title: History of Eritrea

text: Excavations in and near [[Agordat]] in central Eritrea yielded the remains of an ancient pre-Aksumite civilization known as the Gash Group. Ceramics were discovered that were related to those of the [[Nubian C-Group|C-Group]] (Temehu) pastoral culture, which inhabited the [[Nile Valley]] between 2500 and 1500 BC. Sherds akin to those of the [[Kerma]] culture, another community that flourished in the Nile Valley around the same period, were also found at other local archaeological sites in the Barka valley belonging to the Gash Group. According to Peter Behrens (1981) and Marianne Bechaus-Gerst (2000), linguistic evidence indicates that the C-Group and Kerma peoples spoke [[Afro-Asiatic languages]] of the [[Berber languages|Berber]] and [[Cushitic languages|Cushitic]] branches, respectively.


title: History of Eritrea

text: [[D'mt]] was a kingdom that encompassed most of Eritrea and the northern fringes of Ethiopia, it existed during the 8th and 7th centuries BC. Given the presence of a massive temple complex, its capital was most likely [[Yeha, Ethiopia|Yeha]]. [[Qohaito]], often identified as the town "Koloe" in the "[[Periplus of the Erythraean Sea]]", as well as [[Matara, Eritrea|Matara]] were important ancient D'mt kingdom cities in southern Eritrea. There are many [[Ancient cities in Eritrea]].


title: History of Eritrea

text: The realm developed [[irrigation]] schemes, used [[plow]]s, grew [[millet]], and made [[iron]] tools and weapons. After the fall of Dʿmt in the 5th century BC, the plateau came to be dominated by smaller successor kingdoms until the rise of one of these polities during the first century, the [[Kingdom of Aksum]], which was able to reunite the area.


title: History of Eritrea

text: [[Debre Sina (monastery)|Debre Sina]] monastery from the 4th century is the first [[Christianity|Christian]] place of worship recorded in [[Eritrea]].


title: History of Eritrea

text: [[Debre Bizen]] monastery was built during 1350s near the town of Nefasit in [[Eritrea]]. The [[Kingdom of Aksum]] was a trading empire centered in Eritrea and northern Ethiopia. It existed from approximately 100–940 AD, growing from the proto-Aksumite [[Iron Age]] period c. 4th century BC to achieve prominence by the 1st century AD.


title: History of Eritrea

text: The Aksumites established bases on the northern highlands of the Ethiopian Plateau and from there expanded southward. The [[Sassanid Empire|Persia]]n religious figure [[Mani (prophet)|Mani]] listed Axum with [[Roman Empire|Rome]], Persia, and [[China]] as one of the four great powers of his time. The origins of the Axumite Kingdom are unclear, although experts have offered their speculations about it. Even whom should be considered the earliest known king is contested: although [[Carlo Conti Rossini]] proposed that [[Zoskales]] of Axum, mentioned in the "[[Periplus of the Erythraean Sea]]", should be identified with one Za Haqle mentioned in the Ethiopian King Lists (a view embraced by later historians of Ethiopia such as Yuri M. Kobishchanov and Sergew Hable Sellasie), [[G.W.B. Huntingford]] argued that Zoskales was only a sub-king whose authority was limited to [[Adulis]], and that Conti Rossini's identification can not be substantiated.


title: History of Eritrea

text: According to the medieval "Liber Axumae" ([[Book of Aksum]]), Aksum's first capital, Mazaber, was built by Itiyopis, son of Cush. Munro-Hay cites the Muslim historian [[Abu Ja'far al-Khwarazmi]]/Kharazmi (who wrote before 833) as stating that the capital of "the kingdom of Habash" was [[Jarma (Aksum)|Jarma]] (hypothetically from Ge'ez "girma", "remarkable, revered"). The capital was later moved to [[Axum|Aksum]] in northern Ethiopia. The Kingdom used the name "Axum" as early as the 4th century.


title: History of Eritrea

text: The Aksumites erected a number of large [[Stele|stelae]], which served a religious purpose in pre-[[Christianity|Christian]] times. One of these granite columns is the largest such structure in the world, standing at 90 feet. Under [[Ezana of Axum|Ezana]] ([[floruit|fl.]] 320–360), Aksum later adopted [[Christianity]]. In 615, during the lifetime of [[Muhammad]], the Aksumite King [[Sahama]] provided asylum to early [[Muslim]]s from [[Mecca]] fleeing persecution. This journey is known in [[Islamic history]] as the [[Migration to Abyssinia|First Hijra]]. The area is also the alleged resting place of the [[Ark of the Covenant]] and the purported home of the [[Queen of Sheba]].


title: History of Eritrea

text: The kingdom is mentioned in the "Periplus of the Erythraean Sea" as an important market place for [[Ivory trade|ivory]], which was exported throughout the ancient world. Aksum was at the time ruled by Zoskales, who also governed the port of Adulis. The Aksumite rulers facilitated trade by minting their own [[Aksumite currency]].


title: History of Eritrea

text: The state also established its hegemony over the declining [[Kingdom of Kush]] and regularly entered the politics of the kingdoms on the [[Arabian peninsula]], eventually extending its rule over the region with the conquest of the [[Himyarite Kingdom]]. Inscriptions have been found in [[Southern Arabia]] celebrating victories over one [[GDRT]], described as ""nagashi" of [[Habesha people|Habashat]] [i.e. Abyssinia] and of Axum." Other dated inscriptions are used to determine a "floruit" for GDRT (interpreted as representing a Ge'ez name such as Gadarat, Gedur, or Gedara) around the beginning of the 3rd century. A bronze scepter or wand has been discovered at [[Atsbi Dera]] with in inscription mentioning "GDR of Axum". Coins showing the royal portrait began to be minted under King [[Endubis]] toward the end of the 3rd century.


title: History of Eritrea

text: Additionally, expeditions by [[Ezana of Axum|Ezana]] into the [[Kingdom of Kush]] at [[Meroe]] in Sudan may have brought about the latter polity's demise, though there is evidence that the kingdom was experiencing a period of decline beforehand. As a result of Ezana's expansions, Aksum bordered the Roman [[Aegyptus (Roman province)|province of Egypt]]. The degree of Aksum's control over Yemen is uncertain. Though there is little evidence supporting Aksumite control of the region at that time, his title, which includes "king of Saba and Salhen, Himyar and Dhu-Raydan" (all in modern-day Yemen), along with gold Aksumite coins with the inscriptions, "king of the "[[Habesha|Habshat]]"" or "Habashite," indicate that Aksum might have retained some legal or actual footing in the area.


title: History of Eritrea

text: Details of the Aksumite Kingdom, never abundant, become even more scarce after this point. The last king known to mint coins is [[Armah]], whose coinage refers to the Persian conquest of Jerusalem in 614. Stuart Munro-Hay believes that Axum had been abandoned as the capital by Sahama's reign. However, Kobishchanov suggests that the Axum kingdom retained hegemony over the Arabian ports until at least as late as 702.


title: History of Eritrea

text: From the late first to early second millennium Eritrea witnessed a period of migrations: Since the late 7th century, so with the decline of Aksum, large parts of Eritrea, including the highlands, were overrun by pagan [[Beja people|Beja]], who supposedly founded several kingdoms on its soil, like [[Kingdom of Belgin|Baqlin]], [[Kingdom of Jarin|Jarin]] and [[Kingdom of Qita'a|Qata]]. The Beja rule declined in the 13th century. Subsequently, the Beja were expelled from the highlands by Abyssinian settlers from the south. Another people, the [[Bellou (people)|Bellou]], originated from a similar milieu as the Beja. They appeared first in the 12th century, from then on they dominated parts of northwestern Eritrea until the 16th century. After 1270, with the destruction of the [[Zagwe dynasty|Zagwe Kingdom]], many [[Agaw]] fled to what is now Eritrea. Most were culturally and linguistically assimilated into the local Tigrinya culture, with the notable exception of the [[Bilen people|Bilen]]. Yet another people that arrived after the fall of Aksum were the [[Cushitic languages|Cushitic-speaking]] [[Saho people|Saho]], who had established themselves in the highlands until the 14th century.


title: History of Eritrea

text: Meanwhile, Eritrea witnessed a very slow, but steady conversion to Islam. Muslims had already reached Eritrea in 613/615, during the [[First Hijra]]. In 702, muslim travelers entered the [[Dahlak archipelago|Dahlak islands]]. In 1060, a Yemeni dynasty fled to Dahlak and proclaimed the [[Sultanate of Dahlak]], which would last for almost 500 years. This sultanate also had sovereignty over the port town of [[Massawa]].


title: History of Eritrea

text: The 12th century saw the rise of a new kingdom, [[Medri Bahri]]. Previously, this area has been known as "Ma'ikele Bahr" ("between the seas/rivers," i.e. the land between the [[Red Sea]] and the [[Mareb River|Mereb river]]), but during the reign of emperor [[Zara Yaqob of Ethiopia|Zara Yaqob]] it was rebranded as the domain of the Bahr Negash, the [[Medri Bahri]] ("Sea land" in Tigrinya, although it included some areas like [[Shire, Ethiopia|Shire]] on the other side of the Mereb, today in Ethiopia). With its capital at [[Debarwa]], the state's main provinces were [[Hamasien]], [[Serae]] and [[Akele Guzai]]. In 1879, Medri Bahri was annexed by [[Ras Alula]], who defended the area against the Italians until they finally occupied it in 1889.


title: History of Eritrea

text: The [[Ottoman Empire]] made multiple advances further inland [[Ottoman conquest of Habesh|conquering Medri Bahri]] in the 16th century. The Ottoman state maintained only tenuous control over much of the territory over the following centuries until it was re-conquered under the [[Muhammad Ali dynasty]] in the 19th century.


title: History of Eritrea

text: In southern Eritrea, the [[Aussa Sultanate]] (Afar Sultanate) succeeded the earlier [[Imamate of Awsa|Imamate of Aussa]]. The latter polity had come into existence in 1577, when [[Muhammed Jasa]] moved his capital from [[Harar]] to [[Asaita|Aussa]] (Asaita) with the split of the [[Adal Sultanate]] into Aussa and the [[Sultanate of Harar]]. At some point after 1672, Aussa declined in conjunction with Imam [[Umar Din bin Adam]]'s recorded ascension to the throne. In 1734, the [[Afar people|Afar]] leader [[Kedafu]], head of the Mudaito clan, seized power and established the [[Mudaito dynasty]]. This marked the start of a new and more sophisticated polity that would last into the colonial period.


title: History of Eritrea

text: The boundaries of the present-day Eritrea nation state were established during the [[Scramble for Africa]]. In 1869 or ’70, the then ruling Sultan of Raheita sold lands surrounding the Bay of [[Assab]] to the Rubattino Shipping Company. The area served as a [[coaling station]] along the [[shipping lane]]s introduced by the recently completed [[Suez Canal]]. It almost became a part of the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] [[Habesh Eyalet]] centered in [[Khedivate of Egypt|Egypt]], though they withdrew from the place after the resistance of the Eritrean people. The first Italian settlers arrived in 1880.


title: History of Eritrea

text: Later, as the Egyptians retreated out of Sudan during the [[Mahdist War|Mahdist rebellion]] and didn't succeed in their attempts of taking over the ports and other places in Eritrea, the [[United Kingdom|British]] brokered an agreement whereby the Egyptians could retreat through Ethiopia, and in exchange they would allow the Emperor to occupy those lowland districts that he had disputed with the Turks and Egyptians. Emperor [[Yohannes IV of Ethiopia|Yohannes IV]] believed this included Massawa, but instead, the port was handed by the British to the Italians, who united it with the already colonised port of [[Asseb]] to form a coastal Italian possession. The Italians took advantage of disorder in northern Ethiopia following the death of Emperor Yohannes IV in 1889 to occupy the highlands and established their new colony, henceforth known as Eritrea, and received recognition from [[Menelik II]], Ethiopia's new Emperor.


title: History of Eritrea

text: The Italian possession of maritime areas previously claimed by Abyssinia/Ethiopia was formalized in 1889 with the signing of the [[Treaty of Wuchale]] with [[Emperor Menelik II of Ethiopia]] (r. 1889–1913) after the defeat of Italy by Ethiopia at the battle of [[Adwa|Adua]] where Italy launched an effort to expand its possessions from Eritrea into the more fertile Abyssinian hinterland. Menelik would later renounce the Wuchale Treaty as he had been tricked by the translators to agree to making the whole of Ethiopia into an Italian protectorate. However, he was forced by circumstance to live by the tenets of Italian sovereignty over Eritrea.


title: History of Eritrea

text: In the vacuum that followed the [[Battle of Gallabat|1889 death]] of [[Emperor of Ethiopia|Emperor]] [[Yohannes IV|Yohannes IV]], Gen. [[Oreste Baratieri]] occupied the highlands along the Eritrean coast and Italy proclaimed the establishment of the new colony of [[Italian Eritrea]], a colony of the [[Kingdom of Italy (1861–1946)|Kingdom of Italy]]. In the [[Treaty of Wuchale]] (It. "Uccialli") signed the same year, [[Menelik II of Ethiopia|King Menelik]] of [[Shewa]], a southern Ethiopian kingdom, recognized the Italian occupation of his rivals' lands of [[Bogos]], [[Hamasien]], [[Akkele Guzay]], and [[Serae]] in exchange for guarantees of financial assistance and continuing access to European arms and ammunition. His subsequent victory over his rival kings and enthronement as [[emperor of Ethiopia|Emperor]] [[Menelik II of Ethiopia|Menelek II]] (r. 1889–1913) made the treaty formally binding upon the entire territory.


title: History of Eritrea

text: In 1888, the Italian administration launched its first development projects in the new colony. The [[Eritrean Railway]] was completed to [[Saati]] in 1888, and reached [[Asmara]] in the highlands in 1911. The [[Asmara-Massawa Cableway|Asmara–Massawa Cableway]] was the longest of its kind in the world when inaugurated in 1937. It was later dismantled by the British after World War II as [[war reparations]]. Besides major infrastructural projects, the colonial authorities invested significantly in the agricultural sector. It also oversaw the provision of urban amenities in Asmara and Massawa, and employed many Eritreans in public service, particularly in the police and public works departments. Thousands of Eritreans were concurrently enlisted in the army, serving during the [[Italo-Turkish War]] in Libya as well as the [[First Italo-Ethiopian War|First]] and [[Second Italo-Ethiopian War|second]] Italo-Abyssinian Wars.


title: History of Eritrea

text: Additionally, the Italian Eritrea administration opened a number of factories, which produced buttons, cooking oil, pasta, construction materials, packing meat, tobacco, hide and other household commodities. In 1939, there were around 2,198 factories and most of the employees were Eritrean citizens. The establishment of industries also made an increase in the number of both Italians and Eritreans residing in the cities. The number of Italians residing in the territory increased from 4,600 to 75,000 in five years; and with the involvement of Eritreans in the industries, trade and fruit plantation was expanded across the nation, while some of the plantations were owned by Eritreans.


title: History of Eritrea

text: In 1922, [[Benito Mussolini]]'s rise to power in Italy brought profound changes to the colonial government in Italian Eritrea. After "[[il Duce]]" declared the birth of the [[Italian Empire]] in May 1936, Italian Eritrea (enlarged with northern Ethiopia's regions) and [[Italian Somaliland]] were merged with the just conquered Ethiopia in the new [[Italian East Africa]] ("Africa Orientale Italiana") administrative territory. This [[Fascists|Fascist]] period was characterized by imperial expansion in the name of a "new Roman Empire". Eritrea was chosen by the Italian government to be the industrial center of Italian East Africa. After the revolutional fight by the Eritreans, the Italians left Eritrea.


title: History of Eritrea

text: The Italians brought to Eritrea a huge [[Roman Catholicism in Eritrea|development of Catholicism]]. By 1940, nearly one third of the territory's population was Catholic, mainly in Asmara where some churches were built.


title: History of Eritrea

text: [[Asmara, Eritrea|Italian Asmara]] was populated by a large Italian community and the city acquired an Italian architectural look. One of the first building was the [[Asmara President's Office]]: this former "Italian government's palace" was built in 1897 by [[Ferdinando Martini]], the first Italian governor of Eritrea. The Italian government wanted to create in [[Asmara]] an impressive building, from where the Italian Governors could show the dedication of the [[Kingdom of Italy (1861–1946)|Kingdom of Italy]] to the "colonia primogenita" (first daughter-colony) as was called Eritrea.


title: History of Eritrea

text: Today Asmara is worldwide known for its early twentieth-century Italian buildings, including the [[Art Deco]] [[Cinema Impero]], "Cubist" Africa Pension, eclectic [[Eritrean Orthodox Tewahdo Church|Orthodox Cathedral]] and former [[Opera House]], the [[futurist architecture|futurist]] [[Fiat Tagliero Building]], the [[neo-Romanesque architecture|neo-Romanesque]] [[Church of Our Lady of the Rosary, Asmara]], and the [[neoclassical architecture|neoclassical]] [[Governor's Palace (Asmara)|Governor's Palace]]. The city is littered with Italian [[Colonisation|colonial]] [[villa]]s and mansions. Most of central Asmara was built between 1935 and 1941, so effectively the Italians managed to build almost an entire city, in just six years.


title: History of Eritrea

text: The city of [[Asmara, Eritrea|Italian Asmara]] had a population of 98,000, of which 53,000 were Italians according to the Italian census of 1939. This fact made Asmara the main "Italian town" of the [[Italian empire]] in Africa.In all Eritrea the [[Italian Eritreans]] were 75,000 in that year.


title: History of Eritrea

text: Many industrial investments were done by the Italians in the area of Asmara and [[Massawa]], but the beginning of [[World War II]] stopped the blossoming industrialization of Eritrea. During the Allied efforts [[East African Campaign (World War II)|to capture Eritrea]] from the Italians in spring 1941, most of the infrastructure and the industrial areas were heavily damaged by the fighting.


title: History of Eritrea

text: The following [[Italian guerrilla war in Ethiopia|Italian guerrilla war]] was supported by many Eritrean colonial troops until the Italian armistice in September 1943. Eritrea was placed under [[British Empire|British]] military administration after the Italian surrender in World War II.


title: History of Eritrea

text: The [[Italian Eritreans]] strongly rejected the Ethiopian annexation of Eritrea after the war: the "Party of Shara Italy" of Dr. [[David DiMeglio|Vincenzo Di Meglio]] was established in Asmara in July 1947, and majority of the members were former Italian soldiers and many [[Eritrean Ascari]] (the organization was even backed up by the government of Italy). This party ruled by Dr. Di Meglio obtained in 1947 the dismissal of a proposal to divide Eritrea between Sudan and Ethiopia.


title: History of Eritrea

text: The main objective of this italo-Eritrean party was Eritrea freedom, but they had a pre-condition that stated that before independence the country should be governed by Italy for at least 15 years (like happened with [[Italian Somalia]]).


title: History of Eritrea

text: British forces defeated the Italian army in Eritrea in 1941 at the [[Battle of Keren]] and placed the colony under British military administration until [[Allies of World War II|Allied forces]] could determine its fate. Several Italian-built infrastructure projects and industries were dismantled and removed to [[Kenya Colony|Kenya]] as [[war reparations]].


title: History of Eritrea

text: In the absence of agreement amongst the Allies concerning the status of Eritrea, the British military administration continued for the remainder of World War II until 1950. During the immediate postwar years, the British proposed that Eritrea be divided along religious lines, with the Muslim population joining [[Sudan]] and the Christians Ethiopia. The [[Soviet Union]], anticipating an [[Italian Communist Party]] victory in the [[Italian general election, 1946|Italian polls]], initially supported returning Eritrea to Italy under [[Chapter XII of the United Nations Charter|trusteeship]] or as a colony. Soviet diplomats, led by [[Maxim Litvinov]] and backed by [[Ivan Maisky]] and [[Vyacheslav Molotov]], even attempted to have Eritrea become a trustee of the Soviet Union itself.


title: History of Eritrea

text: Arab states, seeing Eritrea and its large Muslim population as an extension of the Arab world, sought the establishment of an independent state. There are only two main Christian-Muslim conflicts reported in Asmara, Eritrea (the Ethiopians supported by the Unionist Party played a big role in it), one was in 1946 where Sudanese Defence Forces were involved, and the other was in February 1950. This note is about that of 1950.


title: History of Eritrea

text: The UN Commission (UNC) arrived in Eritrea on February 9 and began its months-long inquiry 5 days later. Unionist Shifta activities supported by Ethiopia increased after its arrival, they became daring, better planned, better coordinated and innovative. The main target of the shifta was to disrupt the free movement of the UNC in areas controlled by the independence bloc supporters. The shifta attempted to prevent the rural population that supported independence from having an audience with the UNC. They targeted transportation and communication systems. Telephone lines connecting Asmara with major cities of the predominantly areas pro-independence areas of the western lowlands and Masswa were continuously cut.


title: History of Eritrea

text: An active Muslim League local leader, from Mai Derese, Bashai Nessredin Saeed was killed by the Unionist Shifta while praying, on February 20. According to an account of the incident written by Mufti Sheikh Ibrahim Al Mukhtar, at 07:30 in the evening of a Monday that date 5 shifta came and fired several bullets at him while he was praying, He was murdered. The reason for the killing was that they had asked him to abandon the Muslim League and join the Unionist Party (UP), but he refused. The killing sparked an outrage among Muslims in Asmara and a lot of people turned up the next day for his funeral to show their stand against the terrorist activities of the UP. A well organised funeral procession was arranged and attended by youth and Muslim dignitaries. The procession passed through three main streets before they reached the street where the UP Office was located. According to the Mufti, then the UP members started first to throw stones at the procession which was followed by three grenades and then chaos followed. There was open confrontation between both sides and many were killed and injured from both sides. The police intervened by firing live ammunition, but the confrontations continued. Despite all this, the procession continued to the cemetery where the body was buried. The riots then spread to other areas and took a dangerous sectarian form. Many properties were also looted and burned. On Wednesday, the British Military Administration (BMA) declared a curfew from 5pm to 5am, but the riots continued, On Friday the curfew was extended to 22 hours.


title: History of Eritrea

text: On Thursday, the BMA administrator called for a meeting that included the Mufti and Abuna Marcos and asked them to calm the people and ask for reconciliation and both agreed. The next day a convoy of four cars: (In the first car were armed police, in the 2nd was the Asmara Administrator with his Arabic translator, in the third were the Mufti and the Abuna and in the 4th was the Asmara & Hamassein Judge and the vice of the Abuna) moved to the districts of ‘Geza Berhanu’, Edaga Arbi, Akhria, Edaga Hamus, Aba Shawl, Hadish Adi and Gaza Banda. In each location people were addressed with microphones to gather in both Arabic and Tigrinya and were told that the police will not harm them. In places where there were a majority of Christians the Abuna will address them first and later the Mufti calling the people to end the violence and vice versa in the other locations where the majority were Muslims. Later the people were told to go back to their homes. In the evening the Mufti and the Abuna went to the Radio Station and advised the citizens to end violence. The wise men from both sides accepted the call, but the looting of properties of Muslim merchants continued for 3 more days before the riots came to an end.


title: History of Eritrea

text: On Saturday 25 February, the Copts met at the main church and Muslims at the grand mosque and discussed ways to end the violence. Both sides agreed to take an oath to prevent violence against each other. Each side appointed a four-member committee to oversee the agreements. Later 31 members from each side took an oath in front of the eight member committee. To prevent further violence in other areas, the committee of both sides decided to visit the Muslim and Christian cemeteries and lied flowers on the graveyard of the victims of both sides. More than 62 persons were killed and more than 180 were injured and the damage on the properties was huge. This way the riots where the Ethiopian Laison Officer played a big role to ignite was brought to an end by the wise religious leaders and elders of both sides.


title: History of Eritrea

text: Ethiopian ambition in the Horn was apparent in the expansionist ambition of its monarch when [[Haile Selassie of Ethiopia|Haile Selassie]] claimed Italian Somaliland and Eritrea. He made this claim in a letter to Franklin D. Roosevelt, at the Paris Peace Conference and at the First Session of the United Nations. In the United Nations the debate over the fate of the former Italian colonies continued. The British and Americans preferred to cede Eritrea to the Ethiopians if possible as a reward for their support during [[World War II]]. "The United States and the United Kingdom have (similarly) agreed to support the cession to Ethiopia of all of Eritrea except the Western province. The United States has given assurances to Ethiopia in this regard." The Independence Bloc of Eritrean parties consistently requested from the UN General Assembly that a referendum be held immediately to settle the Eritrean question of sovereignty.


title: History of Eritrea

text: A [[United Nations]] (UN) commission was dispatched to the former colony in February 1950 in the absence of Allied agreement and in the face of Eritrean demands for self-determination. It was also at this juncture that the US Ambassador to the UN, [[John Foster Dulles]], said, "From the point of view of justice, the opinions of the Eritrean people must receive consideration. "Nevertheless" the strategic interest of the United States in the Red Sea basin and the considerations of security and world peace make it necessary that the country has to be linked with our "ally" Ethiopia." The Ambassador's word choice, along with the estimation of the British Ambassador in Addis Ababa, makes quite clear the fact that the Eritrean aspiration was for independence.


title: History of Eritrea

text: The commission proposed the establishment of some form of association with Ethiopia, and the UN General Assembly on 2 December 1950 adopted that proposal along with a provision terminating the British military administration of Eritrea no later than 15 September 1952. The British military administration held [[Eritrean parliamentary election, 1952|Legislative Assembly elections]] on 25 and 26 March 1952, for a representative Assembly of 68 members, evenly divided between Christians and Muslims. This body in turn accepted a draft constitution put forward by the UN commissioner on 10 July. On 11 September 1952, Emperor Haile Selassie ratified the constitution. The Representative Assembly subsequently became the Eritrean Assembly. In 1952 UN General Assembly Resolution 390 to federate Eritrea with Ethiopia went into effect.


title: History of Eritrea

text: The resolution ignored the wishes of Eritreans for independence, but guaranteed the population some democratic rights and a measure of autonomy. Some scholars have contended that the issue was a religious issue, between the Muslim lowland population desiring independence while the highland Christian population sought a union with Ethiopia. Other scholars, including the former Attorney-General of Ethiopia, [[Baraket Selassie|Bereket Habte Selassie]], contend that, "religious tensions here and there...were exploited by the British, [but] most Eritreans (Christians and Moslems) were united in their goal of freedom and independence." Almost immediately after the federation went into effect, however, these rights began to be abridged or violated. Pleas in Eritrea for a referendum for independence were received by the American, British and Ethiopian government, and a confidential American memo estimated around 75% of Eritreans supported the Independence Party.


title: History of Eritrea

text: The details of Eritrea's association with Ethiopia were established by the [[UN General Assembly]] Resolution 390A (V) of 2 December 1950. It called for Eritrea and Ethiopia to be linked through a loose federal structure under the sovereignty of the Emperor. Eritrea was to have its own administrative and judicial structure, its own flag, and control over its domestic affairs, including police, local administration, and taxation. The federal government, which for all intents and purposes was the existing imperial government, was to control foreign affairs (including commerce), defense, finance, and transportation. As a result of a long history of a strong landowning peasantry and the virtual absence of serfdom in most parts of Eritrea, the bulk of Eritreans had developed a distinct sense of cultural identity and superiority vis-à-vis Ethiopians. This combined with Eriteans who had a desire for political freedoms alien to Ethiopian political tradition, was the reason why the British administration left the country and the Eritreans finally won that fight. From the start of the federation, however, Haile Selassie attempted to undercut Eritrea's independent status, a policy that alienated many Eritreans. The Emperor pressured Eritrea's elected chief executive to resign, made Amharic the official language in place of Arabic and Tigrinya, terminated the use of the Eritrean flag, imposed censorship, and moved many businesses out of Eritrea. Finally, in 1962 Haile Selassie pressured the Eritrean Assembly to abolish the Federation and join the Imperial Ethiopian fold, much to the dismay of those in Eritrea who favored a more liberal political order.


title: History of Eritrea

text: [[Image:Ethiopia and Eritrea attatched (Derg, PDR).png|thumb|right|Map of Eritrea attached to Ethiopia.]]


title: History of Eritrea

text: Militant opposition to the incorporation of Eritrea into Ethiopia had begun in 1958 with the founding of the [[Eritrean Liberation Movement]] (ELM), an organization made up mainly of students, intellectuals, and urban wage laborers. The ELM, under the leadership of the [[Eritrea]]n


title: History of Eritrea

text: [[Hamid Idris Awate]], engaged in clandestine political activities intended to cultivate resistance to the centralizing policies of the imperial Ethiopian state. By 1962, however, the ELM had been discovered and destroyed by imperial authorities.


title: History of Eritrea

text: Emperor [[Haile Selassie]] unilaterally dissolved the Eritrean parliament and illegally annexed the country in 1962. The war continued after Haile Selassie was ousted in a coup in 1974. The [[Derg]], the new Ethiopian government, was a [[Marxist]] military [[military dictatorship|junta]] led by [[strongman (political)|strongman]] [[Mengistu Haile Mariam]].


title: History of Eritrea

text: In 1960 Eritrean exiles in [[Cairo]] founded the [[Eritrean Liberation Front]] (ELF), which led the Eritrean independence struggle during the 1960s. In contrast to the ELM, from the outset the ELF was bent on waging armed struggle on behalf of Eritrean independence. The ELF was composed mainly of Eritrean Muslims from the rural lowlands on the western edge of the territory. In 1961 the ELF's political character was vague, but radical Arab states such as [[Syria]] and [[Iraq]] saw Eritrea as a predominantly Muslim region struggling to escape Ethiopian oppression and imperial domination. These two countries therefore supplied military and financial assistance to the ELF.


title: History of Eritrea

text: The ELF initiated military operations in 1961 and intensified its activities in response to the dissolution of the federation in 1962. By 1967 the ELF had gained considerable support among peasants, particularly in Eritrea's north and west, and around the port city of [[Massawa]]. Haile Selassie attempted to calm the growing unrest by visiting Eritrea and assuring its inhabitants that they would be treated as equals under the new arrangements. Although he doled out offices, money, and titles mainly to Christian highlanders in the hope of co-opting would-be Eritrean opponents in early 1967, the imperial secret police of Ethiopia also set up a wide network of informants in Eritrea and conducted disappearances, intimidations and assassinations among the same populace driving several prominent political figures into exile. Imperial police fired live ammunition killing scores of youngsters during several student demonstrations in Asmara in this time. The imperial army also actively perpetrated massacres until the ousting of the Emperor by the Derg in 1974.


title: History of Eritrea

text: By 1971 ELF activity had become enough of a threat that the emperor had declared [[martial law]] in Eritrea. He deployed roughly half of the Ethiopian army to contain the struggle. Internal disputes over strategy and tactics eventually led to the ELF's fragmentation and the founding in 1972 of the [[Eritrean People's Liberation Front]] (EPLF). The leadership of this multi-ethnic movement came to be dominated by leftist, Christian dissidents who spoke Tigrinya, Eritrea's predominant language. Sporadic armed conflict ensued between the two groups from 1972 to 1974, even as they fought Ethiopian forces. By the late 1970s, the EPLF had become the dominant armed Eritrean group fighting against the Ethiopian Government, and [[Isaias Afewerki]] had emerged as its leader. Much of the material used to combat Ethiopia was captured from the army.


title: History of Eritrea

text: By 1977 the EPLF seemed poised to drive the Ethiopians out of Eritrea. However, that same year a massive airlift of [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] arms to Ethiopia enabled the Ethiopian Army to regain the initiative and forced the EPLF to retreat to the bush. Between 1978 and 1986 the Derg launched eight unsuccessful major offensives against the independence movement. In 1988 the EPLF captured [[Afabet]], headquarters of the Ethiopian Army in northeastern Eritrea, putting approximately a third of the Ethiopian Army out of action and prompting the Ethiopian Army to withdraw from its garrisons in Eritrea's western lowlands. EPLF fighters then moved into position around [[Keren, Eritrea|Keren]], Eritrea's second-largest city. Meanwhile, other dissident movements were making headway throughout Ethiopia. At the end of the 1980s the Soviet Union informed Mengistu that it would not renew its defense and cooperation agreement. With the withdrawal of Soviet support and supplies, the Ethiopian Army's morale plummeted, and the EPLF, along with other Ethiopian rebel forces, began to advance on Ethiopian positions. In 1980 the [[Permanent Peoples' Tribunal]] determined that the right of the Eritrean people to self-determination does not represent a form of secession.


title: History of Eritrea

text: The [[United States]] played a facilitative role in the peace talks in [[Washington, DC|Washington]] during the months leading up to the May 1991 fall of the Mengistu regime. In mid-May, Mengistu resigned as head of the Ethiopian Government and went into exile in [[Zimbabwe]], leaving a caretaker government in [[Addis Ababa]]. Having defeated the Ethiopian forces in Eritrea, EPLF troops took control of their homeland. Later that month, the United States chaired talks in [[London]] to formalize the end of the war. These talks were attended by the four major combatant groups, including the EPLF.


title: History of Eritrea

text: Following the collapse of the Mengistu government, Eritrean independence began drawing influential interest and support from the United States. [[The Heritage Foundation|Heritage Foundation]] Africa expert Michael Johns wrote that "there are some modestly encouraging signs that the front intends to abandon Mengistu's autocratic practices."


title: History of Eritrea

text: A high-level U.S. delegation was also present in Addis Ababa for the July 1–5, 1991 conference that established a transitional government in Ethiopia. The EPLF attended the July conference as an observer and held talks with the new transitional government regarding Eritrea's relationship to Ethiopia. The outcome of those talks was an agreement in which the Ethiopians recognized the right of the Eritreans to hold a referendum on independence.


title: History of Eritrea

text: Although some EPLF cadres at one time espoused a Marxist ideology, Soviet support for Mengistu had cooled their ardor. The fall of [[communist]] regimes in the former Soviet Union and the [[Eastern Bloc]] convinced them it was a failed system. The EPLF now says it is committed to establishing a democratic form of government and a free-market economy in Eritrea. The United States agreed to provide assistance to both Ethiopia and Eritrea, conditional on continued progress toward democracy and human rights.


title: History of Eritrea

text: In May 1991 the EPLF established the Provisional Government of Eritrea (PGE) to administer Eritrean affairs until a referendum was held on independence and a permanent government established. EPLF leader Afewerki became the head of the PGE, and the EPLF Central Committee served as its legislative body.


title: History of Eritrea

text: Eritreans voted overwhelmingly in favor of independence between 23 and 25 April 1993 in a UN-monitored [[Eritrean independence referendum, 1993|referendum]]. The result of the referendum was 99.83% for Eritrea's independence. The Eritrean authorities declared Eritrea an independent state on 27 April 1993. The government was reorganized and the National Assembly was expanded to include both EPLF and non-EPLF members. The assembly chose Isaias Afewerki as president. The EPLF reorganized itself as a political party, the [[People's Front for Democracy and Justice]] (PFDJ).


title: History of Eritrea

text: The first [[President of Eritrea]], [[Isaias Afwerki]], has authoritatively ruled Eritrea since 1993. [[People's Front for Democracy and Justice]] (PFDJ) is the only legal political party.


title: History of Eritrea

text: In 1998 a border dispute with Ethiopia, over the town of [[Badme]], led to the [[Eritrean-Ethiopian War]] in which thousands of soldiers from both countries died. Eritrea suffered from significant economic and social stress, including massive population displacement, reduced economic development, and one of Africa's most severe [[land mine]] problems.


title: History of Eritrea

text: The border war ended in 2000 with the signing of the [[Algiers Agreement (2000)|Algiers Agreement]]. Amongst the terms of the agreement was the establishment of a UN peacekeeping operation, known as the [[United Nations Mission in Ethiopia and Eritrea]] (UNMEE); with over 4,000 UN peacekeepers. The UN established a temporary security zone consisting of a 25-kilometre [[demilitarized zone|demilitarized buffer zone]] within Eritrea, running along the length of the disputed border between the two states and patrolled by UN troops. Ethiopia was to withdraw to positions held before the outbreak of hostilities in May 1998. The Algiers agreement called for a final demarcation of the disputed border area between Eritrea and Ethiopia by the assignment of an independent, UN-associated body known as the Eritrea-Ethiopia Boundary Commission (EEBC), whose task was to clearly identify the border between the two countries and issue a final and binding ruling. The peace agreement would be completed with the implementation of the Border Commission's ruling, which would also end the task of the peacekeeping mission. After extensive study, the Commission issued a final border ruling in April 2002, which awarded some territory to each side, but Badme (the flash point of the conflict) was awarded to Eritrea. The commission's decision was rejected by Ethiopia. The border question remains in dispute, with Ethiopia refusing to withdraw its military from positions in the disputed areas, including Badme, while a "difficult" peace remains in place.


title: History of Eritrea

text: The UNMEE mission was formally abandoned in July 2008, after experiencing serious difficulties in sustaining its troops after fuel stoppages.


title: History of Eritrea

text: Furthermore, Eritrea's diplomatic relations with [[Djibouti]] were briefly severed during the border war with Ethiopia in 1998 due to a dispute over Djibouti's intimate relation with Ethiopia during the war but were restored and normalized in 2000. Relations are again tense due to a renewed border dispute. Similarly, Eritrea and [[Yemen]] had a border conflict between 1996 and 1998 over the Hanish Islands and the maritime border, which was resolved in 2000 by the [[Permanent Court of Arbitration]] in [[the Hague]].


title: History of Eritrea

text: Eritrea has improved health care, and is on track to meet its [[Millennium Development Goal]]s (MDG) for health, in particular child health. [[Life expectancy]] at birth increased from 39.1 years in 1960 to 59.5 years in 2008; maternal and [[child mortality]] rates dropped dramatically and the health infrastructure expanded.


title: History of Eritrea

text: [[Immunization|Immunisation]] and child nutrition have been tackled by working closely with schools in a multi-sectoral approach; the number of children vaccinated against [[measles]] almost doubled in seven years, from 40.7% to 78.5% and the prevalence of underweight children decreased by 12% from 1995 to 2002 (severe underweight prevalence by 28%). The National Malaria Protection Unit of the Ministry of Health registered reductions in [[malaria]]l mortality by as much as 85% and in the number of cases by 92% between 1998 and 2006. The Eritrean government has banned [[female genital mutilation]] (FGM), saying the practice was painful and put women at risk of life-threatening health problems. [[Malaria]] and [[tuberculosis]] are common. [[HIV]] prevalence for ages 15 to 49 years exceeds 2%.


title: History of Eritrea

text: Due to his frustration with the stalemated peace process with Ethiopia, the President of Eritrea [[Isaias Afewerki]] wrote a series of [[s:Eleven Letters|Eleven Letters]] to the [[UN Security Council]] and [[Secretary-General of the United Nations|Secretary-General]] [[Kofi Annan]]. Despite the [[Algiers Agreement (2000)|Algiers Agreement]], tense relations with Ethiopia have continued and led to regional instability. His government has also been condemned for allegedly arming and financing the [[insurgency in Somalia]]; the [[United States]] is considering labeling Eritrea a "[[State Sponsor of Terrorism]]."


title: History of Eritrea

text: In December 2007, an estimated 4000 Eritrean troops remained in the 'demilitarized zone' with a further 120,000 along its side of the border. Ethiopia maintained 100,000 troops along its side.


title: History of Eritrea

text: In September, 2012, the Israeli "[[Haaretz]]" newspaper published an exposé on Eritrea. There are over 40,000 Eritrean refugees in Israel. The NGO [[Reporters Without Borders]] has ranked Eritrea in last in freedom of expression since 2007, even lower than North Korea.


title: History of Eritrea

text: –200 soldiers of the [[Eritrean Army]] in the capital city [[Asmara]] briefly seized the headquarters of the state broadcaster, [[EriTV]], and broadcast a message demanding reforms and the release of political prisoners. On 10 February 2013, president Isaias Afwerki commented on the mutiny, describing it as nothing to worry about.


title: History of Eritrea

text: In September 2018, President Isaias Afwerki and Prime Minister of Ethiopia, [[Abiy Ahmed]], signed a historic peace agreement between the two countries.


title: History of Eritrea

text: On 8 July 2017, the entire capital city of Asmara was listed as a [[UNESCO World Heritage Site]], with the inscription taking place during the 41st World Heritage Committee Session.


title: History of Eritrea

text: The city has thousands of [[Art Deco#Architecture|Art Deco]], [[futurist]], [[modernist]], and [[Rationalism (architecture)|rationalist]] buildings, constructed during the period of [[Italian Eritrea]]. The city, nicknamed ""La piccola Roma"" ("Little Rome"), is located over 2000 meters above sea level, and was an ideal spot for construct


title: History of Eritrea

text: The BBC published on 19 June 2008 a timeline of Eritrea's conflict with Ethiopia to that date and reported that the "Border dispute rumbles on":


title: History of Eritrea

text: In relation to southern [[Somalia]]: In December 2009, the [[United Nations Security Council]] imposed sanctions on [[Eritrea]], accusing it of arming and providing financial aid to militia groups in southern Somalia's conflict zones.


title: Lower Mainland

text: The Lower Mainland is a geographic and cultural region of the mainland coast of British Columbia that generally comprises the regional districts of Metro Vancouver and Fraser Valley. Home to approximately 3.05million people as of the 2021 Canadian census, the Lower Mainland contains sixteen of the province's 30 most populous municipalities and approximately 60% of the province's total population.


title: Lower Mainland

text: The region is the traditional territory of the , a Halkomelem-speaking people of the Coast Salish linguistic and cultural grouping.


title: Lower Mainland

text: Although the term "Lower Mainland" has been recorded from the earliest period of colonization in British Columbia, it has never been officially defined in legal terms. The term has historically been in popular usage for over a century to describe a region that extends from Horseshoe Bay south to the Canada–United States border and east to Hope at the eastern end of the Fraser Valley. This definition makes the term "Lower Mainland" almost synonymous with the regional districts of Metro Vancouver and Fraser Valley.


title: Lower Mainland

text: However, the British Columbia Geographical Names Information System (BCGNIS) comments that most residents of Vancouver might consider it to be only areas west of Mission and Abbotsford, while residents in the rest of the province consider it to be the Sea-to-Sky Corridor south of Whistler and west of Hope.


title: Lower Mainland

text: The region is bounded to the north by the Pacific Ranges and to the southeast by the Cascade Mountains, and is traversed from east to west by the Fraser River. Due to its consistency of climate, flora and fauna, geology and land use, "Lower Mainland" is also the name of an ecoregion—a biogeoclimatic region—that comprises the eastern part of the Georgia Depression and extends from Powell River on the Sunshine Coast to Hope at the eastern end of the Fraser Valley.


title: Lower Mainland

text: One of the mildest climates in Canada, the region has a mean annual temperature of with a summer mean of and a winter mean of . Annual precipitation ranges from an annual mean of in the west end to in the eastern end of the Fraser Valley and at higher elevations. Maximum precipitation occurs as rain in winter. Less than ten percent falls as snow at sea level but the amount of snowfall increases significantly with elevation.


title: Lower Mainland

text: These figures are slightly inflated due to the inclusion of areas within the Regional Districts which are not normally considered to be part of the Lower Mainland, notably the lower Fraser Canyon and the heads of Harrison and Pitt Lakes, which are within the FVRD, and Lions Bay and Bowen Island, which are within the Greater Vancouver Regional District.


title: Lower Mainland

text: The Lower Mainland is among the most diverse regions in Canada. Europeans form a slight majority at 51.5 percent, followed by East Asians at 20.8 percent and South Asians at 12.2 percent.


title: Lower Mainland

text: The Lower Mainland includes large Christian, irreligious, and Sikh communities. The Sikh population, numbering over 265,000 persons or 9.1 percent of the total population is statistically significant across Metro Vancouver and the Fraser Valley; proportionally, it is more than four times the national average of 2.1 percent.


title: Lower Mainland

text: Regional districts were first created across British Columbia in 1966–1967 to form bodies for inter-municipal coordination and to extend municipal-level powers to areas outside existing municipalities. Today, the Lower Mainland includes two regional districts: the Metro Vancouver Regional District (MVRD) and the Fraser Valley Regional District (FVRD). Both regional districts, however, include areas outside the traditional limits of the Lower Mainland. Metro Vancouver includes areas like Surrey and Langley that are geographically in the Fraser Valley.


title: Lower Mainland

text: The Metro Vancouver Regional District is made up of 21 municipalities. The MVRD is bordered on the west by the Strait of Georgia, to the north by the Squamish-Lillooet Regional District, on the east by the Fraser Valley Regional District, and to the south by Whatcom County, Washington, in the United States.


title: Lower Mainland

text: The Fraser Valley Regional District lies east of the Metro Vancouver Regional District, and comprises the cities of Abbotsford and Chilliwack, the district municipalities of Mission, Kent, and Hope, and the village of Harrison Hot Springs. It also includes many unincorporated areas in the Fraser Valley and along the west side of the Fraser Canyon (the Fraser Canyon is not in the Lower Mainland).


title: Lower Mainland

text: Regional district powers are very limited and other localized provincial government services are delivered through other regionalization systems.


title: Lower Mainland

text: The traditional territories of the Musqueam and Tsleil'waututh lie completely within the region; the southern portion of Squamish traditional territory is also in the region. Its claims overlap those of the Tsleil-waututh, Musqueam, and Kwikwetlem. Other peoples whose territories lie within the region are the , Chehalis, Katzie, Kwantlen, Tsawwassen, and Semiahmoo; many of their territories overlap with those of the Musqueam, and with each other. Many other peoples of the Georgia Strait region also frequented the lower Fraser, including those from Vancouver Island and what is now Whatcom County, Washington.


title: Lower Mainland

text: Sto:lo traditional territory, known as "Solh Temexw" in Halkomelem, more or less coincides with the traditional conception of the Lower Mainland, except for the inclusion of Port Douglas at the head of Harrison Lake, which is in In-SHUCK-ch territory, and the lands around Burrard Inlet.


title: Lower Mainland

text: Health system services and governance in the Lower Mainland are provided by Vancouver Coastal Health, serving Vancouver, Richmond and the North Shore, and the mainland coast as far north as the Central Coast region, and Fraser Health, which serves the area of the Lower Mainland east of Vancouver and Richmond.


title: Lower Mainland

text: The Lower Mainland is considered to have a high vulnerability to flood risk. There have been two major region-wide floods in 1894 and 1948, both associated with an extreme spring freshet of the Fraser River. Other major floods in the Lower Mainlandincluding June 1972, November 1990, and November 2021have been more localized, primarily impacting areas in the Fraser Valley like the Sumas Prairie, with comparatively minor impacts to Metro Vancouver. Prior to the 2021 flood, according to the Fraser Basin Council, scientists predicted a one-in-three chance of a similar-sized flood occurring in the next 50 years.


title: Lower Mainland

text: In the second quarter of 2007, the Lower Mainland was on high alert for flooding. Higher than normal snow packs in the British Columbia Interior prompted municipal governments to start taking emergency measures in the region. Dikes along the Fraser River are regulated to handle approximately at the Mission Gauge (the height above sea level of the dykes at Mission). Warmer than normal weather in the province's Interior region caused large amounts of snow to melt prematurely, resulting in higher-than-normal water levels, which, nevertheless, remained well below flood levels.


title: Lower Mainland

text: Flooding can cover much of the Lower Mainland. Cloverdale, Barnston Island, low-lying areas of Maple Ridge, areas west of Hope, White Rock, Richmond, parts of Vancouver, and parts of Surrey are potentially at risk. In 2007, the Lower Mainland was largely spared, although northern regions of the province, along the Skeena and Nechako Rivers, experienced floods. Climate scientists predict that increasing temperatures will mean wetter winters and more snow at the high elevations. This will increase the likelihood of snowmelt floods.


title: Lower Mainland

text: The provincial government maintains an integrated flood hazard management program and extensive flood protection infrastructure in the Lower Mainland. The infrastructure consists of dikes, pump stations, floodboxes, riprap, and relief wells.


title: Lower Mainland

text: While earthquakes are common in British Columbia and adjacent coastal waters, most are minor in energy release or are sufficiently remote to have little effect on populated areas. Nevertheless, earthquakes with a magnitude of up to 7.3 have occurred within of the Lower Mainland.


title: Lower Mainland

text: Based on geological evidence, however, stronger earthquakes appear to have occurred at approximately 600-year intervals. Therefore, there is a probability that there will be a major earthquake in the region within the next 200 years.


title: Lower Mainland

text: In April 2008, the United States Geological Survey released information concerning a newly found fault south of downtown Abbotsford, called the Boulder Creek Fault. Scientists now believe this fault is active and capable of producing earthquakes in the 6.8 magnitude range.


title: Lower Mainland

text: Much of the Lower Mainland is vulnerable to explosive eruptions from the Garibaldi Volcanic Belt. Volcanoes in this zone are capable of producing large quantities of volcanic ash that may cause short and long term water supply problems for Lower Mainland communities. All airports covered by the accompanying eruption column would be closed, heavy ash falls would damage electrical equipment and weak structures could collapse under the weight of the ash.


title: Lower Mainland

text: The Lower Mainland's communities includes large cities in Metro Vancouver, and smaller cities, towns and villages along both banks of the Fraser River. Neighbourhoods within cities are not listed unless historically or otherwise notable and/or separate. Only some of the many Indian Reserves are listed.


title: AWF8F35

text: The Aisin AW F8FXX series is the world's first 8-speed automatic transmission designed for use in transverse engine applications. Aisin designed the transmission to package in the same space as preceding 6-speed designs, while increasing the total gear spread and reducing gear spacing. It is also called the GA8F22AW (BMW & Mini) TG-81SC (Volvo), AF50-8 (Opel/Vauxhall), AWF8F45 (Cadillac), and AQ450 (Volkswagen Group). First usage was in the 2013 model year Lexus RX350 F Sport.


title: Nikola Kalinić

text: Nikola Kalinić (; born 5 January 1988) is a Croatian professional footballer who plays as a striker for Croatian club Hajduk Split.


title: Nikola Kalinić

text: Kalinić began his career with Hajduk Split in his native Croatia before moving to English club Blackburn Rovers for £6 million in 2009. After scoring rarely in two Premier League seasons, he left for Ukrainian side Dnipro, helping them reach the 2015 UEFA Europa League Final. He then played in Serie A for Fiorentina and AC Milan, before signing for Spanish club Atletico Madrid ahead of the 2018–19 season, winning the 2018 UEFA Super Cup.


title: Nikola Kalinić

text: Kalinić made his debut for Croatia in 2008 and represented the nation at three UEFA European Championships. He was part of their side that came runners-up at the 2018 FIFA World Cup but was sent home after one game.


title: Nikola Kalinić

text: Born in Split, Kalinić began his playing career at Hajduk Split. He made his Prva HNL debut in the 2005–06 season at age 17. On 1 August 2006, he was sent on loan to Pula Staro Češko to receive more first-team action. In his loan time at Pula, he had a slow but fair start considering his young age. Despite not playing all too regularly in a short single season with them, he still managed to adapt and find goalscoring form, scoring 3 goals in 12 league appearances.


title: Nikola Kalinić

text: Kalinić's first goals in the Prva HNL came in the 2–0 victory against Kamen Ingrad on 23 September 2006 as he scored a brace to give his side the victory. Upon ending his short time at Pula, manager Krunoslav Jurčić was largely impressed with him, stating he could become the next Zlatan Ibrahimović.


title: Nikola Kalinić

text: Despite his intentions to stay at Pula, Kalinić returned to Hajduk and was immediately sent out on loan to Šibenik, where he saw occasional first team action and immediately impressed with all-round performances and a goal-scoring ability, scoring three goals in eight appearances.


title: Nikola Kalinić

text: After clearly showing the ability to adapt well to the Croatian league, Kalinić returned to Hajduk and immediately saw plenty of first team action. He made his returning debut against Cibalia as a substitute, then secured his first start in the squad during the 2–1 victory against Osijek at the Poljud Stadium. His 17 league goals in his first season with Hajduk was only beaten by league topscorer Želimir Terkeš, who scored 21 goals. However, it was a great achievement for the youngster, who had initially set a target of scoring 15 goals. He finished the 2007–08 season in fifth place with Hajduk in the league, also helping them reach the final of the Croatian Cup in the same season. In all competitions, he ended the year with 26 goals, receiving the coveted "Swan d'or" Award from the Croatian Press Association.


title: Nikola Kalinić

text: Kalinić began the next season by scoring the second goal in Hajduk's 0–4 away victory against Maltese side Birkirara, thus advancing them to the next round of qualification for the 2008–09 UEFA Cup. In Hajduk's derby match over league rivals Dinamo Zagreb, Kalinić scored the first goal with a penalty kick. Hajduk went on to win the match 2–0 and overtake Dinamo in the league table.


title: Nikola Kalinić

text: Kalinić went for a one-week trial at English club Portsmouth in late July 2009, whereupon a fee thought to be in the region of £6 million was agreed between Hajduk and Portsmouth. However, the move fell through due to financial reasons. On 31 July 2009, Kalinić was heavily linked with another Premier League club, Blackburn Rovers. Later that day, the player's agent confirmed Kalinić had been at Blackburn's ground talking to the club on the 30th and 31st with regard to the deal to take the player to Ewood Park. The player's agent also confirmed that the fee was €7 million should the deal be completed; the contract had been agreed and his client was due to sign for the club. The player also made light that the Lancashire-based club expected "big things" from the highly rated Croat.


title: Nikola Kalinić

text: On 1 August 2009, the move stepped closer when Hajduk club president Mate Peroš confirmed Blackburn had an offer accepted by the club, the best from any club. He also said, "Very quickly we finished the talks with the club [Blackburn]."


title: Nikola Kalinić

text: On 3 August 2009, Kalinić signed for Blackburn Rovers on a four-year deal. The transfer fee is believed to be in the region of £6 million. One week later, Kalinić was successfully awarded a work permit and officially signed for the club. However, his debut was delayed as he had to return from his homeland to collect his permit, meaning he was not officially registered in time for Rovers' opening match of the season, against Manchester City. On 13 August, he was officially confirmed as a Blackburn player and was assigned the number 22 jersey for the 2009–10 season, making his debut against Sunderland nine days later.


title: Nikola Kalinić

text: On 27 October, Kalinić scored his first goal for Blackburn against Peterborough United in the League Cup. He scored his second goal in the quarter-final of the competition against Chelsea, but missed a penalty in the shootout which Blackburn went on to win regardless. His good cup form continued in January, scoring three goals against Aston Villa - one in the FA Cup and then the two opening goals in the second leg of the League Cup semi-final, which ended 6-4 to Villa. Kalinić scored his first Premier League goal against Wigan Athletic with a header from a resultant corner taken by Morten Gamst Pedersen in the 76th minute of a 2–1 victory.


title: Nikola Kalinić

text: He was handed the number nine shirt by manager Sam Allardyce at the beginning of the new Premier League campaign. Despite missing much of pre-season, Kalinić started the 2010–11 season well, scoring the only goal in Blackburn's opening day victory over Everton at Ewood Park on 14 August. On 28 December 2010, he netted his first brace in Blackburn colours in their 1–3 away win over West Bromwich Albion at The Hawthorns, though he was later sent off in this game. After Sam Allardyce was sacked as Blackburn manager, Kalinić fell out of favor with Blackburn's newly appointed manager Steve Kean.


title: Nikola Kalinić

text: On 11 August 2011, Kalinić signed for Dnipro of the Ukrainian Premier League for an undisclosed fee. He made his debut for the club on 13 August 2011 as a second-half substitute against league champions Shakhtar Donetsk in a 3–1 defeat. He marked his first appearance for the club with a goal but was red carded for elbowing just two minutes after scoring. Kalinić netted ten goals in all competitions in both his first and second seasons with the Ukrainian side.


title: Nikola Kalinić

text: On 27 May 2015, Kalinić opened the scoring with a header in the Europa League Final against holders Sevilla in Warsaw, although his team eventually lost 2–3. Kalinić scored six other goals in his sides run to the Europa League final and another 12 league goals, taking his tally for the 2014–15 season to 19, the highest of his career.


title: Nikola Kalinić

text: In August 2015, Kalinić signed a contract with Fiorentina. The fee was reported to be a figure close to €5 million. His Serie A debut came in a 2–0 win over AC Milan, and he then scored the first goal against Bologna in a match which also ended 2–0. On 27 September, Kalinić scored a hat-trick away against Inter Milan in a 4–1 victory. Due to this win, Fiorentina reached the top of Serie A for the first time since 1998–99. Eight weeks later, he scored twice in a game against Empoli, the double earning Fiorentina a 2–2 draw.


title: Nikola Kalinić

text: Another 11 months later, he scored another hat-trick against Cagliari, although his side was beaten 5–3. During this season (on 15 April 2017), he was sent off for the first time, against Empoli. The referee showed him the red card for his protests at the final whistle. Tianjin Quanjian made an offer of €50 million for Kalinić which was accepted by Fiorentina, but the offer was turned down by the player.


title: Nikola Kalinić

text: At the start of 2017–18 season, Kalinić's number 9 shirt was given to Giovanni Simeone, with Kalinić assigned the number 99 shirt instead.


title: Nikola Kalinić

text: On 22 August 2017, Kalinić joined AC Milan on loan with an obligation to purchase for a reported fee of about €25 million. He chose to wear the number 7 shirt, as it was vacant. He made his debut in a 2–1 victory at the San Siro against Cagliari on 27 August, coming on as a substitute in the 78th minute. On 17 September, he scored a brace in his first start for Milan in Serie A against Udinese as Milan won 2–1.


title: Nikola Kalinić

text: On 9 August 2018, Atlético Madrid signed Kalinić on a three-year contract. Six days later, he was an unused substitute as they defeated rivals Real Madrid to win the 2018 UEFA Super Cup in Tallinn.


title: Nikola Kalinić

text: He made his La Liga debut in a 0–2 loss against Celta Vigo on 1 September, coming on as a substitute in the 56th minute. On 8 December 2018, he started the game against Alaves in place of the injured Diego Costa and scored his team's first goal in an eventual 3-0 home win, by tapping in (in fact from the lower part of his stomach) a curling cross from Santiago Arias, which was also his first league goal of the campaign.


title: Nikola Kalinić

text: He scored his first goal for the club with a powerful header in the second half to help his team in a 5-0 aggregate win in the second leg of the Round of 32 tie in the season's Copa del Rey clash against fourth tier Sant Andreu.


title: Nikola Kalinić

text: On 2 September 2019, Kalinić joined A.S. Roma on a season-long loan deal which included an optional purchase clause. Roma chose not to activate the clause and Kalinić returned to Atlético at the end of the season.


title: Nikola Kalinić

text: Kalinić was a key player in the Croatia national under-21 team during his youth playing years, also representing his country at the under-17 and -19 level. He first made a name for himself at international level at age 17 during the 2005 UEFA European Under-17 Championship when he finished the campaign as the top scorer with 11 goals. At the under-19 level, he managed another five goals during his side's preliminary round of the same tournament. He also scored a hat-trick against Lithuania in Croatia's 3–0 victory, which secured them a spot in the next elite round of the UEFA European Under-19 Championship in 2006.


title: Nikola Kalinić

text: Initially supposed to be called up by head coach Slaven Bilić for the few remaining qualifying matches of UEFA Euro 2008, Kalinić missed the chance due to injury and was instead replaced by Mario Mandžukić. However, his constant impressive abilities earned him a place in Croatia's final squad for Euro 2008. He made his first appearance for the senior national team on 24 May 2008, coming on as a substitute in the 62nd minute of Croatia's 1–0 friendly win against Moldova. He went on to make his first competitive appearance for his national side at Euro 2008 in Croatia's final group match against Poland, coming on as a substitute for goalscorer Ivan Klasnić in the 1–0 victory.


title: Nikola Kalinić

text: On 17 November 2010, Kalinić scored his first international goal, scoring the third goal in Croatia's 3–0 win at home to Malta in the Euro 2012 qualifiers. On 9 February 2011, he scored a brace in a 4–2 victory over the Czech Republic in an international friendly game.


title: Nikola Kalinić

text: In June 2012, Kalinić replaced the injured Ivica Olić in Croatia's squad for Euro 2012 and remained an unused substitute in the tournament.


title: Nikola Kalinić

text: Kalinić missed the 2014 World Cup, but received a call-up back for a friendly against Argentina in 2014, although he remained an unused substitute.


title: Nikola Kalinić

text: In 2015, Kalinić returned to the international level. At Euro 2016, he scored a goal and assisted in a 2–1 victory in a group stage match against defending champions Spain.


title: Nikola Kalinić

text: On 4 June 2018, Kalinić was named in Croatia's 23-man squad for the 2018 FIFA World Cup in Russia. On the fifth day of the tournament, he was sent home after refusing to come on as a late substitute during Croatia's first game of the competition against Nigeria, claiming to have a back injury, ending his international career. Kalinić had refused to play for the same reason previously during a friendly match against Brazil as well as during the previous day's training session. Following the conclusion of the tournament, Kalinić was awarded a silver medal for being part of the Croatian team, but refused to accept it.


title: Nikola Kalinić

text: Nicknamed "condor", Kalinić is usually deployed as an out-and-out striker, and is mainly known for his consistent goalscoring ability, courtesy of his composure in front of goal and clinical finishing inside the box. However, he also possesses good technique and link-up play, which along with his size and selfless team-play, enables him to hold up the ball with his back to goal, play off of other players, and create chances for teammates; as such he is capable of playing anywhere along the front line, and has also been used as a second striker on occasion, or as a false 9. His movement off the ball allows him to provide depth to his team, exploit gaps in the opposing defenice, or create space for his teammates with his attacking runs. A tall and physically strong player, with good elevation, he is also known for his ability in the air, which makes him a threat on set pieces. Although he is not gifted with significant pace, he is also a mobile player, who is known for his defensive work-rate off the ball when possession is lost, as well as his willingness to track back and press opponents.


title: 1984 European Cup Final

text: The 1984 European Cup Final was an association football match between Liverpool of England and Roma of Italy on 30 May 1984 at the Stadio Olimpico, Rome, Italy. It was the final match of the 1983–84 season of Europe's premier cup competition, the European Cup. Liverpool were appearing in their fourth final, having won the competition in 1977, 1978 and 1981. Roma were appearing in their first European Cup final.


title: 1984 European Cup Final

text: Each club needed to progress through four rounds to reach the final. Matches were contested over two legs, with a match at each team's home ground. Liverpool's matches/ties ranged from close affairs to comfortable victories. They beat Athletic Bilbao by a single goal in the second round, while they beat Benfica 5–1 on aggregate in the quarter-finals. Roma's matches were all close affairs, winning their ties up to the semi-final by two goal margins. They beat Dundee United 3–2 on aggregate in the semi-finals, although it was later revealed that Roma had bribed the referee in the second leg of the semi-final.


title: 1984 European Cup Final

text: As the final was held at Roma's home ground they went into the match as favourites, despite Liverpool's previous record in the competition. Watched by a crowd of 69,693, Liverpool took the lead in the first half when Phil Neal scored, but Roma equalised before half-time through Roberto Pruzzo. With the scores level at 1–1 through full-time and extra-time, the match went to a penalty shoot-out. Liverpool won the shoot-out 4–2 to claim their fourth European Cup.


title: 1984 European Cup Final

text: Liverpool gained entry to the competition by winning the 1982–83 Football League First Division, entering as English champions. Their opponents in the first round were Danish champions Odense Boldklub. The first leg in Denmark at the Odense Stadium was won 1–0 by Liverpool. A 5–0 victory in the second leg at their home ground Anfield ensured they won the tie 6–0 on aggregate.


title: 1984 European Cup Final

text: In the second round, Liverpool were drawn against Spanish champions Athletic Bilbao. The first leg in England ended 0–0, but Liverpool won the second leg at the San Mamés Stadium 1–0 courtesy of an Ian Rush goal to win the tie 1–0 on aggregate. Liverpool's opponents in the quarter-finals were Portuguese champions Benfica. Liverpool won the first leg in England 1–0 after another Rush goal. The second leg at the Estádio da Luz in Portugal resulted in a comprehensive 4–1 victory for Liverpool. Thus, they won the tie 5–1 on aggregate.


title: 1984 European Cup Final

text: In the semi-final, Liverpool's opponents were Romanian champions Dinamo București. An ill-tempered first leg, which saw Liverpool captain Graeme Souness break the jaw of Dinamo midfielder Lică Movilă, was won 1–0 by Liverpool. The second leg at the Stadionul 23 August was won 2–1 by Liverpool after two goals from Rush. Liverpool won the tie 3–1 on aggregate to progress to their fourth European Cup final.


title: 1984 European Cup Final

text: Roma qualified for the competition by winning the 1982–83 Serie A becoming Italian champions. Swedish champions IFK Göteborg were their opposition in the first round. Roma won the first leg 3–0 at their home ground Stadio Olimpico after three second half goals from Francesco Vincenzi, Bruno Conti and Toninho Cerezo. Despite losing the second leg 2–1 in Sweden, Roma progressed to the second round, winning the tie 4–2 on aggregate.


title: 1984 European Cup Final

text: Their opposition in the second round were Bulgarian champions CSKA Sofia. Roma won the first leg in Bulgaria 1–0 and another 1–0 victory in the second leg in Italy meant Roma won the tie 2–0 on aggregate. Dynamo Berlin, the East German champions were the opposition in the quarter-finals. Roma won the first leg 3–0, after goals from Francesco Graziani, Pruzzo and Cerezo. They were beaten 2–1 in the second leg at Berlin's home ground the Sportforum Hohenschönhausen, but won the tie 4–2 on aggregate.


title: 1984 European Cup Final

text: The opposition in the semi-finals were Scottish champions Dundee United. The first leg was held at Dundee United's home ground, Tannadice Park. Dundee United won the match 2–0, meaning that Roma had to win by three clear goals to progress to the final. Roma did indeed score three goals to win the tie 3–0 and progress to the final, by virtue of a 3–2 aggregate victory. In 1986, Roma president Dino Viola was banned by UEFA for attempting to bribe referee Michel Vautrot with £50,000 before the match.


title: 1984 European Cup Final

text: Liverpool were appearing in their fourth European Cup final. They had won their three previous appearances in 1977, 1978 and 1981. Roma were appearing in their first European Cup final. Their only success in European competition was in the Inter-Cities Fairs Cup, which they won in 1961.


title: 1984 European Cup Final

text: Liverpool had finished the 1983–84 Football League First Division as champions. They had also won the 1983–84 Football League Cup beating Everton 1–0 in a replay after the final finished 0–0. Their success meant that Liverpool entered the match with the chance of winning an unprecedented treble. Roma had finished second during the 1983–84 Serie A and won the 1983–84 Coppa Italia, they had qualified for the European Cup Winners' Cup as a result, but victory would enable them to compete in the European Cup the following season.


title: 1984 European Cup Final

text: The final was held at the Stadio Olimpico in Rome, which was Roma's home ground. UEFA decided that the match would still be played at the stadium, despite it being Roma's home ground. Therefore, the match was effectively a home match for them. The stadium was significant for Liverpool as well, as their victory in 1977 came at the ground. With home advantage Roma went into the match as favourites, and were 13–8 with bookmakers to win the match.


title: 1984 European Cup Final

text: The opening passages of the match were tentative. Faced with a hostile atmosphere, Liverpool were content to sit back and frustrate Roma. Despite this tactic, Liverpool took the lead in the 15th minute. Souness and Sammy Lee exchanged passes before passing to Craig Johnston on the right-hand side of the pitch. Johnston played a high cross into the Roma penalty area, which was challenged for by Roma goalkeeper Franco Tancredi and Ronnie Whelan. The result was that Tancredi dropped the ball, Roma defenders tried to clear the ball, but Michele Nappi's attempted clearance bounced off Tancredi's back and fell to Liverpool defender Phil Neal who scored to give Liverpool a 1–0 lead. Two minutes later, Souness volleyed the ball into the Roma goal from close range, but his goal was disallowed for offside.


title: 1984 European Cup Final

text: Roma had a chance to equalise in the 27th minute, but Liverpool goalkeeper Bruce Grobbelaar saved Conti's low shot. Neal was shown a yellow card in the 32nd minute for bringing down Conti, and a few minutes later Liverpool had an opportunity to extend their lead. Liverpool striker Rush charged down Dario Bonetti's clearance and ran onto the ball, but his shot was saved by Tancredi. With minutes remaining until half-time, Roma equalised. Sebastiano Nela passed to Conti, who ran down the left-hand side of the pitch. His first attempt at crossing the ball into the penalty area was blocked by a combination of Neal and Mark Lawrenson, but his cross rebounded back to him. His second attempt found Roberto Pruzzo in the penalty area, whose glancing header went into the Liverpool goal to level the scores at 1–1.


title: 1984 European Cup Final

text: Roma came out for the second half buoyed by their equaliser and they started the half the better of the two sides. Despite this, they were unable to break down the Liverpool defence, with Lawrenson in particular performing well. Roma began to control the midfield with the Brazilian duo Falcão and Toninho Cerezo combining to combat Souness in the Liverpool midfield. Roma's best chance of this period was a shot from Falcão which Grobbelaar saved. Roma began to lose control of the period, with both sides abandoning their initial game plans for fearing of conceding a goal. Liverpool substituted striker Johnston with defender Steve Nicol in the 72nd minute. The best chance of the half came in the 85th minute; Kenny Dalglish found Nicol in the Roma penalty area, but his shot was saved by Tancredi. The scores stayed level throughout the remainder of the half, which meant that the match would go into extra-time.


title: 1984 European Cup Final

text: Extra time provided little action; the only player that looked like changing the scoreline was Conti, whose runs at Neal caused the Liverpool defender problems. Despite this, the score remained the same through the 30 minutes of extra time and the match went to a penalty-shoot-out. Liverpool were the first to take a penalty, but Nicol put his shot over the crossbar. Graziani stepped up to take Roma's first penalty, but Roma captain Agostino Di Bartolomei took the ball from him and took the penalty instead, scoring to give Roma the lead. Liverpool's next penalty was taken by their regular penalty taker Neal who scored to level the shoot-out. Conti took the next penalty for Roma, but like Nicol he put his shot over the crossbar. Souness and Ubaldo Righetti converted their respective penalties to make the scoreline 2–2. Rush scored Liverpool's next penalty to make the score 3–2. Graziani stepped up again to take Roma's fourth penalty. While he was placing the ball on the penalty spot, Liverpool goalkeeper Grobbelaar was wobbling his legs in the Liverpool goal, hoping to distract Graziani. The tactic appeared to have worked as Graziani placed his penalty over the crossbar. Alan Kennedy was the next player to take a penalty and if he scored Liverpool would win the match. Kennedy scored the penalty sending Tancredi the wrong way. Liverpool won the shoot-out 4–2, thereby winning their fourth European Cup.


title: Hockey puck

text: A hockey puck is either an open or closed disk used in a variety of sports and games. There are designs made for use on an ice surface, such as in ice hockey, and others for the different variants of floor hockey which includes the wheeled skate variant of inline hockey ( roller hockey). They are all designed to serve the same function a ball does in ball games.


title: Hockey puck

text: A closed disk hockey puck having the shape of a short cylinder made of vulcanized rubber is used in the sport of ice hockey. The closed disk has also been referred to as a "flat ball." Hockey pucks are designed for use on either an ice surface, dry floor, or underwater, though open disk designs have only been used on floors.


title: Hockey puck

text: Open disk hockey pucks have a hole, forming the shape of a toroid, for use in a particular style of floor hockey. They should not be confused with ringette rings, which are toruses, for use in the sport of ringette.


title: Hockey puck

text: The origin of the word "puck" is obscure. The Oxford English Dictionary suggests the name is related to the verb "to puck" (a cognate of "poke") used in the games of shinty and hurling for striking or pushing the ball, from the Scottish Gaelic "puc" or the Irish "poc", meaning "to poke, punch or deliver a blow":


title: Hockey puck

text: It is possible that settlers of Nova Scotia, many of whom were Scottish and Irish who played shinty and hurling, may have introduced the word to Canada. This is supported by the prevalent use in Canada of the word "shinny" for an informal or "pick-up" game of hockey, which is also derived from the Scottish game of shinty. The first known printed reference was in Montreal, in 1876 ("Montreal Gazette" of February 7, 1876), just a year after the first indoor game was played there.


title: Hockey puck

text: A hockey puck is also referred to colloquially as a "biscuit". To put the "biscuit in the basket" (colloquial for the goal) is to score a goal.


title: Hockey puck

text: Ice hockey requires a hard disk of vulcanized rubber. A standard ice hockey puck is black, thick, in diameter, and weighs between ; some pucks are heavier or lighter than standard "(see below)". Pucks are often marked with silkscreened team or league logos on one or both faces. Pucks are frozen before the game to reduce bouncing during play.


title: Hockey puck

text: The first hockey pucks were made from frozen cow dung and leather liver pads. These early pucks had a lifespan of about one game before they were too soft or too hard for playability, so they were replaced with wooden ones.


title: Hockey puck

text: The sport of bandy, prior to its first official organization in Britain, had its informal variants spread to North America where they and game concepts from lacrosse, shinty and hurling served as precursors in some format to ice hockey. These informal games utilized various types of balls while being played on ice until the latter half of 19th century Canada, after which the game of ice hockey and the ice hockey puck began to take their official shape and form.


title: Hockey puck

text: By the 1870s, flat pucks were made of wood as well as rubber. At first, pucks were made in the shape of a square. Records from the first indoor ice hockey game used a wooden puck, to prevent it from leaving the area of play though new evidence has shown that cuts from large corks have also been used.


title: Hockey puck

text: Rubber pucks were first made by slicing a rubber ball, then trimming the disk square. The Victoria Hockey Club of Montreal is credited with making and using the first round pucks, in the 1880s.


title: Hockey puck

text: There are several variations on the standard black, hockey puck. One of the most common is a blue, puck that is used for training younger players who are not yet able to use a standard puck. Heavier training pucks, typically reddish pink or reddish orange in colour, are also available for players looking to develop the strength of their shots or improve their stick handling skills. Players looking to increase wrist strength often practice with steel pucks that weigh ; these pucks are not used for shooting, as they could seriously harm other players. White pucks are used for goaltender practice. These are regulation size and weight, but made from white rubber. A hollow, light-weight fluorescent orange puck is available for road or floor hockey. Other variants, some with plastic ball-bearings or glides, are available for use for road or roller hockey.


title: Hockey puck

text: Two major developments have been devised to create better puck visibility on television broadcasts, but both were short-lived:


title: Hockey puck

text: The use of a "Firepuck" in the early 1990s was the first attempt to improve the visibility of hockey pucks as seen on television. This invention incorporated coloured retro reflective materials of either embedded lens elements or prismatic reflectors laminated into recesses on the flat surfaces and the vertical edge of a standard hockey puck. Yellow was the preferred reflected colour. A spotlight was required to be positioned on the TV camera and focused at the centre of the viewing area.


title: Hockey puck

text: A short demonstration tape of the Minnesota North Stars skating with the Firepuck was shown during the period break at the 1993 NHL All-Star Game in Montreal. The International Hockey League (IHL) pursued testing the Firepuck with its inventor, Donald Klassen. The next television viewing was the IHL All-Star Game in Fort Wayne, Indiana, January 1994, where the Firepuck was used for the entire game. The IHL tested the Firepuck in two more games, and finally the East Coast Hockey League used it January 17, 1997, for their all-star game.


title: Hockey puck

text: The FoxTrax "smart puck" was developed by the Fox television network when it held National Hockey League (NHL) broadcasting rights for the United States. The puck had integrated electronics to track its position on screen; a blue streak traced the path of the puck across the ice. The streak would turn red if the puck was shot especially hard. This was an experiment in broadcasting intended to help viewers unfamiliar with hockey to better follow the game by making the puck more visible. It was ill-received by many traditional hockey fans, but appreciated by many of the more casual viewers. The system debuted with much publicity in the NHL All-Star game at the Boston Fleet Center on January 20, 1996, but the system was shelved when Fox Sports lost the NHL broadcast rights three years later.


title: Hockey puck

text: During a game, pucks can reach speeds of or more when struck. Zdeno Chára, whose slapshot clocked in the 2013 NHL All-Star Game SuperSkills competition, broke his own earlier record. The current world record is held by Denis Kulyash of KHL's Avangard Omsk, who slapped a puck at the 2011 KHL All-Star Game skills competition in Riga, Latvia with a speed of .


title: Hockey puck

text: Fast-flying pucks are potentially dangerous to players and spectators. Puck-related injuries at hockey games are not uncommon. This led to the evolution of various types of protective gear for players, most notably the goaltender mask. The most notable incident involving a spectator took place on March 18, 2002, when a 13-year-old girl, Brittanie Cecil, died two days after being struck on the head by a hockey puck deflected into the crowd at a NHL game between the Calgary Flames and Columbus Blue Jackets in Columbus. This is the only known incident of this type to have occurred in the history of the league. Partly as a result of this event, the glass or plexiglass panels that sit atop the boards of hockey rinks to protect spectators have been supplemented with mesh nets that extend above the upper edge of the glass.


title: Hockey puck

text: NHL regulation pucks were not "required" for professional play until the 1990–91 season, but were standardized for consistent play and ease of manufacture half a century earlier, by Art Ross, in 1940. Major manufacturers of pucks exist in Canada, Russia, the Czech Republic, the People's Republic of China, and Slovakia.


title: Hockey puck

text: The black rubber of the puck is made up of a mix of natural rubber, antioxidants, bonding materials and other chemicals to achieve a balance of hardness and resilience. This mixture is then turned in a machine with metal rollers, where workers add extra natural rubber, and ensure that the mixing is even. Samples are then put into a machine that analyses if the rubber will harden at the right temperature. An automated apparatus, called a pultrusion machine, extrudes the rubber into long circular logs that are in diameter and then cut into thick pieces while still soft. These pre-forms are then manually put into moulds that are the exact size of a finished puck. There are up to 200 mould cavities per moulding palette, capable of producing up to 5,000 pucks per week. The moulds are then compressed. This compression may be done cold or with the moulds heated to for 18 minutes, depending on the proprietary methods of the manufacturer. They come out hard and then are allowed to sit for 24 hours. Each puck is manually cleaned with a trimmer machine to remove excess rubber. The moulding process adds a diamond cross-hatch texture around the edge of the puck for more friction between the stick and puck for better control and puck handling.


title: Hockey puck

text: The practice pucks are made by a similar but faster process that uses larger pre-forms, thick, puts them into moulds automatically, and applies more pressure and heat over a shorter period of time to compress the puck into the standard size. This allows approximately twice as many pucks to be manufactured in the same time period as the more exacting production of NHL regulation pucks. People sometimes freeze pucks to prevent them from sticking to the ice.


title: Hockey puck

text: Roller hockey pucks, in-line hockey pucks, are similar to ice-hockey pucks but are made from plastic and thus lighter. They have small ribs protruding from their tops and bottoms which limit contact with the surface, allowing better sliding motion and less friction. These pucks are mostly commonly red in color but can be found in almost any color, though light, visible colours such as red, orange, yellow, pink, and green, are typical. Roller hockey pucks were created so inline hockey and street hockey players could play with a puck instead of a ball on surfaces such as hardwood, concrete, and asphalt.


title: Hockey puck

text: Originally known as "squid" in the United Kingdom and now more commonly known as "Octopush", underwater hockey uses a type of puck that while similar in appearance to an ice hockey puck, differs in that it has a lead core weighing approximately within a teflon, plastic or rubber coating. This makes the puck dense enough to sink in a swimming pool, though it can be lofted during passes, while affording some protection to the pool tiles.


title: Hockey puck

text: A smaller and lighter version of the standard puck exists for junior competition and is approximately 1 lb 12 oz (0.80–0.85 kg) and of similar construction to the standard puck.


title: Hockey puck

text: While there are numerous regional variations in colour, construction and materials all must conform to international regulations stipulating overall dimensions and weight. The regulations state that pucks should be a bright distinctive colour, for example high-visibility pink or orange, and that for World Championships these are the only acceptable colours.


title: Hockey puck

text: Spongee "sponge hockey", is an organized recreational cult game that emerged in Canada around the 1950s and is played in the Canadian city of Winnipeg. It gets its name from the puck that is used: instead of the hard vulcanized rubber puck used in regular ice hockey, a softer sponge puck is used. At on point some locals referred to it as "Tweeter" based on the sound the original pucks made. The game is a variant of ice hockey and was influenced by Canadian road hockey players and ice hockey players playing shinny on outdoor rinks in running shoes and winter boots. The game is played in winter strictly on outdoor rinks (no matter how cold), does not use ice skates, and has codes involving less contact. Broomball shoes are sometimes used.


title: Hockey puck

text: The spongee puck originated when someone took a toy red, white and blue handball and cut out the center, leaving a rude approximation of a standard hockey puck. Eventually manufactured types of sponge pucks came into use, some of which were developed in Slovakia and had a spring core. Spongee pucks are softer than ice hockey pucks and have more bounce.


title: Hockey puck

text: The term "puck" is sometimes also applied to similar (though often smaller) gaming discs in other sports and games, including novuss, shuffleboard, table shuffleboard, box hockey floor hockey and air hockey.


title: Hockey puck

text: Ice hockey pucks of regulation diameter and thickness may be used as mechanical vibration dampening isolators in places such as feet for light industrial air compressors, and air conditioning units because they are of regulation materials and therefore consistent manufacture, size and shape, and are constructed of a repeatable and consistent vulcanized rubber material.


title: Hockey puck

text: Since the material is rubber, it may be drilled out or milled easily to a fixed depth as rubber feet or used as rubber spacer or gasket material.


title: Hockey puck

text: A very common use of a slotted hockey puck is as an adaptor between the metal foot of a trolley jack and the sill (rocker panel) of an automobile. The sill has a spot-welded lip which fits into the slot of the puck and would otherwise be bent or marked by the metal foot.


title: Hockey puck

text: In November 2018, faculty of Oakland University in Michigan received hockey pucks and training to throw them as a possible last-ditch defense against active shooters. The American Association of University Professors distributed pucks to its 800 members, and is working with student groups to distribute an additional 1,700 pucks to students.


title: Discman

text: Discman was Sony's brand name for portable CD players. The first Discman, the Sony D-50 or D-5 (depending on region), was launched in 1984. The brand name changed to CD Walkman, initially for Japanese lineups launched between October 1997 and March 1998, and then entirely in 2000. Discman and CD Walkman players are no longer produced.


title: Discman

text: Prior to the development of the Compact Disc, cassette tapes were the dominant form of audio storage in the then-fledgling portable audio industry. In 1979 Sony introduced the Walkman in Japan. When Sony realized the potential of the CD, the Walkman was promoted to mainstream buyers.


title: Discman

text: Sony improved the design of the CDP-101 CD player which was launched in 1982, reducing the power consumption and the number of parts needed and making it smaller. The cost was reduced to between 50,000 and 60,000 yen, in what was called the "CD CD Project", which stood for 'Compact Disc Cost Down' Project. By August 1983 the company was able to produce a CD player which was one-tenth the size of the original, and a portable CD player became a possibility. The aim was to create a player that was the same size as four CD cases stacked on top of each other. A piece of wood 13.4 cm across and about 4 cm thick was shown to the staff to illustrate the dimensions.


title: Discman

text: The final design did not incorporate a power source and had a 9-volt (positive outer) coaxial jack on the rear. This allowed the use of an EBP-9LC wall adapter, a carrying sleeve which held six primary C cells, or rechargeable cells which could be charged in situ. The AC-D50 AC adapter was also available, which attached to the rear of the D-50/D-5 and allowed it to be powered from AC input at 110, 120, 220, or 240 V, 50 or 60 Hz, 9 W with a DC output of up to 500 mA. The AC-D50 also offered line level audio out, presented as two RCA jacks.


title: Discman

text: The D-50/D-5 was launched in November 1984, two years after mass production of CDs began. The unit offered the same functions as the full-size CDP-101 player, but came without a remote control and the repeat function of the full-size unit. The D-50/D-5 retailed for 49,800 yen (US$350 in 1984), approximately half the price of the CDP-101. The D-50/D-5 sparked public interest in CDs, boosting their popularity, and within a year and a half had become profitable.


title: Discman

text: Early production units of the D-50/D-5 did not carry the Discman brand and were instead referred to as "CD Compact Player". The Discman brand was applied later because of the unit's portability and similarity to the cassette Walkman. This brand name was used for Sony's portable CD players until 2000.


title: Discman

text: The release of the D-50/D-5 sparked public interest in CDs as an audio format, and in the audio industry in general. A portable CD market was created and the price of competing CD players from other manufacturers dropped. The CD industry experienced sudden growth, with the number of CD titles available dramatically increasing.


title: Discman

text: The ATRAC CD Walkman played ATRAC CDs in addition to audio CDs. The ATRAC CD contained audio encoded in ATRAC3 or ATRAC3plus. Most if not all models also played MP3s. The D-NE1 from 2003 was one of the earliest models.


title: Discman

text: Video CD Discman, later rebranded as VCD Walkman, was a line of portable Video CD players. They were able to output the audio from video CDs as usual, but were also equipped with an additional 3.5mm audio/video-to-RCA connector output.


title: Blue Ensign

text: The Blue Ensign is a flag, one of several British ensigns, used by certain organisations or territories associated or formerly associated with the United Kingdom. It is used either plain or defaced with a badge or other emblem.


title: Blue Ensign

text: The evolution of the Blue Ensign followed that of the Union Jack. The ensign originated in the 17th century with the St George's cross (the Flag of England) in the canton, and with a blue field.


title: Blue Ensign

text: The Acts of Union 1707 united England and Wales with Scotland in the Kingdom of Great Britain, thus producing a new Blue Ensign with the new Union Flag in the canton. With the Act of Union 1800, Ireland became a part of the new United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, and St Patrick's Cross was incorporated into the Union Flag and, accordingly, into the cantons of all British ensigns from 1 January 1801.