title: Intention

text: In the philosophy of action, a central question is how actions are to be defined, i.e. how they differ from other types of events like a sunrise, a car breaking down, or digestion. The most common approach to this question defines actions in terms of intentions. According to Donald Davidson, an action is an event that is intentional under some description. On this view, it is a central aspect of actions that they are caused by an agent's mental state: their intention. Another important aspect is that this causation happens in the right way, i.e. that the intention causes the event it planned and that the event is caused by employing the agent's abilities. These additional requirements are needed to exclude so-called "wayward" causal chains, i.e. cases in which the intended behavior happens but the corresponding intention either did not cause the behavior at all or did not cause it in the right way.


title: Intention

text: Some philosophers have rejected this close link between action and intention. This criticism is based on the idea that a person can perform an action intentionally without having a corresponding intention to perform this action. Doing something intentionally is usually associated with doing it for a reason. The question then is whether doing something for a reason is possible without having a corresponding intention. This is especially relevant for simple actions that are part of bigger routines. Walking to the cinema, for example, involves taking various steps. According to this argument, each step is an intentional action but the agent does not form a distinct intention for each step. Instead, most of them are not explicitly represented by the mind. Another counterexample against the thesis that performing an action intentionally involves intending to perform this action is based on the awareness of unintended side-effects, sometimes referred to as oblique intentions. One example consists of a chairman deciding to endorse a new project to boost profits despite its negative impact on the environment. In this case, it has been argued that the chairman intentionally harms the environment without an intention to do so.


title: Intention

text: A well-known thought experiment concerning the relation between intention and action is the toxin puzzle due to Gregory Kavka. It involves a billionaire offering the agent one million dollars for forming the intention by the end of the day to drink a vial of toxin the following day. The toxin makes a person ill for one day but has no lasting effect otherwise. It does not matter whether the agent actually drinks the toxin the next day, all that matters is that they have the intention to do so by the end of today. The puzzle concerns the question of whether it is possible to really form this intention. The reason for doubting this is that once the agent has formed the intention and received the money, they have no reason anymore to actually drink the toxin: this step is optional. But if they know all along that they won't drink the toxin after all, it is highly questionable whether they can actually form the corresponding intention. This is closely related to the idea that intending something entails believing that one will do it. But since the agent has no reason to actually do it once they have received the money, they would not believe that they would do it. This counts against the idea that they can intend it to begin with.


title: Intention

text: Various philosophers agree that it is impossible to form this type of intention. Their goal is often to find a general principle explaining why this is the case. Various accounts focus on the idea that the reason to perform the action is absent when it is time to perform it. So the agent has a reason to form the intention today but not a reason to perform the action tomorrow. So the reason for forming the intention is different from the reason for performing the action. This is sometimes expressed by saying that the agent has the "wrong type of reason" to form the intention. On this account, it is impossible to form the intention because the right type of reason for the intention is derivative of the reason for the action itself, which is absent.


title: Intention

text: But not everyone agrees that forming the intention is impossible. According to the rationalist solution, for example, it is possible to form the intention because there is a decisive reason to drink the toxin. The idea behind this approach is that there are two options today: (1) not form the intention and not drink the toxin or (2) form the intention and drink the toxin. Since the second option maximizes utility, it is rational to follow it and drink the toxin. The difficulty for this approach concerns explaining how the agent can hold onto their intention to drink the toxin after they have received the money.


title: Intention

text: Although human behavior is extremely complex and still remains unpredictable, psychologists are trying to understand the influential factors in the process of forming intentions and performing actions. The theories of Reasoned Action and Planned Behavior are comprehensive theories that specify a limited number of psychological variables that can influence behavior, namely (a) intention; (b) attitude toward the behavior; (c) subjective norm; (d) perceived behavioral control; and (e) behavioral, normative and control beliefs. In the theory of reasoned action, intention is influenced by people's attitude toward performing the behavior and the subjective norm. However, the level of perceived control is believed to be influential on people's behavioral intention along with their attitude and subjective norms, according to the theory of planned behavior. Not surprisingly, in most studies, intention is driven by attitudes to a greater extent than by subjective norms.


title: Intention

text: The predictive validity of the theory of Reasoned Action has been examined in numerous studies that have previously served as literature for at least three quantitative reviews. Ajzen and Fishbein (1973) reviewed 10 studies and reported a .63 average correlation for the prediction of behavior from intentions and a mean multiple correlation of .76 for the equation predicting intentions from both attitudes and norms. With similar objectives but larger samples, Sheppard et al.'s and van den Putte's meta-analyses estimated correlations of .53 and .62 for the prediction of behavior and multiple correlations of .66 and .68, respectively, for the prediction of intentions. All these studies have reflected the strong correlation that exists between people's attitudes, social norms and their intentions, as well as between their intention and the prediction of their behaviors. However, these correlations do not remain unchanged across all the conditions in people's life. Although people are likely to develop intentions to perform the action in question if they have a favorable attitude and perceive the behavior as controllable, then people's perception of control would be irrelevant to intentions when people have negative attitudes and perceive normative pressure not to perform certain actions. Research has also shown that people are more likely to perform an action if they have previously formed the corresponding intentions. Their intentions to perform the action appear to derive from attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control. To state an example: The reason one may be motivated to consume alcohol after work is determined by several factors: (1) Intention. The idea that drinking can help an individual relieve stress and enjoy one's time, for example, can greatly influence the attitude towards post-work drinking. (2) Subjective norms in one's surroundings. This factor is mainly cultural, so how much a society values and rewards drinking, but also strongly influenced by one's immediate social circle's values about this specific issue. (3) Perceived behavioural control towards the intended behaviour, specifically regarding the amounts of alcohol consumed. (4) Trends in behaviour. The longer the behaviour has been influenced by the previous factors, the more likely the behaviour is prone to be repeated as the original intention becomes reinforced.


title: Intention

text: How people think about and verbally communicate their own intentions also impacts these intentions. For example, asking a question about prior behaviors using the imperfective aspect of language seems to be able to bring out stronger intentions to perform such a behavior in the future. According to the "World Atlas of Language Structures", "Imperfective Aspects" refers to a specific form of language structure used for reference to the present and the future but also for ongoing and habitual events in the past. For example, ‘He writes/is writing/wrote/was writing/will write letters.’ People are more likely to interpret the event as ongoing, and likely to resume the action in the future when it has been described with the imperfective verb aspect. Similarly, using present tense to describe an action as ongoing may strengthen intentions to perform the same action in the future. Previous research has showed that both information on past behavior and their attitude towards such behavior play crucial roles in predicting people's future behavioral tendency. Recent research done by Carrera and others concluded that verb tense may not have direct influence on intentions, however it could still affect the type of information used as a basis of behavioral intentions. When participants described a past episode using the present tense, they consistently used the more concrete past behavior as a basis for their intentions. In contrast, when participants described a past episode using the past tense, they consistently used the more abstract attitude as a basis for their intentions.


title: Intention

text: It is often suggested that the agent's intentions play a central role in the moral value of the corresponding actions. This is sometimes termed the "intention principle": the thesis that whether an action is morally permissible sometimes depends on the agent's intention for performing this action. On this view, an otherwise permissible act may be impermissible if it is motivated by bad intentions. For example, a doctor administers a lethal drug to a suffering and terminally ill patient who consents. Defenders of the intention principle may claim that it depends on the doctor's intention whether this action is permissible. Specifically, this concerns whether it is done with the intention to relieve the patient's pain or with the intention of getting rid of a despised enemy. Opponents may claim that the moral difference in question only concerns the evaluation of the doctor as a person but not of their action. On this view, there is a difference between the moral values of persons and of actions: intentions concern the moral value of persons but not of actions. The intention principle is usually also rejected by consequentialists. They hold that only the consequences of an action matter but not how it was motivated. According to utilitarians, for example, an action is right if it produces the greatest good for the greatest number of people. In some cases, even actions performed with bad intentions may have this effect.


title: Intention

text: Immanuel Kant is a famous defender of the intention principle. For him, it is central that one does not just act outwardly in accordance with one's duty, which he terms "legality" (). Instead, the agent should also be inwardly motivated by the right intention, which he terms "morality" (). On this view, donating a lot of money to charities is still in some sense morally flawed if it is done with the intention of impressing other people. According to Kant, the main intention should always be to do one's duty: the good will consist in doing one's duty for the sake of duty.


title: Intention

text: The "doctrine of double effect" is a closely related principle. It states that there are cases in which the agent may not intend to harm others, even if this harm is used as means to a greater good. But in otherwise equivalent cases it is permissible to harm others if this harm is a side effect, or a "double effect", but not a means. On this view, for example, terror bombing an ammunition factory in order to weaken the enemy's resolve by killing all the civilians working in it is impermissible. But performing the same attack as a tactical bombing in order to reduce the enemy's ammunition supply is permissible, even if the same amount of civilian deaths were foreseen as a side effect. Many of the arguments directed at the intention principle also apply to the doctrine of double effect. Additional arguments focus on the difficulty of drawing a general distinction between intended means and foreseen side-effects.


title: GP3 Series

text: The GP3 Series, or GP3 for short, was a single-seater motor racing series launched in 2010 as a feeder series for the GP2 Series, introduced by GP2 organiser Bruno Michel. GP3 followed the entire European leg of the Formula One series and the GP2 (now Formula 2) series as a support race for the two. Like the GP2 series, GP3 gave drivers the experience of the Grand Prix environment, and took advantage of the infrastructure, such as marshals and medical facilities, in place for the Formula One events. GP3 Series mainly raced on European circuits, but had appearances on other international race tracks, with rounds in the 2015 season at the Bahrain International Circuit in Bahrain and the Yas Marina Circuit in United Arab Emirates.


title: GP3 Series

text: Many drivers had since stepped up to GP2 since the series began, with the 2010 champion Esteban Gutiérrez, Pål Varhaug and ninth-place finisher Stefano Coletti being the first to do so for the 2011 season. 2011 champion Valtteri Bottas did not follow suit, however, and instead joined Williams as a reserve driver. Meanwhile, James Calado, Rio Haryanto, Simon Trummer, Tom Dillmann and Nigel Melker all joined GP2 for the 2012 season. Other drivers who have graduated to other series are James Jakes who moved to the IndyCar Series for 2011, Josef Newgarden to the Indy Lights series in 2011 and Alexander Rossi and Robert Wickens who moved to the Formula Renault 3.5 Series in 2011 and Lewis Williamson in 2012.


title: GP3 Series

text: In the series' short history, thirteen drivers have gone on to compete in Formula One. These include former champions Gutiérrez, Daniil Kvyat, Bottas, Esteban Ocon,


title: GP3 Series

text: In 2019 the series merged with the FIA Formula 3 European Championship and became the FIA Formula 3 Championship.


title: GP3 Series

text: A race weekend features one 45-minute practice session on Friday, and one 30-minute qualifying session on Saturday, followed by two races. The qualifying session is a straight fight for the fastest laptime, and determines the order of the grid for Saturday's Race 1.


title: GP3 Series

text: Race 2 is on Sunday. The grid is decided by the Saturday result with top 8 being reversed, so the driver who finished 8th on Saturday will start from pole position and the winner will start from 8th place.


title: GP3 Series

text: The distance of each race is decided prior to the event, however, should 30 minutes elapse before the designated number of laps are completed the lead driver will be shown the chequered flag.


title: GP3 Series

text: With this points system, the most points anyone can score in one round is 20 by claiming pole position, winning both races with the fastest lap in each race.


title: GP3 Series

text: With this points system, the most points anyone can score in one round is 48 by claiming pole position, winning both races with the fastest lap in each race.


title: GP3 Series

text: GP3 Series has ten European teams and thirty drivers representing the Series. Manor Racing, Atech CRS GP and Carlin represent Great Britain, whilst flying the French flag is GP2 Series 2009 Champions ART Grand Prix and Tech 1 Racing. MW Arden in association with ex-Formula One driver Mark Webber race under an Australian license. Spaniard Addax Team, German RSC Mücke Motorsport in association with Ralf Schumacher, Irish-Canadian Status Grand Prix, and Swiss team Jenzer Motorsport complete the lineup.


title: GP3 Series

text: The 2010 GP3 Series was the inaugural season of the Series. The championship was contested over sixteen races held at eight rounds, beginning on May 8 at Circuit de Catalunya and ending on September 12 at Autodromo Nazionale Monza. The title was clinched by ART Grand Prix driver Esteban Gutiérrez at the final round by taking pole position, who won the championship 17 points clear of Robert Wickens in second, who was a further 18 points ahead of third place driver Nico Müller.


title: GP3 Series

text: The season began at Istanbul Park on 7 May and concluded at Autodromo Nazionale Monza on 11 September after eight rounds made up of two races each and all in support of European Formula 1 Grands Prix. The title was claimed by Valtteri Bottas who was only 7 points ahead of his teammate James Calado in second, while Nigel Melker finished 17 points adrift in third. This was to be ART Grand Prix's second championship in as many seasons.


title: GP3 Series

text: The season began on 12 May at Catalunya, Barcelona, and finished at the Autodromo Nazionale Monza on 9 September. It supported the entire European leg of the 2012 Formula One Season again and included the series' first visit to Monte Carlo, Monaco.


title: GP3 Series

text: Going into the final round of the season, four drivers were in with a chance of winning the championship, but ultimately a move on the penultimate lap gave Mitch Evans the title with 151.5 points, only beating Daniel Abt by just two points on 149.5 while António Félix da Costa finished off the top three with 132 points. The teams title was also won during the last round by Lotus GP, their third title in as many seasons. The season was also the last for the first-generation chassis, the GP3/10.


title: GP3 Series

text: The season began on 11 May at Catalunya, Barcelona, and finished at the Yas Marina Circuit, Abu Dhabi on 3 November. It followed most of the European leg of the 2013 Formula One season again other than Monaco, and for the first time it hosted a non-European race at the last round in Abu Dhabi. It also saw the début of the series second-generation chassis, the Dallara GP3/13.


title: GP3 Series

text: The title was clinched by Daniil Kvyat at the final round with 168 points, beating Facu Regalia by 30 points on 138 while Conor Daly finished off the top three with 126 points. The teams title was won by ART Grand Prix, their fourth title in as many seasons.


title: GP3 Series

text: The season began on 10 May at Catalunya, Barcelona, and finished at the Yas Marina Circuit, Abu Dhabi on 23 November. It once again followed most of the European leg of the 2014 Formula One season other than Monte Carlo, Monaco and the only non-European race at the last round in Abu Dhabi.


title: GP3 Series

text: The title was clinched by Alex Lynn at the final round with 207 points, beating Dean Stoneman by 44 points on 163 while Marvin Kirchhöfer finished off the top three with 161 points. For the first time, the teams title was won by Carlin, becoming the first and only team other than ART Grand Prix to take the teams title.


title: GP3 Series

text: The season began on 9 May at Catalunya, Barcelona, and finished at the Yas Marina Circuit, Abu Dhabi on 29 November. It was contested over 18 races at nine rounds. There were nine teams with three cars each. Esteban Ocon won the title by 8 points despite winning only one race compared to second placed Luca Ghiotto winning five races. Ocon did however finish on the podium 14 times. The teams title was won by ART Grand Prix, their fifth title. This season was the last with the GP3/13 chassis.


title: GP3 Series

text: The season began on 14 May at Catalunya, Barcelona, and finished at the Yas Marina Circuit, Abu Dhabi on 27 November. It was contested over 18 races at nine rounds. There were seven teams with three to four cars each, with DAMS making its debut. The title was clinched by Charles Leclerc at the final round with 202 points, beating Alexander Albon by 25 points on 177 while Antonio Fuoco finished off the top three with 157 points. The teams title was won by ART Grand Prix at Monza, their sixth title. This season was the first with the series' third-generation chassis, the GP3/16.


title: GP3 Series

text: The season began on 13 May at Catalunya, Barcelona and finished at the Yas Marina Circuit, Abu Dhabi on 26 November. It was contested at 18 races at nine rounds. George Russell, Jack Aitken and Nirei Fukuzumi ended the season in the top 3 with ART Grand Prix. All drivers at the end of the season joined the 2018 FIA Formula 2 Championship. The second race at Italy was cancelled after heavy rain during the 2017 Italian Grand Prix. This season saw the series introduce the Drag Reduction System (DRS) used in Formula One and Formula 2.


title: GP3 Series

text: The final season of the series started on 12 May in Barcelona, and finished on 26 November at Yas Marina. The season was again contested of 9 rounds and 18 races. The final driver's title went to Frenchman Anthoine Hubert who drove for ART, take 2 victories, 11 podiums, 2 pole positions, and 4 fastest laps, with 214 points. ART Grand Prix won the final constructor's title, winning all but one constructor's titles in the series. It was also the last season with the GP3/16 chassis. With 198 points scored, Nikita Mazepin became runner-up with 4 victories, 8 podiums, 1 pole position and most 5 fastest laps. After a disaster weekend for Hubert in Red Bull Ring, it was his teammate, who retook the lead, but only in this round. Finally, Callum Ilott down to third, behind second place, but ultimately get to the top three and scored 167 points with 2 victories, 7 podiums, 1 pole position, and 2 fastest laps.


title: Jinggoy Estrada

text: Jose Pimentel Ejercito Jr. (; born February 17, 1963), also known as Jinggoy Ejercito Estrada or simply Jinggoy Estrada, is a Filipino politician, film actor, and producer serving as a Senator since 2022, and previously from 2004 to 2016. He was the president pro tempore of the Senate from 2007 to 2013, and as such, became the acting Senate President for the 47 days in 2013 between Juan Ponce Enrile's resignation and Franklin Drilon's election as the new Senate President. Before serving in the Senate, he was the vice mayor (1988–1992) and later mayor (1992–2001) of San Juan, Metro Manila.


title: Jinggoy Estrada

text: Estrada has been detained twice for corruption charges. In 2001, he and his father, ousted president Joseph Estrada, were arrested after being charged with plunder. He was released in 2003, elected to the Senate in 2004, and was acquitted in 2007. In 2014, he was charged and detained for allegedly embezzling from his discretionary funds in a scandal known as the pork barrel scam. In 2016, he was released after being allowed to post bail. He sought reelection in the 2019 Senate election but lost. He ran again in 2022 and won a Senate seat.


title: Jinggoy Estrada

text: Outside politics, Estrada is also an actor like his father. He won the Best Actor Award in the 2007 Metro Manila Film Festival for the film "Katas ng Saudi". Senator JV Ejercito is his half-brother.


title: Jinggoy Estrada

text: Estrada was born on February 17, 1963, in Manila. He finished his primary and secondary education at the Ateneo de Manila University and earned a degree in A.B. Economics from the University of the Philippines Manila. He took up Bachelor of Laws for four years at the Lyceum of the Philippines University while serving as Vice Mayor of the then Municipality of San Juan at the age of 25. He was also bestowed an honorary Doctorate in Humanities in 2007 by the Laguna State Polytechnic University.


title: Jinggoy Estrada

text: In 1992, he became the youngest ever elected-local chief executive during the 1992 Philippine local elections at age 29. During his three consecutive terms as mayor, he spearheaded the construction of modernized barangay halls with daycare centers and various recreational areas such as gymnasiums, basketball courts and playgrounds. The renovation and repair of the San Juan National High School and other public elementary schools also took place, as well as the improvement and replacement of drainages, concreting of municipal roads, and the construction of the four-storey San Juan Medical Center and the San Juan Municipal Gymnasium. During his incumbency, San Juan gained the reputation of being one of the most progressive municipalities and the "most peaceful municipality in the Philippines".


title: Jinggoy Estrada

text: During his final tenure as mayor, he was sworn into office as the national president of the League of Municipalities of the Philippines (LMP) from 1998 to 2001.


title: Jinggoy Estrada

text: In 2004, he was elected as a senator. During his first term, he introduced at least 617 bills and resolutions and steered the passage of at least 16 bills either as a principal sponsor or principal author. Jinggoy is hailed as the second most productive and prolific senator, next to Sen. Miriam Defensor-Santiago, who filed the most number of bills and resolutions in the Senate.


title: Jinggoy Estrada

text: On August 15, 2007, the Supreme Court voted 13-0 to uphold Sandiganbayan's decision to grant his bail in connection with his plunder case before the graft court. His father, former president Joseph Estrada was the main accused in that plunder case and was subsequently convicted. However, Estrada was immediately pardoned by then-President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo. On September 11, 2007, Estrada introduced Senate Bill 1556, proposing to make ROTC mandatory for all college students.


title: Jinggoy Estrada

text: In 2010, he was re-elected as a senator, finishing in 2nd place. During the opening of the 15th Congress on July 26, 2010, he was re-elected as Senate president pro tempore.


title: Jinggoy Estrada

text: During his stint in the Senate, he had been consistently hailed as one of the very few senators who scored perfect attendance, with no absence or late during the chamber's plenary sessions.


title: Jinggoy Estrada

text: Estrada is presently accused of another plunder charge at the Ombudsman relating to Janet Lim Napoles' pork barrel scam involving of the people's money. Two other senators—Juan Ponce Enrile and Bong Revilla—as well as more than two dozens individuals are charged with him. Estrada is accused of pocketing PHP183 million in kickbacks from fake projects.


title: Jinggoy Estrada

text: A report by the Commission on Audit of the Philippines was released on August 16, 2013, showing alleged misuse of funds by lawmakers who allegedly endorsed part of their congressional allocations to bogus non-governmental organizations. The accusations were the subject of a Senate probe that began later that month.


title: Jinggoy Estrada

text: The Department of Justice of the Philippines filed its case against Estrada, Enrile and Revilla before the Ombudsman on September 16, 2013.


title: Jinggoy Estrada

text: On June 23, 2014, Estrada was arrested and detained at the Philippine National Police Custodial Center in Camp Crame, Quezon City. The Philippine Senate on September 2, 2014 suspended Estrada from his Senate post for 90 days.


title: Jinggoy Estrada

text: On September 16, 2017, Sandiganbayan anti-graft court released its resolution granting bail to Estrada.


title: Jinggoy Estrada

text: On February 22, 2019, Estrada filed a request for a demurrer before the Sandiganbayan Fifth Division, asking the court to deviate from established procedure and to allow him to challenge the sufficiency of evidence midway into the trial. In March 2019, the court granted Estrada and his co-accused 10 days to file their respective demurrers; prosecution was also granted 10 days to respond.


title: Jinggoy Estrada

text: Estrada is the principal author of the Kasambahay Law, or the law promoting the interests and welfare of the domestic workers in the Philippines. Republic Act 10361, or simply the "Kasambahay Law", prescribed standards, privileges, and rights of the domestic workers.


title: Jinggoy Estrada

text: In August 2010, Estrada claimed that while traveling to Hong Kong, he experienced a backlash of the emotions surrounding the death of 8 Chinese nationals from Hong Kong during the 2010 Manila hostage crisis. According to him, as he passed through the immigration desk in Hong Kong, officers threw back his passport at him after checking it.


title: Jinggoy Estrada

text: Estrada said the officer may not have known who he was because he used a "regular passport" for personal travel. He also said that he "understood the pain being felt by many Hong Kong nationals".


title: Jinggoy Estrada

text: According to "Apple Daily", the Hong Kong immigration department recorded that Estrada visited Hong Kong with a diplomat passport and that from an alleged video surveillance record, he and three other Filipinos were accompanied by staff from the Philippine embassy and had arranged to go through the privileged passage for diplomats. The immigration officer handed back the passport to the Philippines embassy staff, not to Estrada.


title: Jinggoy Estrada

text: Estrada ran for a comeback to the Senate in the 2019 Philippine Senate election. His half-brother, JV Ejercito, also sought for a Senate reelection. During the campaign, the half-siblings had a disagreement in the idea of them running at the same time. He was named to the Hugpong ng Pagbabago senatorial slate. However, he lost, placing 15th in the final tally, while Ejercito ended up in the 13th place, just a spot outside the winning circle. After conceding defeat, he wished that Senator Nancy Binay would make it over Ejercito, with both senators vying for the last spot in the partial and unofficial count. JV Ejercito responded by telling Estrada that he placed 13th in his own hometown San Juan, “Let him speak... It’s painful to accept that even in your own bailiwick you are unwanted,".


title: Jinggoy Estrada

text: Estrada sought for a comeback to the Senate once again in the 2022 Philippine Senate election. He was named to the senatorial slate of UniTeam Alliance and openly endorsed the candidacies of Bongbong Marcos for president and Sara Duterte for vice president. For the second straight time, his half-brother, JV Ejercito, also ran for senator on the same election. He won as the 12th placer, finally earning his third nonconsecutive term, while Ejercito was also successful as he placed 10th. Estrada Chaired the Senate Committee on Labor, Employment and Human Resources Development and the Senate Committee on National Defense and Security, Peace, Unification and Reconciliation.


title: Jinggoy Estrada

text: In October 2022, Estrada made a statement wherein he was thinking of a proposal to ban all Korean dramas in the Philippines: "My observation is if we continue showing Korean telenovelas, our citizens praise the Koreans while Filipino artists continue losing jobs and money. So sometimes it comes to my mind that we should ban the telenovelas of the foreigners, and the Filipino artists who have great talent in acting are what we should be showing in our own country." Estrada clarified that he was only frustrated "that while we are only too eager and willing to celebrate South Korea's entertainment industry, we have sadly allowed our own to deteriorate because of the lack of support from the movie going public."


title: Jinggoy Estrada

text: On May 3, 2020, Estrada was arrested over alleged violations of the COVID-19 community quarantine rules. He said that he had been distributing relief goods to residents of the city when policemen in two patrol cars arrived at the scene and invited him to the local precinct.


title: Invasions of Afghanistan

text: Afghanistan is a mountainous landlocked country at the crossroads of Central and South (Southern) Asia. Some of the invaders in the history of Afghanistan include the Maurya Empire, the Ancient Macedonian Empire of Alexander the Great of Macedon, the Rashidun Caliphate, the Mongol Empire led by Genghis Khan, the Timurid Empire of Timur, the Mughal Empire, various Persian Empires, the British Empire, the Soviet Union, and most recently the United States with a number of allies in response to the September 11 attacks. A in support of the government under the U.S.–Afghanistan Strategic Partnership Agreement. Just prior to American withdrawal in 2021, the Taliban regained control of the capital Kabul and most of the country. They changed Afghanistan's official name to the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan.


title: Invasions of Afghanistan

text: From a geopolitical perspective, controlling Afghanistan is vital in controlling the rest of Southern Asia, or getting a passage through Central Asia, reflecting its geographic position in the region. Afghanistan played an important part in the Great Game power struggles. Historically, the conquest of Afghanistan has also played an important role in the invasion of India from the west through the Khyber Pass.


title: Invasions of Afghanistan

text: While relatively little detail is known, parts of the region of modern day Afghanistan came under rule of the Median kingdom for a short time.


title: Invasions of Afghanistan

text: Afghanistan fell to the Achaemenid Empire after it was conquered by Darius I of Persia. The area was divided into several provinces called satrapies, which were each ruled by a governor, or satrap. These ancient satrapies included: Aria (Herat); Arachosia (Kandahar, Lashkar Gah, Bamiyan and Quetta); Bactriana (Balkh); Sattagydia (Ghazni); and Gandhara (Kabul, Jalalabad, Peshawar).


title: Invasions of Afghanistan

text: Alexander the Great invaded what is today Afghanistan in 330 BC as part of war against Persia. Comprising the easternmost satrapies of Persia, Afghanistan provided some challenging battles in his conquest of the remaining lands of Persia. Renamed Bactria, and settled with his Ionian veterans, Alexander began his invasion of India from what is now Jalalabad, attacking the Indus River basin through the Khyber Pass. Several cities in Afghanistan are named for Alexander, including Alexandria Arachosia, now called Kandahar (a contraction of "Iskandahar").


title: Invasions of Afghanistan

text: Following the death of Alexander and the partition of his kingdom, the Province of Bactria was under the rule of Alexander's former general, Seleucus, who now formed the Seleucid Dynasty, with its capital in Babylon. But the Greek Soldiers in Bactria, based on the remoteness of their territory, declared independence, defeated Seleucid armies sent to reconquer them, and founded the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom, which lasted for more than three centuries in Afghanistan, and western India. This Greek Kingdom called Bactria carried on Greek culture while completely cut off from Europe for three centuries. One of the cities, Ai-Khanoum was excavated in 1970s, showing a complete Greek city with an acropolis, amphitheater, temples, and numerous statues. Greek art has been found in Bactria showing influence from Indian Buddhist art creating something of an hybrid artistic style. Bactrian King Menander I converted to Buddhism after staging multiple theological and philosophical debates between his Greek priests and Indian Buddhist monks. Menander I is remembered in Buddhist Sutras as "King Milinda of the Yunani." The Ionian origin of the Greek veterans who settled Bactria is remembered to this day by the Afghan word for Greeks, which is "Ionani." Bactrian Greeks left a legacy of coinage, architecture, and Buddhist art, which comprised the Gandhara culture, especially the Greco-Buddhist Art affecting all of East Asia to this day. The last Greek Kingdom in Afghanistan was conquered by the Kushan invaders in the first century AD, a full three centuries after Alexander. But Greek language continued to be used by the Kushans in their coinage for the next several centuries.


title: Invasions of Afghanistan

text: In the seventh to ninth centuries, following the disintegration of the Sassanid Persian Empire and Roman Empire, leaders in the world theater for the last four centuries and archrivals, the area was again invaded from the west, this time by Umar, second Caliph of the Rashidun Caliphate, in the Islamic conquest of Afghanistan, eventually resulting in the conversion of most of its inhabitants to Islam. This was one of many Muslim conquests following the establishment of a unified state in the Arabian Peninsula by the prophet Muhammad. At its height, Muslim control - during the period of the Umayyad Caliphate - extended from the borders of China to the Iberian Peninsula (modern day Spain and Portugal), the Middle East, North Africa, parts of southern Europe, parts of south East Europe, parts of central Asia, and parts of South Asia.


title: Invasions of Afghanistan

text: In the Mongol invasion of Khwarezmia (1219–1221), Genghis Khan invaded the region from the northeast in one of his many conquests to create the huge Mongol Empire. His armies slaughtered thousands in the cities of Kabul, Kandahar, Jalalabad etc. After Genghis Khan returned to Mongolia, there was a rebellion in the region of Helmand which was brutally put down by his son and successor, Ogedei Khan, who killed all male residents of Ghazni and Helmand in 1222; the women were enslaved and sold. Thereafter most parts of Afghanistan other than the extreme south-eastern remained under Mongol rule as part of the Ilkhanate and the Turko-Mongol Chagatai Khanate.


title: Invasions of Afghanistan

text: The Hazara people claim to be descendants of the Turko-Mongol invaders mixed with the local indigenous Turkic and Iranic populations, though this is disputed because the first mention of Hazara people is made by Babur in the 16th century. The Hazara constitute the majority of Shia adherents in Afghanistan today. Additionally, many areas of Afghanistan are named after Mongol and Turkic leaders, including Band-e-Timur (meaning "Timur's block") in Maywand District in Kandahar Province, the only district never taken from the Taliban throughout the western invasion of the 21st century, Jaghatu District in Ghazni province, and Jaghatu District in Maidan Wardak province (named in honor of the Turko-Mongol Chagatai Khanate) and the village of Wech Baghtu in Shah Wali Kot District in Kandahar province, named after Batu.


title: Invasions of Afghanistan

text: From 1383 to 1385, the Afghanistan area was conquered from the north by Timur, leader of neighboring Transoxiana (roughly modern-day Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, and adjacent areas), and became a part of the Timurid Empire. Timur was from a Turko-Mongol tribe and although a Muslim, saw himself more as an heir of Genghis Khan. Timur's armies caused great devastation and are estimated to have caused the deaths of 17 million people. He brought great destruction on Afghanistan's south, slaughtering thousands and enslaving an equal number of women. Allied with the Uzbeks, Hazaras and other Turkic communities in the north his dominance over Afghanistan was long-lasting, allowing him for his future successful conquests in Central Anatolia against the Ottomans.


title: Invasions of Afghanistan

text: In the next period, no part of Afghanistan ever came under rule of various Delhi Sultanate. After the slow disintegration of the Timurid Empire in 1506, the Mughal Empire was later established in Afghanistan, Pakistan, and India by Babur in 1526, who was a descendant of Timur through his father and possibly a descendant of Genghis Khan through his mother. By the 17th century, the Mughal Empire ruled most of India, but later declined during the 18th century.


title: Invasions of Afghanistan

text: The First Anglo-Afghan War of 1838–1842 was conducted with the intention of limiting Russian influence in the country and quelling raiding from across the border. Within four years the British were expelled. After the Indian Mutiny, the British launched a second invasion, the Second Anglo-Afghan War of 1878–1880, for much the same reasons but did not attempt to maintain a permanent presence. A third conflict broke out in 1919. It lasted for three months, from May to August, and ended in a compromise that saw Afghanistan reassert its independence and control over its relations with other countries while agreeing to a border with British India known as the Durand Line. This line is still the border between Pakistan and Afghanistan today.


title: Invasions of Afghanistan

text: The Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan in 1929 against the Saqqawists and again in 1930 to fight the Basmachi movement.


title: Invasions of Afghanistan

text: The Soviet Union, along with other countries, was a direct supporter of the new Afghan government after the Saur Revolution in April 1978. However, Soviet-style reforms introduced by the government such as changes in marriage customs and land reform were not received well by a population deeply immersed in tradition and Islam. The oppressive nature of the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan, which executed political prisoners and purged the government of any opposition, was also seen unfavorably by the Afghan population. By 1979, fighting between the Afghan government and various other factions within the country, some of which were supported by the United States and other countries, led to a virtual civil war and in a phone call to the Kremlin in March 1979 Afghan prime minister Nur Muhammad Taraki requested military assistance. This was refused by Soviet prime minister Alexei Kosygin on behalf of the Politburo.


title: Invasions of Afghanistan

text: After Taraki was murdered the new Afghan Prime Minister Hafizullah Amin repeated requests for Soviet military support, at least to protect his residence. Finally, in December the Politburo decided to deal with the situation in Afghanistan, and in early December sent special forces which attacked Amin's palace and killed him, putting the exiled Babrak Kamal in his place. These forces were subsequently reinforced by the 40th Army which entered Afghanistan on 24 December 1979. As the Kremlin foresaw, this intervention would cause problems around the world for the USSR, with the policy of détente and, not least, at the forthcoming Olympic Games due to take place in summer 1980 in Moscow. The result was a far-reaching boycott of the 1980 Summer Olympics in Moscow, supported not only by the United States but by many of the 65 other invited countries that did not take part.


title: Invasions of Afghanistan

text: At its greatest extent the Soviet military contingent in Afghanistan numbered 100,000 personnel. This presence remained for a decade and kickstarted U.S. and Saudi funding for Islamic Mujahideen groups opposed to both the Afghan government and the Soviet military presence. The local Mujahideen, along with fighters from several different Arab nations (Pathan tribes from across the border also participated in the war; they were supported by the Pakistani ISI), fought the Soviet forces to a standstill. On 24 January 1989 Gorbachev's Politburo took the decision to withdraw most of the Soviet forces, while continuing to provide military assistance to the Afghan government. Eventually, in-fighting within the Mujahideen led to the rise of warlords in Afghanistan, and from them emerged the Taliban. The Soviets left behind the only highway in the country as well as many concrete structures built in the major cities, and airfields that are still in use (e.g. at Bagram).


title: Invasions of Afghanistan

text: On October 7, 2001 the United States began an invasion of Afghanistan under Operation Enduring Freedom. The invasion was launched to capture Osama bin Laden, who was the mastermind of the September 11, 2001 attacks, and was being sheltered by the Taliban. The US military forces did not capture him, though they toppled the Taliban government and disrupted bin Laden's Al-Qaeda network. On May 2, 2011, bin Laden was shot and killed by United States Armed Forces in Pakistan. The Taliban leadership persisted by hiding throughout Afghanistan, largely in the southeast, and launched guerrilla attacks against forces of the United States, its allies, and the government of President Ashraf Ghani.


title: Invasions of Afghanistan

text: In 2006, the US forces turned over security of the country to NATO-deployed forces in the region, integrating 12,000 of their 20,000 soldiers with NATO's 20,000. The remainder of the US forces continued to search for Al-Qaeda militants. The Canadian military assumed leadership and almost immediately began an offensive against areas where the Taliban guerrillas had encroached. At the cost of a few dozen of their own soldiers, the British, American, and Canadian Forces managed to kill over 1,000 alleged Taliban insurgents and sent thousands more into retreat. Many of the surviving insurgents, however, began to regroup and soon after began to engage both NATO and Afghan National Army forces, starting a protracted war that lasted until 2021, with the withdrawal of Western forces and the Taliban takeover of Kabul.


title: All Things Bright and Beautiful

text: "All Things Bright and Beautiful" is an Anglican hymn, also sung in many other Christian denominations. The words are by Cecil Frances Alexander and were first published in her "Hymns for Little Children" of 1848.


title: All Things Bright and Beautiful

text: The hymn is commonly sung to the hymn tune , composed by William Henry Monk in 1887. Another popular tune is , adapted from a 17th-century English folk tune, "The 29th of May".


title: All Things Bright and Beautiful

text: The hymn was first published in 1848 in Mrs Cecil Alexander's "Hymns for Little Children". It consists of a series of stanzas that elaborate upon the clause of the Apostles' Creed that describes God as "maker of heaven and earth", and has been described as asserting a creationist view of the natural world.


title: All Things Bright and Beautiful

text: It has been suggested that a number of sources may have influenced Alexander's composition. The hymn may have been inspired by Psalm 104, verses 24 and 25: "Oh Lord, how manifold are thy works! in wisdom hast thou made them all: the earth is full of thy riches. So is this great and wide sea, wherein are things creeping innumerable, both small and great beasts". The hymn may have been inspired as well by a verse from Samuel Taylor Coleridge's "The Rime of the Ancient Mariner": "He prayeth best, who loveth best; All things great and small; For the dear God who loveth us; He made and loveth all." Alternatively, inspiration may have come from William Paley's "Natural Theology", published in 1802, that argues for God as the designer of the natural world. For example, the hymn's second verse alludes to "wings" and verse 7 refers to "eyes". Paley cited wings and eyes as examples of complexity of design, analogous to that of a watch, with God as the Divine Watchmaker.


title: All Things Bright and Beautiful

text: Inspiration for Alexander's hymn text "The purple-headed mountain, The river running by" has been attributed to four separate locations in Wales, Ireland and England. Alexander visited Llanwenarth House in Govilon, Monmouthshire in 1848, and according to this claim, the hymn refers to the nearby Sugar Loaf or the Blorenge mountains, and to the River Usk. She is also known to have visited Markree Castle near Sligo, and some sources link Alexander's text with the surrounding gardens there. Alexander's travels also took her to the nearby village of Dunster in Somerset in 1848, and the landscape of Grabbist Hill and the River Avill are also claimed to be her inspiration.


title: All Things Bright and Beautiful

text: However, a more credible account is given by Sir John Heygate of Bellarena House in County Londonderry, which links the hymn to the many visits paid by the Alexanders to what was then the Gage family residence, a family into which Sir John's ancestor -Sir Frederick Heygate-married in 1850. Writing in 1973, Sir John attributed "the purple headed mountain" to nearby Benevenagh, and "the river running by" to the River Roe which flows past Bellerena House. Sir John had heard the story from the late Sir Norman Stronge, speaker of the Northern Ireland House of Commons, whose family also had ties to the area.


title: All Things Bright and Beautiful

text: The third verse makes reference to "The rich man in his castle,/The poor man at his gate", and asserts that their social positions have been ordained by God. It has been interpreted as an expression of the theological view that society is ordered and upheld by Divine providence. This view of social strata has been linked to Alexander's identity as an Anglo-Irish person affirming the existing social order in the midst of the Irish famine. An alternative interpretation of the third verse holds that Alexander was expressing the equality of rich and poor in the eyes of God. A comparable text in Alexander's "Verses for Holy Seasons" (1846) makes reference to "The poor man in his straw-roofed cottage,/The rich man in his lordly hall" and states that their prayers to God are of equal importance: "He listens, and He answers all".


title: All Things Bright and Beautiful

text: Nevertheless, the sentiments of this verse are generally considered to be outdated and many later versions and performances of "All Things Bright and Beautiful" omit the third verse. Percy Dearmer omitted this verse from "The English Hymnal" (1906); he was sympathetic to Christian socialism and stated that the words reflected the "passivity and inertia at the heart of the British Establishment in the face of huge inequalities in Edwardian society". Dearmer questioned whether Alexander had remembered the parable of the Rich man and Lazarus (), and attributed her view of the world to her having "been brought up in the atmosphere of a land-agent on an Irish estate". The revised edition of "Hymns Ancient and Modern", published in 1950, also omits this verse.


title: All Things Bright and Beautiful

text: It is also frequently sung to the tune , a melody that was adapted from a 17th-century folk tune, "The Twenty-Ninth of May", published in "The Dancing Master" in 1686. The melody may have political origins in the English Civil War, and its name is thought to be a reference to the Royal Oak, a tree at Boscobel, Shropshire in which King Charles II hid himself in 1651. This tune was first arranged for the hymn by Martin Shaw in 1916, published in his book for children, Song Time. This arrangement became widely associated with the hymn after it was included in Songs of Praise (hymnal).


title: All Things Bright and Beautiful

text: There have also been other adaptations, such as a full choral piece by John Rutter. In earlier editions of the Church of Scotland's "Church Hymnary", the tunes "God in Nature" by John Stainer and "All Things Bright" by Frederick Arthur Gore Ouseley had been used. The chorus has been recommended as a Christian song for children to learn, even for children as young as five years of age.


title: All Things Bright and Beautiful

text: In the 20th century, the writer James Herriot used lines from the hymn as titles for his series of veterinary story collections, "All Creatures Great and Small" (1972), "All Things Bright and Beautiful" (1974), "All Things Wise and Wonderful" (1977) and "The Lord God Made Them All" (1981). Material from his books has also been adapted as a film, "All Creatures Great and Small" (1975), as a television series of the same name in 1978 and another in 2020.


title: All Things Bright and Beautiful

text: For the 1970 science fiction film "Beneath the Planet of the Apes", composer Leonard Rosenman composed a discordant version of the hymn, rewritten for a dystopian cult who worship a nuclear bomb.


title: All Things Bright and Beautiful

text: The hymn was parodied by the Monty Python comedy troupe in their 1980 album "Monty Python's Contractual Obligation Album"; Alexander's text is inverted and a choir sings in praise of "All Things Dull And Ugly" to Monk's melody.


title: All Things Bright and Beautiful

text: Dennis Potter's TV serial "Pennies from Heaven" included a scene with a group of school children singing the hymn, but as part of the dark streak in the serial, it included the controversial third verse.


title: Noise figure

text: Noise figure (NF) and noise factor ("F") are figures of merit that indicate degradation of the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) that is caused by components in a signal chain. These figures of merit are used to evaluate the performance of an amplifier or a radio receiver, with lower values indicating better performance.


title: Noise figure

text: The noise factor is defined as the ratio of the output noise power of a device to the portion thereof attributable to thermal noise in the input termination at standard noise temperature "T" (usually 290 K). The noise factor is thus the ratio of actual output noise to that which would remain if the device itself did not introduce noise, or the ratio of input SNR to output SNR.


title: Noise figure

text: The noise "factor" and noise "figure" are related, with the former being a unitless ratio and the latter being the same ratio but expressed in units of decibels (dB).


title: Noise figure

text: The noise figure is the difference in decibels (dB) between the noise output of the actual receiver to the noise output of an “ideal” receiver with the same overall gain and bandwidth when the receivers are connected to matched sources at the standard noise temperature "T" (usually 290 K). The noise power from a simple load is equal to "kTB", where "k" is the Boltzmann constant, "T" is the absolute temperature of the load (for example a resistor), and "B" is the measurement bandwidth.


title: Noise figure

text: This makes the noise figure a useful figure of merit for terrestrial systems, where the antenna effective temperature is usually near the standard 290 K. In this case, one receiver with a noise figure, say 2 dB better than another, will have an output signal to noise ratio that is about 2 dB better than the other. However, in the case of satellite communications systems, where the receiver antenna is pointed out into cold space, the antenna effective temperature is often colder than 290 K. In these cases a 2 dB improvement in receiver noise figure will result in more than a 2 dB improvement in the output signal to noise ratio. For this reason, the related figure of "effective noise temperature" is therefore often used instead of the noise figure for characterizing satellite-communication receivers and low-noise amplifiers.


title: Noise figure

text: In heterodyne systems, output noise power includes spurious contributions from image-frequency transformation, but the portion attributable to thermal noise in the input termination at standard noise temperature includes only that which appears in the output via the principal frequency transformation of the system and excludes that which appears via the image frequency transformation.


title: Noise figure

text: where and are the input and output signal-to-noise ratios respectively. The quantities are unitless power ratios.


title: Noise figure

text: These formulae are only valid when the input termination is at standard noise temperature , although in practice small differences in temperature do not significantly affect the values.


title: Noise figure

text: Attenuators have a noise factor equal to their attenuation ratio when their physical temperature equals . More generally, for an attenuator at a physical temperature , the noise temperature is , giving a noise factor


title: Noise figure

text: where is the noise factor for the -th device, and is the power gain (linear, not in dB) of the -th device. The first amplifier in a chain usually has the most significant effect on the total noise figure because the noise figures of the following stages are reduced by stage gains. Consequently, the first amplifier usually has a low noise figure, and the noise figure requirements of subsequent stages is usually more relaxed.


title: Noise figure

text: The noise factor may be expressed as a function of the additional output referred noise power formula_4 and the power gain formula_5 of an amplifier.


title: Noise figure

text: and assuming a system which has a noisy single stage amplifier. The signal to noise ratio of this amplifier would include its own output referred noise formula_4, the amplified signal formula_8 and the amplified input noise formula_9,


title: Noise figure

text: In cascaded systems formula_12 does not refer to the output noise of the previous component. An input termination at the standard noise temperature is still assumed for the individual component. This means that the additional noise power added by each component is independent of the other components.


title: Noise figure

text: The above describes noise in electrical systems. Electric sources generate noise with a power spectral density equal to , where is the Boltzmann constant and is the absolute temperature. However, there is also noise in optical systems. In these, the sources have no fundamental noise. Instead the energy quantization causes notable shot noise in the detector, corresponding to a noise power spectral density of where is the Planck constant and is the optical frequency.


title: Noise figure

text: In the 1990s, an optical noise figure has been defined. This has been called for "p"hoton "n"umber "f"luctuations. The powers needed for SNR and noise factor calculation are the electrical powers caused by the current in a photodiode. SNR is the square of mean photocurrent divided by variance of photocurrent. Monochromatic or sufficiently attenuated light has a Poisson distribution of detected photons. If, during a detection interval the expectation value of detected photons is then the variance is also and one obtains = = . Behind an optical amplifier with power gain there will be a mean of photons. In the limit of large the variance of photons is where is the spontaneous emission factor. One obtains = = . Resulting optical noise factor is = = .


title: Noise figure

text: Photocurrent is proportional to optical power. Optical power is proportional to squares of a field amplitude (electric or magnetic). So, the receiver is nonlinear in amplitude. The power needed for calculation is proportional to the 4th power of the signal amplitude. But for in the electrical domain the power is proportional to the square of the signal amplitude.


title: Noise figure

text: At a certain electrical frequency, noise occurs in phase (I) and in quadrature (Q) with the signal. Both these quadratures are available behind the electrical amplifier. The same holds in an optical amplifier. But the direct detection photoreceiver needed for measurement of takes mainly the in-phase noise into account whereas quadrature noise can be neglected for high. Also, the receiver outputs only one quadrature. So, one quadrature is lost.


title: Noise figure

text: Moreover, today's long-haul optical fiber communication is dominated by coherent optical I&Q receivers but does not describe the SNR degradation observed in these.


title: Noise figure

text: The above conflicts are resolved by the optical in-phase and quadrature noise figure . It can be measured using a coherent optical I&Q receiver. In these, power of the output signal is proportional to the square of an optical field amplitude because they are linear in amplitude. They pass both quadratures. For an optical amplifier it holds = ≥ 1. Quantity is the input-referred number of added noise photons per mode.


title: Noise figure

text: Total noise power spectral density per mode is + . In the electrical domain can be neglected. In the optical domain can be neglected. In between, say, in the low THz or thermal domain, both will need to be considered. It is possible to blend between electrical and optical domains such that a universal noise figure is obtained.


title: Noise figure

text: This has been attempted by a noise figure where the subscript stands for fluctuations of amplitude squares. At optical frequencies equals and involves detection of only 1 quadrature. But the conceptual difference to cannot be overcome: It seems impossible that for increasing frequency (from electrical to thermal to optical) 2 quadratures (in the electrical domain) gradually become 1 quadrature (in optical receivers which determine or ). The ideal noise factor would need to go from 1 (electrical) to 2 (optical), which is not intuitive. For unification of with , squares of signal amplitudes (powers in the electrical domain) must also gradually become 4th powers of amplitudes (powers in optical direct detection receivers), which seems impossible.


title: Noise figure

text: A consistent unification of optical and electrical noise figures is obtained for and . There are no contradictions because both these are in conceptual match (powers proportional to squares of amplitudes, linear, 2 quadratures, ideal noise factor equal to 1). Thermal noise and fundamental quantum noise are taken into account. The unified noise figure is = = .


title: Little Man Tate

text: Little Man Tate is a 1991 American drama film directed by Jodie Foster (in her directorial debut) from a screenplay written by Scott Frank. The film stars Adam Hann-Byrd as Fred Tate, a seven-year-old child prodigy who struggles to self-actualize in social and psychological settings that largely fail to accommodate his intelligence. It also stars Foster, Dianne Wiest, Harry Connick Jr., David Hyde Pierce, Debi Mazar and P.J. Ochlan.


title: Little Man Tate

text: "Little Man Tate" was released theatrically on October 18, 1991 by Orion Pictures to critical and commercial success. Reviewers praised Foster's direction, Frank's screenplay and the performances of the cast. The film grossed $25 million domestically, on a $10 million budget.


title: Little Man Tate

text: Dede Tate is a young working-class woman of average intelligence raising her seven-year-old son, Fred. Fred shows every indication of being a genius. Fred's reading and mathematics abilities are remarkable, and he plays the piano "at competition level," but his intellect has isolated him from his public school classmates.


title: Little Man Tate

text: Fred's abilities come to the attention of Jane Grierson, a former music prodigy and now a psychologist running a school for gifted children. She asks permission from Dede to admit Fred to the school, in order to develop his intellectual gifts in ways that a public school cannot. Dede is reluctant, preferring that Fred have a more normal upbringing, but when no friends come to Fred's seventh birthday party, Dede consents.


title: Little Man Tate

text: Fred joins other brilliant young people, and participates in Jane's Odyssey of the Mind event for part of the spring. There he meets one of his heroes, who is one of Jane's prized pupils, the brilliant but slightly bizarre "Mathemagician" Damon Wells, a whiz at math who wears a black cape wherever he goes. After Fred unintentionally upstages Damon at one of the competitions at Odyssey of the Mind, Damon is upset with Fred. Damon however warms up to Fred when out horseback riding on Jane's ranch, and is Fred's first insight to a world outside academia. Damon tells him, "it's not the size of a man's IQ that matters; it's how he uses it". Jane attempts to become more nurturing, but is unable to relate to Fred as anything other than a case study.


title: Little Man Tate

text: Fred is later enrolled at a university, where he studies quantum physics while his mother, aunt and cousins travel to Florida for the summer. An adult student named Eddie accidentally hits Fred with a globe when goofing around. To make it up to Fred, Eddie takes him out for a ride on his moped and shows him things such as how to shoot pool; it is good for Fred to spend time with someone who is not a genius. However, when Fred walks into Eddie's room while Eddie is in bed with a coed, Fred runs out and Eddie chases after him. Eddie explains that he cannot be a babysitter for Fred; although he enjoys Fred's company, Fred needs to find friends closer to his own age. The return to isolation takes its toll on Fred, as he suffers from nightmares in which he is treated as a freak and an outsider.


title: Little Man Tate

text: Jane is asked to bring Fred onto a TV panel discussion show on the topic of gifted children. Fred attends but breaks down. He claims his mother is dead, and recites a childish poem (a word-for-word repetition of a poem by one of his former grade school classmates) before taking off his microphone and walking out of the studio. Dede witnesses some of this as it is being broadcast, and flies back to New York. Jane is unable to find Fred, but Dede discovers him back at their apartment, and embraces him.


title: Little Man Tate

text: One year later, Fred has adjusted to the pressures of being a child genius, particularly after an even younger student is admitted to Jane's school. Dede hosts a well-attended birthday party for Fred, reconciling Fred's emotional development with his intellect.


title: Little Man Tate

text: Jodie Foster, who is herself a former child prodigy, was immediately impressed by the film's narrative and was interested in directing it. Orion Pictures was on the verge of bankruptcy at the time and was skeptical about Foster directing the film. They ultimately agreed after she offered to act in the film without payment. The film includes certain autobiographical elements from Foster's life.


title: Little Man Tate

text: Most of the film was shot in Over-the-Rhine and downtown Cincinnati. Other locations include the Cincinnati neighborhood of Clifton; the Village of Indian Hill; the University of Cincinnati's McMicken Hall; Miami University's Alumni Hall, Upham Hall, Hall Auditorium and the Tau Kappa Epsilon Fraternity House, in Oxford, Ohio; and both the Wexner Center and the Ohio Theater in Columbus, Ohio.


title: Little Man Tate

text: In its opening weekend in North America, "Little Man Tate" was #6 at the box office, grossing $2.3 million. The film grossed a total of $25 million domestically, against a $10 million budget becoming a commercial success.


title: Little Man Tate

text: The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes gives the film an approval rating of 73% based on 30 reviews, with an average rating of 6.30/10. On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 71 out of 100 based on 5 reviews, indicating "generally favourable reviews".


title: Little Man Tate

text: Roger Ebert gave the film three and a half stars out of four and commented on how the film's premise is similar to Foster's life, saying; ""Little Man Tate" is the kind of movie you enjoy watching; it's about interesting people finding out about themselves and as Foster creates this little man who sees a lot and knows a lot but is only gradually beginning to understand a lot, we can hear echoes, perhaps, of a young girl who once found it more interesting to study French than get her picture in the fan magazines".


title: Apkallu

text: Apkallu (Akkadian) and Abgal (Sumerian: ) are terms found in cuneiform inscriptions that in general mean either "wise" or "sage".


title: Apkallu

text: In several contexts the "Apkallu" are seven demi-gods, sometimes described as part man and part fish, associated with human wisdom; these creatures are often referred to in scholarly literature as the "Seven Sages". Sometimes the sages are associated with a specific primeval king. After the deluge (see "Epic of Gilgamesh"), further sages and kings are listed. Post-deluge, the sages are considered human, and in some texts are distinguished by being referred to as "Ummanu", not "Apkallu".


title: Apkallu

text: The terms "Apkallu" (as well as "Abgal") is also used as an epithet for kings and gods as a mark of wisdom or knowledge.


title: Apkallu

text: A further use of the term "Apkallu" is when referring to figurines used in apotropaic rituals; these figurines include fish-man hybrids representing the seven sages, but also include bird-headed and other figures.


title: Apkallu

text: In a later work by Berossus describing Babylonia, the Apkallu appear again, also described as fish-men who are sent by the gods to impart knowledge to people. In Berossus, the first one, Oannes (a variant of Uanna), is said to have taught people the creation myth the "Enuma Elis".


title: Apkallu

text: The term "apkallu" has multiple uses, but usually refers to some form of wisdom; translations of the term generally equate to English language uses of the terms "the wise", "sage" or "expert".


title: Apkallu

text: As an epithet, prefix, or adjective it can mean "the wise"; it has been used as an epithet for the gods Ea and Marduk, simply interpreted as "wise one amongst gods" or similar forms. It has also been applied to Enlil, Ninurta, and Adad.


title: Apkallu

text: The term also refers to the "seven sages", especially the sage Adapa, and also to apotropaic figures, which are often figurines of the 'seven sages' themselves.


title: Apkallu

text: Additionally, the term is used when referring to human "priests" (also "exorcists", "diviners"). However, Mesopotamian human sages also used the term "ummianu" (ummânù).


title: Apkallu

text: The first of these legendary fish-man sages is known as Oan/Oannes (Sumerian) or Uanna/U-An (Akkadian); on a few cuneiform inscriptions this first sage has "adapa" appended to his name. Borger notes, however, that it is difficult to believe that the half-man half-fish "Adapa" is the same as the fisherman of the Adapa myth, the son of the god Ea. A potential solution was given by W. G. Lambert—evidence that "adapa" was also used as an appellative meaning "wise".


title: Apkallu

text: These Sages are found in the "Uruk List of Kings and Sages" (165 BC) discovered in 1959/60 in the Seleucid era temple of Anu in Bit Res; The text consisted of list of seven kings and their associated sages, followed by a note on the 'Deluge' (see Gilgamesh flood myth), followed by eight more king/sage pairs.


title: Apkallu

text: Lenzi notes that the list is clearly intended to be taken in chronological order. It is an attempt to connect real (historic) kings directly to mythologic (divine) kingship and also does the same connecting those real king's sages (ummanu) with the demi-godly mythic seven sages (apkallu).


title: Apkallu

text: Though the list is taken to be chronological, the texts do not portray the Sages (nor the kings) as genealogically related to each other or their kings. There is some similarity between the sages' and kings' names in the list, but not enough to draw any solid conclusions.


title: Apkallu

text: A list (similar to the Uruk list) of the seven sages followed by four human sages is also given in an apotropaic incantation the tablet series "Bit meseri". The ritual involved hanging or placing statues of the sages on the walls of a house. A translation of the cuneiform was given by Borger:


title: Apkallu

text: A text giving the story known as the Twenty-One "Poultices" (ref. no. LKA No.76) contains duplications of much of the "Bit meseir" text concerning the seven sages - it was analyzed by . Another text from Uruk was later found that duplicated and further completed the coverage of Reiner's text.


title: Apkallu

text: In "the twenty-one poultices" text the seven sages (of Eridu) are entrusted with the reading "tablets of destiny." Additionally the sage Anenlilda is the maker of the 'twenty-one poultices' -- these items are then given to Nudimmud to bring to the "upper world" to gain merit.


title: Apkallu

text: The seven sages are also mentioned in the Epic of Erra (aka 'Song of Erra', or 'Erra and Ishum'); here again they are referenced as "paradu"-Fish. In this text is described how after the Flood, Marduk banished them back to Abzu. Once the apkallu are banished, Marduk's phrasing becomes rhetorical (left):


title: Apkallu

text: Finally Erra persuades Marduk to leave his temple and fetch back the apkallu from their banishment, reassuring that he will keep order whilst Marduk is away. However, chaos breaks out; though some of the text is missing it seems that the subsequent outcome was that instead, earthly "ummanus" are given the task of cleansing Marduk's shrine. Kvanvig infers from this text that the mythological role of the apkallu was to aid the god (Marduk) in keeping creation stable by maintenance of Marduk's idol.


title: Apkallu

text: According to Scott B. Noegel this epic also contains several clever etymological wordplays on the names of apkallu, both textual and phonetic.


title: Apkallu

text: This text appears to have a completely different role for the apkallu from that given in the lists of sages and kings—essentially, Kvanvig proposes that the pre-deluge king-sage list was retroactively inserted onto a Sumerian king list, so to combine the historical record with the flood legend. In doing so it creates a pre-flood origin story for the Sumerian kings.


title: Apkallu

text: The seven sages were also associated with the founding of the seven cities of Eridu, Ur, Nippur, Kullab, Kesh, Lagash, and Shuruppak; and in the Epic of Gilgamesh (Gilg. I 9; XI 305) they are credited with laying the foundations of Uruk.


title: Apkallu

text: Berossus wrote a history of Babylon in around 281 BC, during the Hellenistic period. According to his own account, he was a Chaldean priest of Bel (Marduk). His "Babyloniaca" was written in Greek, probably for the Seleucid court of Antiochus I. His work gives a description of the wise men, their names, and their associated kings. Berossus' original book is now lost, but parts have survived via the abridgment and copying of historians including Alexander Polyhistor, Josephus, Abydenus, and Eusebius. Mayer Burstein suggests that Berossus' work was partly metaphorical, intended to convey wisdoms concerning the development of man—a nuance lost or uncommented on by later copyists.


title: Apkallu

text: What remains of Berossos' account via Apollodorus begins with a description on Babylonia, followed by the appearance of a learned fish-man creature named Oannes. Truncated account:


title: Apkallu

text: In summary, Berossus' Babylonian history recounts ten kings before a deluge (followed by the reigns of later kings), with a record or myth of primitive man receiving civilized knowledge via the Oannes; in also contains a paraphrasing of the myth the "Enuma Elis", which was said to have been recounted by the Oannes. Though Berossus' history contains obvious historical errors, parts of it have convincing matches with ancient cuneiform texts, suggest he was recreating accounts known from ancient Mesopotamian texts. Mayer Burstein considers that the text was not well written in a "Greek style", but was essentially a transliteration of Mesopotamian myths into Greek. Helpfully for future historians, Berossus does not seem to have altered the myths or narratives to suit a Greek audience.


title: Apkallu

text: In terms of his relevance to the Apkallu: his lists match fairly well with the Uruk King/Apkallu list, though there are differences and variations. Oannes is paired with the king Alorus, and by comparison can be considered equivalent to Adapa [Uanna]. Matches between Berossus and the kings and apkallu in the Uruk King List have been proposed.


title: Apkallu

text: Various other cuneiform texts have references to these seven sages. There are texts that associates a set of seven sages with the city Kuar-Eridu or Eridu, while in the Epic of Gilgamesh there is a reference to seven counselors as founders of Uruk. Another list of seven sages used in a ritual differs from the description and names give in the "Bit meseri" text.


title: Apkallu

text: Several of named apkulla are listed on inscriptions as authors, notably Lu-Nanna is recorded as author of the "Myth of Etana".


title: Apkallu

text: Representations of 'apkallu' were used in apotropaic rituals; in addition to fish-headed ones (similar to descriptions of the seven sages), other human-animal hybrids were used as 'apkallu' in this context (generally bird-headed humans).


title: Apkallu

text: Apkallu reliefs appear prominently in Neo-Assyrian palaces, notably the constructions of Ashurnasirpal II of the 9th century BC. They appear in one of three forms, bird-headed, human-headed or dressed in fish-skin cloaks. They have also been found on reliefs from the reign of Sennacherib. The form taken of a man covered with the 'pelt' of a fish is first seen the Kassite period, continuing is used to the period of Persian Babylonia – the form was popular during the Neo-Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian periods.


title: Apkallu

text: The spread of the 'seven sage' legend westwards during the 1st and 2nd millennia has been speculated to have led to the creation of the tale of the Nephilim (Genesis 6:1-4) as recounted in the Old Testament, and may have an echo in the text of the Book of Proverbs (Prov 9:1): ""Wisdom built her house. She set out its seven pillars."" The story of Enoch ("seventh from Adam") and his ascension to heaven has also been proposed to be a variant or influenced by the seventh apkallu Utuabzu who is also said to have ascended to heaven in the "bit meseri".


title: Apkallu

text: Oannes was once conjectured to be a form or another name of the ancient Babylonian god Ea. It is now thought that the name is the Greek form of the Babylonian "Uanna", an Apkallu.


title: Religious segregation

text: Religious segregation is the separation of people according to their religion. The term has been applied to cases of religious-based segregation which occurs as a social phenomenon, as well as segregation which arises from laws, whether they are explicit or implicit.


title: Religious segregation

text: The similar term religious apartheid has also been used for situations where people are separated based on their religion, including sociological phenomena.


title: Religious segregation

text: The debate over the ban on non-Hindus entering Hindu temples began around 30 years ago when singer Yesudas, who planned to take part in a music programme, was stopped at the Guruvayur Temple gate. He finally had to sing "bhajans" outside the temple wall. Though several temples in Kerala have signs saying non-Hindus are barred entry, few of them enforce it as strictly as Guruvayur Temple, which insists on following its distinct traditions. 'Only Orthodox Hindus are allowed’, reads a signboard hanging from the Lion's Gate of the Sri Jagannath Temple in Puri. The issue has triggered many a controversy in the past and continues to arouse strong feelings even today.


title: Religious segregation

text: In the past a number of dignitaries, including former prime minister Indira Gandhi, had not been allowed to enter the 12th century shrine; she was married to a Parsi, Feroze Gandhi. In 2005, Princess Mahachakri Sirindhorn of Thailand was not allowed inside the temple as she is a Buddhist.


title: Religious segregation

text: In 2006, the shrine did not allow a citizen of Switzerland named Elizabeth Jigler, who had donated 17.8 million Indian rupees to the temple, because she is a Christian. Kashi Vishvanath Varanasi in Varanasi, the temple stands on the western bank of the holy river Ganga, and is one of the 12 Jyotirlingas, the holiest of Shiva temples. The most famous of the many temples in Varanasi is the one dedicated to "Vishveswara"—Shiva as Lord of the Universe. Non-Hindus are not allowed inside the temple, although this is not always enforced. On the northern side of Vishwanath Temple is the Gyan Kupor Well. Non-Hindus are also strictly forbidden entry here.


title: Religious segregation

text: There has been a high profile case between different factions of Christians in Kerala over entry to Church.


title: Religious segregation

text: Shi'a Islam has been the state religion of Iran since the Iranian Revolution in 1979. While Judaism, Christianity, and Zoroastrianism are officially recognized and legally protected religious minorities, they are not allowed to evangelize or allow Muslim Iranians to convert to other faiths


title: Religious segregation

text: Other religious minorities, such as those of the Baháʼí Faith, are not recognized by the government and thus do not have any legal protections nor the constitutional right to practice their religion. The Muslim Network for Baháʼí Rights has reported cases of Baháʼí students being expelled from university due to their religion.


title: Religious segregation

text: According to the Times Higher Education, Baháʼí educators are required to renounce their faith in order to teach in Iranian universities. Due to its heterodox beliefs, the Baháʼí faith is officially considered a heretical movement because of the Baháʼí belief that Bahá'u'lláh is a divinely ordained prophet in contradiction of the Qur'an, which asserts that Muhammad is the last and final messenger sent to mankind.


title: Religious segregation

text: In 2015, Malaysian human rights activist Shafiqah Othman Hamzah noted that the practice of apartheid policies against different religions in Malaysia is institutionalised and widespread, adding that "What we are living in Malaysia is almost no different from apartheid."


title: Religious segregation

text: The 2012 Rakhine State riots are a series of ongoing conflicts between Rohingya Muslims and ethnic Rakhine in northern Rakhine State, Myanmar. The riots broke out after weeks of sectarian disputes and they have been condemned by most people on both sides of the conflict.


title: Religious segregation

text: The immediate cause of the riots is unclear, with many commentators citing the killing of ten Burmese Muslims by ethnic Rakhine after the gang rape and murder of a Rakhine woman as the main cause.


title: Religious segregation

text: Whole villages have been "decimated". Over three hundred houses and a number of public buildings have been razed. According to Tun Khin, the President of the Burmese Rohingya Organisation UK (BROUK), as of 28 June 650 Rohingyas have been killed, 1,200 are missing, and more than 80,000 have been displaced. According to the Myanmar authorities, the violence, between ethnic Rakhine Buddhists and Rohingya Muslims, left 78 people dead, 87 injured, and thousands of homes destroyed. It also displaced more than 52,000 people.


title: Religious segregation

text: The government has responded by imposing curfews and by deploying troops in the region. On 10 June 2012, a state of emergency was declared in Rakhine, allowing the military to participate in the administration of the region. The Burmese army and police have been accused of targeting Rohingya Muslims through mass arrests and arbitrary violence. A number of monks' organisations that played a vital role in Burma's struggle for democracy have taken measures to block any humanitarian assistance to the Rohingya community.


title: Religious segregation

text: In July 2012, the Myanmar Government did not include the Rohingya minority group–-classified as stateless Bengali Muslims from Bangladesh.Myanmar immigration law was amended in 1982 declared 135 indigenous ethnic races of Myanmar without the Rohingya and therefore they are not granted the indigenous rights and only small part of the people can claim Myanmar citizenship per the law.


title: Religious segregation

text: According to Amnesty International, the Muslim Rohingya people have continued to suffer from human rights violations under the Burmese junta since 1978, and many have fled to neighbouring Bangladesh as a result.


title: Religious segregation

text: As of 2005, the UNHCR (United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees) had been assisting with the repatriation of Rohingya from Bangladesh, but allegations of human rights abuses in the refugee camps have threatened this effort.


title: Religious segregation

text: Despite earlier efforts by the UN, the vast majority of Rohingya refugees have remained in Bangladesh, unable to return because of the regime in Myanmar. Now they face problems in Bangladesh where they do not receive support from the government. In February 2009, many Rohingya refugees were helped by Acehnese sailors in the Strait of Malacca, after 21 days at sea.


title: Religious segregation

text: Over the years thousands of Rohingya also have fled to Thailand. There are roughly 111,000 refugees housed in nine camps along the Thai-Myanmar border. There have been charges that groups of them have been shipped and towed out to open sea from Thailand, and left there. In February 2009, there was evidence of the Thai army towing a boatload of 190 Rohingya refugees out to sea. A group of refugees rescued by Indonesian authorities also in February 2009 told harrowing stories of being captured and beaten by the Thai military, and then abandoned at open sea. By the end of February, there were reports that of a group of five boats were towed out to open sea, of which four boats sank in a storm, and one washed up on the shore. On 12 February 2009 Thailand's prime minister Abhisit Vejjajiva said there were "some instances" in which Rohingya people were pushed out to sea.


title: Religious segregation

text: "There are attempts, I think, to let these people drift to other shores. [...] when these practices do occur, it is done on the understanding that there is enough food and water supplied. [...] It's not clear whose work it is [...] but if I have the evidence who exactly did this I will bring them to account."


title: Religious segregation

text: On the banks of the Bagmati River in Kathmandu, Nepal is a Pashupatinath Temple dedicated to Pashupatinath. This temple complex which is on the UNESCO World Heritage Sites's list since 1979 was erected anew in the 15th century by King kirat Yalamber.


title: Religious segregation

text: Entry into the inner courtyard is strictly monitored by the temple security, which is selective of who is allowed inside. Only practicing Hindus and Buddhists of Indian and Tibetan descendant are allowed into temple courtyard. Practicing Hindus and Buddhists of other than Nepali, Indian, Tibetan descent are not allowed into the temple complex along with other non Hindu visitors. Others can look at the main temple from adjacent side of the river.


title: Religious segregation

text: In Northern Ireland religious segregation has been a phenomenon which increased in many areas, particularly in the capital city of Belfast and Derry. This trend increased since the Troubles, a protracted series of conflicts and tensions between Roman Catholics and Protestants from the late 1960s to the late 2000s. Segregation does not occur everywhere. State schools are non-denominational, but many Roman Catholics send their children to Roman Catholic Maintained Schools.


title: Religious segregation

text: In government housing, most people will choose to be housed within their own communities. This form of segregation is most common among lower income people who live in larger towns and cities, and areas where there have been heightened levels of violence.


title: Religious segregation

text: Pakistan was created through the partition of India on the basis of religious segregation, as demanded by the pro-separatist Muhammad Ali Jinnah and the All India Muslim League, though not without significant opposition.


title: Religious segregation

text: In the colonial Indian province of Sind, the historian Ayesha Jalal describes the actions that the pro-separatist Muslim League used in order to spread communal division and undermine the government of Allah Bakhsh Soomro, which stood for a united India:


title: Religious segregation

text: In the few years before the partition, the Muslim League "monetarily subsidized" mobs that engaged in communal violence against Hindus and Sikhs in the areas of Multan, Rawalpindi, Campbellpur, Jhelum and Sargodha, as well as in the Hazara District. The Muslim League paid assassins money for every Hindu and Sikh they murdered. As such, leaders of the pro-separatist Muslim League, including Muhammad Ali Jinnah, issued no condemnation of the violence against Hindus and Sikhs in the Punjab.


title: Religious segregation

text: Today, Pakistan is officially an Islamic country and defines who and who is not a Muslim. Under these conditions, Ahmadi Muslims are declared non-Muslim by law of the land and cannot practice their faith freely. They are not permitted to call their mosques as mosques, or meet with people with the Islamic greeting of Peace. Ahmadi Muslims are excluded from government and any other high-profile positions within Pakistan. There have been cases when the Ahmadi Muslims have been expelled from schools, colleges and universities, for being Ahmadi Muslim. Once the entire population of Rabwah, the Pakistani headquarters of Ahmadi Muslims was charged under Anti-Ahmadiyya laws.


title: Religious segregation

text: Pakistan also houses some holy sites for Sikhism. Due to security concerns, Muslims are not allowed in the Samadhi of Ranjit Singh at Lahore fort.


title: Religious segregation

text: Prior to 1 March 2004, the official Saudi government website stated that Jews were forbidden from entering the country, however, this practice was not enforced.


title: Religious segregation

text: In Mecca, only Muslims are allowed, while non-Muslims may not enter or pass through. Attempting to enter Mecca as a non-Muslim can result in penalties such as a fine; being in Mecca as a non-Muslim can result in deportation.


title: Religious segregation

text: In Medina, non-Muslims are not allowed to enter Nabawi Square, where the Al-Masjid Al-Nabawi is located.


title: Poul Anderson

text: Poul William Anderson (November 25, 1926 – July 31, 2001) was an American fantasy and science fiction author who was active from the 1940s until the 21st century. Anderson wrote also historical novels. His awards include seven Hugo Awards and three Nebula Awards.


title: Poul Anderson

text: Poul Anderson was born on November 25, 1926, in Bristol, Pennsylvania to Scandinavian parents. Soon after his birth, his father, Anton Anderson relocated the family to Texas, where they lived for more than ten years. After Anton Anderson's death, his widow took the children to Denmark. The family returned to the United States after the beginning of World War II, settling eventually on a Minnesota farm.


title: Poul Anderson

text: While he was an undergraduate student at the University of Minnesota, Anderson's first stories were published by editor John W. Campbell in the magazine "Astounding Science Fiction": "Tomorrow's Children" by Anderson and F. N. Waldrop in March 1947 and a sequel, "Chain of Logic" by Anderson alone, in July. He earned his BA in physics with honors but became a freelance writer after he graduated in 1948. His third story was printed in the December "Astounding".


title: Poul Anderson

text: Anderson married Karen Kruse in 1953 and relocated with her to the San Francisco Bay area. Their daughter Astrid (now married to science fiction author Greg Bear) was born in 1954. They made their home in Orinda, California. Over the years Poul gave many readings at The Other Change of Hobbit bookstore in Berkeley; his widow later donated his typewriter and desk to the store.


title: Poul Anderson

text: In 1965, Algis Budrys said that Anderson "has for some time been science fiction's best storyteller". He was a founding member of the Society for Creative Anachronism (SCA) in 1966 and of the Swordsmen and Sorcerers' Guild of America (SAGA), also during the mid-1960s. The latter was a group of Heroic fantasy authors organized by Lin Carter, originally eight in number, with entry by credentials as a fantasy writer alone. Anderson was the sixth President of the Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers of America, taking office in 1972.


title: Poul Anderson

text: Robert A. Heinlein dedicated his 1985 novel "The Cat Who Walks Through Walls" to Anderson and eight of the other members of the Citizens' Advisory Council on National Space Policy. The Science Fiction Writers of America made Anderson its 16th SFWA Grand Master in 1998 and in 2000's fifth class, he was inducted into the Science Fiction and Fantasy Hall of Fame as one of two deceased and two living writers. He died of prostate cancer on July 31, 2001, after a month in the hospital. A few of his novels were first published posthumously.


title: Ischemic colitis

text: Ischemic colitis (also spelled ischaemic colitis) is a medical condition in which inflammation and injury of the large intestine result from inadequate blood supply. Although uncommon in the general population, ischemic colitis occurs with greater frequency in the elderly, and is the most common form of bowel ischemia. Causes of the reduced blood flow can include changes in the systemic circulation (e.g. low blood pressure) or local factors such as constriction of blood vessels or a blood clot. In most cases, no specific cause can be identified.


title: Ischemic colitis

text: Ischemic colitis is usually suspected on the basis of the clinical setting, physical examination, and laboratory test results; the diagnosis can be confirmed by endoscopy or by using sigmoid or endoscopic placement of a visible light spectroscopic catheter (see Diagnosis). Ischemic colitis can span a wide spectrum of severity; most patients are treated supportively and recover fully, while a minority with very severe ischemia may develop sepsis and become critically, sometimes fatally, ill.


title: Ischemic colitis

text: Patients with mild to moderate ischemic colitis are usually treated with IV fluids, analgesia, and bowel rest (that is, no food or water by mouth) until the symptoms resolve. Those with severe ischemia who develop complications such as sepsis, intestinal gangrene, or bowel perforation may require more aggressive interventions such as surgery and intensive care. Most patients make a full recovery; occasionally, after severe ischemia, patients may develop long-term complications such as a stricture or chronic colitis.


title: Ischemic colitis

text: Symptoms of ischemic colitis vary depending on the severity of the ischemia. The most common early signs of ischemic colitis include abdominal pain (often left-sided), with mild to moderate amounts of rectal bleeding. The sensitivity of findings among 73 patients were:


title: Ischemic colitis

text: Ischemic colitis is often classified according to the underlying cause. "Non-occlusive" ischemia develops because of low blood pressure or constriction of the vessels feeding the colon; "occlusive" ischemia indicates that a blood clot or other blockage has cut off blood flow to the colon.


title: Ischemic colitis

text: In hemodynamically unstable patients (i.e. shock) the mesenteric perfusion may be compromised. This condition is commonly asymptomatic, and usually only apparent through a systemic inflammatory response.


title: Ischemic colitis

text: Mostly the result of a thromboembolism. Commonly the embolism is caused by atrial fibrillation, valvular disease, myocardial infarction, or cardiomyopathy.


title: Ischemic colitis

text: In addition, ischemic colitis is a well-recognized complication of abdominal aortic aneurysm repair, when the origin of the inferior mesenteric artery is covered by the aortic graft. In a 1991 review concerning 2137 patients the accidental inferior mesenteric artery ligation was the most common cause (74%) of ischemic colitis. Thus, patients without adequate collateralization are at risk for ischemia of the descending and sigmoid colon. Bloody diarrhea and leukocytosis in the postoperative period are essentially diagnostic of ischemic colitis. The complication can be prevented through careful selection of subjects that may require replanting inferior mesenteric artery (IMA) and completing the pre surgical procedure information with an instrumental evaluation during surgical treatment.


title: Ischemic colitis

text: The colon receives blood from both the superior and inferior mesenteric arteries. The blood supply from these two major arteries overlaps, with abundant collateral circulation via the marginal artery of the colon. However, there are weak points, or "watershed" areas, at the borders of the territory supplied by each of these arteries, such as the splenic flexure and the rectosigmoid junction. These watershed areas are most vulnerable to ischemia when blood flow decreases, as they have the fewest vascular collaterals.


title: Ischemic colitis

text: The rectum receives blood from both the inferior mesenteric artery and the internal iliac artery; the rectum is rarely involved by colonic ischemia due to this dual blood supply.


title: Ischemic colitis

text: Under ordinary conditions, the colon receives between 10% and 35% of the total cardiac output. If blood flow to the colon drops by more than about 50%, ischemia will develop. The arteries feeding the colon are very sensitive to vasoconstrictors; presumably this is an evolutionary adaptation to shunt blood away from the bowel and to the heart and brain in times of stress. As a result, during periods of low blood pressure, the arteries feeding the colon clamp down vigorously; a similar process can result from vasoconstricting drugs such as ergotamine, cocaine, or vasopressors. This vasoconstriction can result in non-occlusive ischemic colitis.


title: Ischemic colitis

text: A range of pathologic findings are seen in ischemic colitis, corresponding to the spectrum of clinical severity. In its mildest form, mucosal and submucosal hemorrhage and edema are seen, possibly with mild necrosis or ulceration. With more severe ischemia, a pathologic picture resembling inflammatory bowel disease (i.e. chronic ulcerations, crypt abscesses and pseudopolyps) may be seen. In the most severe cases, transmural infarction with resulting perforation may be seen; after recovery, the muscularis propria may be replaced by fibrous tissue, resulting in a stricture. Following restoration of normal blood flow, reperfusion injury may also contribute to the damage to the colon.


title: Ischemic colitis

text: Ischemic colitis must be differentiated from the many other causes of abdominal pain and rectal bleeding (for example, infection, inflammatory bowel disease, diverticulosis, or colon cancer). It is also important to differentiate ischemic colitis, which often resolves on its own, from the more immediately life-threatening condition of acute mesenteric ischemia of the small bowel.