title: Perry

text: Even when fully grown, pear trees bear less fruit than apples, which is one reason that perry is less common than cider. When time to harvest comes, pears should be picked before they are ripe and then left to ripen indoors, while apples should be allowed to ripen on the tree. Both apples and pears suffer from fire blight, which can devastate entire orchards, but pears are also susceptible to pear psylla (also known as "Psylla pyri"). These insects kill the entire pear tree and are very resistant to insecticides, making them a severe problem for pear orchards. Another added complication is that while apples are often harvested mechanically, pears must be harvested by hand, greatly increasing the time and cost of harvesting.


title: Perry

text: Traditional perry making is broadly similar to traditional cider making, in that the fruit is picked, crushed, and pressed to extract the juice, which is then fermented using the wild yeasts found on the fruit's skin. Traditional perry making employed querns and a rack and cloth press, in which the pulp is wrapped in cloth before being squeezed with a press. Modern perry production can use a belt press, which is much more efficient for pressing fruit. It works by sending the fruit down a conveyor belt, on which it is then pressed by rollers. The principal differences between perry and cider production are that pears must be left for a period to mature after picking, and the pomace must be left to stand after initial crushing to lose tannins, a process analogous to wine maceration. Additionally, because of the variation in hardness of the fruit, determining if a pear is ready for pressing than an apple can be more difficult. Also, key chemical compositional differences occur between apples and pears; these factors play a crucial role in prefermentation and fermentation decisions for perry production.


title: Perry

text: Compared to most apples, pears tend to have more sugar and total phenolic compounds. The main sugars in perry pears are glucose (192 –284 mg/L), xylose (140–176 mg/g), and galacturonic acid (108–118 mg/g). Types of sugar that are present in the juice play an important role in yeast activity and determine the success of fermentation. Unlike the juice of apples, pear juice contains significant quantities of unfermentable sugar alcohols, particularly sorbitol. The presence of sorbitol can give perry a residual sweetness, in addition to a mild laxative effect.


title: Perry

text: Pear juices contain rather low levels of amino acids, sources of nitrogen such as aspargine, aspartic acid and glutamic acid.


title: Perry

text: After initial fermentation, many perries go through malolactic fermentation. On average, compared to apples, pears have higher levels of titrable acidity, most of it being citric acid. In environments with high levels of malic acid, such as grape must in winemaking, malolactic fermentation bacteria convert malic acid to lactic acid, reducing the perception of acidity and increasing complexity of flavour. However, if high levels of citric acid are present, as in pear pomace, malolactic fermentation bacteria catabolise citric acid to acetic acid and oxaloacetic acid, instead of lactic acid. This results in a floral, citrus-like aroma in the final product, lacking the diacethyl odour typical for most products that have undergone a malolactic fermentation.


title: Perry

text: The earliest known reference to fermented alcoholic drinks being made from pears is found in Pliny. Perry making seems to have become well established in what is today France following the collapse of the Roman empire; references to perry making in England do not appear before the Norman conquest. In the medieval period, France retained its association with pear growing, and the majority of pears consumed in England were in fact imported from France.


title: Perry

text: By the 16th and 17th centuries, however, perry making had become well established in the west of England, where the climate and soil were especially suitable for pear cultivation. In the three counties of Worcestershire, Gloucestershire, and Herefordshire in particular, as well as in Monmouthshire across the Welsh border, perry pears grew well in conditions where cider apple trees would not. Smaller amounts were also produced in other cider-producing areas, such as Somerset. Perry may have grown in popularity after the English Civil War, when the large numbers of soldiers billeted in the Three Counties became acquainted with it, and reached a zenith of popularity during the 18th century, when intermittent conflicts with France made the importing of wine difficult. Many farms and estates had their own orchards, and many varieties of pears developed that were unique to particular parishes or villages.


title: Perry

text: Whereas perry in England remained an overwhelmingly dry, still drink served from the cask, Normandy perry ("poiré") developed a bottle-fermented, sparkling style with a good deal of sweetness.


title: Perry

text: The production of traditional perry began to decline during the 20th century, in part due to changing farming practices– perry pears could be difficult and labour-intensive to crop, and orchards took many years to mature. The industry was, however, to a certain degree revived by modern commercial perry-making techniques, developed by Francis Showering of the firm Showerings of Shepton Mallet, Somerset, in the creation of their sparkling branded perry Babycham. Babycham, the first mass-produced branded perry, was developed by Showering from application of the Long Ashton Institute's research, and was formerly produced from authentic perry pears, though today it is produced from concentrate, the firm's pear orchards having now been dug up. Aimed at the female drinker at a time when wine was not commonly available in UK pubs, Babycham was sold in miniature Champagne-style bottles; the drink was for many years a strong seller and made a fortune for the Showering family. A competing brand of commercial perry, Lambrini, is manufactured in Liverpool by Halewood International. The Irish drinks company Cantrell and Cochrane, Plc, more famous for its Magners and Bulmers ciders, launched a similar light perry, Ritz, in 1986.


title: Perry

text: Like commercial lager and commercial cider, commercial perry is highly standardised, and today often contains large quantities of cereal adjuncts such as corn syrup or invert sugar. It is also generally of lower strength, and sweeter, than traditional perry, and is artificially carbonated to give a sparkling finish. Unlike traditional perry, its manufacture guarantees a consistent product; the nature of perry pears means producing traditional perry in commercial quantities is very difficult. Traditional perry was overwhelmingly a drink made on farms for home consumption, or to sell in small quantities either at the farm gate or to local inns.


title: Perry

text: Both English perry making and the orchards that supplied it suffered a catastrophic decline in the second half of the 20th century as a result of changing tastes and agricultural practices (in South Gloucestershire alone, an estimated 90% of orchards were lost in the last 75 years). Many pear orchards were also lost to fire blight in the 1970s and 1980s. Along with the clearing of orchards, the decline of day labouring on farms meant that the manpower that was once devoted to harvest perry pears – as well as its traditional consumers – disappeared. It also lost popularity due to makers turning to dessert or general-purpose pears in its manufacture rather than perry pears, resulting in a thin and tasteless product. In the UK, before 2007, the small amounts of traditional perry still produced were mainly consumed by people living in farming communities.


title: Perry

text: However, perry (often marketed under the name "pear cider", see below) has increased in popularity in very recent times, with around 2.5 million British consumers purchasing it in one year. In addition, various organisations have been actively seeking out old perry pear trees and orchards and rediscovering lost varieties, many of which now exist only as single trees on isolated farms. For example, the Welsh Cider Society rediscovered the old Monmouthshire varieties 'Burgundy' and the 'Potato Pear', as well as a number of further types unrecorded up to that point.


title: Perry

text: In the past three decades the term 'pear cider' has been used as an alternative name for alcoholic drinks containing pear juice, in preference to the term perry. The term has been dated to 1995, when Brothers Cider found that nobody at Glastonbury Festival understood what perry was; they began telling customers that it was 'like cider, but made from pears'.


title: Perry

text: In the UK the new name has caused controversy. The Campaign for Real Ale (CAMRA) defines perry and pear cider as different drinks, stating that 'pear cider' as made by the large industrial cidermakers is a pear-flavoured drink, or more specifically a cider-style drink flavoured with pear concentrate, whereas 'perry' should be made by traditional methods from perry pears only. The National Association of Cider Makers maintain that the terms perry and pear cider are interchangeable, and its rules specify that perry or pear cider may contain no more than 25% apple juice.


title: Cimbrian War

text: The Cimbrian or Cimbric War (113–101 BC) was fought between the Roman Republic and the Germanic and Celtic tribes of the Cimbri and the Teutons, Ambrones and Tigurini, who migrated from the Jutland peninsula into Roman controlled territory, and clashed with Rome and her allies. The Cimbrian War was the first time since the Second Punic War that Italia and Rome itself had been seriously threatened.


title: Cimbrian War

text: The timing of the war had a great effect on the internal politics of Rome, and the organization of its military. The war contributed greatly to the political career of Gaius Marius, whose consulships and political conflicts challenged many of the Roman Republic's political institutions and customs of the time. The Cimbrian threat, along with the Jugurthine War, inspired the landmark Marian reforms of the Roman legions.


title: Cimbrian War

text: Rome was finally victorious, and its Germanic adversaries, who had inflicted on the Roman armies the heaviest losses that they had suffered since the Second Punic War, with victories at the battles of Arausio and Noreia, were left almost completely annihilated after Roman victories at Aquae Sextiae and Vercellae. Some of the surviving captives are reported to have been among the rebelling gladiators during the Third Servile War.


title: Cimbrian War

text: According to some Roman accounts, sometime around 120–115 BC, the Cimbri left their original lands around the North Sea due to flooding (Strabo on the other hand, wrote that this was unlikely or impossible) They supposedly journeyed to the south-east and were soon joined by their neighbours and possible relatives the Teutones. Together they defeated the Scordisci, along with the Boii, many of whom apparently joined them. In 113 BC they arrived on the Danube, in Noricum, home to the Roman-allied Taurisci. Unable to hold back these new, powerful invaders on their own, the Taurisci called on Rome for aid.


title: Cimbrian War

text: The following year the Roman consul Gnaeus Papirius Carbo led the legions into Noricum, and after making an impressive show of force, took up a strong defensive position and demanded that the Cimbri and their allies leave the province immediately. The Cimbri initially set about complying peacefully with Rome's demands, but soon discovered that Carbo had laid an ambush against them. Infuriated by this treachery, they attacked and, at the Battle of Noreia, annihilated Carbo's army, almost killing Carbo in the process.


title: Cimbrian War

text: Italy was now open to invasion, yet for some reason, the Cimbri and their allies moved west over the Alps and into Gaul. In 109 BC, they invaded the Roman province of Gallia Narbonensis and defeated the Roman army there under Marcus Junius Silanus. In 107 BC, the Romans were defeated again, this time by the Tigurini, who were allies of the Cimbri whom they had met on their way through the Alps. That same year, they defeated another Roman army at the Battle of Burdigala (modern day Bordeaux) and killed its commander, the consul Lucius Cassius Longinus Ravalla.


title: Cimbrian War

text: In 105 BC, Rome and its new consul Gnaeus Mallius Maximus and the proconsul Quintus Servilius Caepio, in order to settle the matter once and for all, gathered the largest force it had fielded since the Second Punic War, and possibly the largest force it had ever sent to battle. The force consisted of over 80,000 men, along with tens of thousands of support personnel and camp followers in two armies, one led by each consul.


title: Cimbrian War

text: The consuls led their armies on their own armed migration to the Rhône River near Orange, Vaucluse, where, disliking and distrusting each other, they erected separate camps on opposite sides of the river; by so doing they left their disunited force open to separate attack. The overconfident Caepio foolishly attacked without support from Maximus; his legions were wiped out and his undefended camp overrun. The now isolated and demoralized troops of Maximus were then easily defeated. Thousands more were slain trying desperately to rally and defend his poorly positioned camp. Only Caepio, Maximus, and a few hundred Romans escaped with their lives across the carnage-choked river. The Battle of Arausio was the costliest defeat Rome had suffered since Cannae and, in fact, the losses and long-term consequences were far greater. For the Cimbri and Teutones it was a great (though temporary) triumph.


title: Cimbrian War

text: Instead of immediately gathering their allies and marching on Rome, the Cimbri proceeded to Hispania. There, they suffered their first defeat, not at the hands of a Roman army, but against a Celtiberian coalition. In the meantime, the Teutones remained in Gaul. Why they again failed to invade Italy remains a mystery. Theodor Mommsen speculatively describes their methods of war:


title: Cimbrian War

text: Following the devastation of the Arausio, fear shook the Roman Republic to its foundations. The "terror cimbricus" became a watchword, as Rome expected the Cimbri at its gates at any time. In this atmosphere of panic and desperation, an emergency was declared. The constitution was ignored and Gaius Marius, the victor over Jugurtha of Numidia was elected consul for an unprecedented, and arguably illegal, five years in a row, starting in 104 BC. Because of the destruction of the Roman force at Arausio and the pressure of the impending crisis, Marius was now given the latitude to construct a new army on his own terms.


title: Cimbrian War

text: Until now, the army had been a well-trained, well-regulated militia drawn from all able-bodied, land-owning male citizens. Marius replaced this with a professional standing force composed mostly of able-bodied but landless volunteers. He improved and standardized training, weapons, armour, equipment, and command structure, and made the cohort the main tactical and administrative unit of the legion. Along with these new arrangements came new standards and symbols, such as the aquila, which the troops came to revere and which was almost never allowed to fall into enemy hands.


title: Cimbrian War

text: While the panicked Senate and people of Rome gave Marius the power he needed to build his army, the failure of the Cimbri and Teutones to follow up on their victory gave him the time he needed to finish it. They would soon be confronted by an army of organized, highly trained, professional soldiers under the leadership of a brilliant and ruthless commander.


title: Cimbrian War

text: By 102 BC, Marius was ready to face the Cimbri; the latter, after difficulties in Spain, had turned north into Gaul, where they were joined by the Teutons. After this union, the Germanic coalition determined to move back south upon Italy, which they had previously avoided. Marching south through Switzerland and Savoy, their army was augmented by some tribes of Helvetians, particularly the Tigurini, and the Ambrones of uncertain descent. Before approaching Italy, the Germans decided on a two-pronged movement; the Teutons with the Ambrones and the Tigurini would move from the west along the coast-road from Transalpine into Cisalpine Gaul; while the Cimbri would march east and turn around into Italy by the Julian and Carnic Alps. When Marius heard of their movements, he advanced to Valence, and established his camp at the confluence of the Isère and the Rhône, where he could observe and halt the march of the Teutons. When the Teutons arrived, they attempted to force him into battle, but he declined; they attacked the Roman camp, but were beaten off. Impatient of the delay and of Marius' passivity, they finally decided to simply march past him into Italy. So enormous were their numbers, that they reportedly took 6 whole days marching by his camp, and in their arrogance they taunted the Romans, "what message they wished them to give to their wives?" Marius followed cautiously, maintaining distance from the enemy, but closely following his movements. A few days later, a skirmish turned into a battle with the Ambrones, who for some reason camped separately from the Teutones. The Ambrones were defeated with heavy losses and fled to their Teutonic allies. The Teutones halted their trek south and awaited Marius near Aquae Sextiae. This afforded Marius favorable conditions, for with his enemy stationary he got to scout the battlegrounds and he chose his ground carefully. In the subsequent battle, he lured the Teutones and their allies into attacking him while his army was occupying the high ground. During their attack they were ambushed from the rear by a select force of five cohorts which Marius had hidden in a nearby wood. The Teutones were routed and massacred and their king, Teutobod, was placed in Roman chains. But Aquae Sextiae had only evened the score: while the Teutones had been eliminated, the Cimbri remained a formidable threat.


title: Cimbrian War

text: In 101 BC, the Cimbri returned to Gaul and prepared for the final stage of their struggle with Rome. For the first time they penetrated through the Alpine passes, which Marius's co-consul for that year, Quintus Lutatius Catulus, had failed to fortify, into northern Italy. Catulus withdrew behind the Po River, leaving the countryside open to the invaders. But the Cimbri took their time ravishing the fertile region, which gave Marius time to arrive with reinforcements—his same victorious legions from Aquae Sextiae. It would be at Vercellae near the confluence of the Sesia River with the Po on the Raudine Plain where the superiority of the new Roman legions and their cavalry were clearly demonstrated. In the devastating defeat the Cimbri were virtually annihilated, and both their highest leaders, Boiorix and Lugius, fell. The women killed both themselves and their children in order to avoid slavery. Thus the war, which began with a mass migration, ended in defeat and mass suicide.


title: Cimbrian War

text: The Cimbri were not completely wiped off the face of the map or from the pages of history. Their allies, the Boii, with whom they intermixed, settled in southern Gaul and Germania and were there to welcome and confront Julius Caesar, Marius's nephew, in his campaigns of conquest. Some of the surviving captives are reported to have been among the rebelling gladiators in the Third Servile War.


title: Cimbrian War

text: The political consequences from the war had an immediate and lasting impact on Rome. The end of the Cimbrian war marked the beginning of the rivalry between Marius and Sulla, which eventually led to the first of Rome's great civil wars. Moreover, following the final victory at Vercellae, and without first asking permission from the Senate, Marius granted Roman citizenship to his Italian allied soldiers, claiming that in the din of battle he could not distinguish between the voices of Romans and the Italic allies. Henceforth all Italian legions became Roman legions and the allied cities of the Italian peninsula progressively began to demand a greater say in the external policy of the Republic, leading eventually to the Social War.


title: Carl Gustav Jacob Jacobi

text: Carl Gustav Jacob Jacobi (; ; 10 December 1804 – 18 February 1851) was a German mathematician who made fundamental contributions to elliptic functions, dynamics, differential equations, determinants, and number theory. His name is occasionally written as Carolus Gustavus Iacobus Iacobi in his Latin books, and his first name is sometimes given as Karl.


title: Carl Gustav Jacob Jacobi

text: Jacobi was born of Ashkenazi Jewish parentage in Potsdam on 10 December 1804. He was the second of four children of banker Simon Jacobi. His elder brother Moritz von Jacobi would also become known later as an engineer and physicist. He was initially home schooled by his uncle Lehman, who instructed him in the classical languages and elements of mathematics. In 1816, the twelve-year-old Jacobi went to the Potsdam Gymnasium, where students were taught all the standard subjects: classical languages, history, philology, mathematics, sciences, etc. As a result of the good education he had received from his uncle, as well as his own remarkable abilities, after less than half a year Jacobi was moved to the senior year despite his young age. However, as the University would not accept students younger than 16 years old, he had to remain in the senior class until 1821. He used this time to advance his knowledge, showing interest in all subjects, including Latin, Greek, philology, history and mathematics. During this period he also made his first attempts at research, trying to solve the quintic equation by radicals.


title: Carl Gustav Jacob Jacobi

text: In 1821 Jacobi went to study at Berlin University, where he initially divided his attention between his passions for philology and mathematics. In philology he participated in the seminars of Böckh, drawing the professor's attention with his talent. Jacobi did not follow a lot of mathematics classes at the University, as the low level of mathematics at the University of Berlin at the time rendered them too elementary for him. However, he continued with his private study of the more advanced works of Euler, Lagrange and Laplace. By 1823 he understood that he needed to make a decision between his competing interests and chose to devote all his attention to mathematics. In the same year he became qualified to teach secondary school and was offered a position at the Joachimsthal Gymnasium in Berlin. Jacobi decided instead to continue to work towards a University position. In 1825 he obtained the degree of Doctor of Philosophy with a dissertation on the partial fraction decomposition of rational fractions defended before a commission led by Enno Dirksen. He followed immediately with his Habilitation and at the same time converted to Christianity. Now qualifying for teaching University classes, the 21-year-old Jacobi lectured in 1825/26 on the theory of curves and surfaces at the University of Berlin.


title: Carl Gustav Jacob Jacobi

text: In 1827 Jacobi became a professor and in 1829, a tenured professor of mathematics at Königsberg University, and held the chair until 1842.


title: Carl Gustav Jacob Jacobi

text: He suffered a breakdown from overwork in 1843. He then visited Italy for a few months to regain his health. On his return he moved to Berlin, where he lived as a royal pensioner until his death. During the Revolution of 1848 Jacobi was politically involved and unsuccessfully presented his parliamentary candidature on behalf of a Liberal club. This led, after the suppression of the revolution, to his royal grant being cut off – but his fame and reputation were such that it was soon resumed. In 1836, he had been elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences.


title: Carl Gustav Jacob Jacobi

text: Jacobi died in 1851 from a smallpox infection. His grave is preserved at a cemetery in the Kreuzberg section of Berlin, the Friedhof I der Dreifaltigkeits-Kirchengemeinde (61 Baruther Street). His grave is close to that of Johann Encke, the astronomer. The crater Jacobi on the Moon is named after him.


title: Carl Gustav Jacob Jacobi

text: One of Jacobi's greatest accomplishments was his theory of elliptic functions and their relation to the elliptic theta function. This was developed in his great treatise "Fundamenta nova theoriae functionum ellipticarum" (1829), and in later papers in Crelle's Journal. Theta functions are of great importance in mathematical physics because of their role in the inverse problem for periodic and quasi-periodic flows. The equations of motion are integrable in terms of Jacobi's elliptic functions in the well-known cases of the pendulum, the Euler top, the symmetric Lagrange top in a gravitational field and the Kepler problem (planetary motion in a central gravitational field).


title: Carl Gustav Jacob Jacobi

text: He also made fundamental contributions in the study of differential equations and to classical mechanics, notably the Hamilton–Jacobi theory.


title: Carl Gustav Jacob Jacobi

text: It was in algebraic development that Jacobi's particular power mainly lay, and he made important contributions of this kind in many areas of mathematics, as shown by his long list of papers in Crelle's Journal and elsewhere from 1826 onwards. He is said to have told his students that when looking for a research topic, one should 'Invert, always invert' ('man muss immer umkehren'), reflecting his belief that inverting known results can open up new fields for research, for example inverting elliptical integrals and focusing on the nature of elliptic and theta functions.


title: Carl Gustav Jacob Jacobi

text: In his 1835 paper, Jacobi proved the following basic result classifying periodic (including elliptic) functions:


title: Carl Gustav Jacob Jacobi

text: "If a univariate single-valued function is multiply periodic, then such a function cannot have more than two periods, and the ratio of the periods cannot be a real number. "


title: Carl Gustav Jacob Jacobi

text: He discovered many of the fundamental properties of theta functions, including the functional equation and the Jacobi triple product formula, as well as many other results on q-series and hypergeometric series.


title: Carl Gustav Jacob Jacobi

text: The solution of the Jacobi inversion problem for the hyperelliptic Abel map by Weierstrass in 1854 required the introduction of the hyperelliptic theta function and later the general Riemann theta function for algebraic curves of arbitrary genus. The complex torus associated to a genus formula_1 algebraic curve, obtained by quotienting formula_2 by the lattice of periods is referred to as the Jacobian variety. This method of inversion, and its subsequent extension by Weierstrass and Riemann to arbitrary algebraic curves, may be seen as a higher genus generalization of the relation between elliptic integrals and the Jacobi or Weierstrass elliptic functions.


title: Carl Gustav Jacob Jacobi

text: Jacobi was the first to apply elliptic functions to number theory, for example proving Fermat's two-square theorem and Lagrange's four-square theorem, and similar results for 6 and 8 squares.


title: Carl Gustav Jacob Jacobi

text: His other work in number theory continued the work of C. F. Gauss: new proofs of quadratic reciprocity and introduction of the Jacobi symbol; contributions to higher reciprocity laws, investigations of continued fractions, and the invention of Jacobi sums.


title: Carl Gustav Jacob Jacobi

text: He was also one of the early founders of the theory of determinants. In particular, he invented the Jacobian determinant formed from the "n" partial derivatives of "n" given functions of "n" independent variables, which plays an important part in changes of variables in multiple integrals, and in many analytical investigations. In 1841 he reintroduced the partial derivative ∂ notation of Legendre, which was to become standard.


title: Carl Gustav Jacob Jacobi

text: He was one of the first to introduce and study the symmetric polynomials that are now known as Schur polynomials, giving the so-called bialternant formula for these, which is a special case of the Weyl character formula, and deriving the Jacobi–Trudi identities. He also discovered the Desnanot–Jacobi formula for determinants, which underlie the Plucker relations for Grassmannians.


title: Carl Gustav Jacob Jacobi

text: Students of vector fields, Lie theory, Hamiltonian mechanics and operator algebras often encounter the Jacobi identity, the analog of associativity for the Lie bracket operation.


title: Carl Gustav Jacob Jacobi

text: Planetary theory and other particular dynamical problems likewise occupied his attention from time to time. While contributing to celestial mechanics, he introduced the Jacobi integral (1836) for a sidereal coordinate system. His theory of the "last multiplier" is treated in "Vorlesungen über Dynamik", edited by Alfred Clebsch (1866).


title: Carl Gustav Jacob Jacobi

text: He left many manuscripts, portions of which have been published at intervals in Crelle's Journal. His other works include "Commentatio de transformatione integralis duplicis indefiniti in formam simpliciorem" (1832), "Canon arithmeticus" (1839), and "Opuscula mathematica" (1846–1857). His "Gesammelte Werke" (1881–1891) were published by the Berlin Academy.


title: Czesława Kwoka

text: Czesława Kwoka (15 August 1928 – 12 March 1943) was a Polish Catholic girl who died at the age of 14 in Auschwitz. One of the thousands of minor child and teen victims of German World War II war crimes against ethnic Poles in German-occupied Poland, she is among those memorialized in an Auschwitz-Birkenau State Museum exhibit, "Block no. 6: Exhibition: The Life of the Prisoners".


title: Czesława Kwoka

text: Photographs of Kwoka and others, taken by the "famous photographer of Auschwitz", Wilhelm Brasse, between 1940 and 1945, are displayed in the Museum's photographic memorial. Brasse discusses several of the photographs in "The Portraitist", a 2005 television documentary about him. They became a focus of interviews with him that have been cited in various articles and books.


title: Czesława Kwoka

text: Czesława Kwoka was born in Wólka Złojecka, a small village in Poland, to a Catholic mother, Katarzyna Kwoka. Along with her mother (prisoner number 26946), Czesława Kwoka (prisoner number 26947) was deported and transported from Zamość, General Government, to Auschwitz, on 12 December 1942. On 12 March 1943, less than a month after her mother died (18 February 1943), Kwoka died at the age of 14; the circumstances of her death were not recorded.


title: Czesława Kwoka

text: Czesława Kwoka was one of the "approximately 230,000 children and young people aged less than eighteen" among the 1,300,000 people who were deported to Auschwitz-Birkenau from 1940 to 1945.


title: Czesława Kwoka

text: The Auschwitz-Birkenau State Museum's Centre for Education About the Holocaust and Auschwitz documents the wartime circumstances that brought young adults and children like Kwoka to the concentration camps in its 2004 publication of an album of photographs compiled by its historian Helena Kubica; these photographs were first published in the Polish/German version of Kubica's book in 2002. According to the Museum, of the approximately 230,000 children and young people deported to Auschwitz, more than 216,000 children, the majority, were of Jewish descent; more than 11,000 children came from Romani families; the other children had Polish, Belarusian, Ukrainian, Russian, or other ethnic backgrounds.


title: Czesława Kwoka

text: Most of these children "arrived in the camp along with their families as part of the various operations that the Nazis carried out against whole ethnic or social groups"; these operations targeted "the Jews as part of the drive for the total extermination of the Jewish people, the Gypsies as part of the effort to isolate and destroy the Gypsy population, the Poles in connection with the expulsion and deportation to the camp of whole families from the Zamość region and from Warsaw during the Uprising there in August 1944", as well as Belarusians and other citizens of the Soviet Union "in reprisal for partisan resistance" in places occupied by Germany.


title: Czesława Kwoka

text: Of all these children and young people, "Only slightly more than 20,000 ... including 11,000 Gypsies, were entered in the camp records. No more than 650 of them survived until liberation [in 1945]."


title: Czesława Kwoka

text: Czesława Kwoka was one of those thousands of children who did not survive Auschwitz and among those whose "identity photographs", along with captions constructed from the so-called Death Books, are featured in a memorial display on a wall in Block no. 6: Exhibition: Life of the Prisoners.


title: Czesława Kwoka

text: After her arrival at Auschwitz, Czesława Kwoka was photographed for the Reich's concentration camp records, and she has been identified as one of the approximately 40,000 to 50,000 subjects of such "identity pictures" taken under duress at Auschwitz-Birkenau by Wilhelm Brasse, a young Polish inmate in his twenties (known as Auschwitz prisoner number 3444). Trained as a portrait photographer at his aunt's studio prior to the 1939 German invasion of Poland beginning World War II, Brasse and others had been ordered to photograph inmates by their Nazi captors, under dreadful camp conditions and likely imminent death if the photographers refused to comply.


title: Czesława Kwoka

text: These photographs that he and others were ordered to take capture each inmate "in three poses: from the front and from each side." Though ordered to destroy all photographs and their negatives, Brasse became famous after the war for having helped to rescue some of them from oblivion.


title: Czesława Kwoka

text: While most of these photographs of Auschwitz inmates (both victims and survivors) no longer exist, some photographs do populate memorial displays at the Auschwitz-Birkenau State Museum, where the photographs of Kwoka reside, and at Yad Vashem, the Holocaust Martyrs' and Heroes' Remembrance Authority, Israel's official memorial to the Jewish victims of the Shoah.


title: Czesława Kwoka

text: Captions attached to the photographs in the Auschwitz-Birkenau State Museum photo archives and memorial indoor exhibits have been constructed by the Museum Exhibition Department from camp registries and other records confiscated when the camps were liberated in 1945 and archived subsequently. These Museum photo archive captions attached to photographs assembled and/or developed from photographs and negatives rescued by Brasse and fellow inmate darkroom worker Bronislaw Jureczek during 1940 to 1945 identify the inmate by name, concentration-camp prisoner number, date and place of birth, date of death and age at death (if applicable), national or ethnic identity, religious affiliation, and date of arrival in the camp. Some photographs credited to Brasse, including the "identity picture" with 3 poses of Kwoka, are in the Auschwitz-Birkenau State Museum's memorial to prisoners, part of a permanent indoor exhibit called Block no. 6: Exhibition: The Life of the Prisoners, first mounted in 1955. Kwoka's likeness is also featured by the museum's Exhibition Department on its official website, in some of the Museum's published albums and catalogues, and in the 2005 Polish television documentary film about Brasse, "The Portraitist", shown on TVP1 and in numerous film festivals.


title: Czesława Kwoka

text: The photo mural including Kwoka's "identity pictures" ("identification photographs" or "mug shots") displayed on a wall in the Auschwitz-Birkenau State Museum's permanent indoor exhibition The Life of the Prisoners in Block no. 6 is captured in Ryszard Domasik's photograph cropped (without the photographs of Kwoka) featured on its official Website.


title: Czesława Kwoka

text: Brasse recalls his experience photographing Kwoka specifically in "The Portraitist", an account corroborated by BBC correspondent Fergal Keane who interviewed Brasse about his memories of taking them, in a "Live Mag" feature article "Returning to Auschwitz: Photographs from Hell", occasioned by the film's London premiere (22 April 2007), published in the Daily Mail's "Mail Online" on 7 April, which does not include illustrations of these photographs of Kwoka.


title: Czesława Kwoka

text: "Bring[ing] Czeslawa's image and voice into our lives", Theresa Edwards (verse) and Lori Schreiner (art) created "Painting Czesława Kwoka", a collaborative work of mixed media inspired by Wilhelm Brasse's photographs, as a commemoration of child victims of the Holocaust.


title: Kemerovo Oblast

text: Kemerovo Oblast — Kuzbass (, ), also known simply as Kemerovo Oblast () or Kuzbass (), after the Kuznetsk Basin, is a federal subject of Russia (an oblast). Kemerovo is the administrative center of the oblast, though Novokuznetsk is the largest city in the oblast, in terms of size. Kemerovo Oblast is one of Russia's most urbanized regions, with over 70% of the population living in its nine principal cities. Its ethnic composition is predominantly Russian, but Shors, Ukrainians, Tatars, and Chuvash also live in the oblast. The population recorded during the 2010 Census was 2,763,135.


title: Kemerovo Oblast

text: Kemerovo Oblast is located in southwestern Siberia, where the West Siberian Plain meets the South Siberian Mountains. The oblast, which covers an area of , shares a border with Tomsk Oblast in the north, Krasnoyarsk Krai and the Republic of Khakassia in the east, the Altai Republic in the south, and with Novosibirsk Oblast and Altai Krai in the west.


title: Kemerovo Oblast

text: The climate of the oblast is continental: winters are cold and long, summers are warm, but short. The average January temperature ranges from , the average in July is . Average annual precipitation ranges from on the plains and the foothills of up to or more in mountainous areas. The duration of the frost-free period is 100 days in the north area, and up to 120 days in the south of the Kuznetsk Basin.


title: Kemerovo Oblast

text: The environmental conditions in Kuznetsk Basin are heavily influenced by the regional industrial activities, especially, by coal mining. The report about the environmental conditions in Kemerovo region from 2014 indicated that there are more than 20 thousand of enterprises, emitting more than 250 types of atmospheric pollutants, where most urban areas with the worst air quality are located in the Kuznetsk Basin: Novokuznetsk, Mezhdurechensk, Myski, Kaltan, Polysaevo, Belovo and Leninsk-Kuznetskiy.


title: Kemerovo Oblast

text: Atmospheric pollution is apparent over Kuznetsk Basin as major regional long-term tropospheric NO anomaly was identified over the region in 2006-2020 years. The anomaly was driven primarily by coal mining and processing activities in the region, being exacerbated by the regional topography, favorable for accumulation of atmospheric pollutants and metal production in Novokuznetsk. Unlike other Siberian cities, where atmospheric concentration of NO has been decreasing in recent years, the concentration of NO is increasing in the cities of the Kuznetsk Basin due to the increasing coal production in the region.


title: Kemerovo Oblast

text: The oblast was established on January 26, 1943, but it has considerably older antecedents. Shors, Teleuts and Siberian Tatars are native peoples of the region. The oldest city in Kemerovo Oblast is Novokuznetsk, founded in 1618, soon after Cossack ataman Yermak's push into Siberia.


title: Kemerovo Oblast

text: The territory of modern Kemerovo Oblast has been inhabited for several thousand years. In 1618, Kuznetsk fort was established in the south of the future oblast to protect the land from Russian and Mongolian Dzhungarian invaders. During the 19th century, the territory of the modern oblast was a part of Tomsk Governorate.


title: Kemerovo Oblast

text: After the October Revolution of 1917, Kuzbass experienced significant strife as part of the Russian Civil War. A major peasant rebellion took place in the region in early 1921, but was suppressed by the Red Army. In 1930, Kuzbass became part of the West Siberian Krai, and then the Novosibirsk Oblast. Post revolutionary period was characterized by the transition to a planned economy, the creation of the Ural-Kuzbass industrial complex development of the coal, metallurgical and chemical industries Kuzbass Kemerovo Coke built, Kuznetsk Metallurgical Combine, a lot of new mines. Industrial enterprises are being built near the workers' settlements, which quickly became a city: Kiselevsk Osinniki Krasnobrodsky, Tashtagol Kaltan Mezhdurechensk and others.


title: Kemerovo Oblast

text: During the Great Patriotic War, Kemerovo region became a major supplier of coal and metal. From Novokuznetsk steel produced over 50,000 tanks and 45,000 aircraft. In Kuzbass from the occupied areas were evacuated equipment 71 enterprises, most of which have remained in the Kuzbass.


title: Kemerovo Oblast

text: In January 26, 1943, the Presidium of the USSR Supreme Soviet issued a decree, decided to allocate from the Novosibirsk Oblast of Kuzbass and the establishment on its territory of Kemerovo region with administrative center in the city of Kemerovo. In the new Oblast included 17.5% of the Novosibirsk region, 9 of the 12 cities of regional subordination, 17 of the 20 workers' settlements, 23 of the 75 districts. The population of the Kemerovo Oblast was 42% of the total population of the Novosibirsk Oblast.


title: Kemerovo Oblast

text: During the Soviet period, the high authority in the oblast was shared between three persons: The first secretary of the Kemerovo CPSU Committee (who in reality had the highest authority), the chairman of the oblast Soviet (legislative power), and the Chairman of the oblast Executive Committee (executive power). Since 1991, CPSU lost all the power, and the head of the Oblast administration, and eventually the governor was appointed/elected alongside elected regional parliament.


title: Kemerovo Oblast

text: The Charter of Kemerovo Oblast is the fundamental law of the region. The Legislative Assembly of Kemerovo Oblast is the province's standing legislative (representative) body. The Legislative Assembly exercises its authority by passing laws, resolutions, and other legal acts and by supervising the implementation and observance of the laws and other legal acts passed by it. The highest executive body is the Oblast Government, which includes territorial executive bodies such as district administrations, committees, and commissions that facilitate development and run the day to day matters of the province. The Oblast administration supports the activities of the Governor who is the highest official and acts as guarantor of the observance of the oblast Charter in accordance with the Constitution of Russia.


title: Kemerovo Oblast

text: Kemerovo Oblast is one of Russia's most important industrial regions, with some of the world's largest deposits of coal. The south of the region is dominated by metallurgy and the mining industry, as well as mechanical engineering and chemical production. The Evraz Group and an ore subsidiary Evrazruda operate iron ore mining and processing facilities along with the Raspadskaya, Yuzhkuzbassugol, the Siberian holding company SIBPLAZ, coal and coking coal mines there. The northern area of the region is more agricultural. The region has a dense railway network, including the Trans-Siberian Railway, which passes through the oblast. Prokopevsk, Kiselevsk, and Andzhero-Sudzhensk are coal-producing centers, and Novokuznetsk is the center of the engineering industry.


title: Kemerovo Oblast

text: A minor planet 2140 Kemerovo discovered in 1970 by Soviet astronomer Tamara Mikhailovna Smirnova is named after Kemerovo Oblast.


title: Kemerovo Oblast

text: As of a 2012 survey 34.1% of the population of Kemerovo Oblast adheres to the Russian Orthodox Church, 7% declares to be nondenominational Christian (excluding the Protestant churches), 3% are members of Rodnovery, the Slavic folk religion, 1% are either believers of Orthodox Christianity not belonging to any church or members of other (non-Russian) Orthodox churches, 1% are Muslims, 5.9% are followers of other religion or people who did not give an answer to the survey. In addition, 31% of the population declares to be "spiritual but not religious" and 17% to be atheist.


title: Cuidado con el ángel

text: Cuidado con el ángel (English title: Don't Mess with an Angel; lit. Be Careful with the Angel) is a Mexican telenovela produced by Nathalie Lartilleux for Televisa in 2008. It is an adaptation of the Venezuelan telenovela, "Una muchacha llamada Milagros" produced in 1974 by Venevisión. Each episode garnered nearly 5 million viewers daily.


title: Cuidado con el ángel

text: On June 9, 2008, Canal de las Estrellas started broadcasting "Cuidado con el ángel" weekdays at 4:00pm, replacing "Al diablo con los guapos". The last episode was broadcast on March 6, 2009 with "Atrévete a soñar" replacing it the following day.


title: Cuidado con el ángel

text: Univision started broadcasting "Cuidado con el ángel" on September 22, 2008 weeknights at 8pm/7c, replacing "Al diablo con los guapos". The last episode was broadcast on June 19, 2009 with "Un gancho al corazón" replacing it on June 22, 2009. Univision reruns "Cuidado con el ángel" from October 22, 2012 to July 19, 2013 replacing "Sortilegio" weekdays at 2pm/1c. The last episode was broadcast on July 19, 2013 with "Cachito de cielo" replacing it on July 22, 2013.


title: Cuidado con el ángel

text: Ana Patricia Rojo, Arturo Carmona, Rocío Banquells, Laura Zapata, Nailea Norvind, and Michelle Vieth starred as antagonists.


title: Cuidado con el ángel

text: The leading actors Helena Rojo, Ricardo Blume, and Evita Muñoz "Chachita" starred as stellar performances.


title: Cuidado con el ángel

text: María de Jesus, better known as Marichuy, is humble young girl living with Candelaria, a laundress who gave her a home when she was wandering on the streets. Candelaria is like a mother to Marichuy because she never met her biological mother as she was left in an orphanage when she was a baby. The abandonment has led her to believe her mother never loved her. Marichuy's biological mother, Cecilia Velarde, entrusted her baby to a priest, named Father Anselmo, who took the baby to an orphanage, after she thought she was dying. Now, she regrets making that decision and has spent most of her life searching for her lost child.


title: Cuidado con el ángel

text: Marichuy also hides a horrible secret. At the age of 14, Marichuy ran away from the orphanage, and began to live on the streets, doing her best to survive. One night, she was attacked by a drunk man. She cannot seek justice for what happened to her because she did not see the man's face very well since she was attacked late at night. This experience, as well as having terrible recurrent nightmares, leaves her with a deep resentment towards men.


title: Cuidado con el ángel

text: Juan Miguel San Román is a prestigious psychiatrist who has dedicated his time to the rehabilitation of young rebels and criminals. This serves as a distraction from his failing marriage to his wife Viviana and a horrible crime he committed during his youth while he was drunk. Once again, destiny brings Juan Miguel and Marichuy together when she is arrested with a group of friends. From that point, he vows to help Marichuy and he takes her to Judge Patricio Velarde's home, a very strict, heartless man, who is also her biological father.


title: Cuidado con el ángel

text: As soon as Marichuy steps foot into the house, Cecilia welcomes her with open arms, but Judge Patricio despises her from the start due to her lack of manners. She also is not well received by the Velarde's daughter, Estefanía and her aunt, Isabela. Estefanía is not the Velarde's real daughter. She and her aunt schemed up a plan to have Cecilia believe that she had found her daughter, that way, they would both move into their mansion and not live in poverty anymore.


title: Cuidado con el ángel

text: Eventually, Marichuy and Juan Miguel fall in love and get married. On their wedding night, Marichuy has the same nightmare, but this time she is able to recognize the man's face who is Juan Miguel, the love of her life. Marichuy runs out of the hotel room, devastated. Juan Miguel runs after her and tries to calm her. She apologizes but Juan Miguel confesses that her nightmares were, indeed, true. This enrages Marichuy and she runs off again and takes a bus back to Mexico City.


title: Cuidado con el ángel

text: The next stage of the novela is Juan Miguel constantly begging Marichuy to forgive him and she rejecting him. She later finds out she is pregnant and decides to forgive him. Turns out however, that Juan Miguel's first wife Viviana is still alive and she returns pretending she lost her memory. Juan Miguel thinking Marichuy came to beg him for a divorce instead of coming to forgive him, screams about Viviana's return before Marichuy has a chance to speak. Devastated Marichuy leaves and hides out in a farm for a while.


title: Cuidado con el ángel

text: Then begins the third stage of the novela. This stage consists of pregnant Marichuy hiding out in a farm of guy name Omar (better known as Leopardo) while taking a fake name of Lirio. While she is in the farm Leopardo falls in love with Lirio (really Marichuy) and she agrees to marry him, and she has Juan Miguel's kid. Everything appears to be going well for Marichuy. Meanwhile, Juan Miguel is missing Marichuy and is taking care of his supposedly memory-lost wife, Viviana. He hires a nanny, Blanca, to take care of his daughter Mayita. Blanca turns out to have multiple personality disorders and her other personality, Ivette, stabs Viviana, killing her. Juan Miguel takes the blame for the murder trying to help Blanca. Well Marichuy sees of his imprisonment in the newspaper and decides to go back, standing Leopardo up before their wedding, to hep Juan Miguel. However, Juan Miguel gets freed since Blanca confesses it was her (or at least kinda her since it was her other personality Ivette). He decides to marry Blanca in order to help her and make her feel supported.


title: Cuidado con el ángel

text: Marichuy gets back but discovers Juan Miguel is engaged to Blanca and is heartbroken. She knows she lost Leopardo for coming back to help Juan Miguel so she doesn't know what to do and decides to pursue acting (having previously acted before hiding out in the farm). She starts working as a theater actress to support herself and her child, as well as Candelaria. Leopardo comes looking for her and turns out he is friends with Juan Miguel and they talk about their great love for a woman not knowing it is the same woman. At some point they discover Marichuy and Lirio are the same woman and Juan Miguel discovers he has a son with Marichuy. Many things happens but at the end of this stage of the novela Leopardo and Blanca get together and Marichuy goes blind after a bullet hits her in her head, luckily doesn't die.


title: Cuidado con el ángel

text: Unfortunately, this is not enough for Marichuy and Juan Miguel to finally get together. Many other things happens in the novela, like; Marichuy losing her kid, Marichuy finding out she is a Velarde and forgiving her parents (after many episodes of hating them), Juan Miguel becoming an eye surgeon, Juan Miguel pretending to be someone else to be close to Marichuy since she is blind, and Juan Miguel giving Marichuy her sight back through a surgery. At the end, Juan Miguel and Marichuy finally get married again living happily ever after with their two kids.


title: Electricity sector in China

text: China's electric power industry is the world's largest electricity producer, passing the United States in 2011 after rapid growth since the early 1990s. In 2019, China produced more electricity than the next three countries—U.S., India, and Russia—combined.


title: Electricity sector in China

text: Most of the electricity in China comes from coal, which accounted for 65% of the electricity generation mix in 2019. This is a big part of greenhouse gas emissions by China. However, electricity generation by renewables has been increasing steadily, from 615,005 GWh (17.66% of total) in 2008 to 2,082,800 GWh (27.32% of total) in 2020.


title: Electricity sector in China

text: By the end of 2019, China's installed capacity for renewable energy was about 795 GW, while coal power capacity was 1040 GW. In 2020, China added 48GW of solar power and 71GW of wind power, and 13GW of hydropower, thus bringing the total installed renewable capacity to more than 900 GW. Out of the 900GW, solar power contributed 252GW while wind power contributed 281 GW, which was generated by more than 135,000 turbines. Coal-fired electricity production declined from 2013 to 2016 coinciding with a major boom in renewable energy, and a decline in GDP growth.


title: Electricity sector in China

text: China has two wide area synchronous grids, the State Grid and the China Southern Power Grid. The northern power grids were synchronized in 2005.


title: Electricity sector in China

text: Since 2011 all Chinese provinces are interconnected. The two grids are joined by HVDC back-to-back connections.


title: Electricity sector in China

text: China has abundant energy with the world's fourth-largest coal reserves and massive hydroelectric resources.


title: Electricity sector in China

text: There is however a geographical mismatch between the location of the coal fields in the north-east (Heilongjiang, Jilin, and Liaoning) and north (Shanxi, Shaanxi, and Henan), hydropower in the south-west (Sichuan, Yunnan, and Tibet), and the fast-growing industrial load centers of the east (Shanghai-Zhejiang) and south (Guangdong, Fujian).


title: Electricity sector in China

text: In April 1996, an Electric Power Law was implemented, a major event in China's electric power industry. The law set out to promote the development of the electric power industry, to protect the legal rights of investors, managers, and consumers, and to regulate the generation, distribution, and consumption.


title: Electricity sector in China

text: Before 1994 electricity supply was managed by electric power bureaus of the provincial governments. Now utilities are managed by corporations outside of the government administration structure.


title: Electricity sector in China

text: To end the State Power Corporation's (SPC) monopoly of the power industry, China's State Council dismantled the corporation in December 2002 and set up 11 smaller companies. SPC had owned 46% of the country's electrical generation assets and 90% of the electrical supply assets. The smaller companies include two electric power grid operators, five electric power generation companies, and four relevant business companies. Each of the five electric power generation companies owns less than 20% (32 GW of electricity generation capacity) of China's market share for electric power generation. Ongoing reforms aim to separate power plants from power-supply networks, privatize a significant amount of state-owned property, encourage competition, and revamp pricing mechanisms.


title: Electricity sector in China

text: It is expected that the municipal electric power companies will be divided into electric power generating and electric power supply companies. A policy of competition between the different generators will be implemented in the next years.


title: Electricity sector in China

text: South China from the Changjiang valley down to the South China Sea was the first part of the economy to liberalize in the 1980s and 1990s and is home to much of the country's most modern and often foreign-invested manufacturing industries. Northern and northeastern China's older industrial base has fallen behind, remains focused on the domestic economy, and has suffered a relative decline.


title: Electricity sector in China

text: In recent history, China's power industry is characterized by fast growth and an enormous installed base. In 2014, it had the largest installed electricity generation capacity in the world with 1505 GW and generated 5583 TWh China also has the largest thermal power capacity, the largest hydropower capacity, the largest wind power capacity and the largest solar capacity in the world. Despite an expected rapid increase in installed capacity scheduled in 2014 for both wind and solar, and an expected increase to 60 GW in nuclear by 2020, coal will still account for between 65% and 75% of capacity in 2020.


title: Electricity sector in China

text: In Spring 2011, according to "The New York Times", shortages of electricity existed, and power outages should be anticipated. The government-regulated price of electricity had not matched rising prices for coal.


title: Electricity sector in China

text: In 2020, Chinese Communist Party general secretary Xi Jinping announced that China aims to go carbon-neutral by 2060 in accordance with the Paris climate accord.


title: Electricity sector in China

text: China Energy Portal publishes Chinese energy policy, news, and statistics and provides tools for their translation into English. Translations on this site depend entirely on contributions from its readers. 2020 electricity & other energy statistics (preliminary)


title: Electricity sector in China

text: The official Statistics available in English are not all up to date. Numbers are given in "(100 million kw.h)" which equals 100 GWh or 0.1 TWh.


title: Electricity sector in China

text: China is the largest producer and consumer of coal in the world and is the largest user of coal-derived electricity. However, coal has been falling as a percentage of the energy mix, from over 80% in 2007 to 64% in 2018. Coal electricity generation has also declined in absolute terms since 2014. Despite China (like other G20 countries) pledging in 2009 to end inefficient fossil fuel subsidies, there are direct subsidies and the main way coal power is favoured is by the rules guaranteeing its purchase – so dispatch order is not merit order.


title: Electricity sector in China

text: To curtail the continued rapid construction of coal fired power plants, strong action was taken in April 2016 by the National Energy Administration (NEA), which issued a directive curbing construction in many parts of the country. This was followed up in January 2017 when the NEA canceled a further 103 coal power plants, eliminating 120 GW of future coal-fired capacity, despite the resistance of local authorities mindful of the need to create jobs. The decreasing rate of construction is due to the realization that too many power plants had been built and some existing plants were being used far below capacity. In 2020 over 40% of plants were estimated to be running at a net loss and new plants may become stranded assets. In 2021 some plants were reported close to bankruptcy due to being forbidden to raise electricity prices in line with high coal prices.


title: Electricity sector in China

text: In 2019, reports show that approvals for new coal mines had increased fivefold over approvals in 2018, and the China State Grid Corporation forecast that total coal power plant capacity would peak at 1,230–1,350 GW, an increase of about 200–300 GW.


title: Electricity sector in China

text: The think tank Carbon Tracker estimated the average loss was about US$4/MWh and that about 60% of power stations were cashflow negative in 2018 and 2019.


title: Electricity sector in China

text: In 2020 Carbon Tracker estimated that 43% of coal-fired plants were already more expensive than new renewables and that 94% would be by 2025. According to a 2020 analysis by Energy Foundation China, in order to keep warming to 1.5 degrees C coal plants without carbon capture must be phased out by 2045. A 2021 study estimated that all coal power plants could be shut down by 2040, by retiring them at the end of their financial lifetime.


title: Electricity sector in China

text: Hydroelectricity is currently China's largest renewable energy source and the second overall after coal.


title: Electricity sector in China

text: China's installed hydro capacity in 2015 was 319 GW, up from 172 GW in 2009, including 23 GW of pumped storage hydroelectricity capacity.


title: Electricity sector in China

text: In 2015, hydropower generated 1,126 TWh of power, accounting for roughly 20% of China's total electricity generation.


title: Electricity sector in China

text: Due to China's insufficient reserves of fossil fuels and the government's preference for energy independence, hydropower plays a big part in the energy policy of the country.


title: Electricity sector in China

text: China's potential hydropower capacity is estimated at up to 600 GW, but currently, the technically exploitable and economically feasible capacity is around 500 GW. There is therefore the considerable potential for further hydro development.


title: Electricity sector in China

text: The country has set a 350 GW capacity target for 2020. Being flexible, existing hydropower can back up large amounts of solar and wind.


title: Electricity sector in China

text: Hydroelectric plants in China have relatively low productivity, with an average capacity factor of 31%, a possible consequence of rushed construction and the seasonal variability of rainfall. Moreover, a significant amount of energy is lost due to the need for long transmission lines to connect the remote plants to where demand is most concentrated.


title: Electricity sector in China

text: Although hydroelectricity represents the largest renewable and low greenhouse gas emissions energy source in the country, the social and environmental impact of dam construction in China has been large, with millions of people forced to relocate and large scale damage to the environment.


title: Electricity sector in China

text: With its large land mass and long coastline, China has exceptional wind resources: it is estimated China has about 2,380 GW of exploitable capacity on land and 200 GW on the sea. At the end of 2014, there was 114 GW of electricity generating capacity installed in China, more than the total nameplate capacity of China's nuclear power stations, (although capacity of wind power is not on par with capacity of nuclear power) and over the year 115,000 gigawatt-hours (GWh) of wind electricity had been provided to the grid. In 2011, China's plan was to have 100 GW of wind power capacity by the end of 2015, with an annual wind generation of 190 terawatt-hours (TWh).


title: Electricity sector in China

text: In terms of nuclear power generation, China will advance from a moderate development strategy to an accelerating development strategy. Nuclear power will play an even more important role in China's future power development. Especially in the developed coastal areas with heavy power loads, nuclear power will become the backbone of the power structure there. China has planned to build up another 30 sets of nuclear power generators within 15 years with a total installed capacity of 80 GW by 2020, accounting for about 4% of China's total installed capacity of the electric power industry. This percentage is expected to double every 10 years for several decades out. Plans are for 200 GW installed by 2030 which will include a large shift to Fast Breeder reactor and 1500 GW by the end of this century.


title: Electricity sector in China

text: Of the 7,623 TWh electricity produced in China in 2020, 261.1 TWh was generated by solar power, equivalent to 3.43% of total electricity production.


title: Electricity sector in China

text: This was a 289% increase since 2016, when production was 67.4 TWh, equivalent to an annual growth rate of 40.4%.


title: Electricity sector in China

text: China has been the world's leading installer of solar photovoltaics since 2013 (see also growth of photovoltaics), and the world's largest producer of photovoltaic power since 2015.


title: Electricity sector in China

text: In 2017 China was the first country to pass 100 GW of cumulative installed PV capacity. However electricity prices are not properly varied by time of day, so do not properly incentivize system balancing.


title: Electricity sector in China

text: Solar water heating is also extensively implemented, with a total installed capacity of 290 GWth at the end of 2014, representing about 70% of world's total installed solar thermal capacity. The goal for 2050 is to reach 1,300GW of Solar Capacity. If this goal is to be reached it would be the biggest contributor to Chinese electricity demand.


title: Electricity sector in China

text: The central government has made the creation of a unified national grid system a top economic priority to improve the efficiency of the whole power system and reduce the risk of localised energy shortages. It will also enable the country to tap the enormous hydro potential from western China to meet booming demand from the eastern coastal provinces. China is planning for smart grid and related Advanced Metering Infrastructure.


title: Electricity sector in China

text: The main problem in China is the voltage drop when power is sent over very long distances from one region of the country to another.


title: Electricity sector in China

text: Long distance inter-regional transmission has been implemented by using ultra-high voltages (UHV) of 800 kV, based on an extension of technology already in use in other parts of the world.


title: Electricity sector in China

text: In terms of the investment amount of China's listed power companies, the top three regions are Guangdong province, Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region and Shanghai, whose investment ratios are 15.33%, 13.84% and 10.53% respectively, followed by Sichuan and Beijing.


title: Electricity sector in China

text: China's listed power companies invest mostly in thermal power, hydropower and thermoelectricity, with their investments reaching CNY216.38 billion, CNY97.73 billion, and CNY48.58 billion respectively in 2007. Investment in gas exploration and coal mining follow as the next prevalent investment occurrences.


title: Electricity sector in China

text: The five majors are all SOEs directly administered by SASAC. Their listed subsidiaries are substantially independent, hence counted as IPPs, and are major power providers in their own right. Typically each of the big 5 has about 10% of national installed capacity, and their listed subsidiary has an extra 4 or 5% on top of that.


title: Electricity sector in China

text: More than a third of electricity is used by industry. China consists of three largely self-governing territories: the mainland, Hong Kong, and Macau. The introduction of electricity to the country was not coordinated between the territories, leading to partially different electrical standards. Mainland China uses type A and I power plugs with 220 V and 50 Hz; Hong Kong and Macau both use type G power plugs with 220 V and 50 Hz. Inter-territorial travelers may therefore require a power adapter.


Sintra (Santa Maria e São Miguel, São Martinho e São Pedro de Penaferrim) is a civil parish in the municipality of Sintra, Lisbon District, Portugal. It was formed in 2013 by the merger of the former parishes Santa Maria e São Miguel, São Martinho and São Pedro de Penaferrim. The population in 2011 was 29,591, in an area of 63.55 km².


title: The Shivering Truth

text: The Shivering Truth is an American adult stop-motion animated anthology horror comedy television series created by Vernon Chatman and directed by Chatman and Cat Solen. The show is produced by Solen with PFFR and ShadowMachine, and features a wide range of voice talents besides Chatman, including Janeane Garofalo, Jonah Hill, Trey Parker, David Cross, Jordan Peele, Kyle Mooney, Julia Davis, Tierra Whack, Will Forte, and Josh Gad, amongst others. "The Shivering Truth" premiered on December 10, 2018 on Adult Swim, with the pilot episode having been released online on May 22, 2018 on the Adult Swim website.


title: The Shivering Truth

text: In November 2019, Adult Swim renewed the series for a second season, which premiered on May 10, 2020.


title: The Shivering Truth

text: When announced in a press release by Adult Swim in May 2017, "The Shivering Truth" was described as "a delicately crafted, darkly surreal anthology comedy, a miniature propulsive omnibus cluster bomb of painfully riotous daymares all dripping with the orange goo of dream logic. A series of loosely-linked emotional parables about stories within tales that crawled out of the deepest caverns of your unconscious mind and became lovingly animated in breath-slapping stop motion – in other words, it is the TRUTH".


title: The Shivering Truth

text: The characters in the show are puppets with wire-based armatures, created with silicone, wool, polystyrene, and resin. Chatman stated that around six months of physical production, a month of recording, and months of post-production were needed to complete six episodes. Chatman has noted several inspirations for his work on the show, including Terry Gilliam's work on "Monty Python's Flying Circus", stating that "I saw it when I was very young, so it scared me. I didn't know when the animation was beginning or ending." He also explained that "A lot of my influences are non-animated, primarily in short films, novels, even radio shows. A recent one is David Eagleman's books on the brain. He's a neuroscientist and he gives you 40 different versions of the afterlife, and none of them can co-exist." Solen has spoken on her inspirations as well, saying that "I loved the movie "The Wizard of Speed and Time", which is a cautionary tale about making movies. Another film that I loved as a kid was Nicolas Roeg's [film] adaptation of Roald Dahl's "The Witches", which featured both Anjelica Huston and Jim Henson's puppets. It scared me so much!"


title: The Shivering Truth

text: The song played during the closing credits is usually some version of the old English ballad Long Lankin. The music is often distorted in some way and usually begins near the end of the ballad, at the lines "There's blood in the kitchen, there's blood in the hall / There's blood in the parlour where my lady did fall." The original score is by Heather Christian.


title: The Shivering Truth

text: The pilot episode premiered on the Adult Swim website on May 22, 2018. Before the television premiere on December 10, 2018, Adult Swim created an "online scavenger hunt" by releasing all six episodes on multiple websites and platforms.


title: The Shivering Truth

text: In June 2020, the series was uploaded to subscription video on demand streaming service HBO Max, with the exception of the episode "Ogled Inklings", which was intentionally excluded due to a scene where a woman gives birth to a child wearing a peaked policeman's cap, whom the doctor refers to as "a dirty pig". This ban took place due to the then-ongoing George Floyd protests and rising prominence of the Black Lives Matter movement, with an Adult Swim representative stating that "When Adult Swim transitions series to a new platform we determine what episodes are selected through creative and cultural filters and our standards and practices policies. Oftentimes these decisions are made in collaboration with the show’s creator”. Similar action was also taken against episodes of "The Boondocks" and an episode of "Aqua Teen Hunger Force".


title: The Shivering Truth

text: Daniel Kurland of "Den of Geek" praised the pilot along with the subsequent first episodes to premiere, giving the show a score of 5/5 and calling it "straight up one of the best things that I’ve ever seen in my life". Jonathan Barkan of Dread Central called the show "pure nightmare fuel genius", writing that it "looks like the cast aside baby of Charlie Kaufman and Wes Anderson ... it's packed full of absurdist humor, the kind of stuff that you will watch and not be sure if you should laugh, wince, or look at your friends and ask, 'What the fuck?'" Dave Trumbore of Collider wrote that "It’s not often you get to put this level of artistry and insanity on display on an international television network", and that "You’ll definitely laugh while watching "The Shivering Truth", but there’s just as good a chance that you’ll throw up a bit, too".


title: SWMRS

text: SWMRS (formerly Emily's Army), pronounced 'swimmers', are an American punk rock band formed in Piedmont, California in 2004 by Cole Becker and Joey Armstrong, with Becker's brother Max Becker joining only a few weeks afterwards. They drew on a mix of influences ranging from the Beach Boys to the Ramones to create their own brand of rock. The band added Travis Neumann in 2009, who later left in 2014 due to creative differences. The band released a demo and a string of EPs from 2008 to 2010. The band released their first album, "Don't Be a Dick", on June 14, 2011. The band's second album, "Lost at Seventeen", was released on June 11, 2013. They added Sebastian Mueller as the bassist in 2014. The band's third studio album, and their first under the name SWMRS after dropping their former name, "Drive North", was released February 12, 2016, via Uncool Records. "Drive North" was later re-released after the band was signed to record label Fueled by Ramen on October 13, 2016.


title: SWMRS

text: The band was formed by Cole Becker and Joey Armstrong after watching "School of Rock" together in school. Becker's brother, Max Becker, later joined the band to play bass. The band was originally named the Raining Souls, but they briefly changed to the Clocks. After realizing there were already many bands with the same name, they changed it to Emily's Army in honor to the Becker's cousin Emily, who suffers from cystic fibrosis and was diagnosed in 1998. Their goal was to raise money and create more awareness for cystic fibrosis. In 2008, they released a set of songs on their MySpace page under the album name "This Kid". Although "This Kid" is not an official studio album, a few of these songs appeared throughout their career, including "Burn Apollo" that was re-recorded on their debut album, "Queens" being played live in 2012, and "I Need to Be Fixed" played live during Warped Tour 2012.


title: SWMRS

text: The band played many small shows and festivals in California during this time. In 2009 the band added guitarist Travis Neumann whose first appearance was on the band's 2009 EP, "Goody Two Shoes". that was followed by the release of two more EPs, "Broadcast This" and "Regan MacNeil". The band spent all of 2010 working and recording their first studio album with Green Day frontman and Joey's father, Billie Joe Armstrong. In 2011, the band released their first full-length album, "Don't Be a Dick", on June 14 through Adeline Records. The album featured six re-recorded songs from their earlier releases. The album was compared to Green Day's early work and had major punk influences. In support of the album the band went on an East and West Coast tour in 2011. In late 2011 and early 2012, the band resided in Tulsa OK, playing underground punk shows. In 2012 the band returned to touring, most notably on Warped Tour and a brief West Coast tour in late 2012.


title: SWMRS

text: In 2013, the band once again worked with producer Billie Joe Armstrong, on their second record. "Lost at Seventeen", was released on June 11, 2013 via Adeline Records and Rise Records. The band went on tour with Vans Warped Tour to support the album for the second time in their career. They also toured for the very first time in Great Britain. They played their final shows as Emily's Army during the Soundwave Festival in 2015 in Australia. Since soundwave 2015 the band has stopped playing material released before "Swim" in favor of playing new music.


title: SWMRS

text: In early 2014 the band started writing and recording new material. Travis Neumann officially left the band shortly after the release of their EP "Swim", on July 18, 2014, consequently, bassist Sebastian Mueller joined the band while Max switched to lead guitar. In September 2014 the band officially changed their name to "Swimmers". Before this change was made, Swimmers was the name that the band used as a low key name for a small UK tour with Matt Grocott & The Shrives and Wasters. The band released their first song as Swimmers, a cover of "Dancing on My Own", by Robyn in October 2014. The band announced that they would be releasing an EP, "Silver Bullets/Palm Trees" on March 30, 2015. In March 2015, the band announced that "Silver Bullets/Palm Trees" release would be delayed and that Jakob Armstrong, brother of drummer Joey, would be filling in for, and subsequently replacing, bassist Seb Mueller, who had to take college exams. On March 28, 2015 at Burgerama, bassist Seb Mueller returned to the band. The release of "Silver Bullets/Palm Trees" was eventually shelved.


title: SWMRS

text: Their third studio album was produced by Fidlar lead vocalist Zac Carper. On June 22, the band announced a September Tour along with Wavves and Twin Peaks. The band released four songs via SoundCloud in July 2015, two of which were uploaded by themselves, the other two, "Stink Eye", by Frankenshark—an early side-project that the band uses in live sets—and a leaked song, "Like Harry Dean Stanton".


title: SWMRS

text: The band announced that they will be releasing two songs "Miley/Uncool", on September 8, 2015 on their own indie label Uncool Records. The EP's first single, "Miley", was released as a single on September 7, 2015. The band would also start stylizing their name as "SWMRS" (instead of "Swimmers") in August 2015. Physical copies of the EP were made available on the band's tour with Wavves. After the release of the EP, SWMRS received mainstream media coverage due to the song "Miley". The band announced their upcoming "Drive North" on November 6, 2015 and released single "Figuring It Out". The album released on February 12, 2016 via Uncool Records.


title: SWMRS

text: As of October 13, 2016, SWMRS signed with pop punk label Fueled by Ramen. This announcement was made by Annie Mac on BBC1 Radio, along with the release of SWMRS' song, "Palm Trees". The following day, "Drive North" was rereleased under Fueled by Ramen with two additional songs: "Palm Trees" and "Lose It".


title: SWMRS

text: On February 15, 2019, they released their second album under the SWMRS name, "Berkeley's on Fire". The band were nominated for 'Best International Newcomer' at the 2019 Kerrang! Awards, ultimately going on to win the award.


title: SWMRS

text: On October 28, 2019, guitarist Max Becker along with two members of the road crew were involved in an accident while driving their van from Oakland to Denver, resulting in the cancellation of the rest of the band's 2019 shows.


title: SWMRS

text: On October 7, 2022, SWMRS announced their return via social media posts. In the following weeks, they released a statement regarding their misconduct allegations and announced upcoming shows. On November 4, 2022, they released the single "Dye Yer Hair".


title: SWMRS

text: On July 20, 2020, Lydia Night of the Regrettes revealed she and drummer Joey Armstrong dated starting in 2017 when she was 16 and he was 22, accusing Armstrong of sexual assault, coercion, and other predatory behavior. In the post, Night claimed that Armstrong initiated the relationship by messaging her on Instagram that his band SWMRS would be sending her band "some offers for some tours that year". Night shared the allegations after reading SWMRS' statement condemning a wave of sexual assault allegations related to several Burger Records artists.


title: SWMRS

text: The following day, Armstrong responded on the SWMRS Instagram account, saying that while he disagreed "with some of the things [Lydia] said about me", that he had privately apologized to Night and asked for forgiveness. Armstrong's six-sentence response was considerably shorter than the band's five-page statement regarding Burger Records made one day prior, a contrast noted upon by both some media outlets and Night herself, who responded that the statement showed "everyone exactly who [Armstrong] and [his] band of imposters are".


title: Acute bronchitis

text: Acute bronchitis, also known as a chest cold, is short-term bronchitis – inflammation of the bronchi (large and medium-sized airways) of the lungs. The most common symptom is a cough. Other symptoms include coughing up mucus, wheezing, shortness of breath, fever, and chest discomfort. The infection may last from a few to ten days. The cough may persist for several weeks afterward with the total duration of symptoms usually around three weeks. Some have symptoms for up to six weeks.


title: Acute bronchitis

text: In more than 90% of cases, the cause is a viral infection. These viruses may be spread through the air when people cough or by direct contact. Risk factors include exposure to tobacco smoke, dust, and other air pollution. A small number of cases are due to high levels of air pollution or bacteria such as "Mycoplasma pneumoniae" or "Bordetella pertussis". Diagnosis is typically based on a person's signs and symptom. The color of the sputum does not indicate if the infection is viral or bacterial. Determining the underlying organism is typically not needed. Other causes of similar symptoms include asthma, pneumonia, bronchiolitis, bronchiectasis, and COPD. A chest X-ray may be useful to detect pneumonia.


title: Acute bronchitis

text: Prevention is by not smoking and avoiding other lung irritants. Frequent hand washing and flu vaccination may also be protective. Treatment of acute bronchitis typically involves rest, paracetamol (acetaminophen), and NSAIDs to help with the fever. Cough medicine has little support for its use and is not recommended in children less than six years of age. Antibiotics should generally not be used. An exception is when acute bronchitis is due to pertussis. Tentative evidence supports honey and pelargonium to help with symptoms.


title: Acute bronchitis

text: Acute bronchitis is one of the most common diseases. About 5% of adults are affected and about 6% of children have at least one episode a year. It occurs more often in the winter. More than 10 million people in the United States visit a doctor each year for this condition with approximately 70% receiving antibiotics, most of which are not needed. There are efforts to decrease the use of antibiotics in acute bronchitis.


title: Acute bronchitis

text: The primary symptom is cough with sputum that may be purulent. The illness may also cause shortness of breath or wheezing. Upper respiratory tract infections often precede acute bronchitis, with overlapping symptoms including headache, nasal congestion, sore throat. Fever and other systemic symptoms are rare in acute bronchitis; their presence raises suspicion for influenza or pneumonia.


title: Acute bronchitis

text: Acute bronchitis can be caused by contagious pathogens, most commonly viruses. Typical viruses include respiratory syncytial virus, rhinovirus, influenza, and others. Bacteria are uncommon pathogens but may include "Mycoplasma pneumoniae", "Chlamydophila pneumoniae", "Bordetella pertussis", "Streptococcus pneumoniae", and "Haemophilus influenzae".


title: Acute bronchitis

text: A physical examination will often reveal decreased intensity of breath sounds, wheezing, rhonchi, and prolonged expiration. During examination for physicians rely on history and the presence of persistent or acute onset of cough, followed by a URTI with no traces of pneumonia. Acute bronchitis is typically a clinical diagnosis that relies on patients history and exam, and should be suspected in patients with an acute onset of cough, which often follows a URTI without traces of pneumonia.


title: Acute bronchitis

text: Although there is no universally-accepted clinical definition for acute bronchitis, there is a proposed set of practical criteria (Macfarlane, 2001) that include:


title: Acute bronchitis

text: Decreased breath sounds, crackles, wheezing, and rhonchi that clears with coughs may be heard in the chest. Dullness to percussion and pleural rub suggest disease extension beyond the bronchi such as seen with pneumonia. Paroxysms of cough followed by inspiratory whoop and vomiting suggests pertussis.


title: Acute bronchitis

text: Prevention is by not smoking and avoiding other lung irritants. Frequent hand washing may also be protective. Furthermore, an oral whole cell nontypeable Haemophilus influenzae vaccine given in the fall has demonstrated short term effectiveness in reducing the frequency and severity of the disease during the winter.


title: Acute bronchitis

text: Pain medications may help with symptoms. Other recommendations may include rest and keeping well hydrated.


title: Acute bronchitis

text: Evidence does not support the general use of antibiotics in acute bronchitis. A systematic review found antibiotics reduced cough by an average of 12 hours (out of a total average of about 14–28 days). Antibiotics caused more side effects such as nausea and diarrhoea, and also may promote antibiotic-resistant bacteria. It is possible they are useful in susceptible groups such as the frail and elderly but there was not enough research information to determine this.


title: Acute bronchitis

text: Calling acute bronchitis with benign-sounding labels such as chest cold or viral infections may reduce antibiotic usage by improving patients satisfaction when antibiotics are not prescribed.


title: Acute bronchitis

text: To help the bronchial tree heal faster and not make bronchitis worse, smokers should quit smoking completely.


title: Acute bronchitis

text: Salbutamol is not effective in children with an acute cough who do not have restricted airways. There is weak evidence that salbutamol may be useful in adults with wheezing due to a restricted airway; however, it may result in nervousness, shakiness or a tremor.


title: Acute bronchitis

text: Acute bronchitis usually lasts a few days or weeks. It may accompany or closely follow a cold or the flu, or may occur on its own. Bronchitis usually begins with a dry cough, including waking the patient at night. After a few days, it progresses to a wetter or productive cough, which may be accompanied by fever, fatigue, and headache. The fever, fatigue, and malaise may last only a few days, but the wet cough may last up to several weeks.


title: Acute bronchitis

text: Acute bronchitis is one of the most common diseases. About 5% of adults are affected and about 6% of children have at least one episode a year. It occurs more often in the winter.


title: Acute bronchitis

text: In infants under one year of age, acute bronchitis was the most common reason for admission to the hospital after an emergency department visit in the US in 2011.


title: Troy Evans (actor)

text: Troy Evans (born February 16, 1948) is an American actor who is perhaps best known for his role as Desk Clerk Francis "Frank" Martin in the television drama series "ER", and more recently for his role as Detective II Johnson (Barrel) in Amazon's TV series "Bosch." He has also appeared in "", "Under Siege", "Teen Wolf", "Kuffs", "Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas", "Black Dahlia", "Demolition Man", "The Frighteners", "Tiger Cruise", "View from the Top" and "Article 99" among others. He voiced Thistle Jinn in the 2013 animated adventure film "Epic".


title: Troy Evans (actor)

text: He served with the 25th Infantry Division in Vietnam, and was later cast as SFC Bob Pepper in the TV series "China Beach" which was set during the Vietnam War.


title: Boss (video games)

text: In video games, a boss is a significant computer-controlled opponent. A fight with a boss character is commonly referred to as a boss battle or boss fight. Bosses are generally far stronger than other opponents the player has faced up to that point. Boss battles are generally seen at climax points of particular sections of games, such as at the end of a level or stage or guarding a specific objective. A miniboss is a boss weaker or less significant than the main boss in the same area or level, though usually more powerful than the standard opponents and often fought alongside them. A superboss (sometimes 'secret' or 'hidden' boss) is generally much more powerful than the bosses encountered as part of the main game's plot and is often an optional encounter. A final boss is often the main antagonist of a game's story and the defeat of that character usually provides a positive conclusion to the game. A boss rush is a stage where the player faces multiple previous bosses again in succession.


title: Boss (video games)

text: For example, in a run 'n' gun video game, all regular enemies might use pistols while the boss uses a tank. A boss enemy is quite often larger in size than other enemies and the player character. At times, bosses are very hard, even impossible, to defeat without being adequately prepared and/or knowing the correct fighting approach. Bosses usually take strategy and special knowledge to defeat, such as how to attack weak points or avoid specific attacks.


title: Boss (video games)

text: Bosses are common in many genres of video games, but they are especially common in story-driven titles, and are commonly previously established antagonists in the plot of the video game. Action-adventures, beat 'em ups, fighting games, platform games, role-playing video games (RPGs), and shooter games are particularly associated with boss battles. They may be less common in puzzle games, card video games, sports games, and simulation games. The first video game with a boss fight was the 1975 RPG "dnd".


title: Boss (video games)

text: The concept has expanded to new genres, like rhythm games, where there may be a "boss song" that is more difficult. In MOBA games, defeating a map boss usually requires help from the other players, but it brings various benefits to the team, such as buffs or lane push power. Some games, such as "Cuphead, Furi" and "Warning Forever", are centered around continual boss fights.


title: Boss (video games)

text: Bosses are usually harder to beat than regular enemies, can sustain more damage and are generally found at the end of a level or area. While most games include a mixture of boss opponents and regular opponents, some games have only regular opponents and some games have only bosses (e.g. "Shadow of the Colossus"). Some bosses are encountered several times through a single game, typically with alternate attacks and a different strategy required to defeat it each time. A boss battle can also be made more challenging if the boss in question becomes progressively stronger and/or less vulnerable as their health decreases, requiring players to use different strategies to win. Some bosses may contain or be composed of smaller parts that can be destroyed by the player in battle, which may or may not grant an advantage. In games such as "Doom" and "", an enemy may be introduced via a boss battle, but later appear as a regular enemy, after the player has become stronger or had a chance to find more powerful weaponry.


title: Boss (video games)

text: "The Legend of Zelda" series and games inspired by it are recognized for having dungeons with bosses that are specifically vulnerable to a special item that is located within that dungeon. The player typically acquires this item while exploring the dungeon and is given opportunity to learn to use it to solve puzzles or defeat weaker enemies before facing the boss character.


title: Boss (video games)

text: Boss battles are typically seen as dramatic events. As such, they are usually characterized by unique music and cutscenes before and after the boss battle. Recurring bosses and final bosses may have their own specific theme music to distinguish them from other boss battles. This concept extends beyond combat-oriented video games. For example, a number of titles in the "Dance Dance Revolution" rhythm game series contain "boss songs" that are called "bosses" because they are exceptionally difficult to perform on.


title: Boss (video games)

text: In combat-focused games, a boss may summon additional enemies or minions or simply "adds", for players to fight alongside the boss. These additional enemies may distract from the boss battle or give time for the boss to regenerate health, but may also give the player opportunity to regain health and ammo to continue the boss fight.


title: Boss (video games)

text: A miniboss, also known as a "middle boss", "mid-boss", "half-boss", "sub-boss" or "semi-boss", is a boss weaker or less significant than the main boss in the same area or level. Some minibosses are stronger versions of regular enemies, as in the "Kirby" games. Others may be a recurring version of a previous boss, who is either weaker than previously encountered or is less of a challenge later in the game due to character or equipment progression. Other video game characters who usually take the role of a miniboss are Vile ("Mega Man X" series), Allen O'Neil ("Metal Slug") and Dark Link ("The Legend of Zelda" series, though he appears as a final boss in ""). There is also a subtype nicknamed the "Wolfpack Boss", for its similarity to a pack of wolves, often consisting of a group of strong normal enemies that are easy to defeat on their own, but a group of them can be as difficult as a boss battle.


title: Boss (video games)

text: A superboss is a type of boss most commonly found in role-playing video games. They are considered optional enemies and do not have to be defeated to complete the game. However, not all optional bosses are superbosses. They are generally much more powerful than the bosses encountered as part of the main game's plot or quest, more difficult even than the final boss and often the player is required to complete a sidequest or the entire game to fight the superboss. For example, in "Final Fantasy VII", the player may choose to seek out and fight the Ruby and Emerald Weapons. Some superbosses will take the place of the final boss if certain requirements are met. This is common in fighting games such as Akuma in "Super Street Fighter II Turbo". Some superbosses can also yield special items or skills that cannot be found any other way that can give a player a significant advantage during playthrough of the rest of the game, such as added experience or an extremely powerful weapon. For example, the "raid bosses" from "Borderlands 2" give rare loot unavailable anywhere else. Some superbosses in online games have an immense amount of health and must be defeated within a time limit by having a large number of players or parties working together to defeat the boss. Examples of such superbosses can be found in games like "Shadow Fight 2" and "". Toby Fox's games "Undertale" and "Deltarune" both feature superbosses in the form of Sans the Skeleton, Jevil, and Spamton NEO. Some major video game series have recurring superbosses such as the Ultima Weapon and Omega Weapon in "Final Fantasy" and the Amon clan in "Yakuza". The Warden from "Minecraft" could be considered a superboss, as it is vastly more difficult to fight than the final boss, the Ender Dragon. However, Mojang has explicitly stated that the Warden was not intended to be fought by players.


title: Boss (video games)

text: The final boss, last boss or end boss, is typically present at or near the end of a game, with completion of the game's storyline usually following victory in the battle. The final boss is usually the main antagonist of the game; however, there are exceptions, such as in "Conker's Bad Fur Day", in which the final boss is the antagonist's alien pet. Final bosses are generally larger, more detailed and better animated than lesser enemies, often in order to inspire a feeling of grandeur and special significance from the encounter.


title: Boss (video games)

text: In some games, a hidden boss, referred to as the "true" final boss, is present. These bosses only appear after the completion of specific additional levels, choosing specific dialogue options or after obtaining a particular item or set of items, such as the Chaos Emeralds in the "Sonic the Hedgehog" series or performing a series of tasks in "". These bosses are generally more difficult to defeat. In games with a "true" final boss, victory leads to either a better ending or a more detailed version of the regular ending. Examples of a "true final boss" include the Radiance in "Hollow Knight", Indalecio in "", the Moon Presence in "Bloodborne", Zero in "Kirby's Dream Land 3" and Unknown in "ActRaiser" Renaissance.


title: Boss (video games)

text: The term "Foozle" is used to describe a cliché final boss that exists only to act as the final problem before a player can complete the game. Scorpia stated in 1994 that "about 98% of all role-playing video games can be summed up as follows: 'We go out and bash on critters until we're strong enough to go bash on Foozle.'"


title: Boss (video games)

text: The origin of naming the final enemy in a level or game a "boss" cannot be readily traced, but "Kotaku" points to the term coming from the crime boss of a criminal gang. A precursor to video-game boss fights is Bruce Lee's Hong Kong martial arts films, including "The Big Boss" (1971), in which Lee fights a criminal gang before battling the big boss, and "Game of Death" (1972), where Lee fights a different boss on each level of a pagoda, which later inspired the boss battles of martial arts action games such as beat 'em ups. Another precursor is tabletop role-playing games starting with "Dungeons & Dragons" (1974), in which in a typical dungeon campaign there would be one powerful enemy acting as the boss of the weaker minions that players would face beforehand, in the same sense as a crime boss, which later inspired the boss battles of role-playing video games.


title: Boss (video games)

text: The first interactive video game to feature a boss was "dnd", a 1975 role-playing video game for the PLATO system. One of the earliest dungeon crawls, "dnd" implemented many of the core concepts of "Dungeons & Dragons". The objective of the game is to retrieve an "Orb" from the bottommost dungeon. The orb is kept in a treasure room guarded by a high-level enemy named the Gold Dragon. Only by defeating the Dragon can the player claim the orb, complete the game and be eligible to appear on the high score list.