliminate the Republic. This meant breaking up the Triple Alliance; since the subsidies promised by the Dutch remained unpaid, it was easy to detach Sweden by offering money, making England his next target. The French and English kings negotiated the 1670 Secret Treaty of Dover, using Henrietta of England as a mediator, Charles' sister and Louis' sister in law. Very few English statesmen were aware of its provisions.


title: Third Anglo-Dutch War

text: Terms included an Anglo-French military alliance against the Republic, creation of a Dutch rump state for his nephew William and a British brigade for the French army. The treaty was signed in December 1670, but omitted secret clauses not revealed until 1677; Louis agreed to pay Charles £230,000 per year for the brigade, £1 million for the navy and £200,000 for his public conversion to Catholicism, the timing of which was left up to him. Aware Louis was negotiating with De Witt over dividing the Spanish Netherlands, Charles demanded Walcheren, Cadzand and Sluys, whose possession would give him control of Dutch sea routes.


title: Third Anglo-Dutch War

text: National tensions between England and the Republic significantly diminished after 1667, and there was minimal support for an anti-Dutch alliance with France. Exchanging the Dutch colony of New Amsterdam for the spice island of Run resolved a major area of dispute, while both were concerned by French aims in the Low Countries, and English merchants were also affected by French tariffs. Most Dutch and English politicians considered the Triple Alliance an essential protection against French expansion; in early 1671, Parliament allocated money to ensure the Royal Navy could fulfil its obligations under the treaty.


title: Third Anglo-Dutch War

text: Louis instructed de Pomponne, his ambassador in The Hague, to continue negotiations with De Witt as a delaying tactic while he finalised invasion plans. The English envoy, Sir William Temple, was entrusted by Charles with the same mission. Since Dutch defences were concentrated along their southern border with the Spanish Netherlands, Louis agreed an alliance with Electoral Cologne, allowing his army to advance through the Principality of Liège for an attack from the east (see Map). It also complied with an undertaking to Emperor Leopold I not to use the Spanish Netherlands as an invasion route.


title: Third Anglo-Dutch War

text: In April 1672, France agreed to pay Sweden subsidies in return for its neutrality, while also promising military assistance if 'threatened' by Brandenburg-Prussia; this offset an agreement of 6 May between the Dutch and Frederick William, whose territories included the Duchy of Cleves on their eastern border. Hoping to gain English backing, on 25 February 1672 the States General appointed Charles' 22-year-old nephew William as captain-general of the federal army, which had an authorised total of 83,000 men. Uncertainty over French strategy meant most of these were based in the wrong place, while many garrisons were below strength; on 12 June, one commander reported he had only four companies available from an official total of eighteen.


title: Third Anglo-Dutch War

text: The Republic was better prepared for a naval war, although to avoid provoking the English, on 4 February the States General reduced the naval budget from 7.9 million to 4.8 million guilders. At the end of the Second Anglo-Dutch War in 1667, the Dutch Navy was the largest in Europe but by 1672 the combined Anglo-French fleet outnumbered them by over a third. However, the French were inexperienced, their ships badly designed and their relationship with the Royal Navy was damaged by mutual suspicion.


title: Third Anglo-Dutch War

text: In the battles of 1666, the Dutch had been hampered by lack of familiarity with their new, much heavier, warships, the complex federal command system and conflict between Michiel de Ruyter and Cornelis Tromp. By 1672, these had been corrected, and De Ruyter's intensive training of his fleet in line-of-battle manoeuvres installed a new sense of coherence and discipline. Dutch ships were generally better gun platforms, whose shallow draft suited operations close to shore but were slow and less effective in open seas. Although Dutch numbers were further reduced by Friesland retaining ships for defence against Münster, better training and design gave them operational equality.


title: Third Anglo-Dutch War

text: England provided two-thirds of an Anglo-French fleet of 98 "great ships and frigates", whose role was to gain control of Dutch waters, land an expeditionary force and attack its shipping. Parliament generally approved naval expenditure, seen as protecting English trade, but refused to fund land forces. The British brigade was largely composed of Dumbarton's, a mercenary unit in French service since 1631, and very few members saw service before the war ended.


title: Third Anglo-Dutch War

text: The refusal of Parliament to approve taxes for a war against the Protestant Dutch in alliance with Catholic France forced Charles to seek other sources of finance. In January 1672, he suspended repayment of Crown debts in the Stop of the Exchequer, which produced £1.3 million but had disastrous economic effects; many City of London merchants were ruined and it shut off the short-term financing essential to international trade. In late March, two weeks before a formal declaration of war, he ordered an attack on a Dutch Levant Company convoy in the Channel, which was beaten off by its escort under Cornelis Evertsen the Youngest.


title: Third Anglo-Dutch War

text: The unpopularity of the French alliance and lack of funding forced Charles to gamble on a quick war. In an attempt to gain support from Nonconformists, he issued a Royal Declaration of Indulgence on 15 March, but by also removing restrictions on Catholics, it did little to reduce opposition. Hostility increased when Charles appointed his Catholic brother James as Lord High Admiral rather than his Protestant uncle, Prince Rupert. Even the Royal Navy found it difficult to recruit enough sailors to fully man the fleet.


title: Third Anglo-Dutch War

text: His chief minister, Lord Arlington, was instructed to "break with (the Dutch), yet to lay the breach at their door". This was done using manufactured incidents, including the "Merlin" affair, which took place near Brill in August 1671. The royal yacht was ordered to sail through the Dutch fleet, who duly struck their flag in salute, but failed to fire white smoke, an honour afforded only to warships. A formal complaint to the States General was dismissed and few in England were even aware of the incident; its use as a pretext, combined with the attack on the Dutch convoy, led some English politicians to declare the conflict "unjust". England declared war on 27 March, followed by France on 6 April.


title: Third Anglo-Dutch War

text: When the French invaded the Dutch Republic in May 1672, it initially seemed as if they had won an overwhelming victory. By the end of June, only the Dutch Water Line stood between them and the core province of Holland; by opening the sluices, the Dutch managed to stop the French advance. Dutch survival depended on control of the sea lanes, which ensured they could bring in vital supplies and keep trade routes open. Although outnumbered, on 7 June De Ruyter attacked the combined Anglo-French fleet at the Battle of Solebay; both sides lost one ship each, but it ended significant naval operations for the year.


title: Third Anglo-Dutch War

text: His unexpected success proved a mixed blessing for Louis, since it distracted from the main objectives of capturing the Spanish Netherlands. The possibility of France controlling the Republic, the largest commercial power in Europe, brought the Dutch support from Emperor Leopold and Spain among others. It also increased opposition in England, where many had opposed an alliance with Catholic France from the start. Peace negotiations made little progress; an over-confident Louis made demands unacceptable even to his English allies, while the Dutch used the opportunity to acquire allies and rebuild their army. By the end of 1672, they had regained much of the territory lost in May; Charles had run out of money and Parliament was unwilling to provide further financing.


title: Third Anglo-Dutch War

text: The speed with which the Republic was over-run in 1672 means it is still referred to as the "Rampjaar" or 'Year of disaster'. On 7 May, a French army of around 80,000 entered Liège; accompanied by Louis, they bypassed the Dutch stronghold of Maastricht, crossed the Meuse and besieged the Dutch-held Rhine fortress towns of Rheinberg, Orsoy, Buderich and Wesel. The last of these surrendered on 9 June, while troops from Münster and Cologne simultaneously entered the provinces of Overijssel and Gelderland.


title: Third Anglo-Dutch War

text: On 12 June, the French crossed the Lower Rhine into the Betuwe near Schenkenschans and, recrossing the Lower Rhine to outflank the IJssel Line, occupied Arnhem on 16 June and Zutphen on 25 June. Now in danger of being cut off from the core province of Holland, William and his troops retreated through Utrecht behind the Holland Water Line; the inundations were released on 22 June, stopping the French advance in this area. On 5 July, Overijssel surrendered to Bernhard von Galen, Prince-Bishop of Münster, who occupied Drenthe; he reached Groningen, but flooding prevented a proper siege and his troops were soon starving.


title: Third Anglo-Dutch War

text: The States General had responded to the March attack on the Smyrna convoy by expanding the active fleet from forty-eight to sixty vessels, and ordering the construction of thirty-six new vessels. This still left them outnumbered by the combined Anglo-French fleet, and De Ruyter withdrew into shoal waters near the Dutch coast, awaiting an opportunity. Disasters on land meant De Witt needed a victory; he ordered De Ruyter to attack, accompanied by Cornelis de Witt to ensure these instructions were carried out.


title: Third Anglo-Dutch War

text: When the Allied fleet withdrew to Solebay near Southwold, Norfolk to resupply, on 7 June De Ruyter surprised it at the Battle of Solebay. The Duke of York led his squadrons against the main Dutch fleet, but his French colleague d'Estrées either misunderstood his intentions or deliberately ignored them, sailing in the opposite direction. The thirty French ships fought a separate encounter at long-range with fifteen ships from the Admiralty of Zeeland, under Adriaen Banckert. D'Estrées was later condemned by some of his own officers for failing to engage them more closely.


title: Third Anglo-Dutch War

text: The Earl of Sandwich was killed when the "Royal James" was sunk by fireships, with other ships suffering heavy damage. Although ship losses were roughly equal, Solebay ensured the Dutch retained control of their coastal waters, secured their trade routes and ended hopes of an Anglo-French landing in Zeeland. Anger at the alleged lack of support from D'Estrées increased opposition to the war, and Parliament was reluctant to approve funds for essential repairs. For the rest of the year, this restricted English naval operations to a failed attack on the Dutch East India Company Return Fleet.


title: Third Anglo-Dutch War

text: However, this did not offset the damage caused by Dutch defeats on land, and it was impossible to hide the gravity of the crisis. A stream of venomous Orangist pamphlets accused the De Witt brothers in particular and the Regent regime in general of betraying the country to the French. There was widespread rioting, with Orangists seizing control of city councils and demanding William take over government. On 22 June, Johan de Witt was badly wounded in an assassination attempt; one of the attackers, Jacob van der Graaf, was quickly arrested, tried and executed, increasing popular anger with the De Witts.


title: Third Anglo-Dutch War

text: The Dutch were helped by the incompatibility of French and English objectives, while initial success meant Louis over-estimated the strength of his position. French expansion in the Spanish Netherlands was primarily intended to grow their economy at the expense of the Dutch, but undermined English trade and security as well. If Louis also gained control of Holland, the financial and commercial centre of Europe, the potential increase in French influence threatened every other European state.


title: Third Anglo-Dutch War

text: On 14 June, the States of Holland opened negotiations, offering Louis the right to occupy key fortresses in the south, plus an indemnity of ten million guilders. He responded with additional demands including religious freedom for Catholics, or French sovereignty over Utrecht and Guelders. Both sides were using talks as a delaying tactic, assuming their position would improve; Louis knew the envoys were not authorised to negotiate on religion or the territorial integrity of the provinces and would have to request further instructions. The English were to be ceded Delfzijl, in Groningen, already besieged by Münster.


title: Third Anglo-Dutch War

text: Depicting Charles as the one man who could save them from the French, Orangist pressure led to William's appointment as stadtholder of Holland on 4 July. Hoping for a quick win, Charles sent Arlington and Buckingham to Brill, accompanied by Orangist exiles who had fled the Republic after their failed coup in 1666. They arrived at William's headquarters in Nieuwerbrug on 5 July, cheered by crowds who believed they brought promises of English support. The mood quickly changed when their terms were made public. France and Münster were to retain their conquests and William would be appointed Sovereign Prince of Holland, in return for which he would pay England ten million guilders, £10,000 per annum for North Sea herring rights, and allow English garrisons to occupy Brill, Sluys and Vlissingen.


title: Third Anglo-Dutch War

text: William rejected the offer, since it gave the Dutch nothing they did not already hold. Arlington and Buckingham then met with Louis and agreed the Heeswijk Accord on 16 July. This set out a list of shared demands and undertook not to conclude a separate peace, but neither side placed any reliance on it. Leopold's envoy in the Hague, Francois-Paul de Lisola, gave the States-General assurances of Imperial support and arranged for Spanish troops to hold the Dutch fortress cities of 's-Hertogenbosch and Breda, releasing their garrisons for the field army.


title: Third Anglo-Dutch War

text: A second letter from Charles on 18 July urged William to accept his terms, claiming the De Witts were the only obstacle to peace. He responded by offering fishing rights, £400,000, Sluys and Surinam, in return for recognition as Prince of Holland and England agreeing a separate peace. Based on the Heeswijk Accord, Louis demanded the Dutch cede their naval base at Hellevoetsluis to England, a demand he knew was unacceptable. After the terms were rejected on 20 July, Arlington and Buckingham returned to London.


title: Third Anglo-Dutch War

text: Johan de Witt had resigned as Grand Pensionary in June, while Cornelis was arrested for allegedly plotting to murder William. On 15 August, Charles' letter blaming the De Witts was published in Holland; motives are still debated but the effect was to inflame tensions and the two brothers were lynched by an Orangist civil militia on 20th. The Orangist Gaspar Fagel became Grand Pensionary and on 27 August the States of Holland passed legislation that removed their political opponents from local office and thus secured William's political position.


title: Third Anglo-Dutch War

text: On 7 July, the inundations were fully set; their effectiveness would be reduced when the waters froze in winter but for now, Holland was secure from French advance. This gave the States time to enact the military reforms approved on 16 July, while they were boosted by the return of 20,000 prisoners ransomed from the French. In addition to unofficial Spanish support, on 25 July Leopold promised to invade the Rhineland and Alsace with 16,000 troops, along with the 20,000 promised by Frederick William in May.


title: Third Anglo-Dutch War

text: This forced Louis to divert 40,000 men to meet this threat, with nearly 50,000 tied up in garrisons around the Republic. English hopes of a quick victory vanished after Solebay, while the removal of the De Witts secured William's position and ended his dependence on Charles. The Münster army disintegrated due to lack of supplies and on 27 August, von Galen abandoned the siege of Groningen; the besiegers lost over 11,000 men, including 6,000 deserters, many of whom joined the Dutch.


title: Third Anglo-Dutch War

text: William led attacks on Woerden and Charleroi, which were over-ambitious and unsuccessful but restored Dutch morale, while Coevorden was recaptured on 31 December. Although their position remained precarious, by the end of 1672 the Dutch had regained much of the territory lost in May and Louis found himself involved in a wider European war of attrition. Despite his French subsidies, Charles had run out of money and faced considerable domestic opposition to continuing the war. This increased when the Dutch Cape Colony dispatched an expeditionary force to the English-held island of Saint Helena, and took possession on behalf of the Dutch East India Company.


title: Third Anglo-Dutch War

text: After the French failed to breach the Holland Water Line, the Anglo-French fleet was tasked with defeating the Dutch navy, allowing them to blockade the Dutch coast and threaten the Republic with starvation, or land an invasion force. However, poor co-ordination meant they failed to exploit their numerical advantage, and De Ruyter was able to prevent his fleet being overwhelmed. Although the Battle of Texel on 21 August was inconclusive, it was a strategic Dutch victory as the damage inflicted on the English fleet forced them to return home for repairs.


title: Third Anglo-Dutch War

text: Never popular to begin with, English support for the war dissolved along with hopes for a quick victory. In late 1673, the French withdrew from the Republic, and focused on conquering the Spanish Netherlands, a frightening prospect for most English politicians. Combined with a Dutch pamphlet campaign claiming Charles had agreed to restore Catholicism, Parliament refused to fund the war, while the level of opposition made Charles fear for his own position. In February 1674, the Second Peace of Westminster ended the war; it was greeted with popular enthusiasm in both countries, not least by commercial interests in Amsterdam and London, and the treaty was ratified with exceptional speed.


title: Third Anglo-Dutch War

text: In the first two wars, both navies, particularly the Dutch, employed aggressive tactics that often resulted in heavy ship losses for the defeated side. In the Third Anglo-Dutch War, the priority was to minimise losses, and it was common for fleets to engage using the 'line-ahead' formation, an essentially defensive approach; despite inflicting considerable damage, neither side lost any ships at the Texel.


title: Third Anglo-Dutch War

text: When the Water Line froze during the winter of 1673, the French were unable to break it, thwarted by thin ice and companies of Dutch sailors equipped with ice skates, under Johan de Liefde. Attempts in the spring to drain the northern part of the line or cross on rafts also proved unsuccessful. With an eastern approach impractical, the Royal Navy was ordered to blockade the coast in co-operation with a French squadron; if possible, they were to land an invasion force, although how this would be accomplished was unclear. Lacking experience of amphibious operations, this meant capturing a Dutch port, despite limited knowledge of the dangerous shoals protecting their approaches.


title: Third Anglo-Dutch War

text: Hoping to unnerve the Dutch, Prince Rupert leaked information claiming his fleet was accompanied by ships carrying an invasion force; in reality, it remained in Great Yarmouth, and was in any case insufficient for the task. In May, the English fleet of 81 ships approached the Dutch coast, while De Ruyter's 55 ships took up a defensive position in the Schooneveld. Early on 7 June, Prince Rupert detached a light squadron, hoping to tempt De Ruyter into battle where the Allies could use their superior numbers. The alternative was forcing the Dutch fleet into Hellevoetsluis, where they could be blockaded while transports brought troops over to assault Den Briel or Vlissingen.


title: Third Anglo-Dutch War

text: However, De Ruyter's speed of response allowed him to attack before the main Allied fleet was ready, launching the First Battle of the Schooneveld. At Solebay the previous year, the French squadron had sailed in the opposite direction to that of the English; to counter accusations this had been deliberate, they now formed the centre squadron. However, their inexperience and poor positioning left gaps which allowed De Ruyter to sail through the Allied centre.


title: Third Anglo-Dutch War

text: The French commanders had been ordered by Louis not to risk their ships, but focus on learning from the English and Dutch. They therefore disengaged, later writing enthusiastic reports about the tactical genius of the manoeuvre used by De Ruyter. Their defection threatened to cut off the Allied rear under Sir Edward Spragge; he took his own squadron to attack Tromp, who was also being engaged by Rupert, but fear of running aground meant this was not done with any conviction. Now split into four parts and in considerable confusion, the Allies withdrew after nine hours of fighting; they were not pursued, since De Ruyter decided not to take any unnecessary risks.


title: Third Anglo-Dutch War

text: The Allies continued to hold their position off the Dutch coast; on 14 June, De Ruyter took advantage of favourable winds and launched the Second Battle of the Schooneveld. Once again, this caused chaos in the unprepared Allied fleet, which suffered severe damage and returned to the Thames for repairs. In late July, Rupert put to sea again, hoping to draw the Dutch north by feinting against The Hague or Den Helder; although De Ruyter preferred to remain where he was, he was ordered out to escort a valuable incoming Dutch East India Company treasure fleet. While both sides suffered severe damage in the resulting Battle of Texel, Prince Rupert was forced to return home for repairs.


title: Third Anglo-Dutch War

text: The conduct of the French led to widespread recriminations and accusations they had failed to support their English colleagues. Whether this was fair remains a matter of dispute; in all three battles, De Ruyter took advantage of Allied deficiencies in fighting instructions and signalling. Regardless, it deepened suspicions between the English and French, further undercutting popular support for the war, while ending any hopes of starving the Dutch through a naval blockade. The result was an overwhelming strategic victory for the Dutch. even though four ships of the Spice Fleet had fallen into Allied hands. For De Ruyter, the successful campaign, by repelling attacks by much superior fleets to save his homeland, had been the highlight of his career, as the English readily acknowledged: the Duke of York concluded that among admirals, "he was the greatest that ever to that time was in the world". The English had to abandon their plans for an invasion from the sea, and the large costs of repair troubled Parliament.


title: Third Anglo-Dutch War

text: In previous conflicts, investing in privateers had been very profitable for the English, but from 1672 to 1673 Dutch raiders captured over 2,800 French and English ships, far more than their counterparts, The province of Zealand alone operated 120 privateers. Having failed to blockade the Dutch coast, English merchants were excluded from the vital Baltic trade in shipbuilding materials, while the loss of New Amsterdam and Dutch attacks on English possessions in India caused further damage to their trade. These material losses compounded a moral unease about the justifiability of the war; after Solebay, John Evelyn wrote: "the loss of my Lord Sandwich redoubled the loss to me, as well the folly of hazarding so brave a fleet, and losing so many good men, for no provocation in the world but because the Hollander exceeded us in industry, and all things else but envy."


title: Third Anglo-Dutch War

text: The effect was to increase English disillusionment with the war, while stabilising their military position restored Dutch credit, allowing the Estates to expand the military budget to a hundred million guilders, three times annual tax revenues. Louis had attacked the Republic hoping for a quick victory; once this failed, he faced a war of attrition on multiple fronts. In July 1673, French troops captured Maastricht; on 30 August, the Dutch agreed the Alliance of the Hague with Leopold and Spain. In October, they were joined by Charles IV, Duke of Lorraine, whose duchy was occupied by France, forming the Quadruple Alliance.


title: Third Anglo-Dutch War

text: William made sure the peace negotiations held in Cologne with France and England failed. In September, he recaptured Naarden, Münster and Cologne made peace, and French troops withdrew from the Dutch Republic, retaining only Grave and Maastricht. With a French victory over the Dutch now unlikely, the war became one for control of Flanders, an issue that divided England and France. This was an important factor in English opposition to the French alliance, but internal events were even more significant.


title: Third Anglo-Dutch War

text: In early 1673, Arlington's former secretary Peter du Moulin fled to the Republic, where he started a propaganda campaign backed by the world's largest per capita printing capacity. England was soon flooded with tens of thousands of pamphlets accusing Charles of conspiring with Louis to make the country Catholic again. Many were convinced of its truth, particularly when Charles gave permission for his brother and heir James to marry Mary of Modena, a devout Catholic. In February 1673, Parliament refused to approve further taxes unless Charles withdrew his proposed Indulgence and accepted a Test Act barring Catholics from public office. In June 1673, James resigned as Lord High Admiral, which was seen as confirmation of rumours he had secretly become a Catholic and could not comply with the Test Act. As Charles had no legitimate offspring, James' marriage now presented the strong prospect of a Catholic dynasty ruling England in the future.


title: Third Anglo-Dutch War

text: Buckingham, who learned of the secret provisions of the Treaty of Dover the previous year, reacted to the changed public mood by leaking them to other politicians, including Arlington. As a result, the Cabal Ministry joined those advocating peace with the Dutch; shocked by the revelation of Charles' agreement with Louis, Lord Shaftesbury began to consider removing the House of Stuart entirely. With his backing, John Locke developed the legal concepts that appeared in his work the Two Treatises of Government, a general denunciation of absolute monarchy.


title: Third Anglo-Dutch War

text: In this situation Charles felt that continuing the alliance was a grave threat to his personal position and that Parliament would no longer fund a war. He informed the French ambassador Colbert de Croissy that to his regret, he had to terminate the English war effort. He told the Dutch via the Spanish consul in London, the Marquess del Fresno, that, his main war aim to install his noble nephew as stadtholder having been attained, he no longer objected to concluding a lasting peace between the two Protestant brother nations, if only some minor "indemnities" could be paid. At first the States of Holland were disinclined to grant Charles's demands: as England had accomplished nothing in the war, it was, in their opinion, not entitled to any reward. But William convinced them that there was some chance of bringing Charles into the war "against" France eventually. Furthermore, Spain had not yet declared war on France and was willing to do so only if England made peace, because it feared English attacks on its American colonies.


title: Third Anglo-Dutch War

text: After a short exchange of proposals by means of trumpeters, the Treaty of Westminster was publicly proclaimed in London on 17 February Old Style. It was approved by the States of Holland and West Frisia on 4 March (New Style), and ratified by the States General on 5 March.


title: Third Anglo-Dutch War

text: The treaty stipulated that New York—formerly New Netherland—would henceforth be an English possession and that Suriname, captured by the Dutch in 1667, would remain their colony, confirming the status quo of 1667. An "indemnity" of two million guilders was to be paid by the Dutch. Eventually, William would force Charles to set off these indemnities against the debts he owed to the House of Orange, so the English king actually received very little.


title: Third Anglo-Dutch War

text: Despite the peace, Monmouth's brigade would not be withdrawn from the French army and it would be allowed to recruit in Britain until the end of the Franco-Dutch War. In April that year, William attempted to convince his uncle to enter the war against Louis but failed. Until the end of the War of Holland in 1678, Charles tried to negotiate between the two parties, at times pretending to consider a conflict with France, when such pretence was beneficial to him. In 1677, he forced his niece Mary to marry William; this would later prove to be a fundamental cause of the fall of his brother in 1688.


title: Escalation of commitment

text: Escalation of commitment is a human behavior pattern in which an individual or group facing increasingly negative outcomes from a decision, action, or investment nevertheless continue the behavior instead of altering course. The actor maintains behaviors that are irrational, but align with previous decisions and actions.


title: Escalation of commitment

text: Economists and behavioral scientists use a related term, "sunk-cost fallacy", to describe the justification of increased investment of money or effort in a decision, based on the cumulative prior investment ("sunk cost") despite new evidence suggesting that the future cost of continuing the behavior outweighs the expected benefit.


title: Escalation of commitment

text: In sociology, "irrational escalation of commitment" or "commitment bias" describe similar behaviors. The phenomenon and the sentiment underlying them are reflected in such proverbial images as "Throwing good money after bad", or "In for a penny, in for a pound", or "It's never the wrong time to make the right decision", or "If you find yourself in a hole, stop digging."


title: Escalation of commitment

text: Escalation of commitment was first described by Barry M. Staw in his 1976 paper, "Knee deep in the big muddy: A study of escalating commitment to a chosen course of action".


title: Escalation of commitment

text: Researchers, inspired by the work of Staw, conducted studies that tested factors, situations and causes of escalation of commitment. The research introduced other analyses of situations and how people approach problems and make decisions. Some of the earliest work stemmed from events in which this phenomenon had an effect and help explain the phenomenon.


title: Escalation of commitment

text: Over the past few decades, researchers have followed and analyzed many examples of the escalation of commitment to a situation. The heightened situations are explained in three elements. Firstly, a situation has a costly amount of resources such as time, money and people invested in the project. Next, past behavior leads up to an apex in time where the project has not met expectations or could be in a cautious state of decline. Lastly, these problems all force a decision-maker to make choices that include the options of continuing to pursue a project until completion by adding additional costs, or canceling the project altogether.


title: Escalation of commitment

text: Researchers have also developed an argument regarding how escalation of commitment is observed in two different categories. Many researchers believe that the need to escalate resources is linked to expectancy theory. "According to such a viewpoint, decision makers assess the probability that additional resource allocations will lead to goal attainment, as well as the value of goal attainment (i.e., rewards minus costs), and thereby generate a subjective expected utility associated with the decision to allocate additional resources." The next phase of the escalation process is self-justification and rationalizing if the decision the leader made used resources well, if the resources being used were used to make positive change, and assuring themselves that the decision they chose was right. Leaders must balance costs and benefits of any problem to produce a final decision. What matters most often in assuring the leader that they made the right choice regardless of the final outcome is if their decision is what others believed in.


title: Escalation of commitment

text: Research conducted on the topic has been taken from many other forms and theories of psychology. Many believe that what researchers have done thus far to explain this behavior is best analyzed and tested through situational development and resource allocation.


title: Escalation of commitment

text: Other research has identified circumstances that lead to the opposite of escalation of commitment, namely deescalation of commitment. This research explains the factors that influence whether escalation or deescalation of commitment is more likely to occur through the role of budgeting and mental accounting.


title: Escalation of commitment

text: Escalation of commitment can many times cause behavior change by means of locking into resources. One of the first examples of escalation of commitment was described by George Ball, who wrote to President Lyndon Johnson to explain to him the predictions of the war outcome:


title: Escalation of commitment

text: Self-justification thought process is a part of commitment decisions of leaders and managers of a group and can therefore cause a rise in commitment levels. This attitude provides "one explanation for why people escalate commitment to their past investments." Managers make decisions that reflect previous behavior. Managers tend to recall and follow information that is aligned to their behavior to create consistency for their current and future decisions. If a group member or outside party recognizes inconsistent decision making, this can alter the leadership role of the manager. Managers have external influence from society, peers, and authority, which can significantly alter a manager's perception on what factors realistically matter when making decisions.


title: Escalation of commitment

text: Prospect theory helps to describe the natural reactions and processes involved in making a decision in a risk-taking situation. Prospect theory makes the argument for how levels of wealth, whether that is people, money, or time, affect how a decision is made. Researchers were particularly interested in how one perceives a situation based on costs and benefits. The framing to how the problem is introduced is crucial for understanding and thinking of the probability that the situation will either work in favor or against you and how to prepare for those changes. "Whyte (1986) argued that prospect theory provides the psychological mechanism by which to explain escalating commitment to a failing course of action without the need to invoke self-justification processes. (Fiegenbaum & Thomas, 1988: 99)" Prospect theorists believe that one's use of this process is when there is a negative downfall in the stakes that will affect the outcome of the project. To ensure they will not fail, the individual may add more resources to assure them that they will succeed. Although this theory seems realistic, researchers "Davis and Bobko (1986) found no effect of personal responsibility on continued commitment to the previous course of action in the positive frame condition." Which means that escalation of commitment will be lower in the higher responsibility situation.


title: Escalation of commitment

text: The attribution theory, originating from Fritz Heider, "attempts to find causal explanations for events and human behaviors." This theory approaches two methods of inquiry including locus of causality and stability. Locus of causality reflects on internal characteristics of an individual, such as intelligence levels and attention seeking, with the relationship of the external space such as weather forecasts and task difficulty. Aspects of control become a significant factor in how a manager justifies a decision made. Managers will use the relationship between internal and external factors to describe why they made a decision to a single point of view. Managers may justify their actions by explaining that this was out of their personal control of the event, or they could believe that the decision could not be controlled by anyone else. Research suggests that "the type of attribution made by an employee across these dimensions is likely to impact an employee's tendency to engage in the negative emotional activity referred to as escalation of commitment."


title: Escalation of commitment

text: Identity is a large part of how we move through the world. Private thoughts and opinions as well as the effect of others create the social identity theory. People make connections between their use of groups and their own view of themselves, which researchers have discovered motivates people to keep their social status and to defend it whenever it is endangered.


title: Escalation of commitment

text: Groups engage in temporal comparisons, which means that you compare actions and behaviors at "different points in time." This is a form of social identity scenario. This type of comparison can be made when a decision seems unproductive and forces team members to consider any threat to the group.


title: Escalation of commitment

text: "The aggregate model's emphasis is upon the accumulation and balance of forces rather than the ordering of effects over time." The model is general and can provide an ideal view as to how the effects whether positive or negative are defined by micro and macro forces. This model goes by situation rather than what researchers have defined as the norm. There is no process to follow, which makes it very useful for researchers because they can understand a situation more clearly as well as see the bigger picture of the situation.


title: Escalation of commitment

text: The main drivers of the tendency to continue investing in losing propositions are project, psychological, social, and structural.


title: Escalation of commitment

text: Project determinants are those that refer to the original commitments and decisions made at a project's beginning. This includes general project characteristics and initial financial costs. Among them, decision risk, opportunity cost information, and information acquisition have been found to have negative relationships with escalation of commitment. Decision uncertainty, positive performance trend information, and expressed preference for initial decision have been found to have positive relationships.


title: Escalation of commitment

text: High costs of ending a project or changing its course, potential financial gain upon completion, and extensive structure can factor in to escalation of commitment, making it difficult to walk away from the project. Preventing future monetary loss, potential savings, and having clearly available alternatives can allow for avoidance of the behavior. In studies by Teger and later Ross and Staw, situations where ending an action costs more than completing it resulted in decision makers being trapped in their current, costly behaviors.


title: Escalation of commitment

text: Psychological determinants are those that refer to internal views on the actions and information involved in a project. This can include cognitive factors, personality, and emotions as they relate to project elements. Of these, sunk costs, time investment, decision maker experience and expertise, self-efficacy and confidence, personal responsibility for the initial decision, ego threat, and proximity to project completion have been found to have positive relationships with escalation of commitment, while anticipated regret and positive information framing have been found to have negative relationships.


title: Escalation of commitment

text: Optimism and belief that one has control over what will still be positive outcomes lead to continued self-justification of commitment to actions. People add to their initial personal investments in the hope they will overcome currently negative results. This was illustrated in a case study by Staw, where providing business students with manipulated responsibilities for initial decisions and their outcomes resulted in the greatest commitment to increased actions and resources when the initial decision assigned was made directly by the student with poor outcomes. In these instances, people take further risk in an attempt to avoid further problems. This is even more likely when subjects view current issues as having unstable reasoning rather than stable reasoning, or when the individual is unwilling to admit mistakes. They then believe the situation will stabilize or turn around. Confirmation bias can also lead to escalation of commitment as individuals are then less likely to recognize the negative results of their decisions. On the other hand, if the results are recognized, they can be blamed on unforeseeable events occurring during the course of the project.


title: Escalation of commitment

text: The effect of sunk costs is often seen escalating commitment. When the amount of investment is greater and can not be recovered, the desire to avoid complete loss of those resources and keeping with impression management prompts continued investment over pulling out. Relatedly, as invested resources can include time, closeness to completion of a project yields similar results. More value is placed on project when they are early or late in their process due to the clarity of completion goals at those points. It's more likely that risks will be taken at these points than in a project closer to a visible midpoint.


title: Escalation of commitment

text: Social determinants are those that refer to the expectations and influence of other individuals or groups on project actions. Included in these, group identity or cohesive strength has been found to have the most influence on escalation of commitment while public evaluation of decision and resistance to decision from others has little significance in relation.


title: Escalation of commitment

text: Structural determinants are those that refer to the cultural and environmental features and resources of the project's overall organization. The minimal research available on them indicates that agency problems most influence escalation of commitment.


title: Escalation of commitment

text: There are macro-level variables that affect the organizational structure of a team and how they make decisions. Decisions are made based on individuals in a group setting with specific roles and responsibilities and effect decisions that are a product of interaction in the team. The determinant that affects escalation of commitment is institutional inertia. This phenomenon is used to describe how individual attitudes and behavior changes frequently, so therefore, a group's stature is also unpredictable and controllable. "Organizations have very imperfect sensory systems, making them relatively impervious to changes in their environments."