title: Epistle

text: During the Middle Ages, the art of letter writing was taught in numerous manuals, and the ars dictaminis became an important genre of instructional discourse. The necessity for letter writing was in large part due to the general deterioration of civil life and the decay of the Roman road system in the early Middle Ages, factors that obliged literate people with business to transact to send letters instead of travel themselves. A vast number of letters and letter-writing manuals were written in the period's "lingua franca", Latin.


title: Gel blaster

text: A gel blaster, also known as a gel gun, gel shooter, gel marker, hydro marker, hydro blaster, water bead blaster or gelsoft, is a toy gun similar in design to airsoft guns, but the projectiles they shoot are superabsorbent polymer water beads (most commonly sodium polyacrylate, colloquially called water beads, hydrogel balls, gel balls, water bullets or simply gels), which are often sold commercially as moisture retainers for gardening and pot/vase floriculture.


title: Gel blaster

text: Gel blasters are often played in CQB-style shooting skirmishes similar to paintball by squads or local clubs of enthusiasts often referred to as "gelballers", but follow an airsoft-like honor-based gameplay umpiring system. MilSim games involving players wearing camouflage and dump pouches are very popular, while "SpeedGel" players are more casual with team jerseys and often wear paintball masks. In addition to safety gear such as eye protections, the sport is heavily regulated on the field and players must adhere to safety rules.


title: Gel blaster

text: The general design of gel blasters is very similar to airsoft guns, usually comprising a coil spring-loaded piston air pump, with a T-piece ahead of the pump outlet to feed gel beads. The spring-piston pump is either manually cocked (like a spring-piston gun) or more commonly driven by an electric motor-gearbox assembly powered by batteries (mostly identical to airsoft automatic electric guns (AEG)). Whilst the pressure output is identical to most airsoft guns via the use of compressed air, the uneven spherical shape, less weight and greater size of the projectile results in lower muzzle velocity than most airsoft guns. This nature of the gel ball external and terminal ballistics make them much safer to play with (although protective eyewear is still recommended) and very unlikely to cause any property damage. The gel beads are also very cheap, easily transported in packets and only require soaking in water for a few hours prior to playing. Another feature is the ease of cleaning, since the gel beads are made up of water in over 98% of mass and volume, and will break upon impact and simply dehydrate into tiny biodegradable slush powder fragments afterwards.


title: Gel blaster

text: Originally, the early gel blaster designs used paintball-style top-mounted hoppers (often disguised as fake optical sights) that relied on gravity to load the gel beads when shooting, because the water beads were typically too fragile to withstand even the pressure exerted by a follower spring. However, in late 2016, bottom-mounted magazines with inbuilt motors were introduced, which draw power from the main batteries (via contact points at the top) to drive a cogwheel that gently pushed the beads up a feeding tube. This gave a lot more realism than previously and triggered a huge surge in the popularity and market of gel blasters. The recent proliferation of more hardy gel beads on the market has also introduced magazines using the traditional spring follower.


title: Gel blaster

text: In early 2020, "Kublai P1", a gas-powered version modelled after the Glock pistol, started to appear on the market. The P1 is essentially the same in design to gas blowback airsoft pistols, and uses refrigerant gas (such as R-134a or HFC-152a) or propane to charge a gas canister built within a spring-follower magazine. The original version is fully polymer, but an upgraded version with metal slide and barrel is available for sale by retailers in Australia. Numerous other manufacturers have followed suit, releasing their own brands of gas blowback pistols.


title: Gel blaster

text: There are a variety of products made and produced to complement gel blasters, which feeds from ordinary gel ball ammunition.


title: Gel blaster

text: Gel grenades are essentially a bottle with an internal spring mechanism. When the safety clip is pulled and the lever is relaxed, a sear mechanism is released and allows three trapdoor-like hatches on the external shell to spread open, followed by the release of three spring-loaded hinged flaps underneath that "flick out" out any gel beads stored within the cavity between the hatches and the flaps, causing a "shower" of gel beads in all directions. The sear can be designed to release in a delayed fashion, or in response to vibrations caused by impacts.


title: Gel blaster

text: Gel mines are essentially plastic clamshell containers shaped like the M18 Claymore, with a pair of spring-loaded internal hinged flaps connected end-to-end by a looping piece of canvas. When the mine is loaded, the two flaps are folded down and trapped by the locked-shut clamshell enclosure, and gel beads are stored into the space within the canvas loop via a small feeding window on the front enclosure. The locking mechanism of the clamshell enclosure can be released manually by a tripwire, or by a remote control. When released, the clamshell enclosure opens up, allowing the two spring flaps to flip out like a french door, stretching and flattening the canvas between them, which will launch out all the stored gel beads towards the front direction.


title: Gel blaster

text: In March 2020, a gel blaster version of the M203 grenade launcher was introduced to the Chinese market by MAX SUN, which is designed to mount on the underside of another gel blaster's handguard via a Picatinny rail interface. It uses a rechargeable aluminium gas canister shaped like a 40 mm grenade, whose cap portion has six tubular holes each capable of holding numerous 7mm gel balls. Instead of actually launching the "grenade", the launcher actually functions like a shotgun. When the trigger is pulled, the launcher's spring-loaded hammer strikes a valve at the center of the "grenade" base and allows the canister's stored gas to be released through its cap holes, propelling and spraying out a shower of gel balls towards the target.


title: Gel blaster

text: Another Chinese company called LDT also introduced a similar "grenade launcher" in the shape of the Milkor MGL, which uses a mainspring-driven revolver-like mechanism that needs to be manually wound before use, and can hold a total of six canisters for repeated discharges.


title: Gel blaster

text: Safety concerns have been expressed about children using gel blasters. Between December 2018 and May 2019, eight children (ranging in age from four to 14 years) presented at the Queensland Children's Hospital emergency department with eye injuries caused by gel-blaster guns. In 2019 a 14-year-old presented at hospital with loss of eyesight, pain and vomiting after being struck in the eye by a gel pellet at 10 meters.


title: Gel blaster

text: First introduced in China as an airsoft substitute (as airsoft has been effectively banned in the Mainland since 2008) and as a better alternative to foam dart guns, gel blasters have become increasingly popular in regions with airsoft-unfriendly laws such as Malaysia, Vietnam, and particularly Australia, where they quickly gained a massive enthusiast following in states like Queensland and South Australia.


title: Gel blaster

text: Gel blasters have been involved in several criminal incidents. In May 2020 a man was arrested for allegedly perpetrating drive by attacks on pedestrians with gel blasters. There have been numerous reports in QLD and SA of persons being charged and arrested for misuse of gel blasters.


title: Gel blaster

text: As the gel beads (which are commonly sold in gardening and household hardware stores) are not legally regarded as ammunitions, gel blasters are classified as toys by the ACCC ASN/NZ 8124 in Australia and used to be legal for sale, but some toy importers/merchants, such as Brad Towner from Armored Heaven in New South Wales and Peter Clarke from Tactical Edge in Queensland, have been subjected to shipment seizures by the Australian Border Force and prosecuted for "firearm offences" but had the lawsuits ruled in their favor. There were also incidents of NSW Police border patrol arresting people who drove interstate to purchase gel blasters from Queensland.


title: Gel blaster

text: On October 8, 2020, the South Australia Police (SAPOL) announced that gel blasters would be officially declared as a regulated imitation firearm, and subjected to the same sale and possession licensing as paintball markers under the Firearms Act 2015 and Firearms Regulations 2017. People owning gel blasters are required to obtain a Category A firearm licence and registration within a six-month amnesty period (from October 8, 2020, to April 7, 2021), or hand any unauthorised items into a police station or a participating firearms dealer. Calls to compensate businesses crippled by the new regulations have been rejected by the State Government. On October 14, SAPOL made the first gel blaster-related arrest of a 26-year-old man. The new regulation has been met with protests from enthusiasts, but South Australia's paintball community has applauded the crackdown. This crackdown leaves Queensland as the only state in Australia where gel blasters are able to be possessed without a licence, though laws were passed in July 2020 categorising gel blasters as restricted items which means they must be stored in a locked container and cannot be possessed without a reasonable excuse.


title: Gel blaster

text: In late 2020, a court case was filed against SAPOL seeking to challenge the ban on gel blasters. Chris Sinclair, spokesman for the Gel Blaster Association of Australia was quoted as saying he was confident these court proceedings would be successful. Exact details and the outcome of the court case is at this point unknown however a GoFundMe campaign raised over $22,870 towards fees for a "class action against SAPOL."


title: Gel blaster

text: From July 3, 2021, the Western Australian Government banned gel blasters citing similarity to real weapons and legitimate safety concerns. After July 3, 2021, anyone found with a gel blaster in Western Australia could face jail time and up to a $36,000 fine. One of the precipitating events for the ban was a 4-hour siege at a pharmacy in Applecross, a suburb of Perth, where the man at the centre of the siege was armed with a gel blaster. After the formal ban of gel blasters in Western Australia, Queensland remains the last state where gel blasters are legal in Australia.


title: Gel blaster

text: Similarly, DJI's popular remote controlled toy ground drone, the RoboMaster S1, which was introduced into the international market in mid-2019, was almost banned from import into Australia because it had a blaster gun for competitive tag matches, and as of November 2020 is still not available for sale in Victoria and New South Wales in order to "comply with local laws and regulations".


title: Gel blaster

text: In Mainland China, there were moral panics by media similar to those involving airsoft, triggering a joint meeting from the Chinese authority in 2018 to "crackdown and regulate illegal activities/crimes involving guns and explosive items". In September 2020, the Deputy Minister of Public Security, Lin Rui, announced on a video conference of "nationwide special action on crackdown and regulation of online-purchased criminal/illegal imitation guns" (全国打击整治网售仿真枪违法犯罪专项行动) that the Ministry of Public Security, Office of the Central Cyberspace Affairs, General Administration of Customs, State Administration for Market Regulation, State Post Bureau and other local authorities will be jointly working to inspect and confiscate any toy guns, gel blasters and other replica/imitation guns that violate the regulation standards, clamping down on the manufacturing, sale and trafficking, and encouraging the public to report in offenders. Although more details are yet to come out, many in China have seen this as the official banning of gel blasters.


CHAOS: Charles Manson, the CIA, and the Secret History of the Sixties is a 2019 non-fiction book written by Tom O'Neill with . The book presents O'Neill's research into the background and motives for the Tate–LaBianca murders committed by the Manson Family in 1969. O'Neill questions the Helter Skelter scenario argued by lead prosecutor Vincent Bugliosi in the trials and in his book "Helter Skelter" (1974). The book's title is a reference to the covert CIA program Operation CHAOS.


title: CHAOS: Charles Manson, the CIA, and the Secret History of the Sixties

text: In 1999, entertainment reporter Tom O'Neill accepted a three-month assignment from the film magazine "Premiere" to write about how the Tate–LaBianca murders changed Hollywood. O'Neill missed his deadline but continued to investigate the murders. "CHAOS" is the product of twenty years of meticulous research, hundreds of interviews, and falling-outs with publishers that led to financial and legal repercussions for O'Neill.


text: "Publishers Weekly" wrote that "True crime fans will be enthralled." "The Guardian"s Peter Conrad wrote, "As [O'Neill] admits, the loose ends are still not tied up and with so many of the culprits dead they probably never will be. O’Neill's intricately sinister 'secret history' often sounds incredible; that doesn’t mean that it’s not all true." Writing in the "Los Angeles Times", Stephen Phillips deemed that O'Neill did "yeoman's work filling out an aging narrative straitjacketed by the exigencies of its author’s legal strategy. " Greg King of "The Washington Post" wrote, "There’s plenty of new information that makes "Chaos" a worthwhile addition to the canon of Manson literature, even if it ends without a unified theory of the crimes and their motivations.".


text: In a mixed review, "Kirkus Reviews" called the book "overlong", praising "the author's confessions of the many dead ends and blank spots he encountered" but largely criticizing O'Neill for exploring too many theories. Tony Allen-Mills of "The Sunday Times" felt that the early chapters of the book "do a convincing job picking out the flaws in Bugliosi's case, but the wheels start to come off when O'Neill begins searching for alternative explanations."


text: On July 19, 2019, "Variety" reported that Amazon Studios purchased the film rights to the book. Before "CHAOS" was published, an adaptation of O'Neill's story was originally in development by Errol Morris in collaboration with Netflix but O'Neill backed out of the project over creative differences.


title: Bhoomi (2017 film)

text: Bhoomi () is a 2017 Indian action drama film directed and co-produced by Omung Kumar. The film stars Sanjay Dutt, Aditi Rao Hydari, and Sharad Kelkar. Principal photography commenced in February 2017 in Agra. Bhoomi trailer was launched on 10 August. The film was released worldwide on 22 September 2017.


title: Bhoomi (2017 film)

text: Bhoomi Sachdeva, a designer, is all set to be married to Neeraj Mathur, her best friend, but has a problem of returning home late from work. Her father, Arun Sachdeva is an alcoholic shoe-maker who sells shoes, but the two share a loving relationship. Vishal Munshi is infatuated with Bhoomi and not happy about her marriage. He stalks her, and she slaps him one day when he tries to forcefully assert his love. Vishal meets his cousin Dedha's gangster boss Dhauli, who convinces him to do something about it.


title: Bhoomi (2017 film)

text: One day before the wedding, while travelling home with her aide Jeetu, Bhoomi gets kidnapped. She finds Vishal asphyxiating her to near death, and Vishal, Dedha, and Dhauli take turns gang-raping her. Bhoomi eventually falls unconscious. On the day of the wedding, Neeraj is shocked to learn of the truth, and is forced against his will to cancel the marriage, following which, Arun and his childhood friend, Tripurari "Taj", visit a police station to register a complaint. The police officer goes with him to his house, where they find Bhoomi missing. Bhoomi is kidnapped again by Vishal, Dhauli and Dedha. This time, once again they gang rape her before Dhauli throws her down a river.


title: Bhoomi (2017 film)

text: Dhauli soon discovers that Bhoomi survived. In the ensuing court case, Arun accuses the defense lawyer of being[patriarchal and body-shaming Bhoomi. The case is dismissed after they let go of Dhauli. The incident brings father and daughter closer to each other. Bhoomi is further shamed in society when people write her phone number on the walls. Neeraj returns, overcome by remorse, but cannot pacify her, as she leaves him. The next day, Jeetu's family visits and shows Bhoomi a video from Jeetu's phone detailing the rape. Realizing Jeetu was complicit in the act, Bhoomi is shocked.


title: Bhoomi (2017 film)

text: Arun and Bhoomi turn ruthless and abduct Jeetu, who is then tortured. Arun goes on a scaring spree by haunting Vishal. Dhauli takes a petrified Vishal to Arun, asking Vishal to apologize, but Arun picks a fight with Dhauli. On his 18th birthday, Jeetu is killed by Arun, and his body is found in Bhagwan Talkies, where they had raped Bhoomi. The police officer who had registered Arun's complaint is surprised to see Jeetu's sister disclaiming responsibility and chiding herself for having been his sister. The officer returns Arun his keychain that he'd been holding at the police station, and says that one mustn't leave his belongings after the match is played, implying that the policeman knows Arun is the murderer. Dedha threatens Bhoomi again; Taj intervenes but crashes into an iron pole and dies from his injuries. Shattered by the loss of his friend, Arun decides to finish off Vishal, Dedha and Dhauli.


title: Bhoomi (2017 film)

text: Vishal, scared off with Jeetu's murder, boards a bus but Arun and Bhoomi confront him and force him to castrate himself. Arun drives the bus to Dhauli's area. After a long scuffle, Dedha dies from his injuries. Arun and Bhoomi chase Dhauli to a temple, where Arun kills him, and he falls into a pond. He breathes his last as Bhoomi and Arun look down at the pond, having succeeded in their mission.


title: Bhoomi (2017 film)

text: Sukanya Verma, writing for Rediff.com, termed it "one of the worst films of the year" and blamed it for "[taking] perverse pleasure in a woman's humiliation". She opined that Dutt's character's transformation lacked seriousness and found the film to be "ghastly". "India Today" critic Lakshana N Palat gave the film a 1/5 rating. Meena Iyer writing for Times of India wrote "Watch Bhoomi for Dutt. He's from that era of larger-than-life heroes who get you to applaud even when he turns into a killing machine. You may not approve of his bloodlust, but you can't fault his swagger."


title: Bhoomi (2017 film)

text: The music of the film has been composed by Sachin–Jigar except where noted. In contrast, the lyrics have been penned by Priya Saraiya, Vayu, Anvita Dutt Guptan, Badshah and Utkarsh Naithani and the score is composed by Ismail Darbar. The first song of the film, "Trippy Trippy", which is sung by Neha Kakkar, Benny Dayal, Brijesh Shandilya and Badshah, was released on 18 August 2017. The second song, "Lag Ja Gale", which is sung by Rahat Fateh Ali Khan was released on 23 August 2017. The soundtrack was released by T-Series on 28 August 2017 and includes 8 songs.


title: Tirunelveli district

text: Tirunelveli district is one of the 38 districts of Tamil Nadu state in India. It is the largest district in terms of area with Tirunelveli as its headquarters. The district was formed on 1 September 1790 by the British East India Company (on behalf of the British government), and comprised the present Tirunelveli and Thoothukudi, Tenkasi and parts of Virudhunagar and Ramanathapuram district. As of 2011, the undivided district (along with Tenkasi) had a population of 3,077,233.


title: Tirunelveli district

text: Under the rule of the Pandyan Dynasty, the district was known as "Thenpandiyanadu". The Chola dynasty then named it "Mudikonda Cholamandalam". The Madurai Nayaks called it "Tirunelveli Seemai". Under the British East India Company, it was "Tinnevelly district", which included the modern Tirunelveli and Thoothukudi districts and parts of the Virudhunagar and Ramanathapuram districts.


title: Tirunelveli district

text: In 1910, Ramanathapuram District was formed from portions of the Madurai and Tirunelveli Districts, which comprised portions of the modern Virudhunagar District.


title: Tirunelveli district

text: After the Independence of India, Tirunelveli District was bifurcated on 20 October 1986 to "Nellai-Kattabomman district" (Tirunelveli) and "Chidambaranar district" (Tuticorin). Subsequently, the Government of Tamil Nadu decided to name each district according to the name of the headquarters town, so the region's name changed from "Tirunelveli-Kattabomman" to "Tirunelveli".


title: Tirunelveli district

text: On 18 July 2019 the district was again bifurcated to form a new Tenkasi district with Tenkasi as its district capital.


title: Tirunelveli district

text: The district is located in the southern part of Tamil Nadu. It has borders with Tenkasi district to the north, Kanyakumari District to the south and Thoothukudi District to the east and Thiruvananthapuram district and Kollam district of Kerala to the west. The district covers an area of . It lies between 8°05' and 9°30' north latitude and 77°05' and 78°25' east longitude.


title: Tirunelveli district

text: Tirunelveli has rainfall in all seasons ( in 2005 and 2006), and benefits from both the northeast and southwest monsoons. Most precipitation came from the northeast monsoon () followed by the southwest monsoon () and summer rains (). The district is irrigated by several rivers originating in the Western Ghats, such as the Pachaiyar River, which flows into the perennial Thamirabarani River. The Thamirabarani and Manimuthar Rivers have many dams, with reservoirs providing water for irrigation and power generation. The Thamirabarani River provides consistent irrigation to a large agricultural area.


title: Tirunelveli district

text: Tirunelveli is the Administration centre of Tirunelveli District. It is a part of the Tirunelveli Lok Sabha constituency.


title: Tirunelveli district

text: Since, Tenkasi District was bifurcated from Tirunelveli District, Tirunelveli District has only one Lok Sabha constituency and seven Assembly constituencies.


title: Tirunelveli district

text: According to 2011 census, Tirunelveli district (undivided) had a population of 3,077,233 with a sex-ratio of 1,023 females for every 1,000 males, much above the national average of 929. A total of 321,687 were under the age of six, constituting 164,157 males and 157,530 females. Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes accounted for 18.51% and 0.33% of the population, respectively. The average literacy of the district was 73.88%, compared to the national average of 72.99%. The district had a total of 815,528 households. There were a total of 1,436,454 workers, comprising 107,943 cultivators, 321,083 main agricultural labourers, 215,667 in house hold industries, 626,714 other workers, 165,047 marginal workers, 7,772 marginal cultivators, 58,680 marginal agricultural labourers, 23,997 marginal workers in household industries and 74,598 other marginal workers. After the bifurcation, Tiruneveli district had a population of 1,692,296.


title: Tirunelveli district

text: As per the religious census of 2011, the bifurcated Tirunelveli District had 74.87% Hindus, 15.06% Christians and 9.82% Muslims.


title: Tirunelveli district

text: The district is well-connected by a network of roads and railways. Tirunelveli city serves as the main junction. It has no airports; the nearest airports are at Tuticorin ( away), Madurai () and Thiruvananthapuram (). The district has a total of 27 railway stations. The tables below list the lengths of roads and railways in the district.


title: Tirunelveli district

text: Canals, wells, tanks and reservoirs are the sources of irrigation in the district. As of 2005–2006, the district had a total of 151 canals with a length of , 85,701 irrigation wells, 640 tube wells, eight reservoirs and 2,212 tanks. The district also has 21,776 wells used for domestic purposes.


title: Tirunelveli district

text: Electricity is provided by the Tamil Nadu Electricity Board (TNEB). The district has hydroelectric power plants and windmills, with an installed capacity of ; it is one of the major producers of wind energy in the state.


title: Tirunelveli district

text: The Koodankulam Nuclear Power Plant project is being undertaken (with Russian aid) at the village of Koodankulam, north-east of Kanyakumari. Koodankulam also has windmills used for power generation with installed capacity of 2,000 MW.


title: Tirunelveli district

text: Tirunelveli district has a literacy rate of 76.97%, which is above the state average. As of 2005–2006, the district had a total of 2,494 schools. It has one University, the Manonmaniam Sundaranar University (MSU). There are also four Government colleges, eleven Government-sponsored colleges and seven private colleges.


title: Tirunelveli district

text: Tirunelveli has 25 arts and science colleges, 3 medical colleges, 20 engineering colleges and a law school. There are 1,501 primary schools, 431 middle schools and 185 higher secondary schools.


title: Tirunelveli district

text: Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, which was established in 1990, has a network of 102 affiliated colleges. In 1878, there were two colleges in the district: the Madurai Diraviam Thayumanavar Hindu College and St. John's College. The first college for women, Sarah Tucker college was established in 1895. Of the 17 arts colleges in the district, eight are co-educational institutions, five are for women and four for men. The colleges in Tirunelveli district were originally affiliated with the University of Madras. Upon the creation of Madurai Kamaraj University in 1966, they were affiliated with MKU from 1966 to 1990. In 1990, their affiliation transferred to Manonmaniam Sundaranar University. The Regional Directorate of the Collegiate Education in the district was formed on 10 September 1979 to regulate colleges in Tirunelveli, Thoothukudi and Kanyakumari districts. In 1996, the Government Law College, Tirunelveli was established. Tirunelveli Medical College and its teaching hospital are located at Palayamkottai. It was established in 1965 and affiliated with the University of Madras. The Government Siddha Medical College was established at Palayamkottai on 30 November 1964. Technical education in the district dates to 1844, when Mrs. Caldwell, wife of Bishop Robert Caldwell began a school to teach girls lace-making at Idyangudi. The Government of Tamil Nadu set up a State Board of Technical Education and Training and a separate Directorate of Technical Education, effective 1 October 1957. Since then, the Directorate of Technical Education has assumed the administration of both engineering colleges and polytechnics. The Government College of Engineering was established in October 1981 to fulfill the needs of people in the southern region.


title: Tirunelveli district

text: In 1986, the Revenue district of Tirunelveli was divided into Tirunelveli and Thoothukkudi districts. There are three education districts.


title: Tirunelveli district

text: Tirunelveli has been an agricultural area throughout its history. The district is a major producer of rice, coconuts, bananas, spices and forest-based products. The district is home to almost 50% of the buffalo population of Tamil Nadu. The district's livestock and poultry populations are as follows:


title: Tirunelveli district

text: Since it is a coastal district, Tirunelveli is also involved in fishery development and production. For the period 2005–2006, the total inland fish catch was 1,874 tonnes, and the total marine fish catch was 7,014 tonnes.


title: Tirunelveli district

text: India Cements Limited is the third largest cement company in India, and began at Sankarnagar in Tirunelveli in 1949.


title: Tirunelveli district

text: The district is also rich in minerals, with a total of 407 mines and quarries. Limestone, granite and garnet sand are some of the minerals mined or produced in the district. Major industries include textile, food and forestry products.


title: Tirunelveli district

text: A Special Economic Zone (SEZ) was introduced at Nanguneri in 2001. A pharma park and windmill spare-parts and television-manufacturing factories have been planned in this SEZ. The Tamil Nadu Industrial Development Corporation (TIDCO) has planned a ₹700-crore high-tech industrial park in Nanguneri in association with INFAC Group and Axes Technologies Inc of the US. The state government is planning light manufacturing, design and assembly facilities, modern infrastructure facilities and amenities in this SEZ to attract a workforce from around the world.


title: Tirunelveli district

text: Located between and of elevation, the Manjolai area is set deep within the Western Ghats within the Kalakad Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve in the Tirunelveli District. Located on top of the Manimuthar Dam and the Manimuthar Water Falls, the Manjolai area comprises tea plantations, small settlements, the Upper Kodaiyar Dam and a windy view point called Kuthiravetti.


title: Tirunelveli district

text: The whole of the Manjolai Estates and the tea plantations are operated by The Bombay Burmah Trading Corporation Ltd on forest land leased by the Government of Tamil Nadu. There are three tea estates within the Manjolai area: Manjolai Estate, Manimutharu Estate and Oothu Estate. The Estates are located at elevations ranging from to .


title: Tirunelveli district

text: The Kalakkad Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve was established in 1988. The reserve, at , is about 45 km west of Tirunelveli and is known as KMTR to forest and tiger researchers. Kalakkad is the nearest town. Kalakkad has a temple called Malainambi temple with a falls.


title: Tirunelveli district

text: Papanasam is a famous picnic spot in Tirunelveli district in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu. It falls under the Ambasamudram Taluk and is situated from Tirunelveli. The site is popular for its tourists attractions such as the Thamirabarani River, Agasthiyar Falls, the Shiva Temple, Papanasam dam and the hydroelectric power plant.


title: Tirunelveli district

text: A tiny village in the far south, Koonthankulam in Nanguneri Taluk of Tirunelveli District is emerging as a new favourite of the migratory birds. It is just away. About 35 species of birds visit this calm but congenial village for breeding. The painted storks are coming from North India and East European Countries to this place. Similarly the flamingoes which flew in mainly from the Rann of Kutch have hatched and reared their young in the village.


title: Tirunelveli district

text: The Nellaiappar Temple is located at Tirunelveli. It is rooted in tradition and history, and is known for its musical pillars and other sculpted figures. The nearest airport is Tuticorin Airport (TCR) at Vagaikulam, a 30-minute drive (32 km) from Tirunelveli.


title: Tirunelveli district

text: The Navaneethakrishnan Temple at Melasevel Village, from Tirunelveli Town on the road leading to Ambasamudram, is around 730 years old. Adhithyavarneshwar Temple, devoted to Lord Shiva is also famous in this village. Twice a year, the sun's rays fall straight on the Lingam in the morning. Annual festivals are conducted at both these temples by people to whom the deity is kuladeivam (family deity). Dolotsavam utsavam on every month, on the day of Star ROHINI at the Navaneethakrishnan temple is quite familiar, and many childless couples take part in this pooja. Garuda Sevai is conducted on all four Saturdays of the Tamil month of Purattasi and attracts a large number of devotees from the neighbouring villages. With the kind permission of the HRE department of the State Government, the Melaseval Bhaktha Jana Seva Trust maintains the temple with daily rituals and regular poojas. The Uriyadi festival during Krishnashtami is an important event in this small village.


title: Aérospatiale SA 315B Lama

text: The Aérospatiale SA 315B Lama is a French single-engined helicopter developed to meet hot and high operational requirements of the Indian Armed Forces. It combines the lighter Aérospatiale Alouette II airframe with Alouette III components and powerplant. The Lama possesses exceptional high altitude performance.


title: Aérospatiale SA 315B Lama

text: The helicopters have been built under licence by Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL) in India, known as the Cheetah; HAL later developed an upgraded variant, powered by the Turbomeca TM 333-2M2 engine, which is known as the Cheetal. An armed version, marketed as the "Lancer", was also produced by HAL. It was also built under licence by Helibras in Brazil as the Gavião.


title: Aérospatiale SA 315B Lama

text: The SA 315B Lama was originally designed to meet a Nepalese Army Air Service and Indian Air Force requirement for a rotorcraft capable of undertaking operations at "hot and high" conditions. Both countries possessed extreme mountain ranges in the form of the Himalayas in which even relatively powerful medium-sized helicopters could not be effectively operated within, thus there was an expressed desire for an aerial vehicle capable of operating in this challenging environment. To achieve the desired performance, Aerospatiale elected to combine elements of two existing popular helicopters in their inventory, the Aérospatiale Alouette II and the Aérospatiale Alouette III to produce a new rotorcraft specialised for high altitude performance. Specifically, the new helicopter, named "Lama", was equipped with the Alouette III's Turbomeca Artouste turboshaft powerplant and its dynamic systems, and was furnished with a reinforced version of the Alouette II's airframe.


title: Aérospatiale SA 315B Lama

text: On 17 March 1969, the first SA315B, powered by an Artouste IIB engine, undertook its maiden flight. On 30 September 1970, the type received its airworthiness certificate, and it was introduced to operational service in July 1971. Due to its favourable high altitude performance, the Lama quickly became popular with operators worldwide, often being deployed within mountainous environments. As with the Alouette series, the type can be fitted for various roles, such as light passenger transport, agricultural tasks, oil-and-gas exploration, aerial firefighting, and other specialised duties. The military variants of the Lama include liaison, observation, photography, air/sea rescue, transport and ambulance duties. The SA315B is particularly suited to mountainous areas due to its performance and can carry underslung loads of up to 1000 kg (2,205 lb). By December 1976, 191 Lamas had been ordered by 68 operators.


title: Aérospatiale SA 315B Lama

text: A significant number of SA 315B Lamas were manufactured under licence in India by Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL), under the name "Cheetah". More than three decades after production in India began, HAL was still receiving export orders for the original Cheetah. Along with the Alouette III, the Cheetah was a key product for HAL; experience from manufacturing the type aided in the later development of more advanced indigenous helicopters such as the HAL Dhruv. During the 1990s, HAL developed an armed light attack helicopter based upon the Cheetah, which was given the name "Lancer".


title: Aérospatiale SA 315B Lama

text: In 2006, HAL proposed a modernised variant to the Indian Army, designated as "Cheetal", the principal change of which was the adoption of a modern, more powerful Turbomeca TM 333-2M2 powerplant in the place of the Artouste; HAL promoting the Cheetal's capabilities for operating in high altitude environments, such as the Siachen Glacier. Other improvements include new warning indicates, a cockpit voice recorder, flight monitoring system, artificial horizon, and modernised electronics. In 2006, an initial 10 Cheetals were ordered by the Indian Air Force. In February 2013, it was announced that the Indian and Nepalese Armies had signed a 300 crore (~US$55 million) contract for the urgent procurement of a further 20 Cheetals.


title: Aérospatiale SA 315B Lama

text: The Lama was developed specifically to provide a rotorcraft with exceptional high-altitude performance. In practice, the type found considerable use within regions that possessed extensive mountain ranges, such as South America and India, being capable of lifting loads and deploying personnel in areas that had been previously impossible to have otherwise achieved.


title: Aérospatiale SA 315B Lama

text: During 1969, a series of early demonstration flights involving the SA315B were performed in the Himalayas; during one such flight, a single rotorcraft carrying a crew of two and 120kg of fuel landed and then took off at what was then the highest altitude to be recorded, 7,500m (24,605ft). On 21 June 1972, a Lama with a single pilot (Jean Boulet) aboard established a helicopter absolute altitude record of 12,442m (40,814ft), a record which still stands as of June 2022. During the same flight, the Lama's engine flamed out at the peak altitude of the flight, which led to an inadvertent record being set for the longest ever autorotation after which the rotorcraft was brought to a safe unpowered landing. Days before, the same pilot and aircraft had set a similar record at a higher weight.


title: Aérospatiale SA 315B Lama

text: Following in the aftermath of the records set by the helicopter, a major order was placed by the Indian government in 1971. The Indian order included an arrangement for the indefinite licence production of the SA315B to be conducted by Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL) at their facility in Bangalore, India. The first Indian-assembled SA315B flew on 6 October 1972, with deliveries starting in December 1973; Indian-produced helicopters were given the name "Cheetah". Operated by both the Indian Air Force and the Indian Army's Aviation Corps, the Cheetah have proved capable, operating in difficult and remote areas such the mountainous Siachen region, and during times of conflict with neighbouring Pakistan. Cheetahs have also been operated for civil purposes, such as aerial agriculture.


title: Aérospatiale SA 315B Lama

text: HAL-built Lamas have also been procured by neighbouring Nepal for military use. Sales have included a quantity of an armed variant, marketed as the "HAL Lancer"; one batch was reportedly delivered to Nepal between June 2003 and September 2004. The sale of Lancers to Nepal encountered international controversy due to allegations that these rotorcraft have participated in combat operations against members of the Communist Party of Nepal during the Nepalese Civil War.


title: Aérospatiale SA 315B Lama

text: In addition to India, other countries have participated in licence production activities. In 1978, an export agreement was reached with Brazilian aircraft manufacturer Helibras, under which it would perform domestic assembly of the Lama. Such Helibras-produced SA 315Bs were marketed under the designation "Gavião"; several examples of which were successfully exported to neighboring Bolivia.


title: Aérospatiale SA 315B Lama

text: In later life, the Lama's commercial appeal waned in favour of the newer Eurocopter AS350 Écureuil, which had lower maintenance requirements and was capable of higher speeds but incapable of equalling the Lama's high altitude performance. The type remained in commercial service into the 21st century, being only slowly retired as it typically continued to be adequate for its given tasks. According to Vertical Magazine, popular qualities of the Lama included its capable engine, favourable stability while hovering, and its ability to effectively convey payloads at altitude even during peak temperatures.


title: Aérospatiale SA 315B Lama

text: In 2009, due to issues with the newly introduced HAL Dhruv helicopter, the Indian Army increased operational usage of their older Cheetah/Cheetal rotorcraft to meet the temporary shortfall. In September 2012, it was reported that an ever-decreasing amount of spare parts compatible with the Cheetah has led to the type's operators being required to cannibalise helicopters in order to provide components for others. In August 2016, it was reported that No. 114 Helicopter Unit were keen to introduce the upgraded Cheetal as a replacement for its existing Cheetah rotorcraft for continuous deployment on the Siachen Glacier.


title: Salesians of Don Bosco

text: The Salesians of Don Bosco (SDB), formally known as the Society of Saint Francis de Sales (), is a religious congregation of men in the Catholic Church, founded in the late 19th century by Italian priest Saint John Bosco to help poor children during the Industrial Revolution. The congregation was named after Saint Francis de Sales, a 17th-century bishop of Geneva.


title: Salesians of Don Bosco

text: The Salesians' charter describes the society's mission as "the Christian perfection of its associates obtained by the exercise of spiritual and corporal works of charity towards the young, especially the poor, and the education of boys to the priesthood". Its associated women's institute is the Salesian Sisters of Don Bosco, while the lay movement is the Association of Salesian Cooperators.


title: Salesians of Don Bosco

text: In 1845 Don John Bosco ("Don" being a traditional Italian honorific for priest) opened a night school for boys in Valdocco, now part of the municipality of Turin in Italy. In the following years, he opened several more schools, and in 1857 drew up a set of rules for his helpers. This rule was approved definitively in 1873 by Pope Pius IX as the Rule of the Society of Saint Francis de Sales. The Society grew rapidly, with houses established in France and Argentina within a year of the Society's formal recognition. Its official print organ, "Salesian Bulletin," was first published in 1877.


title: Salesians of Don Bosco

text: Over the next decade the Salesians expanded into Austria, Britain, Spain, and several countries in South America. The death of Don Bosco in 1888 did not slow down the Society's growth. By 1911 the Salesians were established throughout the world, including Colombia, China, India, South Africa, Tunisia, Venezuela and the United States.


title: Salesians of Don Bosco

text: The Society continues to operate worldwide; in 2020, it counted 14,767 members in 1,808 houses. It has 134 churches.


title: Salesians of Don Bosco

text: The Salesian coat of arms was designed by Professor Boidi. It was published for the first time in a circular letter of Don Bosco on 8 December 1885. It consist of a shining star, the large anchor, and the heart on fire to symbolize the theological virtues of Faith, Hope and Charity. The figure of Saint Francis de Sales recalls the patron of the society. The small wood in the lower part refers to the founder of the society; the high mountains signify the heights of perfection towards which members strive; the interwoven palm and laurel that enfold the shield on either side are emblematic of the prize reserved for a virtuous and sacrificial life. The motto "Da mihi animas, caetera tolle" ("Give me souls, take away the rest") is featured at the bottom.


title: Salesians of Don Bosco

text: In the background is a globe to represent the worldwide reach of the Salesians, and a stylized "S" in white is formed within the globe, resembling a snaking road representing an educational journey for the youth.


title: Salesians of Don Bosco

text: In the foreground is an arrow pointing upwards, resting on three perpendicular legs on top of which are three closed circles, making a stylized image of three people: the first of these in the middle and taller than the others is the point of the arrow, and the other two beside it appear as it were to be embraced by the central figure. These three stylized figures represent Saint John Bosco reaching out to the young, and his call for Salesians to continue his work. The three stylized figures with the arrow pointing upwards can also be viewed as a house dwelling with a sloping roof and three pillars holding it up, represents John Bosco's pedagogy of Reason, Religion and Loving Kindness.


title: Salesians of Don Bosco

text: The logo combines elements from those of the German and Brazilian provinces. The idea of combining the two came out of suggestions from an enquiry about the new logo conducted throughout the Congregation and from contributions by the General Council. It is designed with the central theme "Don Bosco and the Salesians walking with the young through the world." The artistic work of combining the two was carried out by the designer Fabrizio Emigli, from the Litos Company, in Rome.


title: Salesians of Don Bosco

text: The Salesians of Don Bosco are headed by the Rector Major and the society's general council, while each of the ninety-four geographical provinces is headed by a Provincial. These officers serve six-year terms; the Rector Major and the members of the general council are elected by the General Chapter, which meets every six years or upon the death of the Rector Major. Each local Salesian community is headed by a superior, called a Rector (or more commonly, "Director"), who is appointed to a three-year term and can be renewed for a second three-year term.


title: Salesians of Don Bosco

text: Salesian communities primarily operate shelters for homeless or at-risk youths; schools; technical, vocational, and language instruction centers for youths and adults; and boys' clubs and community centers. In some areas they run parish churches. Salesians are also active in publishing and other public communication activities, as well as mission work, especially in Asia (Siberia - in the Yakutsk area), Africa, and South America (Yanomami). The "Salesian Bulletin" is now published in fifty-two editions, in thirty languages.


title: Salesians of Don Bosco

text: In 1988, the Salesians branched to create the Salesian Youth Movement. Then in the 1990s, the Salesians launched new works in the area of tertiary education, and today have a network of over 58 colleges and universities. The official university of the Salesian Society is the Salesian Pontifical University in Rome.


title: Salesians of Don Bosco

text: A number of schools and churches established under the Salesians have been at the center of child sex abuse scandals, including Mary Help of Christians in Tampa, Florida. Due to ongoing sexual assault lawsuits and settlements, several boarding schools were closed.


title: Gymnasium (ancient Greece)

text: The gymnasium () in Ancient Greece functioned as a training facility for competitors in public games. It was also a place for socializing and engaging in intellectual pursuits. The name comes from the Ancient Greek term "gymnós", meaning "naked" or "nude". Only adult male citizens were allowed to use the gymnasia.


title: Gymnasium (ancient Greece)

text: Athletes competed nude, a practice which was said to encourage aesthetic appreciation of the male body, and to be a tribute to the gods. Gymnasia and palaestrae (wrestling schools) were under the protection and patronage of Heracles, Hermes and, in Athens, Theseus.


title: Gymnasium (ancient Greece)

text: The word "gymnasium" is the latinisation of the Greek noun γυμνάσιον ("gymnasion"), "public place for physical exercises; exercise area", in pl. "bodily exercises" and generally "school", which in turn is derived from the common Greek adjective ("gymnos") meaning "naked" or "nude", by way of the related verb γυμνάζω ("gymnazo"), whose meaning is "to train naked", "train in gymnastic exercise", generally "to train, to exercise". The verb had this meaning because the athletes undressed in changing rooms called Apodyteriums and trained naked, rubbing their bodies with olive oil and then cleaning with the Strigil. Historically, the gymnasium was used for exercise, communal bathing ("Thermae"), and later scholarly and philosophical pursuits. The English noun "gymnast", first recorded in 1594, is formed from the Greek γυμναστής ("gymnastēs"), but in Greek this word means "trainer" not "athlete". The "palaestra" was the part of the gymnasium devoted to wrestling, boxing, and ball games. From the word "gymnasion" came also the term "gymnastics".


title: Gymnasium (ancient Greece)

text: The gymnasium was formed as a public institution where young men over 18 received training in physical exercises. The supervision of the gymnasiums was entrusted to gymnasiarchs, who were public officials responsible for the conduct of sports and games at public festivals and who directed the schools and supervised the competitors. The gymnastai were the teachers, coaches, and trainers of the athletes. The Greek gymnasiums also held lectures and discussions on philosophy, literature, and music, and there were public libraries nearby.


title: Gymnasium (ancient Greece)

text: The regulation of the Athenian gymnasium is attributed by Pausanias (i. 39. 3) to Theseus. Solon made several laws on the subject; according to Galen these were reduced to a workable system of management in the time of Cleisthenes (late 6th century and early 5th century BC). While the origins of physical exercise regimes was thought to be Sparta of Lacaedemon, or Knossos of Crete, the practice of exercising in the nude had its beginnings in the 7th century BC. The same purpose is frequently attributed to the tradition of oiling the body, a custom so costly that it required significant public and private subsidies (the practice was the largest expense in gymnasia).


title: Gymnasium (ancient Greece)

text: Cleinias of Crete describes the origin of the tradition of Cretan gymnasia and common meals in Book I of Plato's Laws, and ascribes them to the mythological lawgiver Rhadamanthus.


title: Gymnasium (ancient Greece)

text: The original iterations of gymnasia were large open areas at city outskirts, not enclosed structures.


title: Gymnasium (ancient Greece)

text: The athletic contests for which the gymnasium supplied the means of training and competition formed part of the social and spiritual life of the Greeks from very early on. The contests took place in honour of heroes and gods, sometimes forming part of a periodic festival or the funeral rites of a deceased chief. The free and active Greek lifestyle (spent to a great extent in the open air) reinforced the attachment to such sports and after a period of time the contests became a prominent element in Greek culture. The victor in religious athletic contests, though he gained no material prize other than a wreath, was rewarded with the honour and respect of his fellow citizens. Training of competitors for the greater contests was a huge matter of public concern and special buildings were provided by the state for such use, with management entrusted to public officials. A victory in the great religious festivals was counted an honour for the whole state.


title: Gymnasium (ancient Greece)

text: The ancient Greek gymnasium soon became a place for more than exercise and training. This development arose through recognition by the Greeks of the strong relation between athletics, education and health. Accordingly, the gymnasium became connected with education on the one hand and medicine on the other. Physical training and maintenance of health and strength were the chief parts of children's earlier education. Except for time devoted to letters and music, the education of young men was solely conducted in the gymnasium, where provisions were made not only for physical pedagogy but for instruction in morals and ethics. As pupils grew older, informal conversation and other forms of social activity took the place of institutional, systematic discipline. Since the gymnasia were favorite resorts of youth, they were frequented by teachers, especially philosophers. Philosophers and sophists frequently assembled to hold talks and lectures in the gymnasia; thus the institution became a resort for those interested in less structured intellectual pursuits in addition to those using the place for training in physical exercises.


title: Gymnasium (ancient Greece)

text: In Athens there were three great public gymnasia: the Academy, the Lyceum and the Cynosarges, each of which was dedicated to a deity whose statue adorned the structure. Each of the three was rendered famous by association with a celebrated school of philosophy. Antisthenes founded a school at the Cynosarges, from which some say the name Cynic derives; Plato founded a school that gathered at the Academy, after which the school was named, making the gymnasium famous for hundreds of years; and at the Lyceum, Aristotle founded the Peripatetic school.


title: Gymnasium (ancient Greece)

text: Plato considered gymnastics to be an important part of education (see "Republic" iii. and parts of "Laws") and according to him it was the sophist Prodicus who first pointed out the connection between gymnastics and health. Having found gymnastic exercises beneficial to his own weak constitution, Prodicus formulated a method that became generally accepted and was subsequently improved by Hippocrates. Galen also put great stress on the proper and frequent use of gymnastics. Throughout other ancient Greek medical writings special exercises are prescribed as cures for specific diseases, showing the extent to which the Greeks considered health and fitness connected. The same connection is commonly suggested by experts today.


title: Gymnasium (ancient Greece)

text: In Athens ten "gymnasiarchs" were appointed annually, one from each tribe. These officials rotated through a series of jobs, each with unique duties. They were responsible for looking after and compensating persons training for public contests, conducting the games at the great Athenian festivals, exercising general supervision over competitor morale, and decorating and maintaining the gymnasium. Beneath them in the organisational structure were ten "sophronistae" responsible for observing the conduct of the youths and (especially) for attending all their games.


title: Gymnasium (ancient Greece)

text: "Paedotribae" and "gymnastae" were responsible for teaching the methods involved in the various exercises, as well as choosing suitable athletics for the youths. The gymnastae were also responsible for monitoring the constitution of the pupils and prescribing remedies for them if they became unwell. The "aleiptae" oiled and dusted the bodies of the youths, acted as surgeons, and administered any drugs prescribed. According to Galen, there also existed a teacher specifically devoted to instruction in ball games.


title: Gymnasium (ancient Greece)

text: Gymnasia were typically large structures containing spaces for each type of exercise as well as a stadium, palaestra, baths, outer porticos for practice in bad weather, and covered porticos where philosophers and other "men of letters" gave public lectures and held disputations. Most Athenian gymnasia were located in suburban areas due to the large amount of level space required for construction. Additionally, these areas tended to be cooler and closer to a good water supply than similar areas in central Athens.


title: Frankenstein Castle

text: Frankenstein Castle () is a hilltop castle in the Odenwald overlooking the city of Darmstadt in Germany. This castle may have been an inspiration for Mary Shelley when she wrote her 1818 Gothic novel "Frankenstein; or, The Modern Prometheus".


title: Frankenstein Castle

text: Frankenstein Castle is in southern Hesse, Germany, on the spurs of the Odenwald mountain range at an elevation of close to the southern outskirts of Darmstadt. It is one of many historic castles along the Hessian Bergstraße Route, also famous for its vineyards and its mild climate.


title: Frankenstein Castle

text: Frankenstein is a German name consisting of two words: The Franks are a Germanic tribe and "stein" is the German word for "stone". Accordingly, the meaning of Frankenstein is "Stone of the Franks". The word "stein" is common in names of landscapes, places and castles in Germany. Consequently, the term "Frankenstein" is a rather ordinary name for a castle in this region.


title: Frankenstein Castle

text: Before 1250, Lord Conrad II Reiz of Breuberg built Frankenstein Castle and thereafter named himself "von und zu" Frankenstein. The first document proving the existence of the castle in 1252 bears his name. He was the founder of the free imperial Barony of Frankenstein, which was subject only to the jurisdiction of the emperor, with possessions in Nieder-Beerbach, Darmstadt, Ockstadt, Wetterau and Hesse. Additionally the Frankensteins held other possession and sovereignty rights as burgraves in Zwingenberg (Auerbach (Bensheim)), in Darmstadt, Groß-Gerau, Frankfurt am Main and Bensheim. The hill on which the castle stands was probably occupied by another castle from the 11th century, which fell into ruins after Frankenstein Castle was built a short distance away to the northwest. Claims of an even older predecessor upon the hill are widespread, but historically unlikely.


title: Frankenstein Castle

text: In 1292 the Frankensteins opened the castle to the counts of Katzenelnbogen (County of Katzenelnbogen) and formed an alliance with them.


title: Frankenstein Castle

text: In 1363, the castle was split into two parts and owned by two different families of the lords and knights of Frankenstein. At the beginning of the 15th century, the castle was enlarged and modernized. The Frankenstein knights became, again, independent of the counts of Katzenelnbogen.


title: Frankenstein Castle

text: The family were strong opponents of the Reformation, adhering to the Roman Catholic faith and the associated "right of patronage". Following, in addition, territorial conflicts and connected disputes with the Landgraviate of Hesse-Darmstadt, the family head Lord John I decided to sell the lordship to the Landgraves of Hesse-Darmstadt in 1662, after various lawsuits at the Imperial Chamber Court.


title: Frankenstein Castle

text: The castle was used as a refuge and a hospital afterward, falling into ruins in the 18th century. The two towers that are so distinctive today are an historically inaccurate restoration carried out in the mid-19th century.


title: Frankenstein Castle

text: On Halloween night in 1952, John Keel sent three American Forces Network reporters to Frankenstein Castle to explore the castle for a live radio broadcast. The reporters were told that a local legend claimed Frankenstein's monster would return to the castle that night. Reporter Carl Nelson investigated the castle's crypt, where Keel had "set up a statue in the middle of the crypt - and rigged it to move and topple" as a prank, terrifying Nelson. Reportedly, frightened radio listeners bombarded the station with calls and military police were dispatched to the castle.


title: Frankenstein Castle

text: The Odenwald, the mountain range on which Frankenstein Castle is located, is a landscape with dark forests and narrow valleys shrouded in mystery and enshrined in legend. Many folktales and myths exist about Frankenstein Castle. None of them have been verified as fact, but all of them have influenced the culture and traditions of the region.


title: Frankenstein Castle

text: In 1673, Johann Konrad Dippel was born in the castle, where he was later engaged as a professional alchemist. It is suggested that Dippel influenced Mary Shelley's fantasy when she wrote her "Frankenstein" novel, though there is no mention of the castle in Shelley's journals from the time. However, it is known that in 1814, prior to writing the famous novel, Shelley took a journey on the river Rhine. She spent a few hours in the town of Gernsheim, which is located about from the castle. Several nonfiction books on the life of Mary Shelley claim Dippel as a possible influence.


title: Frankenstein Castle

text: Dippel created an animal oil known as Dippel's Oil which was supposed to be equivalent to the "elixir of life". Dippel attempted to purchase Castle Frankenstein in exchange for his elixir formula, which he claimed he had recently discovered; the offer was turned down. There are also rumours that during his stay at Frankenstein Castle, Dippel practiced not only alchemy but also anatomy and may have performed experiments on dead bodies that he exhumed. There are rumours that he dug up bodies and performed medical experiments on them at the castle and that a local cleric would have warned his parish that Dippel had created a monster that was brought to life by a bolt of lightning. (The use of lightning to bring Frankenstein's monster to life comes from the 1931 film and isn't in the novel.) There are local people who still claim today that this actually happened and that this tale was related to Shelley's stepmother by the Brothers Grimm, the German ethnologists. However, none of these claims have been proven to this date, and some local researchers doubt any connection between Mary Shelley and Frankenstein Castle.


title: Frankenstein Castle

text: One of the most famous legends is about Lord George and a dragon, by August Nodnagel (1803–1853). It is said that long ago a dangerous dragon lived in the garden near the well at the castle of Burg Frankenstein. The peasants of a neighboring village (Nieder-Beerbach) lived in fear of the mighty dragon. It is said the dragon would creep in at night and eat the villagers and their children in their sleep. One day a knight by the name of Lord George rode into town. The townsfolk were desperate; seeing a brave knight gave them hope, and they poured out their troubles and sorrows as he promised to help them.


title: Frankenstein Castle

text: The next day, he put on his armor and rode up to the castle, into the garden and straight to the well where the dragon was taking a rest in the sun. Lord George got off his horse and attacked the dragon. The dragon fought for his life, puffed and spewed out fire and steam. Hours passed as the two continued to battle. Finally, just as the knight was about to drop from exhaustion, and just as the dragon was going to drop from exhaustion, the knight plunged his sword into the underbelly of the beast and was victorious. But as the dragon struggled in agony, it coiled its tail with the poisonous spine around the knight's belly and stung. Lord George and the dragon both fell. The villagers were so happy and relieved that the dragon was finally slain they wanted to give the knight a proper, honorable burial. They brought him to the Church of Nieder Beerbach, in the valley on the east side of the castle, and gave him a marvelous tomb. To this day, you can still visit and pay your respects to Lord George, the Knight who slew the Dragon in the 1200s.


title: Frankenstein Castle

text: Hidden behind the herb garden of the castle, there is a fountain of youth. Legend is that in the first full-moon night after Walpurgis Night, old women from the nearby villages had to undergo tests of courage. The one who succeeded became rejuvenated to the age she had been on the night of her wedding. It is not known if this tradition is still practiced.


title: Frankenstein Castle

text: In the 18th century, a gold rush caused some turmoil near Frankenstein Castle. It is believed that a legend and visions of fortunetellers caused local residents to believe that a treasure was hidden near the castle. In 1763, chaotic scenes took place which even an intervention of a priest from the neighbouring village of Nieder-Beerbach could not stop.


title: Frankenstein Castle

text: Even though no gold-filled vaults were ever found, fortune-hunters did not abandon the digging until one Johann Heinrich Drott was killed when his dig collapsed on him. He was given a suicide's burial. In 1770, 1787 and 1788, further attempts were made, but nothing of any value was found. It was then that local authorities banned further gold-digging.


title: Frankenstein Castle

text: Frankenstein Castle gained international attention when the SyFy TV-Show "Ghost Hunters International" made a whole episode about the castle in 2008 (Episode 107) and claimed it would show "significant paranormal activity". The investigators met with a Frankenstein expert who guided Robb Demarest, Andy Andrews, Brian Harnois and their colleague through the castle and discussed its legends and paranormal sightings. After discussing their personal experiences, the team used audio and video devices for their investigation. Sounds from the chapel and the entrance tower sounded like words and an ultrasonic recorder picked up signals in the chapel. A recorded sound was identified as a phrase in Old German that means "Arbo is here", which was interpreted as "Arbo" probably meaning "Arbogast", the name of a knight of the castle, announcing his presence and claim over the land. A second sound bite was interpreted to mean "come here". The team left Frankenstein Castle convinced that there is some sort of paranormal activity going on.


title: Frankenstein Castle

text: In a remote part of the forest behind Frankenstein Castle on 417 meter high Mount Ilbes, compasses do not work properly due to magnetic stone formations of natural origin. Local nature enthusiasts and witchcraft practitioners are said to perform rituals at these magnetic places on special occasions like Walpurgis Night or summer solstice. The magnetic stones can be visited by everyone, but it is advisable not to disturb ongoing ritual activities at any means. Legend has it that Mount Ilbes is the second most important meeting place for witches in Germany after Mount Brocken in the Harz.


title: Frankenstein Castle

text: Close to Frankenstein Castle, a large "felsenmeer" ("sea of rocks") near the village of Lautertal is assumed to be a major scene of the Nibelungenlied. Allegedly, Siegfried the dragonslayer, on a hunting trip leading him from the Burgundian city of Worms into the Odenwald, was murdered by Hagen of Tronje at the Felsenmeer's "Siegfriedsquelle" ("Siegfried's wellspring"). In some stories, the region is connected to the apparition of legendary creatures, like knight George fighting against a man-eating lindworm near Frankenstein Castle or creatures of nature with magic potency (e.g. a water spirit that changed into a fox near Niedernhausen). There is some evidence that even the name of the entire region is a hint to a mystical background: "Odenwald" means "The Woods of Odin".


title: Frankenstein Castle

text: Despite being a well-known tourist destination, Frankenstein castle has never been developed into a commercial tourist attraction on a large scale. Local people use the mountain chain on which Frankenstein Castle is located for sport activities like hiking and mountain biking. Normally the castle is open to the public until late at night, on-site parking is possible right at the castle and a restaurant serves food and refreshments. Admission and parking are free except during special occasions like the Halloween festival, when there is a charge for admission. However, there are no further tourist facilities on the site.


title: Frankenstein Castle

text: Since the year 2000, the chapel at Frankenstein Castle has been in use as a registry office for civil wedding ceremonies handled by the municipality of Mühltal.


title: Frankenstein Castle

text: In 1978, American airmen from the 435th Transportation Squadron stationed at Rhein-Main Air Base started an annual Halloween festival at the castle, which became one of the biggest Halloween festivals in Europe. In 1977, the 440th Signal Battalion organized a 13 km running competition routed along steep forest trails from Cambrai-Fritsch Army Housing Site in Darmstadt to the castle. The Frankenstein "Castle Run" was held until 2008 when all American forces left Darmstadt. The city of Darmstadt organized a final race in October 2008.


title: Frankenstein Castle

text: A restaurant with a sun terrace, located right below the castle towers, offers regular service as well as special events (e.g., "Horror Dinner Nights").


title: Frankenstein Castle

text: The castle is easily accessible via Autobahn A5, exit "Darmstadt-Eberstadt". The site is 35 km (20 mi) from Frankfurt International Airport. The public transport system of Darmstadt serves tram stop "Frankenstein" (located at the foot of the mountain range, a steep 3 km walk from the ruins) with tram lines 1, 6, 7 and 8.


title: Hawaiian crow

text: The Hawaiian crow or alalā (Corvus hawaiiensis) is a species of bird in the crow family, Corvidae, that is currently extinct in the wild, though reintroduction programs are underway. It is about the size of the carrion crow at in length, but with more rounded wings and a much thicker bill. It has soft, brownish-black plumage and long, bristly throat feathers; the feet, legs and bill are black. Today, the Hawaiian crow is considered the most endangered of the family Corvidae. They are recorded to have lived up to 18 years in the wild, and 28 years in captivity. Some Native Hawaiians consider the Hawaiian crow an "aumakua" (family god).


title: Hawaiian crow

text: The species is known for strong flying ability and resourcefulness, and the reasons for its extirpation are not fully understood. It is thought that introduced diseases, such as "Toxoplasma gondii", avian malaria ("Plasmodium relictum"), and fowlpox, were probably a significant factor in the species' decline.


title: Hawaiian crow

text: Before the Hawaiian crow became extinct in the wild, the species was found only in the western and southeastern parts of Hawaii. It inhabited dry and mesic forests on the slopes of Mauna Loa and Hualālai at elevations of 3,000 to 6,000 feet. "Ōhia lehua" ("Metrosideros polymorpha") and "koa" ("Acacia koa") were important tree species in its wild habitat. Extensive understory cover was necessary to protect the ʻalalā from predation by the Hawaiian hawk, or "io" ("Buteo solitarius)." Nesting sites of the ʻalalā received of annual rainfall. Fossil remains indicate that the Hawaiian crow used to be relatively abundant on all the main islands of Hawaii, along with four other extinct crow species.


title: Hawaiian crow

text: The Hawaiian crow was also preyed on by rats and the small Asian mongooses ("Herpestes javanicus"). Feral cats that introduced "Toxoplasma gondii" to the birds can also prey on chicks that are unable to fly. As of 2012, the Hawaiian crow's current population is 114 birds, the vast majority of which are in Hawaiian reserves.


title: Hawaiian crow

text: The omnivorous Hawaiian crow is a generalist species, eating various foods as they become available. The main portion of their diet, and 50% of their feeding activity is spent foraging on trunks, branches, and foliage for invertebrates such as isopods, land snails, and arachnids. They feed in a woodpecker fashion, flaking bark and moss from trunks or branches to expose hidden insects, foraging mostly on ohia and koa, the tallest and most dominant trees in their habitats. Fruits are the second most dominant component in the Hawaiian crow's diet. The crows often collect kepau and olapa fruit clusters. Although hoawa and alani fruits have hard outer coverings, crows continue to exert energy prying them open. Passerine nestlings and eggs are consumed most frequently in April and May, during their breeding season. Other prey include red-billed leiothrix, Japanese white-eye, Hawaiʻi ʻamakihi, ʻIʻiwi, ‘elepaio, and ʻapapane. The alalā also commonly forages on flowers, especially from February through May. Nectar to feed the young are obtained from the ohia flower, oha kepau, and purple poka during the nestling period. Crows also foraged various plant parts, including the flower petals of kolea, koa, and mamane. The palila is the only other Hawaiian bird known to eat flower petals. The alalā only occasionally forages on the ground, but only for a limited amount of time for risk of predators.


title: Hawaiian crow

text: Captive individuals can use sticks as tools to extract food from holes drilled in logs. The juveniles exhibit tool use without training or social learning from adults, and it is believed to be a species-wide ability.


title: Hawaiian crow

text: The Hawaiian crow has a call described variously as a two-toned "caw" and as a screech with lower tones added, similar to a cat's "meow". In flight, this species has been known to produce a wide variety of calls including a repeated kerruk, kerruk sound and a loud kraa-a-a-ik sound. It also makes a ca-wk sound, has a complex, burbling song, and makes a variety of other sounds as well.


title: Hawaiian crow

text: Female crows are considered sexually mature at about 2 or 3 years of age and males at 4 years. The Hawaiian crow's breeding season lasts from March to July; it builds a nest in March or April, lays eggs in mid-to-late April, and the eggs hatch in mid-May. Both sexes construct nests with branches from the native ohi’a tree strengthened with grasses. The crow typically lays one to five eggs (that are greenish-blue in color) per season, although at most only two will survive past the fledgling phase. Only the females incubate the 2–5 eggs for 19–22 days and brood the young, of which only 1–2 fledge about 40 days after hatching. If the first clutch is lost, the pair will re-lay, which serves to be helpful in captive breeding efforts. Juveniles rely on their parents for 8 months and will stay with the family group until the next breeding season.


title: Hawaiian crow

text: The alalā was one of the largest native bird populations in Hawaii. Its disappearance in the wild has had cascading effects on the environment, especially with the seed dispersal of the native plants. Many of these plants rely on the alalā not only for seed dispersal, but also for seed germination as seeds are passed through the crow's digestive system. Without seed dispersal, the plants have no means of growing another generation. The alalā plays a key role in the maintenance of many indigenous plant species, which now could become a rarity in Hawaii's ecosystems, specifically the dry forests, without their main seed disperser. The Hawaiian crow has become known as an indicator species; the disappearance of the alalā indicates serious environmental problems.


title: Hawaiian crow

text: The Hawaiian crow faces an ample number of threats in the wild, which are considered contributing factors to their extinction in the wild. Small population size makes the species more vulnerable to environmental fluctuations, leading to a higher likelihood of inbreeding, which could result in lethal deformities. Unlike most crows, Hawaiian crows did not adapt well to human presence. Persecution by humans is another threat to their survival. Farmers have shot alalā because they were believed to disturb crops. Illegal hunting has continued even after legal protection was granted to the crows. Humans have also caused habitat degradation and deforestation through agriculture, ranching, logging, and non-native ungulates. Loss of canopy cover exposes the alalā to dangerous predators. Chicks are vulnerable to tree-climbing rats and, after they leave their nests, to cats, dogs, and mongooses. Deforestation also increases soil erosion and the spread of invasive plants and mosquitoes. This directly relates to the primary cause of the Hawaiian crow's extinction, disease.


title: Hawaiian crow

text: Avian malaria is a parasitic disease of birds, caused by "Plasmodium relictum," a protist affecting birds in all parts of the world. Usually this disease does not kill birds, however in an isolated habitat such as Hawaii, birds have lost evolutionary resistance and are unable to defend against the novel protist. Its main vector is the mosquito "Culex quinquefasciatus", introduced to the Hawaiian islands in 1826. This introduction can be attributed to birds club that brought nonnative species to replace birds that fell victim to the Avipoxvirus. At least 100 introductions have been documented in this manner.


title: Hawaiian crow

text: The Hawaiian crow is the most endangered corvid species in the world and the only species left in Hawaii. Like other critically endangered species, harming the Hawaiian crow is illegal under U.S. federal law. By 1994, the populations dwindled to 31 individuals; 8 to 12 were wild and 19 held in captivity. The last two known wild individuals of the Hawaiian crow disappeared in 2002, and the species is now classified as Extinct in the Wild by the IUCN Red List. While some 115 individuals remain (as of August 2014) in two captive breeding facilities operated by the San Diego Zoo, attempts to reintroduce captive-bred birds into the wild have been hampered by predation by the Hawaiian hawk ("Buteo solitarius"), which itself is listed as Near Threatened. Breeding efforts have also been complicated due to extensive inbreeding during the crow's population decline.


title: Hawaiian crow

text: The alalā has been legally protected by the state of Hawaii since 1931 and was recognized as federally endangered in 1967. Sites on the slopes of Mauna Loa and other natural ranges have been set aside for habitat reconstruction and native bird recovery since the 1990s. The Kūlani Keauhou area has been ranked the best spot for the crows, parts of which have been fenced and ungulate-free for 20 years, helping tremendously for habitat recovery.


title: Hawaiian crow

text: Restoration programs for the Hawaiian crow require the collaboration from private land-owners, National Biological Service (NBS) biologists, US Fish and Wildlife Service (Service) biologists, and the State of Hawaii. In 1993 and 1994, 17 eggs were removed from wild nests and transported to a temporary hatcher in Kona District, Hawaii. Puppets mimicking adult crows were used to feed chicks to minimize the possibility of abnormal imprinting or human socialization. Three of the removed eggs were infertile, 13 chicks hatched, and 12 alalā were successfully reared. One egg failed to hatch because of embryonic malpositioning, and another chick died from yolk-sac infection.


title: Hawaiian crow

text: In December 2016, five juvenile male Hawaiian crows were released into the Pu'u Maka'ala Natural Area Reserve on the Big Island, marking the first time the birds had been present in the wild since 2002.


title: Hawaiian crow

text: On September 26, 2017, 6 crows were released into the Pu'u Maka'ala Reserve. In contrast to the previous release, the group released was made of 4 males and 2 females rather than just males. On October 11, 2017, another group of 5 crows, 3 males and 2 females, was also released into the area. The first group introduced also formed social groups similar to those expected of the species, and also responded to stressors in the environment, showing awareness of surroundings. As of 2018, they have been described as "thriving", though they may have been negatively affected by the 2018 lower Puna eruption, which impacted at least a third of the Malama Kī Forest Reserve, an important habitat for the Hawaiian crow and other endangered Hawaiian wildlife. Following the success of the previous year's introduction, another 5 were reintroduced to the Pu'u Maka'ala Reserve on September 25, 2018. In late 2018, one of the crows released in 2017, a male named Maka'ala, was found dead due to wounds likely from a predatory attack followed by scavenging.


title: Hawaiian crow

text: In May 2019, two of the released crows, Mana’olana and Manaiakalani, were spotted building a nest with the female incubating eggs, marking the first wild breeding attempt made by Hawaiian crows since the extinction of the species in the wild. However, the eggs never hatched and were later presumed to be infertile, although occasionally laying infertile eggs is not uncommon for the species.


title: Hawaiian crow

text: By October 2020, all of the released birds except five had died from more predation by the Hawaiian hawk or other predators, or became lost in winter storms. The five remaining individuals were brought back to captivity.


title: Hawaiian crow

text: The reintroduction project is considering Maui as a potential location for future efforts. It is considered to be a safer area, as Hawaiian hawks are not found on Maui. While the crows were never present there in recent history, subfossil findings show that they, or a similar species, once lived on the island.


title: Hawaiian crow

text: In attempt to save the alalā, efforts have been made to breed the species in captivity. A majority of these efforts have proved to be highly unsuccessful. Studies have shown that females are the primary nest builders, and if the male hangs around the nest for too long and attempts to sit in it, the female either ceases her efforts to complete the nest or in other cases, builds up aggression between the breeding pair. This disruptive behavior can inhibit the production of eggs. On average, clutch size bred in captivity is much lower than it has been observed in the wild. This can be attributed to thin eggshells as a result from inbreeding, and behavioral complications from males. Bred in isolation, some males exhibit aggressive behavior towards their mates and an inability to understand friendly gestures. For the best breeding success, it is important for cages to mimic real environmental behavior, and socially-reared males are put together with the females.


title: Hawaiian crow

text: On April 16, 2009, The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service announced a five-year plan to spend more than $14 million to prevent the extinction of the Hawaiian crow through protection of habitats and management of threats to the species.


title: Hawaiian crow

text: The Hawaiian crow is also a significant symbol in Hawaiian mythology. It is said to lead souls to their final resting place on the cliffs of Ka Lae, the southernmost tip on the Big island of Hawaii. Native priests named the ʻalalā so during prayer and chants due to its distinctive call.


title: Michael Cartellone

text: Michael Cartellone (born June 7, 1962) is an American musician and artist. He was a founding member of Damn Yankees and is the current drummer of Lynyrd Skynyrd since 1999.


title: Michael Cartellone

text: Cartellone is the former drummer of Damn Yankees (1989–1996, 1998–2001) and a former drummer for Accept (1996). After Damn Yankees broke up, Cartellone worked as the touring drummer for Ted Nugent and later John Fogerty before settling in with Lynyrd Skynyrd.


title: Michael Cartellone

text: Cartellone has toured and recorded with a wide variety of artists including Adrian Belew, Jack Blades (after the dissolution of Damn Yankees), Cher, John Fogerty, Peter Frampton, Brad Gillis, Wolf Hoffmann, Eddie Jobson, Freddie Mercury, Tommy Shaw (before and after the formation of Damn Yankees), Shaw Blades, Joe Lynn Turner, and John Wetton.


title: Michael Cartellone

text: Cartellone is the drummer on former Faith No More singer Chuck Mosley's 2009 album, "Will Rap Over Hard Rock for Food".


title: Michael Cartellone

text: Cartellone uses Pearl drums, pedals and hardware and Zildjian cymbals, most notably the A and A custom series, but previously used the Z custom series in the past, and he also uses Remo drumheads.


title: Tangent space

text: In mathematics, the tangent space of a manifold generalizes to higher dimensions the notion of "tangent planes" to surfaces in three dimensions and "tangent lines" to curves in two dimensions. In the context of physics the tangent space to a manifold at a point can be viewed as the space of possible velocities for a particle moving on the manifold.


title: Tangent space

text: In differential geometry, one can attach to every point formula_1 of a differentiable manifold a "tangent space"—a real vector space that intuitively contains the possible directions in which one can tangentially pass through formula_1. The elements of the tangent space at formula_1 are called the "tangent vectors" at formula_1. This is a generalization of the notion of a vector, based at a given initial point, in a Euclidean space. The dimension of the tangent space at every point of a connected manifold is the same as that of the manifold itself.


title: Tangent space

text: For example, if the given manifold is a formula_5-sphere, then one can picture the tangent space at a point as the plane that touches the sphere at that point and is perpendicular to the sphere's radius through the point. More generally, if a given manifold is thought of as an embedded submanifold of Euclidean space, then one can picture a tangent space in this literal fashion. This was the traditional approach toward defining parallel transport. Many authors in differential geometry and general relativity use it. More strictly, this defines an affine tangent space, which is distinct from the space of tangent vectors described by modern terminology.


title: Tangent space

text: In algebraic geometry, in contrast, there is an intrinsic definition of the "tangent space at a point" of an algebraic variety formula_6 that gives a vector space with dimension at least that of formula_6 itself. The points formula_8 at which the dimension of the tangent space is exactly that of formula_6 are called "non-singular" points; the others are called "singular" points. For example, a curve that crosses itself does not have a unique tangent line at that point. The singular points of formula_6 are those where the "test to be a manifold" fails. See Zariski tangent space.


title: Tangent space

text: Once the tangent spaces of a manifold have been introduced, one can define vector fields, which are abstractions of the velocity field of particles moving in space. A vector field attaches to every point of the manifold a vector from the tangent space at that point, in a smooth manner. Such a vector field serves to define a generalized ordinary differential equation on a manifold: A solution to such a differential equation is a differentiable curve on the manifold whose derivative at any point is equal to the tangent vector attached to that point by the vector field.


title: Tangent space

text: All the tangent spaces of a manifold may be "glued together" to form a new differentiable manifold with twice the dimension of the original manifold, called the "tangent bundle" of the manifold.


title: Tangent space

text: The informal description above relies on a manifold's ability to be embedded into an ambient vector space formula_11 so that the tangent vectors can "stick out" of the manifold into the ambient space. However, it is more convenient to define the notion of a tangent space based solely on the manifold itself.


title: Tangent space

text: There are various equivalent ways of defining the tangent spaces of a manifold. While the definition via the velocity of curves is intuitively the simplest, it is also the most cumbersome to work with. More elegant and abstract approaches are described below.


title: Tangent space

text: In the embedded-manifold picture, a tangent vector at a point formula_1 is thought of as the "velocity" of a curve passing through the point formula_1. We can therefore define a tangent vector as an equivalence class of curves passing through formula_1 while being tangent to each other at formula_1.


title: Tangent space

text: Suppose that formula_16 is a formula_17 differentiable manifold (with smoothness formula_18) and that formula_19. Pick a coordinate chart formula_20, where formula_21 is an open subset of formula_16 containing formula_1. Suppose further that two curves formula_24 with formula_25 are given such that both formula_26 are differentiable in the ordinary sense (we call these "differentiable curves initialized at formula_1"). Then formula_28 and formula_29 are said to be "equivalent" at formula_30 if and only if the derivatives of formula_31 and formula_32 at formula_30 coincide. This defines an equivalence relation on the set of all differentiable curves initialized at formula_1, and equivalence classes of such curves are known as "tangent vectors" of formula_16 at formula_1. The equivalence class of any such curve formula_37 is denoted by formula_38. The "tangent space" of formula_16 at formula_1, denoted by formula_41, is then defined as the set of all tangent vectors at formula_1; it does not depend on the choice of coordinate chart formula_20.


title: Tangent space

text: To define vector-space operations on formula_41, we use a chart formula_20 and define a map formula_46 by formula_47 where formula_48. The map formula_49 turns out to be bijective and may be used to transfer the vector-space operations on formula_50 over to formula_41, thus turning the latter set into an formula_52-dimensional real vector space. Again, one needs to check that this construction does not depend on the particular chart formula_20 and the curve formula_37 being used, and in fact it does not.


title: Tangent space

text: Suppose now that formula_16 is a formula_56 manifold. A real-valued function formula_57 is said to belong to formula_58 if and only if for every coordinate chart formula_20, the map formula_60 is infinitely differentiable. Note that formula_58 is a real associative algebra with respect to the pointwise product and sum of functions and scalar multiplication.


title: Tangent space

text: A "derivation" at formula_19 is defined as a linear map formula_63 that satisfies the Leibniz identity


title: Tangent space

text: Generalizations of this definition are possible, for instance, to complex manifolds and algebraic varieties. However, instead of examining derivations formula_72 from the full algebra of functions, one must instead work at the level of germs of functions. The reason for this is that the structure sheaf may not be fine for such structures. For example, let formula_73 be an algebraic variety with structure sheaf formula_74. Then the Zariski tangent space at a point formula_75 is the collection of all formula_76-derivations formula_77, where formula_76 is the ground field and formula_79 is the stalk of formula_74 at formula_8.


title: Tangent space

text: For formula_82 and a differentiable curve formula_83 such that formula_84 define formula_85 (where the derivative is taken in the ordinary sense because formula_86 is a function from formula_87 to formula_88). One can ascertain that formula_89 is a derivation at the point formula_90 and that equivalent curves yield the same derivation. Thus, for an equivalence class formula_91 we can define formula_92 where the curve formula_48 has been chosen arbitrarily. The map formula_94 is a vector space isomorphism between the space of the equivalence classes formula_38 and that of the derivations at the point formula_96


title: Tangent space

text: Again, we start with a formula_97 manifold formula_16 and a point formula_19. Consider the ideal formula_100 of formula_101 that consists of all smooth functions formula_102 vanishing at formula_1, i.e., formula_104. Then formula_100 and formula_106 are both real vector spaces, and the quotient space formula_107 can be shown to be isomorphic to the cotangent space formula_108 through the use of Taylor's theorem. The tangent space formula_109 may then be defined as the dual space of formula_107.


title: Tangent space

text: While this definition is the most abstract, it is also the one that is most easily transferable to other settings, for instance, to the varieties considered in algebraic geometry.


title: Tangent space

text: If formula_72 is a derivation at formula_1, then formula_113 for every formula_114, which means that formula_72 gives rise to a linear map formula_116. Conversely, if formula_117 is a linear map, then formula_118 defines a derivation at formula_1. This yields an equivalence between tangent spaces defined via derivations and tangent spaces defined via cotangent spaces.


title: Tangent space

text: If formula_16 is an open subset of formula_50, then formula_16 is a formula_56 manifold in a natural manner (take coordinate charts to be identity maps on open subsets of formula_50), and the tangent spaces are all naturally identified with formula_50.


title: Tangent space

text: Another way to think about tangent vectors is as directional derivatives. Given a vector formula_126 in formula_50, one defines the corresponding directional derivative at a point formula_128 by


title: Tangent space

text: This map is naturally a derivation at formula_1. Furthermore, every derivation at a point in formula_50 is of this form. Hence, there is a one-to-one correspondence between vectors (thought of as tangent vectors at a point) and derivations at a point.


title: Tangent space

text: As tangent vectors to a general manifold at a point can be defined as derivations at that point, it is natural to think of them as directional derivatives. Specifically, if formula_126 is a tangent vector to formula_16 at a point formula_1 (thought of as a derivation), then define the directional derivative formula_135 in the direction formula_126 by


title: Tangent space

text: If we think of formula_126 as the initial velocity of a differentiable curve formula_37 initialized at formula_1, i.e., formula_141, then instead, define formula_135 by


title: Tangent space

text: For a formula_56 manifold formula_16, if a chart formula_146 is given with formula_147, then one can define an ordered basis formula_148 of formula_149 by


title: Tangent space

text: This formula therefore expresses formula_126 as a linear combination of the basis tangent vectors formula_154 defined by the coordinate chart formula_20.


title: Tangent space

text: Every smooth (or differentiable) map formula_156 between smooth (or differentiable) manifolds induces natural linear maps between their corresponding tangent spaces:


title: Tangent space

text: The linear map formula_49 is called variously the "derivative", "total derivative", "differential", or "pushforward" of formula_161 at formula_1. It is frequently expressed using a variety of other notations:


title: Tangent space

text: In a sense, the derivative is the best linear approximation to formula_161 near formula_1. Note that when formula_166, then the map formula_167 coincides with the usual notion of the differential of the function formula_161. In local coordinates the derivative of formula_161 is given by the Jacobian.


title: 2nd Guards Motor Rifle Division

text: The 2nd Guards M. I. Kalinin Taman Motor Rifle Division (), commonly known as the Tamanians or Taman Division, is a Guards mechanised infantry division of the Russian Ground Forces. Its Military Unit Number (V/Ch) is 23626.


title: 2nd Guards Motor Rifle Division

text: The 2nd Guards Motor Rifle Division was formed in 1941, seeing extensive combat during World War II for which it became one of the most famous and decorated formations in the Soviet military. It was named in honor of Mikhail Kalinin and the town of Taman, remaining intact until it was disbanded in 2009, before being reformed in 2013. Since 2016, it is part of the 1st Guards Tank Army of the Western Military District, and most of its units are based in the town of Kalininets, Moscow Oblast, south-west of Moscow.


title: 2nd Guards Motor Rifle Division

text: The division took part in the Northeastern Ukraine offensive of the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, notably in the failed Siege of Chernihiv.


title: 2nd Guards Motor Rifle Division

text: The 127th Rifle Division was formed 8 June 1940 in Kharkiv, on the base of the 23rd Rifle Division which was just transferred to participate in the imminent Soviet occupation of the Baltic states (1940).


title: 2nd Guards Motor Rifle Division

text: The division was initially garrisoning Kharkiv, Chuhuiv and Bohodukhiv. It was transferred to Rzhyshchiv in May 1941.


title: 2nd Guards Motor Rifle Division

text: The 127th Rifle Division was with 19th Army's 25th Rifle Corps, along with 134th and 162nd Rifle Divisions on June 22, 1941. It formed part of the High Command reserve. By August, it was with the Front troops of the Soviet Reserve Front. After the other division of the 25th Rifle Corps (134th and 162nd) were shattered on arrival to south-east outskirts of Vitebsk during 11–16 July 1941, the 127th was re-routed to south-east of Smolensk and reassigned to the 34th Rifle Corps. At that time, the 535th Rifle Regiment has lost its way and ended up being incorporated into the Leningrad Front. On 4 August 1941, the 127th Division traversed the Dnieper River 13 km south of Yartsevo as part of the general Soviet retreat. Afterwards, it was relieved of front line duty and sent to Dorogobuzh for replenishment, where it received the 875th Rifle Regiment from the 158th Rifle Division.


title: 2nd Guards Motor Rifle Division

text: For distinguished combat service, the division was renamed as the 2nd Guards Rifle Division on 18 September 1941, attaining "Guards" status. At the end of September 1941, it fought in Hlukhiv area, retreating toward river as part of General Arkady Yermakov's operational group of the Bryansk Front. Transferred to the Kursk area on 3 October 1941, it fought a defensive battle around the town of Tim.


title: 2nd Guards Motor Rifle Division

text: On 22 December 1941, the division started to advance during the Winter Campaign of 1941–42. Acting together with the 1st Guards Rifle Division and 87th Rifle Division, it advanced through Cheremisinovo and Sovetsky districts of the Kursk Oblast.


title: 2nd Guards Motor Rifle Division

text: After participating in the in September–October 1943, the division was renamed to 2nd Guards (Tamanskaya) Motor Rifle Division after the city of Taman, Russia. Starting from 3 November 1943, the division acted in the spearhead of Kerch-Eltigen Operation in northern Yenikale (Ganikale) beachhead, under the command of the 56th Army.


title: 2nd Guards Motor Rifle Division

text: During the Crimean Offensive the division captured the city of Alushta on 15 April 1944, acting under the command of the Separate Coastal Army. 19 May 1944 it was relieved from the front line duty, reassigned to the Soviet Strategic Reserve, 2nd Guards Army and transferred to Dorogobuzh for replenishment. It restarted combat operations 8 July 1944 after the 2nd Guards Army was given to the 1st Baltic Front. The division participated in Šiauliai Offensive and later in October 1944 – in Battle of Memel. In December 1944, the entire army including the 2nd Guards Motor Rifle Division was transferred to 3rd Belorussian Front and participated in the East Prussian Offensive, ending the war in middle April 1945 on the Baltic Sea coast north of Primorsk.