title: Science in the medieval Islamic world

text: During the Middle Ages, Islamic science flourished across a wide area around the Mediterranean Sea and further afield, for several centuries, in a wide range of institutions.


title: Science in the medieval Islamic world

text: The Islamic era began in 622. Islamic armies eventually conquered Arabia, Egypt and Mesopotamia, and successfully displaced the Persian and Byzantine Empires from the region within a few decades. Within a century, Islam had reached the area of present-day Portugal in the west and Central Asia in the east. The Islamic Golden Age (roughly between 786 and 1258) spanned the period of the Abbasid Caliphate (750–1258), with stable political structures and flourishing trade. Major religious and cultural works of the Islamic empire were translated into Arabic and occasionally Persian. Islamic culture inherited Greek, Indic, Assyrian and Persian influences. A new common civilisation formed, based on Islam. An era of high culture and innovation ensued, with rapid growth in population and cities. The Arab Agricultural Revolution in the countryside brought more crops and improved agricultural technology, especially irrigation. This supported the larger population and enabled culture to flourish. From the 9th century onwards, scholars such as Al-Kindi translated Indian, Assyrian, Sasanian (Persian) and Greek knowledge, including the works of Aristotle, into Arabic. These translations supported advances by scientists across the Islamic world.


title: Science in the medieval Islamic world

text: Islamic science survived the initial Christian reconquest of Spain, including the fall of Seville in 1248, as work continued in the eastern centres (such as in Persia). After the completion of the Spanish reconquest in 1492, the Islamic world went into an economic and cultural decline. The Abbasid caliphate was followed by the Ottoman Empire ( 1299–1922), centred in Turkey, and the Safavid Empire (1501–1736), centred in Persia, where work in the arts and sciences continued.


title: Science in the medieval Islamic world

text: Medieval Islamic scientific achievements encompassed a wide range of subject areas, especially mathematics, astronomy, and medicine. Other subjects of scientific inquiry included physics, alchemy and chemistry, ophthalmology, and geography and cartography.


title: Science in the medieval Islamic world

text: The early Islamic period saw the establishment of theoretical frameworks in alchemy and chemistry. The sulfur-mercury theory of metals, first found in pseudo-Apollonius of Tyana's "Sirr al-khalīqa" ("The Secret of Creation", c. 750–850) and in the writings attributed to Jabir ibn Hayyan (written c. 850–950), remained the basis of theories of metallic composition until the 18th century. The "Emerald Tablet", a cryptic text that all later alchemists up to and including Isaac Newton saw as the foundation of their art, first occurs in the "Sirr al-khalīqa" and in one of the works attributed to Jabir. In practical chemistry, the works of Jabir, and those of the Persian alchemist and physician Abu Bakr al-Razi (c. 865–925), contain the earliest systematic classifications of chemical substances. Alchemists were also interested in artificially creating such substances. Jabir describes the synthesis of ammonium chloride (sal ammoniac) from organic substances, and Abu Bakr al-Razi experimented with the heating of ammonium chloride, vitriol, and other salts, which would eventually lead to the discovery of the mineral acids by 13th-century Latin alchemists such as pseudo-Geber.


title: Science in the medieval Islamic world

text: Astronomy became a major discipline within Islamic science. Astronomers devoted effort both towards understanding the nature of the cosmos and to practical purposes. One application involved determining the "Qibla", the direction to face during prayer. Another was astrology, predicting events affecting human life and selecting suitable times for actions such as going to war or founding a city. Al-Battani (850–922) accurately determined the length of the solar year. He contributed to the Tables of Toledo, used by astronomers to predict the movements of the sun, moon and planets across the sky. Copernicus (1473-1543) later used some of Al-Battani's astronomic tables.


title: Science in the medieval Islamic world

text: Al-Zarqali (1028–1087) developed a more accurate astrolabe, used for centuries afterwards. He constructed a water clock in Toledo, discovered that the Sun's apogee moves slowly relative to the fixed stars, and obtained a good estimate of its motion for its rate of change. Nasir al-Din al-Tusi (1201–1274) wrote an important revision to Ptolemy's 2nd-century celestial model. When Tusi became Helagu's astrologer, he was given an observatory and gained access to Chinese techniques and observations. He developed trigonometry as a separate field, and compiled the most accurate astronomical tables available up to that time.


title: Science in the medieval Islamic world

text: The study of the natural world extended to a detailed examination of plants. The work done proved directly useful in the unprecedented growth of pharmacology across the Islamic world. Al-Dinawari (815–896) popularised botany in the Islamic world with his six-volume "Kitab al-Nabat" ("Book of Plants"). Only volumes 3 and 5 have survived, with part of volume 6 reconstructed from quoted passages. The surviving text describes 637 plants in alphabetical order from the letters "sin" to "ya", so the whole book must have covered several thousand kinds of plants. Al-Dinawari described the phases of plant growth and the production of flowers and fruit. The thirteenth century encyclopedia compiled by Zakariya al-Qazwini (1203–1283) – "ʿAjā'ib al-makhlūqāt" (The Wonders of Creation) – contained, among many other topics, both realistic botany and fantastic accounts. For example, he described trees which grew birds on their twigs in place of leaves, but which could only be found in the far-distant British Isles. The use and cultivation of plants was documented in the 11th century by Muhammad bin Ibrāhīm Ibn Bassāl of Toledo in his book "Dīwān al-filāha" (The Court of Agriculture), and by Ibn al-'Awwam al-Ishbīlī (also called Abū l-Khayr al-Ishbīlī) of Seville in his 12th century book "Kitāb al-Filāha" (Treatise on Agriculture). Ibn Bassāl had travelled widely across the Islamic world, returning with a detailed knowledge of agronomy that fed into the Arab Agricultural Revolution. His practical and systematic book describes over 180 plants and how to propagate and care for them. It covered leaf- and root-vegetables, herbs, spices and trees.


title: Science in the medieval Islamic world

text: The spread of Islam across Western Asia and North Africa encouraged an unprecedented growth in trade and travel by land and sea as far away as Southeast Asia, China, much of Africa, Scandinavia and even Iceland. Geographers worked to compile increasingly accurate maps of the known world, starting from many existing but fragmentary sources. Abu Zayd al-Balkhi (850–934), founder of the Balkhī school of cartography in Baghdad, wrote an atlas called "Figures of the Regions" (Suwar al-aqalim).


title: Science in the medieval Islamic world

text: Al-Biruni (973–1048) measured the radius of the earth using a new method. It involved observing the height of a mountain at Nandana (now in Pakistan). Al-Idrisi (1100–1166) drew a map of the world for Roger, the Norman King of Sicily (ruled 1105-1154). He also wrote the "Tabula Rogeriana" (Book of Roger), a geographic study of the peoples, climates, resources and industries of the whole of the world known at that time. The Ottoman admiral Piri Reis ( 1470–1553) made a map of the New World and West Africa in 1513. He made use of maps from Greece, Portugal, Muslim sources, and perhaps one made by Christopher Columbus. He represented a part of a major tradition of Ottoman cartography.


title: Science in the medieval Islamic world

text: Islamic mathematicians gathered, organised and clarified the mathematics they inherited from ancient Egypt, Greece, India, Mesopotamia and Persia, and went on to make innovations of their own. Islamic mathematics covered algebra, geometry and arithmetic. Algebra was mainly used for recreation: it had few practical applications at that time. Geometry was studied at different levels. Some texts contain practical geometrical rules for surveying and for measuring figures. Theoretical geometry was a necessary prerequisite for understanding astronomy and optics, and it required years of concentrated work. Early in the Abbasid caliphate (founded 750), soon after the foundation of Baghdad in 762, some mathematical knowledge was assimilated by al-Mansur's group of scientists from the pre-Islamic Persian tradition in astronomy. Astronomers from India were invited to the court of the caliph in the late eighth century; they explained the rudimentary trigonometrical techniques used in Indian astronomy. Ancient Greek works such as Ptolemy's "Almagest" and Euclid's "Elements" were translated into Arabic. By the second half of the ninth century, Islamic mathematicians were already making contributions to the most sophisticated parts of Greek geometry. Islamic mathematics reached its apogee in the Eastern part of the Islamic world between the tenth and twelfth centuries. Most medieval Islamic mathematicians wrote in Arabic, others in Persian.


title: Science in the medieval Islamic world

text: Al-Khwarizmi (8th–9th centuries) was instrumental in the adoption of the Hindu–Arabic numeral system and the development of algebra, introduced methods of simplifying equations, and used Euclidean geometry in his proofs. He was the first to treat algebra as an independent discipline in its own right, and presented the first systematic solution of linear and quadratic equations.


title: Science in the medieval Islamic world

text: Ibn Ishaq al-Kindi (801–873) worked on cryptography for the Abbasid Caliphate, and gave the first known recorded explanation of cryptanalysis and the first description of the method of frequency analysis.


title: Science in the medieval Islamic world

text: Avicenna ( 980–1037) contributed to mathematical techniques such as casting out nines. Thābit ibn Qurra (835–901) calculated the solution to a chessboard problem involving an exponential series.


title: Science in the medieval Islamic world

text: Al-Farabi ( 870–950) attempted to describe, geometrically, the repeating patterns popular in Islamic decorative motifs in his book "Spiritual Crafts and Natural Secrets in the Details of Geometrical Figures". Omar Khayyam (1048–1131), known in the West as a poet, calculated the length of the year to within 5 decimal places, and found geometric solutions to all 13 forms of cubic equations, developing some quadratic equations still in use. Jamshīd al-Kāshī ( 1380–1429) is credited with several theorems of trigonometry, including the law of cosines, also known as Al-Kashi's Theorem. He has been credited with the invention of decimal fractions, and with a method like Horner's to calculate roots. He calculated π correctly to 17 significant figures.


title: Science in the medieval Islamic world

text: Sometime around the seventh century, Islamic scholars adopted the Hindu–Arabic numeral system, describing their use in a standard type of text "fī l-ḥisāb al hindī", (On the numbers of the Indians). A distinctive Western Arabic variant of the Eastern Arabic numerals began to emerge around the 10th century in the Maghreb and Al-Andalus (sometimes called "ghubar" numerals, though the term is not always accepted), which are the direct ancestor of the modern Arabic numerals used throughout the world.


title: Science in the medieval Islamic world

text: Islamic society paid careful attention to medicine, following a "hadith" enjoining the preservation of good health. Its physicians inherited knowledge and traditional medical beliefs from the civilisations of classical Greece, Rome, Syria, Persia and India. These included the writings of Hippocrates such as on the theory of the four humours, and the theories of Galen. al-Razi ( 865–925) identified smallpox and measles, and recognized fever as a part of the body's defenses. He wrote a 23-volume compendium of Chinese, Indian, Persian, Syriac and Greek medicine. al-Razi questioned the classical Greek medical theory of how the four humours regulate life processes. He challenged Galen's work on several fronts, including the treatment of bloodletting, arguing that it was effective.


title: Science in the medieval Islamic world

text: al-Zahrawi (936–1013) was a surgeon whose most important surviving work is referred to as "al-Tasrif" (Medical Knowledge). It is a 30-volume set mainly discussing medical symptoms, treatments, and pharmacology. The last volume, on surgery, describes surgical instruments, supplies, and pioneering procedures. Avicenna ( 980–1037) wrote the major medical textbook, "The Canon of Medicine". Ibn al-Nafis (1213–1288) wrote an influential book on medicine; it largely replaced Avicenna's "Canon" in the Islamic world. He wrote commentaries on Galen and on Avicenna's works. One of these commentaries, discovered in 1924, described the circulation of blood through the lungs.


title: Science in the medieval Islamic world

text: Optics developed rapidly in this period. By the ninth century, there were works on physiological, geometrical and physical optics. Topics covered included mirror reflection.


title: Science in the medieval Islamic world

text: Hunayn ibn Ishaq (809–873) wrote the book "Ten Treatises on the Eye"; this remained influential in the West until the 17th century.


title: Science in the medieval Islamic world

text: Ibn Sahl ( 940–1000) discovered the law of refraction known as Snell's law. He used the law to produce the first Aspheric lenses that focused light without geometric aberrations.


title: Science in the medieval Islamic world

text: In the eleventh century Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen, 965–1040) rejected the Greek ideas about vision, whether the Aristotelian tradition that held that the form of the perceived object entered the eye (but not its matter), or that of Euclid and Ptolemy which held that the eye emitted a ray. Al-Haytham proposed in his "Book of Optics" that vision occurs by way of light rays forming a cone with its vertex at the center of the eye. He suggested that light was reflected from different surfaces in different directions, thus causing objects to look different. He argued further that the mathematics of reflection and refraction needed to be consistent with the anatomy of the eye. He was also an early proponent of the scientific method, the concept that a hypothesis must be proved by experiments based on confirmable procedures or mathematical evidence, five centuries before Renaissance scientists.


title: Science in the medieval Islamic world

text: Advances in botany and chemistry in the Islamic world encouraged developments in pharmacology. Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi (Rhazes) (865–915) promoted the medical uses of chemical compounds. Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi (Abulcasis) (936–1013) pioneered the preparation of medicines by sublimation and distillation. His "Liber servitoris" provides instructions for preparing "simples" from which were compounded the complex drugs then used. Sabur Ibn Sahl (died 869) was the first physician to describe a large variety of drugs and remedies for ailments. Al-Muwaffaq, in the 10th century, wrote "The foundations of the true properties of Remedies", describing chemicals such as arsenious oxide and silicic acid. He distinguished between sodium carbonate and potassium carbonate, and drew attention to the poisonous nature of copper compounds, especially copper vitriol, and also of lead compounds. Al-Biruni (973–1050) wrote the "Kitab al-Saydalah" ("The Book of Drugs"), describing in detail the properties of drugs, the role of pharmacy and the duties of the pharmacist. Ibn Sina (Avicenna) described 700 preparations, their properties, their mode of action and their indications. He devoted a whole volume to simples in "The Canon of Medicine". Works by Masawaih al-Mardini ( 925–1015) and by Ibn al-Wafid (1008–1074) were printed in Latin more than fifty times, appearing as "De Medicinis universalibus et particularibus" by Mesue the Younger (died 1015) and as the "Medicamentis simplicibus" by Abenguefit ( 997 – 1074) respectively. Peter of Abano (1250–1316) translated and added a supplement to the work of al-Mardini under the title "De Veneris". Ibn al-Baytar (1197–1248), in his "Al-Jami fi al-Tibb", described a thousand simples and drugs based directly on Mediterranean plants collected along the entire coast between Syria and Spain, for the first time exceeding the coverage provided by Dioscorides in classical times. Islamic physicians such as Ibn Sina described clinical trials for determining the efficacy of medical drugs and substances.


title: Science in the medieval Islamic world

text: The fields of physics studied in this period, apart from optics and astronomy which are described separately, are aspects of mechanics: statics, dynamics, kinematics and motion. In the sixth century John Philoponus ( 490 – 570) rejected the Aristotelian view of motion. He argued instead that an object acquires an inclination to move when it has a motive power impressed on it. In the eleventh century Ibn Sina adopted roughly the same idea, namely that a moving object has force which is dissipated by external agents like air resistance. Ibn Sina distinguished between "force" and "inclination" ("mayl"); he claimed that an object gained "mayl" when the object is in opposition to its natural motion. He concluded that continuation of motion depends on the inclination that is transferred to the object, and that the object remains in motion until the "mayl" is spent. He also claimed that a projectile in a vacuum would not stop unless it is acted upon. That view accords with Newton's first law of motion, on inertia. As a non-Aristotelian suggestion, it was essentially abandoned until it was described as "impetus" by Jean Buridan ( 1295–1363), who was influenced by Ibn Sina's "Book of Healing".


title: Science in the medieval Islamic world

text: In the "Shadows", Abū Rayḥān al-Bīrūnī (973–1048) describes non-uniform motion as the result of acceleration. Ibn-Sina's theory of "mayl" tried to relate the velocity and weight of a moving object, a precursor of the concept of momentum. Aristotle's theory of motion stated that a constant force produces a uniform motion; Abu'l-Barakāt al-Baghdādī ( 1080 – 1164/5) disagreed, arguing that velocity and acceleration are two different things, and that force is proportional to acceleration, not to velocity.


title: Science in the medieval Islamic world

text: Ibn Bajjah (Avempace, 1085–1138) proposed that for every force there is a reaction force. While he did not specify that these forces be equal, this was still an early version of Newton's third law of motion.


title: Science in the medieval Islamic world

text: The Banu Musa brothers, Jafar-Muhammad, Ahmad and al-Hasan ( early 9th century) invented automated devices described in their Book of Ingenious Devices. Advances on the subject were also made by al-Jazari and Ibn Ma'ruf.


title: Science in the medieval Islamic world

text: Many classical works, including those of Aristotle, were transmitted from Greek to Syriac, then to Arabic, then to Latin in the Middle Ages. Aristotle's zoology remained dominant in its field for two thousand years. The "Kitāb al-Hayawān" (كتاب الحيوان, English: "Book of Animals") is a 9th-century Arabic translation of "History of Animals": 1–10, "On the Parts of Animals": 11–14, and "Generation of Animals": 15–19.


title: Science in the medieval Islamic world

text: The book was mentioned by Al-Kindī (died 850), and commented on by Avicenna (Ibn Sīnā) in his "The Book of Healing". Avempace (Ibn Bājja) and Averroes (Ibn Rushd) commented on and criticised "On the Parts of Animals" and "Generation of Animals".


title: Science in the medieval Islamic world

text: Muslim scientists helped in laying the foundations for an experimental science with their contributions to the scientific method and their empirical, experimental and quantitative approach to scientific inquiry. In a more general sense, the positive achievement of Islamic science was simply to flourish, for centuries, in a wide range of institutions from observatories to libraries, madrasas to hospitals and courts, both at the height of the Islamic golden age and for some centuries afterwards. It did not lead to a scientific revolution like that in Early modern Europe, but such external comparisons are probably to be rejected as imposing "chronologically and culturally alien standards" on a successful medieval culture.


title: Constitution of Bangladesh

text: The Constitution of Bangladesh ( — ), officially the Constitution of the People's Republic of Bangladesh ( — ) is the supreme law of Bangladesh. The document provides the framework that demarcates the Bangladeshi republic with a unitary, parliamentary democracy, that enshrines fundamental human rights and freedoms, an independent judiciary, democratic local government and a national bureaucracy.


title: Constitution of Bangladesh

text: The four fundamental principles of the Constitution are nationalism, socialism, democracy and secularism. The Constitution endeavors to create a socialist society in which the rule of law, fundamental human rights and freedom, equality and justice, political, economic and social, is secured for all its citizens. It commits Bangladesh to “contribute to international peace and co-operation in keeping with the progressive aspirations of mankind”.


title: Constitution of Bangladesh

text: It invokes constitutional supremacy, as opposed to legislative supremacy since it was created by a constituent assembly not Parliament and was adopted by the people of Bangladesh in its preamble. Parliament cannot quash parts of the Constitution.


title: Constitution of Bangladesh

text: Judicial precedent is enshrined in Bangladesh's Constitution under Article 111, which makes Bangladesh an integral part of the common law world. Judicial review is also supported by the Constitution.


title: Constitution of Bangladesh

text: It was adopted by the Constituent Assembly of Bangladesh on 4 November 1972 and became effective on 16 December 1972. The Constitution replaced the Proclamation of Independence as the country's fundamental instrument of government. The Constitution became effective on Bangladesh's Victory Day, precisely one year after the signing of the Instrument of Surrender.


title: Constitution of Bangladesh

text: The advent of British rule in the 18th century displaced the centuries of governance developed by South Asian empires. The Regulating Act of 1773 passed by the Parliament of the United Kingdom was the first basic law in the Bengal Presidency. The British Empire did not grant universal suffrage and democratic institutions to its colonies. The British slowly granted concessions for home rule. The Government of India Act 1858, Indian Councils Act 1861, Indian Councils Act 1892 and Indian Councils Act 1909 were later important laws of government. The legislatures of British India included the Bengal Legislative Council and the Eastern Bengal and Assam Legislative Council in the early 20th century. The Nehru Report recommended for universal suffrage, a bicameral legislature, a senate and a house of representatives. The Fourteen Points of Jinnah demanded provincial autonomy and quotas for Muslims in government. The Government of India Act 1935 established provincial parliaments based on separate electorates.


title: Constitution of Bangladesh

text: The 1940 Lahore Resolution, supported by the first Prime Minister of Bengal, asked the British government that "the North Western and Eastern Zones of (British) India should be grouped to constitute ‘independent states’". It further proclaimed "that adequate, effective and mandatory safeguards should be specifically provided in the Constitution for minorities in these units and in the regions for the protection of their religious, cultural, economic, political, administrative and other rights". The resolution's status is akin to the magna carta in Pakistan, in terms of the concept of independence. On 20 June 1947, the Bengal Legislative Assembly voted on the partition of Bengal. It was decided by 120 votes to 90 that, if Bengal remained united, it should join the Constituent Assembly of Pakistan. At a separate meeting of legislators from West Bengal, it was decided by 58 votes to 21 that the province should be partitioned and that West Bengal should join the Constituent Assembly of India. At another separate meeting of legislators from East Bengal, it was decided by 106 votes to 35 that Bengal should not be partitioned and 107 votes to 34 that East Bengal should join the Constituent Assembly of Pakistan if Bengal was partitioned. On 6 July 1947, the Sylhet referendum voted to partition Sylhet Division from Assam Province and merge it into East Bengal. On 11 August 1947, Muhammad Ali Jinnah, the president of the Constituent Assembly of Pakistan, declared that religious minorities would enjoy full freedom of religion in the emergent new state.


title: Constitution of Bangladesh

text: Section 8 of the Indian Independence Act 1947 provided that the Government of India Act, 1935 with certain amendments and adaptations would be the working Constitution of the Dominion of Pakistan during the transitional period. The Constituent Assembly of Pakistan included 79 members, of whom 44 were from East Bengal, 22 from West Punjab, 5 from Sind, 3 from the North West Frontier Province, 1 from Baluchistan and 4 from the acceding princely states. The Bengali Language Movement and demands for replacing separate electorates with joint universal suffrage were key issues in East Bengal. The first constituent assembly was arbitrarily dissolved by the Governor General in 1954. This led to the court challenge of "Federation of Pakistan v. Maulvi Tamizuddin Khan", in which the federal court supported the Governor General's decision, although Justice A. R. Cornelius expressed dissent. The dissolution of the assembly was one of the first major blows to democracy in Pakistan.


title: Constitution of Bangladesh

text: The Constitution of Pakistan of 1956 was adopted by a second constituent assembly elected in 1955. It declared two provinces- East Pakistan and West Pakistan; and two federal languages- Urdu and Bengali. The first Pakistani Constitution was in place for only a few years. General Ayub Khan staged a military coup and introduced the Constitution of Pakistan of 1962. The 1962 Constitution introduced a presidential system in which electoral colleges would be responsible for electing the president and governors. The chief ministers' offices were abolished; and parliament and provincial assemblies were delegated to a mainly advisory role. The system was dubbed "Basic Democracy". In 1965, Fatima Jinnah's failed bid for the presidency prompted allegations of a rigged electoral system. The Six Points of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman demanded parliamentary democracy. Rahman's Six Points were part of the manifesto of the Awami League, the party which won first general election in East and West Pakistan in 1970. The Awami League ran on the platform of developing a new Pakistani Constitution based on the Six Points. The League won 167 out 169 East Pakistani seats in the National Assembly of Pakistan and 288 out of 300 seats in the East Pakistan Provincial Assembly. The Pakistani military junta refused to transfer power to Prime Minister-elect Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, and instead executed Operation Searchlight which triggered Bangladesh War of Independence.


title: Constitution of Bangladesh

text: The Provisional Government of Bangladesh issued the Proclamation of Independence on 10 April 1971, which served as the interim first Constitution of Bangladesh. It declared “equality, human dignity and social justice” as the fundamental principles of the republic. East Pakistani members of Pakistan's federal and provincial assemblies were transformed into members of the Constituent Assembly of Bangladesh. The constituent assembly had 404 members. After the war, the Constitution Drafting Committee was formed in 1972. The committee included 34 members with Dr. Kamal Hossain as its chairman.


title: Constitution of Bangladesh

text: The Constitution Bill was introduced in the Assembly on 12 October. Its first reading began on 19 October and continued till 30 October. The second reading took place from 31 October to 3 November. Manabendra Narayan Larma made an impassioned appeal to declare the term of citizenship as “Bangladeshi” instead of “Bengali”. Larma argued that labeling all citizens as Bengali discriminated against non-Bengali communities, including his own Chakma ethnic group.


title: Constitution of Bangladesh

text: The third reading began on 4 November and it approved 65 amendments to the Constitution Bill and adopted and enacted the Constitution on 4 November. The Constitution came into effect on 16 December 1972. A Westminster style political system was established. It declared nationalism, socialism, democracy and secularism as the fundamental principles of the republic. It proclaimed fundamental human rights, including freedom of speech, freedom of religion, freedom of movement, freedom of assembly, the right to education and public healthcare among others. A two thirds vote of parliament was required to amend the Constitution.


title: Constitution of Bangladesh

text: After winning the 1973 general election, the Awami League government often flouted Constitutional rules and principles. The government received strong criticism from the Bangladeshi press, including both Bengali and English newspapers. The Committee for Civil Liberties and Legal Aid was formed to defend the Constitution. The Awami League enacted three Constitutional amendments between 1973 and 1975. The most drastic amendment was in January 1975. It introduced a one party state and a presidential government, while the judiciary's independence was greatly curtailed.


title: Constitution of Bangladesh

text: Constitutional rule was suspended on 15 August 1975 with the assassination of President Sheikh Mujibur Rahman and the declaration of martial law. The Chief Martial Law Administrator issued a series of Proclamation Orders between 1975 and 1979 which amended the Constitution. Lieutenant General Ziaur Rahman is credited for many of these Proclamation Orders. The most significant of these orders was defining citizenship as Bangladeshi; other orders included the insertion of religious references and the controversial Indemnity Ordinance. In 1979, martial law was lifted, multiparty politics was restored and Constitutional rule was revived. The Fifth Amendment in 1979 validated all Proclamation Orders of the martial law authorities. An executive presidency continued until 1982.


title: Constitution of Bangladesh

text: Martial law was again imposed in the 1982 Bangladesh coup d'état. When Constitutional rule was restored in 1986, the Sixth Amendment validated previous Proclamation Orders issued by the Chief Martial Law Administrator. The Eighth Amendment in 1988 declared Islam as the state religion and initiated limited devolution of the judiciary.


title: Constitution of Bangladesh

text: In 1990, a pro-democracy uprising ousted President Ershad. The uprising was followed by parliamentary elections in 1991. The Twelfth Amendment passed by the fifth parliament is the most influential Constitutional amendment in Bangladesh. It re-established parliamentary government. It amended Articles 48, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 70, 72, 109, 119, 124, 141A and 142. The Prime Minister became the executive head of government, and along with the cabinet, was responsible to parliament. Local government was made more democratic. However, the amendment restricted the voting freedom of MPs. According to Article 70, MPs would lose their seat if they voted against their party. This made it impossible for parliament to have a free vote, including no-confidence motions to remove a prime minister. Experts have described the amendment as instituting prime ministerial dictatorship. The Thirteen Amendment in 1996 introduced the Caretaker government of Bangladesh.


title: Constitution of Bangladesh

text: In 2010, the Supreme Court of Bangladesh ruled that the Fifth Amendment of 1979 went against the Constitutional spirit of the country and hence invalidated its removal of clauses related to secularism. The Supreme Court gave the verdict in the case of "Bangladesh Italian Marble Works Ltd. v. Government of Bangladesh". While implementing the supreme court's verdict in the Fifteenth Amendment in 2011, the Awami League-led parliament abolished the caretaker government system, which the party itself had advocated in 1996.


title: Constitution of Bangladesh

text: In 2017, the Supreme Court declared the Sixteenth Amendment Act of 2014 illegal and void. The amendment had introduced the provision of impeaching judges in parliament. The Supreme Court held that parliament cannot have conscience votes due to Article 70.


title: Constitution of Bangladesh

text: We, the people of Bangladesh, having proclaimed our independence on the 26th day of March, 1971 and through a historic struggle for national liberation, established the independent, sovereign People's Republic of Bangladesh;


title: Constitution of Bangladesh

text: Pledging that the high ideals of nationalism, socialism, democracy and secularism, which inspired our heroic people to dedicate themselves to, and our brave martyrs to sacrifice their lives in, the national liberation struggle, shall be the fundamental principles of the Constitution;


title: Constitution of Bangladesh

text: Further pledging that it shall be a fundamental aim of the State to realise through the democratic process a socialist society, free from exploitation a society in which the rule of law, fundamental human rights and freedom, equality and justice, political, economic and social, will be secured for all citizens;


title: Constitution of Bangladesh

text: Affirming that it is our sacred duty to safeguard, protect and defend this Constitution and to maintain its supremacy as the embodiment of the will of the people of Bangladesh so that we may prosper in freedom and may make our full contribution towards international peace and co operation in keeping with the progressive aspirations of mankind;


title: Constitution of Bangladesh

text: In our Constituent Assembly, this eighteenth day of Kartick, 1379 B.S., corresponding to the fourth day of November, 1972 A.D., do hereby adopt, enact and give to ourselves this Constitution.


title: Constitution of Bangladesh

text: States that Bangladesh is a unitary republic. Demarcates the territory of the Republic. Proclaims that Islam is the state religion, but guarantees equal status and equal rights to all religions. Declares Bangla as the state language. Specifies the national anthem, national flag, and national emblem of the Republic. Declares Dhaka as the national capital. Provides eligibility for citizenship. States that all powers are derived from the people, and the exercise of such powers will be by the authority of the Constitution. Proclaims that the Constitution is the supreme law of Bangladesh, and that any laws inconsistent with the Constitution are void and of no effect. Article 7A prohibits the suspension or abrogation of the Constitution. States that certain parts of the Constitution are unamendable.


title: Constitution of Bangladesh

text: States that nationalism, socialism, democracy and secularism are the fundamental principles of state policy. Pledges to ensure the emancipation of peasants and workers. States that education will be free and compulsory. Endeavours to protect and improve the environment. States that the Republic will ensure equality of opportunity to all citizens. States that endeavours will be made to ensure the equality of opportunity and participation of women in all spheres of life. Declares the separation of powers between the judiciary and the executive. States that measures will be adopted to conserve cultural traditions and the heritage of the people. Ensures the protection of national monuments. States that the Republic will promote international peace and to support oppressed people throughout the world.


title: Constitution of Bangladesh

text: Declares that all laws inconsistent with the fundamental rights of the Constitution are to be void. Enshrines the principle of equality before the law. Prohibits discrimination on the basis of religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth. States that there will be equality of opportunity for people who seek public employment. Prohibits citizens of the Republic from receiving foreign titles, honours, awards or decorations without prior approval by the President. Declares that the protection of the law is the inalienable right of all citizens. Proclaims that no person shall be deprived of life and personal liberty. Provides safeguards for those in detention. Prohibits the use of forced labour. Provides protections for persons in respect of trial and punishment. Enshrines freedom of movement; freedom of assembly; freedom of association; freedom of thought, conscience and speech; freedom of profession or occupation; and freedom of religion. States that all citizens have the right to acquire property. States that all citizens have the right to protect their homes and means of communication. Declares that the Supreme Court will enforce the fundamental rights of the Constitution. Reserves the right to provide indemnity to individuals.


title: Constitution of Bangladesh

text: Declares that Bangladesh will have a President who will serve as Head of State of the Republic. States that the President will be elected by members of the Jatiya Sangsad. Prescribes that the President will only act in accordance with the advice of the Prime Minister, with the exception of the appointment of the Prime Minister and the Chief Justice. Specifies that the President must have attained the age of 35 years, and must be qualified for election as a Member of Parliament. States that the President has the power to grant pardons and to commute or suspend the sentences of individuals convicted in a court. Specifies that the President is limited to serving two 5-year terms in office, regardless of whether they are consecutive or not. Outlines that in order to tender their resignation, the President must write under their hand addressed to the Speaker. Outlines the process of impeachment and removal from office of the President. Specifies the process of removal from office of the President on grounds of physical or mental incapacity. States that the Speaker will discharge the duties of President in the event of the President's absence.


title: Constitution of Bangladesh

text: States that the Republic is to have a Cabinet with the Prime Minister as its Head. Prescribes that the executive power of the Republic is to be exercised by or on the authority of the Prime Minister. States that appointments to the Cabinet will be determined by the Prime Minister and made by the President. Specifies that not less than nine-tenths of members of the Cabinet must be Members of Parliament. States that the President will appoint as Prime Minister the Member of Parliament who appears to command the confidence of the Jatiya Sangsad. States that the office of Prime Minister will become vacant in the event they: tender their resignation to the President; cease to be a Member of Parliament or cease to retain the confidence of the majority of members of the Jatiya Sangsad. There are no term limits specified for the Prime Minister. Specifies the tenure of office of other Ministers.


title: Constitution of Bangladesh

text: Makes provision for democratically-elected local government in every administrative unit in the Republic. States that powers exercised by local government will be delegated by Parliament.


title: Constitution of Bangladesh

text: Declares that the President is the Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces of Bangladesh. States that the exercise of such powers will be determined by law. States that Parliament will by law provide for the regulation of the defence services, including the maintenance of the defence services; the grating of commissions; the appointment of chiefs of staff of the defence services and the discipline and other matters relating to the defence services. Reserves the right to declare war for Parliament.


title: Constitution of Bangladesh

text: States that the President will appoint someone who is qualified to serve as a Justice of the Supreme Court as Attorney General. States that in exercise of their duties, the Attorney General is entitled to attend the proceedings of any courts in the Republic.


title: Constitution of Bangladesh

text: Proclaims that there will be a Parliament for Bangladesh known as the House of the Nation, which will be vested with the legislative powers of the Republic. States that Parliament will consist of 300 directly-elected members, while 50 seats will be reserved exclusively for women and will be allocated on a proportional basis. Specifies that a person is required to be a citizen of Bangladesh who has attained the age of 25 years in order to qualify for election to Parliament. Also specifies the procedure to disqualify an individual from election to Parliament. Outlines the procedure for a Member of Parliament to vacate their seat. States that a Member of Parliament who is absent from Parliament for 90 consecutive days will of vacated their seat. States that Members of Parliament are entitled to remuneration. Prescribes a penalty for Members of Parliament who take their seats or vote before reciting the oath of office. States that a Member of Parliament who resigns from their party or votes against their party in Parliament will vacate their seat. Allows candidates to stand for election in multiple constituencies, but in the event a single candidate is elected to more than one, they are required to vacate all but one seat. Specifies that Parliament will be summoned, prorogued and dissolved by the President. States that Parliament will sit for a five-year term. Decrees that at the commencement of the first session of Parliament after a general election and the commencement of the first session of Parliament every year, the President is to make an address to Parliament. States that Ministers are entitled to address and take part in the proceedings of Parliament, but only Minister who are Members of Parliament are entitled to vote. States that Parliament will, in its first sitting after a general election, elect a Speaker and Deputy Speaker among its members. States that the individual presiding over proceedings is not entitled to vote unless there is an equality of votes. Specifies that the quorum of the Parliament will be 60 members. States that Parliament will appoint among its members a number of standing committees. Makes provision for the establishment of the office of the Ombudsman. States that Members of Parliament are protected by parliamentary privilege. Prescribes that Parliament will have its own secretariat.


title: Constitution of Bangladesh

text: Outlines the legislative procedure for a Bill to become an Act of Parliament. States that assent is required from the President in order for a Bill to become an Act of Parliament. Specifies that if the President fails to assent to a Bill within fifteen days of it being presented to them, it will be deemed that they have assented to the bill and it will become law. Outlines the legislative procedure for Money Bills. States that Money Bills can only be introduced with the recommendation of the President. States that taxes can only be levied or collected under the authority of an Act of Parliament. States that taxes can only be levied and collected under the authority of an Act of Parliament. States that all revenue received by the Government from the repayment of loans will form part of a single fund known as the Consolidated Fund. States that all other public revenue will be credited to the Public Account of the Republic. States that the custody of public money and their payment into and the withdrawal from the Consolidated Fund will be regulated by an Act of Parliament. Outlines the revenue payable to the Public Account of the Republic. States that an Annual Financial Statement must be laid before Parliament for each respective financial year. Specifies the charges of the Consolidated Fund. Outlines the procedure relating to the Annual Financial Statement. Makes provision for an Appropriations Act to be defrayed from the Consolidated Fund. Makes provision for the use of supplementary and excess grants, in the event the total amount authorised to spend in a fiscal year is not sufficient. Specifies the powers of Parliament in relation to the Consolidated Fund.


title: Constitution of Bangladesh

text: States that in the event that the Jatiya Sangsad is dissolved, and immediate action is necessary, the President may make or promulgate Ordinances.


title: Constitution of Bangladesh

text: Declares that there is to be a Supreme Court, consisting of an Appellate Division and a High Court Division. States that there is to be a Chief Justice and other Judges who are to be appointed by the President. Decrees that the Chief Justice and the other Judges will be independent in the exercise of their judicial functions. Outlines the procedure for the appointment of the Chief Justice and other Judges. States that a Judge must be a citizen of Bangladesh who has either been an Advocate at the Supreme Court for a minimum of ten years, or has held judicial office in Bangladesh for ten years. States that a Judge is entitled to serve until they have attained the age of sixty-seven years. States that the President can, pursuant to a resolution passed by not less than two-thirds of Members of Parliament, remove Judges. Makes provision for the temporary appointment of the Chief Justice. States that the President may appoint one or more duly qualified persons to serve as an Additional Judge for a period not exceeding two years. States that after their retirement or removal, a Judge is prohibited from holding an office of profit in service of the Republic. States that the seat of the Supreme Court will be the national capital, Dhaka. Specifies the jurisdiction of the High Court Division. Grants the High Court Division the authority to issue certain orders and directions. Specifies the jurisdiction of the Appellate Division. Grants the Appellate Division the power to issue directions, orders, decrees or writs. States that the Appellate Division will have the power to review any judgments or orders issued by it. States that in the event that the President believes a question of law has arisen that is of public importance, the Supreme Court may report its opinion to the President. States that the Supreme Court has the power to make rules which regulate the practise and procedure of each Division of the Supreme Court and any other subordinate court. States that the Supreme Court will be a court of record. States that the Supreme Court will have superintendence over all courts and tribunals subordinate to it. Outlines the procedure for the transfer of cases from subordinate courts to the High Court Division. States that the law declared by the Appellate Division and the High Court Division will be legally-binding and will be binding in all subordinate courts in the Republic. States that all authorities, executive and judicial, in the Republic will act in aid of the Supreme Court. Specifies the appointment procedure of the staff of the Supreme Court.


title: Constitution of Bangladesh

text: Makes provision for the establishment of subordinate courts in the Republic. Outlines that the appointment of persons to offices in the judicial service or as magistrates exercising judicial functions will be made by the President. States that the control and discipline of subordinate courts will be vested in the President and will be exercised in consultation with the Supreme Court. States that all persons employed in the judicial service and all magistrates shall be independent in the exercise of their judicial functions.


title: Constitution of Bangladesh

text: Makes provision for the establishment of an Bangladesh Election Commission, chaired by the Chief Election Commissioner. Prescribes the functions of the Election Commission. Outlines the procedure for the appointment of staff to the election commission. States that there is to be a single electoral roll for each constituency. Specifies that in order to qualify for registration as a voter, an individual is required to be a citizen of Bangladesh who has attained the age of 18 years. Outlines the timetable for conducting general elections. States that Parliament may from time to time pass laws that regulate the delimitation of constituencies, the preparation of electoral rolls, or the holding of elections. Prohibits courts in the Republic from questioning the validity of electoral law or elections. States that it is the duty of all executive authorities in the Republic to assist the Election Commission in the discharge of its functions.


title: Constitution of Bangladesh

text: Makes provision for the establishment of a Comptroller and Auditor General of Bangladesh. Prescribes the functions and duties of the Auditor-General. Outlines the term of office for the Auditor-General. Specifies the procedure for the appointment of an Acting Auditor-General. States that the Public Accounts of the Republic will be kept in a manner prescribed by the Auditor-General. States that the reports of the Auditor-General are to be laid before Parliament.


title: Constitution of Bangladesh

text: States that Parliament may by law regulate the appointment of persons employed by the Republic. Specifies the tenure in office for persons employed by the Republic. Outlines the procedure for the dismissal of persons from service to the Republic. Makes provision for the reorganisation of the services of the Republic


title: Constitution of Bangladesh

text: Freedom of religion is one of the cornerstones of Bangladesh's Constitution. Article 12 calls for secularity, the elimination of interfaith tensions and prohibits the abuse of religion for political purposes and any discrimination against, or persecution of, persons practicing a particular religion. Article 41 subjects religious freedom to public order, law and morality; it gives every citizen the right to profess, practice or propagate any religion; every religious community or denomination the right to establish, maintain and manage its religious institutions; and states that no person attending any educational institution shall be required to receive religious instruction, or to take part in or to attend any religious ceremony or worship, if that instruction, ceremony or worship relates to a religion other than his own. Governments have generally supported and respected religious freedom.


title: Constitution of Bangladesh

text: As of 2017, Bangladesh is a state party to the following international treaties concerning human rights. Bangladesh can in theory be held liable for its performance in the fields of these treaties.


title: Constitution of Bangladesh

text: Article 111 of the Constitution proclaims the doctrine of binding judicial precedent. According to the article, the law declared by the Supreme Court of Bangladesh, including its Appellate Division and the High Court Division, are binding in all subordinate courts.


title: Constitution of Bangladesh

text: The Constitution does not specifically mention the term judicial review, but Article 102 allows writ petitions to be filed at the High Court Division for reviewing laws, the actions and policies of authorities and lower court proceedings. Articles 7(2), 26, 44(1) & 102 are considered to indirectly support the system of judicial review.


title: Constitution of Bangladesh

text: Dr. Kamal Hossain, who is described as the “father of the Bangladeshi Constitution”, has been an ardent supporter of reforming the document to reflect the values of the 21st century. Hossain has blamed amendments during military rule for eroding the Constitution's principles. Justice Muhammad Habibur Rahman, a former Chief Justice and interim prime minister, proposed that a Constitution Commission be formed to explore the prospects for Constitutional reform.


title: Constitution of Bangladesh

text: A. T. M. Shamsul Huda, a former Chief Election Commissioner, has called for a Constitutional amendment to ensure "checks and balances" and the separation of powers.


title: Constitution of Bangladesh

text: Bangladesh has a single codified document as its Constitution, as in the United States, India, Brazil, Pakistan, Germany and France. It is not an unwritten constitution or a set of Constitutional statutes, as in Britain, Israel, Canada, New Zealand, Saudi Arabia and Sweden.


title: Social Democratic Party (UK, 1990–present)

text: The Social Democratic Party (SDP) is a minor political party in the United Kingdom established in 1990. Ideologically, the SDP combines moderate social conservatism with centre-left economic policy and support for a social market economy. Founded by Jack Holmes, it has been led by William Clouston since 2018.


text: The current party traces its origin to the Social Democratic Party which was formed in 1981 by a group of dissident Labour Party Members of Parliament (MPs) and former Cabinet members Roy Jenkins, David Owen, Bill Rodgers and Shirley Williams, who became known as the Gang of Four. The original SDP merged with the Liberal Party in 1988 to form the Liberal Democrats, but Owen, two other MPs and a minority of party activists formed a breakaway group also called the Social Democratic Party (1988-1990) immediately afterwards. That continuing party dissolved itself in 1990 after finishing behind the Official Monster Raving Loony Party in a by-election, but activists met and voted to continue the party in defiance of its National Executive, leading to the creation of the current Social Democratic Party under the leadership of the candidate who lost the by-election.


text: In November 2018 the SDP gained its first and only European parliamentarian when Patrick O'Flynn, Member of the European Parliament (MEP) for East of England, defected from the UK Independence Party. He served in the European Parliament until 1 July 2019. Prominent members include journalists Rod Liddle and Giles Fraser.


text: In the 2022 local elections, the SDP gained a seat on Leeds City Council and later that year a Derbyshire Dales District Councillor defected to the SDP, giving it a total of two council seats.


text: In October 2022, the SDP announced a general election pact with the right-wing populist and Eurosceptic party, Reform UK.


text: The second incarnation of the Social Democratic Party, often referred to as "the continuing SDP", decided to dissolve itself after a disastrous result in the May 1990 Bootle by-election. However, a number of SDP activists met and voted to continue the party in defiance of the National Executive. The continuing group was led by Jack Holmes, who by polling fewer votes than the Official Monster Raving Loony Party at the Bootle by-election had caused the party's end. The much-reduced SDP decided to fight the 1991 Neath by-election. With Holmes serving as the party's election agent, the SDP candidate received 5.3% of the vote—only 174 votes behind the fourth-placed Liberal Democrats, although the SDP candidate joined the Lib Dems shortly after. The party subsequently won a number of seats on the Neath Port Talbot County Borough Council.


text: In 1992, the SDP had concentrated on campaigning at local level, holding a few council seats in Yorkshire and South Wales. Bridlington Central and Old Town ward on East Riding of Yorkshire Council remained a hotspot of SDP activity, with Ray Allerston holding a council seat there from 1987. From 2003 to 2007, he was joined by his wife Christine Allerston. Meanwhile, Tony Pelton and Brian Smith were elected in 1999 in Tunstall Ward in Richmondshire. A third hotspot consisted of SDP councillors Jeff Dinham, John Sullivan and Anthony Taylor in Aberavon Ward, Neath Port Talbot.


text: In the 2003 elections, Tony Pelton was re-elected, but Brian Smith was not. In 2005, Christine Allerston became Mayor of Bridlington for a year; however, she stood down before the 2007 local elections in which her husband Ray Allerston was re-elected and made Mayor and David Metcalf picked up the vacant seat. All three Aberavon councillors remained in place, with Anthony Taylor becoming local mayor. However, Tony Pelton in Tunstall stood down before the 2007 locals, ending SDP representation there. Jackie Foster was elected to Bridlington town council in 2008.


text: In 2012, Councillors Dinham and Sullivan lost their seats in Aberavon, leaving only Anthony Taylor in position. David Metcalf stepped down in early 2014, owing to ill-health. He died soon afterward. This left just Allerston, Foster and Taylor in post. Ray Allerston died on 16 September 2014. A by-election was held in his ward on 27 November which was won by the UK Independence Party (UKIP).


text: The SDP fielded two candidates in the 2015 general election. Jackie Foster remained an SDP councillor on Bridlington Town Council after the 2015 local elections, but as of 2016 was listed as a Labour councillor. Until May 2017, Anthony Taylor sat on Neath Port Talbot County Borough Council as an independent democrat, but remained listed on the party website as an SDP councillor.


text: Solihull's Green Party councillor Mike Sheriden defected to the SDP in August 2015. However, when Sheriden stood re-election as an SDP candidate in May 2016, he lost, receiving only 17 votes.


text: Six SDP candidates stood in the 2017 general election: one in Glasgow East and five in Sheffield constituencies. The SDP candidates received a total of 469 votes and came last in every constituency. According to accounts filed with the Electoral Commission, in 2017 the party—before its present growth—had a total income of £2,095.


text: In January 2018, Kevin Hickson, former leader of Crewe Town Council, joined the SDP. In an article published in the "Crewe Chronicle", Hickson, who represented Crewe East on the town council, stated that he left Labour because of growing unease with that party's "almost daily changes" on Brexit policy. He went on to say that the SDP "combines centre left policies on the economy and the welfare state with a firm commitment to implement the will of the people on Brexit, reclaiming sovereignty over money, laws, borders and trade". Hickson is a senior lecturer in Politics at the University of Liverpool and a former Labour parliamentary candidate. Hickson became the party chairman, until being replaced by Paula Watson in January 2020.


text: William Clouston became leader of the SDP in 2018, and was re-elected by 89% of ballots returned by members in March 2020. He was a member of the original party in the 1980s and remained with the continuing SDP after the merger with the Liberal Party.


text: In October 2018, the party published a New Declaration of aims and values, whose name recalls the original Limehouse Declaration of 1981 and which the party describes as putting the principles of social democracy in a modern setting. The declaration calls for a "communitarian, social democratic nation-state".


text: Patrick O'Flynn, Member of the European Parliament for East of England, defected from the UK Independence Party (UKIP) to join the SDP in November 2018. He cited UKIP leader Gerard Batten's appointment of Tommy Robinson as an adviser as a key reason for his departure from the party. In April 2019, O'Flynn stated that the SDP would not be standing in the 2019 European Parliament election.


text: In March 2019, prominent political journalists Rod Liddle and Giles Fraser announced that they had joined the party.


text: The SDP won a council seat at election for the first time since 2012 when Wayne Dixon was elected in the 2022 Leeds City Council election. Dixon was elected to Leeds City Council for Middleton Park after standing (as SDP or independent) for the last four elections. The party gained a second council seat later that year in October 2022, when Richard Bright, a Conservative Party councillor for Derbyshire Dales District Council, defected to the party.


text: On 22 October 2022, the Social Democratic Party announced a general election pact with the right-wing Reform UK for the next United Kingdom general election.


text: The SDP is a syncretic political party which combines centre-left economics with centre-right stances on social and cultural values. The party formally declared its principles in its "New Declaration" of October 2018.


text: The SDP's orientation is Eurosceptic. While the founders of the original SDP in 1981 were pro-EEC, the continuing SDP voted against the concept of a United States of Europe at its conference at Scarborough in 1989 and the 1990 party's Eurosceptic position developed from there. In March 2019, the party advocated the UK leaving the European Union on WTO terms in the absence of a better deal on offer. As of November 2019 the party supports the latest iteration of the withdrawal agreement.


text: The SDP's stance on the economy is centre-left, advocating a social market economy. It balances a commitment to enterprise and the market with support for greater progressivity in the tax code, substantial increases in the council housing stock, protection of legal aid, changes to the roll out of Universal Credit and renationalising utilities and the railways.


text: On housing, the SDP wants to build 100,000 social homes per year under a "British Housing Corporation", with subsidiary "County Housing Corporations". These "CHCs" would have substantial powers, being able to issue Compulsory Purchase Orders and having the ability to grant themselves planning permission. They would also take on all existing social housing from their respective local authorities.


text: The party would also introduce "a moratorium on buy-to-let mortgages" in order to re-balance the housing market in favour of young first-time buyers. To combat negligence in the rented sector, the SDP would introduce a "Conditions Certificate", likened to a "housing MOT", without which rent collection on the uncertified property would be illegal.


text: The SDP supports marginal reductions in aid spending, in its view made possible by more effective use of the aid budget. It proposes that the Department for International Development be absorbed into a new Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade which would ensure a greater alignment of aid and UK foreign policy interests. The SDP has criticised past UK efforts to "impose liberal democracy on complex societies in the Middle East".


text: The SDP supports NATO and maintaining a minimum of 2% of GDP on defence. It would maintain and update Britain's nuclear deterrent and increase the size of the UK armed forces. It would complete the aircraft carrier programme and related air and naval investment to make and keep HMS "Queen Elizabeth" and HMS "Prince of Wales" fully operational. It supports increased spending on Intelligence to combat terrorism and cyber-warfare as a proportion of the overall defence budget. For veterans, it would increase their housing priority and create tax incentives for business to employ veterans.


text: The SDP believes the tax and benefits system should offer "greater protection and support for family life". Couples raising children together (comprising a basic rate tax payer and a non tax payer) would benefit from full sharing of tax allowances under the party's proposals. Moreover, government policy in all domains would be subject to a basic test as to "whether it is supportive of the family as the fundamental foundation of society".


text: The party has a strong stance on reducing immigration, stating that "A return to moderate, controlled migration for a sustained period [...] would be beneficial. It would result in a less divided, more socially harmonious and more prosperous Britain." In a short documentary, party leader William Coulston says "Put simply, billions of people would probably qualify for asylum in the UK if you could get them here. This is not sustainable".


text: The party advocates a points-based immigration system which is "skills-based, needs-based, legal and subject to democratic control" and wants to contain net immigration to fewer than 50,000 per year. They outline a zero-tolerance policy for illegal immigration, with asylum seekers who use illegal routes being repatriated immediately, or detained offshore for later repatriation. On "genuine refugees", their policy is to allow 20,000 visas per year for "carefully vetted families with children in UN refugee camps or near major conflict zones".


text: The SDP's policy on transgender rights allows for a person to change their legal sex, subject to "medical gatekeeping". They oppose changes of legal sex by self-identification alone. The party supports "biological sex"-based segregation in sports, women's refuges and prisons.


text: The SDP supports healthcare spending for treatment of gender dysphoria, in both psychological and physiological forms, but stipulates that no physical treatments, including hormones, should be allowed for under-18s.


text: The party supports "gender-critical" viewpoints, having offered their support for Kathleen Stock, and stating "Woman = adult human female".


title: Trisha Goddard

text: Patricia Gloria Goddard (born 23 December 1957) is an English television presenter and actress. She is best known for her television talk show "Trisha" (1998–2010), which was broadcast on a mid-morning slot on ITV before later being moved to Channel 5. Goddard has been based in the U.S. since 2010, when she started working on "Maury" as a conflict resolution expert. She also hosted a U.S. version of her own talk show titled "The Trisha Goddard Show" (2012–2014). Since 2022, Goddard has presented "You Are What You Eat".


title: Trisha Goddard

text: Patricia Gloria Goddard was born in London on 23 December 1957, the daughter of Agnes Fortune, a Windrush nurse from Dominica, and an unknown father. She did not discover that the white man who raised her was not her biological father until after her mother's death, though he was the biological father of her three sisters. In her late-50s, Goddard set out to find details of her biological father after a genetics expert insisted that her skin colour made it almost impossible for her to have a white father. As a child, she was educated at an independent school for expatriates in Tanzania, after which she returned to England to attend primary school in Heacham, Norfolk. She then joined Sir William Perkins's School in Chertsey, Surrey, which was a voluntary controlled Church of England girls' grammar school at the time.


title: Trisha Goddard

text: Goddard's early career as an air stewardess led to travel writing for magazines and then, after settling in Australia in the mid-1980s, a new career in television. She worked there as a television presenter, most notably on ABC's "The 7.30 Report", and also as a host of the children's program "Play School". She was later chairperson of the Australian Government's National Community Advisory Group on Mental Health.


title: Trisha Goddard

text: In 1998, after returning to the United Kingdom, Goddard became the host of an ITV flagship daytime chat show, the BAFTA-winning "Trisha", produced by Anglia Television. She launched her own independent television production company, Town House TV, with former Director of Programmes and Production for ITV Anglia, Malcolm Allsop.


title: Trisha Goddard

text: In September 2004, Goddard left ITV to join Five in a new programme titled "Trisha Goddard", which made its TV debut on 24 January 2005. Similar in style to her old show, it focussed on relationships, families in crisis, and reunions. The show was produced by Town House Productions. In the early stages of the show, it was observed that repeats of her ITV show continued to achieve higher ratings than her new programme on Five.


title: Trisha Goddard

text: Goddard has made a number of panellist appearances on ITV's "Loose Women", she was a regular panellist in 2002, made three appearances in 2003, with two further appearances in 2014, once in 2019 and the latest on 25 February 2021.


title: Trisha Goddard

text: Goddard has appeared in satires of her television programmes. In 2003, a specially-shot clip of her show appeared in the ITV religious fantasy drama "The Second Coming". In 2004, she filmed two short scenes for the romantic zombie comedy "Shaun of the Dead". Both scenes were filmed on the set of "Trisha". In 2004, a facsimile version of her show was featured on Season 3, Episode 1 of the show "Fat Friends" where she interviewed the "slimming group" of the main characters, and where Betty unintentionally revealed her secret that she had given up a baby at the age of fifteen. The episode showed the director telling Trisha to stay on Betty and wait until she revealed her secret.


title: Trisha Goddard

text: Her show was also featured on a Comic Relief episode of "Little Britain" where the character Vicky Pollard met up with her long-lost father. For a "What Not to Wear" Christmas special aired on 22 December 2004, Goddard was given a fashion makeover by Trinny Woodall and Susannah Constantine.


title: Trisha Goddard

text: Goddard appeared as a guest on the BBC's "The Kumars at No. 42" and was also the guest host for an episode of the second series of "The Friday Night Project", for Channel 4. Goddard also had her own talk show on Liverpool radio station City Talk 105.9.


title: Trisha Goddard

text: Goddard also made an appearance on "Who Wants To Be A Millionaire?" raising up to £75,000. She also made an appearance on the BBC show "Shooting Stars" in 2010. Also that year, she began to make occasional appearances on the American talk programme "Maury" as a consultant and a guest host.


title: Trisha Goddard

text: On 20 October 2011, NBCUniversal Television Distribution announced that it would launch an American version of her eponymous talk show to start in September 2012. On 1 April 2014, it was announced that this version of the programme had been cancelled after two seasons.


title: Trisha Goddard

text: In February 2018, Trisha appeared on an episode of BBC One game show "Pointless Celebrities", appearing alongside Johnny Vaughan and Toby Tarrant.


title: Trisha Goddard

text: In 2020, Goddard took part in the twelfth series of "Dancing on Ice". She was paired with Łukasz Różycki. They were the first couple voted off after the judges chose to save ITV News presenter Lucrezia Millarini and her skating partner Brendyn Hatfield.


title: Trisha Goddard

text: In 2021, Goddard appeared on "Piers Morgan's Life Stories". On 5 March 2021 it was announced Goddard would present the new revived version of "You Are What You Eat".


title: Trisha Goddard

text: Goddard has three younger sisters, Pru, Paula, and Linda. Her youngest sister, Linda, battled schizophrenia and died in 1988 from complications arising from self-inflicted injuries. Goddard has cited this as one of her inspirations in becoming a mental health activist. She has also suffered her own mental health issues, having battled addiction and attempted suicide on at least two occasions.


title: Trisha Goddard

text: Goddard has been married and divorced three times. Her first marriage was to Robert Nestdale, an Australian politician and erstwhile director of Unicef Australia; whom she met in 1985 whilst working as an air stewardess. The marriage was short-lived: Nestdale was rumoured to be gay, and died from AIDS in 1989. Goddard has recorded that Nestdale was abusive to her during their relationship.


title: Trisha Goddard

text: She met second husband Mark Grieve, a television producer, in 1987 and they were married in 1993. They had two children together and separated in 1996.


title: Trisha Goddard

text: Her third husband, Peter Gianfrancesco, is a mental health services professional. They married in 1998, with Goddard's children taking their stepfather's surname. The couple divorced in 2017. In January 2022, Goddard posted on Instagram that she and her partner of four years, who she often colloquially refers to as 'Boo', had got engaged.


title: The Everly Brothers discography

text: This article presents the discography of American singing duo the Everly Brothers. During their recording career, which stretched between 1956 and 1998, they released 21 studio albums, two live albums, 29 compilation albums and 75 singles.


title: The Great God Pan

text: The Great God Pan is a horror and fantasy novella by Welsh writer Arthur Machen. Machen was inspired to write "The Great God Pan" by his experiences at the ruins of a pagan temple in Wales. What would become the first chapter of the novella was published in the magazine "The Whirlwind" in 1890. Machen later extended "The Great God Pan" and it was published as a book alongside another story, "The Inmost Light", in 1894. The novella begins with an experiment to allow a woman named Mary to see the supernatural world. This is followed by an account of a series of mysterious happenings and deaths over many years surrounding a woman named Helen Vaughan. At the end, the heroes confront Helen and force her to kill herself. She undergoes a series of unearthly transformations before dying and she is revealed to be a supernatural entity.


title: The Great God Pan

text: On publication, it was widely denounced by the press as degenerate and horrific because of its implied sexual content, and the novella hurt Machen's reputation as an author. Beginning in the 1920s, Machen's work was critically re-evaluated and "The Great God Pan" has since garnered a reputation as a classic of horror. Literary critics have noted the influence of other nineteenth-century authors on "The Great God Pan" and offered differing opinions on whether or not it can be considered an example of Gothic fiction or science fiction. The novella has influenced the work of horror writers such as Bram Stoker, H. P. Lovecraft, and Stephen King, and has been adapted for the stage twice.


title: The Great God Pan

text: Clarke agrees, somewhat unwillingly, to bear witness to a strange experiment performed by his friend, Dr. Raymond. The ultimate goal of the doctor is to open the mind of a patient so that they may experience the spiritual world, an experience he notes the ancients called "seeing the great god Pan". He performs the experiment, which involves minor brain surgery, on a young woman named Mary. She awakens from the operation awed and terrified but quickly becomes "a hopeless idiot".


title: The Great God Pan

text: Years later, Clarke learns of a beautiful but sinister girl named Helen Vaughan, who is reported to have caused a series of mysterious happenings in her town. She spends much of her time in the woods near her house, and takes other children on prolonged twilight rambles in the countryside that disturb the parents of the town. One day, a young boy stumbles across her "playing on the grass with a 'strange naked man,"; the boy becomes hysterical and later, after seeing a Roman statue of a satyr's head, becomes permanently feeble-minded. Helen also forms an unusually close friendship with a neighbour girl, Rachel, whom she leads several times into the woods. On one occasion Rachel returns home distraught, half-naked and rambling. Shortly after explaining to her mother what happened to her (never revealed in the story), Rachel returns to the woods and disappears forever. Clarke relates these events in a book he is writing entitled "Memoirs to Prove the Existence of the Devil".


title: The Great God Pan

text: Years later, Villiers happens across his old friend Herbert, who has become a vagrant since they last met. When asked how he has fallen so low, Herbert replies that he has been "corrupted body and soul" by his wife. After some investigation with Clarke and another character, Austin, it is revealed that Helen was Herbert's wife, and that a well-to-do man died "of fright, of sheer, awful terror" after seeing something in Herbert and Helen's home. Herbert is later found dead.


title: The Great God Pan

text: Helen disappears for some time; according to rumor, she spent the time taking part in disturbing orgies somewhere in the Americas. She eventually returns to London under the pseudonym Mrs. Beaumont. Soon after, a group of stable, happy men in London commit suicide; the last person known to have been in the presence of each of them was Mrs. Beaumont, whom they are implied to have slept with. Villiers and Clarke, each learning of Mrs. Beaumont's true identity, band together and confront Helen in her house with a noose. They tell her that she must kill herself, or they will expose her. Helen has a very abnormal death, transforming between human and beast, male and female, and dividing and reuniting, before turning into a jelly-like substance and finally dying.


title: The Great God Pan

text: This is followed by a fragment of a document about the remains of a pillar honoring the Celtic god Nodens. The Latin inscription on the column reads, "To the great god Nodens (the god of the Great Deep or Abyss), Flavius Senilis has erected this pillar on account of the marriage which he saw beneath the shade." The document says that historians are puzzled as to what the inscription refers. The novella ends with a fragment of a letter from Dr. Raymond to Clarke, which reveals that Helen was the child of Mary, who died shortly after her daughter's birth. In the letter, Raymond informs Clarke that Mary became pregnant after his experiment caused her to see the god Pan, implying that Pan fathered Helen.


title: The Great God Pan

text: Machen's lifelong fascination with occultism began after he read an article on alchemy in an edition of Charles Dickens's periodical "Household Words" belonging to his father, a clergyman. In his 1922 autobiography, "Far Off Things", Machen wrote that "The Great God Pan" was inspired by the times he visited the Usk, a Welsh river, and the Welsh towns of Caerleon on the Usk and Caerwent as a boy; all of these places had been settled by the Romans. He wrote that "strange relics" were frequently found at Caerwent from the ruined temple of "Nodens, god of the depths".


title: The Great God Pan

text: In writing the novella, he tried to "pass on the vague, indefinable sense of awe and mystery and terror that [he] had received" while visiting those ruins. Machen felt that he had "transliterated [the feeling] clumsily" in "The Great God Pan", elaborating: "I translated awe, at worst awfulness, into evil; again, I say, one dreams with fire and works in clay." Dennis Denisoff said that Machen's decision to make Helen Vaughan the child of a Welsh woman and a pagan figure "parallels Machen's own authorial self-identity as one arising from not only his Welsh ancestry but also pagan myth."


title: The Great God Pan

text: What is now the first chapter of the novella was published in 1890 in a magazine called "The Whirlwind", while what is now the third chapter of the book was published in the same magazine the following year as a standalone short story called "The City of Resurrections". Machen only viewed the two works as connected after they were finished. Once he decided the two stories were connected, Machen wrote the rest of "The Great God Pan" in a single evening save for its final chapter. Machen did not think of an ending for the tale for months, and in that time believed that the novella would remain unfinished forever. The last chapter was completed in June 1891. Machen sent the novella to the publisher Blackwood, who rejected it, deeming it a clever story that "shrink[s]...from the central idea." It was accepted by John Lane and published in 1894. When published as a book, "The Great God Pan" was accompanied by another Machen tale called "The Inmost Light" which also features a mad scientist and elements of science fiction. The book's cover was illustrated by Aubrey Beardsley.


title: The Great God Pan

text: Joe Sommerlad of "The Independent" views "The Great God Pan" as a work of Gothic horror. According to "The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction", the story is "typical of Victorian [science fiction] horror at about the time [science fiction] was beginning to shed its Gothic elements into a separate Horror/fantasy genre." Aaron Worth writes that "The Great God Pan" superficially resembles science fiction due to its depiction of Dr. Raymond as a mad scientist, but it cannot be seen as an example of the genre as it posits that occultism is superior to science. The novella has been classified as Decadent literature as well, as it features hallmarks of the genre such as "occultism, paganism, non-mainstream eroticism, sexual diversity, the "femme fatale", violent and strange deaths, and the simultaneous investment in and disavowal of bourgeois identities." "Pan" has also been described as fantasy literature and as a cautionary tale against men mistreating women the way that Raymond mistreated Mary.


title: The Great God Pan

text: Pan was an ancient Greek god, primarily worshipped in Arcadia, who was associated with shepherds and their flocks and with nature. He was believed to lurk in caves, mountains, and other lonely, isolated locations. In some stories, he inflicted his enemies with sudden terror (i.e., "panic"). The phrase, "the great God Pan" comes from an ancient Greek folktale recorded in Plutarch's "De defectu oraculorum" ("On the Decline of Oracles"), which claims that a Greek sailor near the island of Paxi during the reign of Emperor Tiberius (ruled 14–37 AD) heard a voice cry out, "When you are arrived at Palodes, take care to make it known that the great God Pan is dead." Early Christian commentaries suggested that this event occurred at the same time as the death of Christ and that the "death" of Pan represented the transition from a pagan to a Christian world.


title: The Great God Pan

text: This story had particular resonance with Victorian literary audiences. In 1844, Elizabeth Barrett Browning wrote her poem "The Dead Pan", an adaption of Plutarch's story which insisted that proper Christian literature should abandon Greek mythology, with each stanza ending in the words "Pan, Pan is dead." As a member of the Decadent movement, Machen sought to subvert traditional themes and transgress literary boundaries, an agenda which made Pan a particularly appealing figure. The title of "The Great God Pan" appears to have been specifically derived from Browning's later poem "A Musical Instrument" (1862), in which the first line of every stanza ends with the words "the great god Pan". Machen's use of Pan in the novella may have also been influenced by Robert Louis Stevenson's essay "" (1878) and Algernon Charles Swinburne's poem "" (1894), in which Pan is portrayed as the "emblem of the delicious combination of ecstasy and terror."


title: The Great God Pan

text: In a review of the novella for "Black Gate", Matthew David Surridge hypothesized that Machen took inspiration from Mary Shelley's "Frankenstein" (1818) in his portrayal of Dr. Raymond as a mad scientist akin to Victor Frankenstein. The works of Robert Louis Stevenson, especially his 1886 novella "Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde", were among Machen's most significant influences when writing "The Great God Pan". Critic John Gawsworth also sees Machen's novella as reminiscent of the horror stories of Edgar Allan Poe and Sheridan Le Fanu. Aaron Worth noted similitude between the death of Helen Vaughan and the theories of alchemist Thomas Vaughan, who is the character's namesake and Helen's disintegration recalls the alchemical concept of the prima materia. John C. Tibbetts observes similarities between Helen Vaughan and Ayesha, the sexually liberated demonic priestess from H. Rider Haggard's "" (1886). Machen wrote that several critics felt that Joris-Karl Huysmans's novels "À rebours" (1884) and "Là-bas" (1891) had inspired "The Great God Pan", though he did not read either book until after "Pan" was published. Upon reading the two novels, Machen concluded that "my critics had not read them either."


title: The Great God Pan

text: The novella is characteristic of a late nineteenth-century interest in paganism in general and Pan in particular that is found in the works of Florence Farr and Kenneth Grahame. According to the British scholar of modern literature Roger Luckhurst, Raymond expresses a typical Neoplatonist view of reality in which the true object of study is the revelation of a "higher, hidden spiritual world". He is therefore "an occultist rather than a materialist scientist." Neoplatonism is also commonly regarded as the last school of pagan philosophy and Raymond's views therefore relate back to the recurring theme of the death of Pan.


title: The Great God Pan

text: Author Theodora Goss sees "The Great God Pan" as equating paganism with irrationality and what Carl Jung would call the collective unconscious. Literary critic Kostas Boyiopoulos reads the story from a Judeo-Christian perspective, arguing that Helen Vaughan embodies a "female version of an antichrist", a perversion of Jesus, as well as the figure of Lilith from Judaic myth, with Helen's mother Mary being a "direct analogy of the biblical Virgin Mary". "Black Gates" Matthew David Surridge believes that the story associates paganism with sex and femininity, while portraying Helen as a female Antichrist, a view shared by James Goho in "Journeys into Darkness: Critical Essays on Gothic Horror" (2014). Surridge adds "from another perspective: [Helen] is the undoing of progress. Rather than proceeding from paganism to Christianity, as orthodox Victorian belief imagined the progress of history, she is a reversal of time, the revenge of the atavistic." In keeping with this idea, Surridge sees Mary's name as a reference to Mary, mother of Jesus and Helen's name as a reference to the pagan figure Helen of Troy. Goho interprets the story as Machen's warning against the abandonment of "true religion" and the embrace of paganism.


title: The Great God Pan

text: At one point in the novella, a Latin creed is recited: ""Et Diabolus Incarnatus Est. Et Homo Factus Est."" ("And the Devil was made incarnate. And was made man.") Luckhurst identifies this as a blasphemous rewriting of the Nicene Creed, an early Christian creed which includes the line: "By the power of the Holy Spirit he [Jesus] became incarnate from the Virgin Mary, and was made man." Goho writes that the portrayal of Pan in the novella draws on the mythology of Lucifer and depictions of Pan as "the fetish for evil and suffering and the danger and dread of the wilderness," rather than depictions of Pan as a playful and harmless god. Surridge sees the book's references to Satan and Nodens as implying that Satan, Nodens and Pan are the same being, while Goho connects the novella to the fact that early Christians associated Pan with the devil.


title: The Great God Pan

text: "The Great God Pan" implied sexuality caused a scandal upon its original release and hurt Machen's reputation as an author. Reviewing the novella for the magazine "Literary News", Richard Henry Stoddard criticised the story as "too morbid to be the production of a healthy mind". The art critic Harry Quilter's review of the book, titled "The Gospel of Intensity", and published in "The Contemporary Review" in June 1895, was even more harsh. Quilter declared: "The Great God Pan' is, I have no hesitation in saying, a perfectly abominable story, in which the author has spared no endeavor to suggest loathsomeness and horror which he describes as beyond the reach of words." Quilter warned that Machen's books were a dangerous threat to the entire British public and that they would destroy readers' sanities and senses of morality. Quilter went on to attack the story's publisher, John Lane, as well as Machen himself: "Why should he be allowed, for the sake of a few miserable pounds, to cast into our midst these monstrous creations of his diseased brain?" Quilter added that works of fiction like Machen's should be unanimously condemned by literary critics and newspapers: "If the Press was so disposed it could stamp out such art and fiction in a few months: And that disposition must be acquired, must even be enforced." He was particularly harsh in his denunciation of sexual ambiguity and polymorphous androgyny in the book. He expressed revulsion at Machen's description of Helen's sex changing immediately before her death and concluded his review with a comment of distaste regarding the "nasty little naked figure of dubious sex and humanity with which Mr. Aubrey Beardsley has prefaced the story". A positive appraisal of the novella came from Oscar Wilde, who called it "un succès fou."


title: The Great God Pan

text: Machen's literary reputation was re-evaluated in the 1920s and "The Great God Pan" has since attained the reputation of a horror masterpiece. In "Supernatural Horror in Literature" (1926; revised 1933), H. P. Lovecraft praised the story, saying: "No one could begin to describe the cumulative suspense and ultimate horror with which every paragraph abounds"; he added that "the sensitive reader" reaches the end with "an appreciative shudder". Lovecraft also noted, however, that "melodrama is undeniably present, and coincidence is stretched to a length which appears absurd upon analysis". Bennett Cerf described the story as a "masterpiece". Brian Stableford stated that "The Great God Pan" is "the archetypal Decadent horror story" and described the story as "highly original". Stephen King referred to it as "one of the best horror stories ever written. Maybe the best in the English language." "The Washington Post" Elizabeth Hand deemed it "one of the greatest supernatural tales ever written". "Black Gate" Matthew David Surridge said that "The Great God Pan" is "a fascinating, troubling story, and, for all its influence, not like much else than I can think of. It's not simple, and yet it's effective, more so than can easily be explained."


title: The Great God Pan

text: Some commentary on "The Great God Pan" has focused on its portrayal of women. Surridge sees the novella as expressing a fear of women even though the ultimate source of horror in the story is a male deity. "The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction" says that Helen's "metamorphosis...remains one of the most dramatically horrible and misogynistic in fiction". Helen never speaks in the book; according to Victoria Margree and Bryony Randall in "Victorian Gothic: An Edinburgh Companion", "The silence of the central female character is part of the text's misogyny, but also part of its narrative effect." Margree and Randall also view Helen's fate as a punishment for her sexual impropriety. Dennis Denisoff connects Machen's tendency to make his empowered female characters "sexually monstrous" to his criticisms of authors who discussed the subject of women's rights. James Machin defends Machen and "The Great God Pan" from charges from misogyny on the grounds that the male protagonist of Machen's story "The Novel of the White Powder" (1895) disintegrates in a manner reminiscent of Helen Vaughan and on the grounds that Machen married Amy Hogg, a woman who defied the sexual boundaries of her time.


title: The Great God Pan

text: A pair of parodies of "Pan" were published in 1895 – Arthur Rickett's "A Yellow Creeper" and Arthur Sykes's "The Great Pan-Demon". Both suggest that Machen is an author of "limited imagination," with the latter depicting him as a mad scientist unleashing degenerate literature on an unsuspecting public. "The Great God Pan" was brought to the stage in 2008 by the WildClaw Theatre Company in Chicago. It was adapted and directed by WildClaw artistic director Charley Sherman. The novella "Helen's Story" (2013) by Rosanne Rabinowitz retells the story of "The Great God Pan" from Helen Vaughan's point of view. "Helen's Story" was written from a feminist perspective and nominated for a Shirley Jackson Award. "The Great God Pan" was adapted into a chamber opera by composer Ross Crean. Unusually for a composer, Crean wrote the opera's libretto himself. A recording of the work was released in 2017. The production saw its world premiere by Chicago Fringe Opera in 2018. According to the "Chicago Tribune" John von Rhein, Chicago Fringe Opera's staging of "The Great God Pan" portrays Helen Vaughan as both a symbol of gender equality and an evil "femme fatale".


title: The Great God Pan

text: "Black Gate" Matthew David Surridge said that "The Great God Pan" influenced Bram Stoker's "Dracula" (1897) as both works feature "an introductory sequence featuring a horrified Englishman in a non-English setting; then a variety of seemingly-unconnected events in London, the metropole at the heart of Empire; then the discovery that all those events are in fact inspired by one malign and supernatural intelligence, that the rational contemporary capital is threatened by the irrational and archaic; then an equivocal conclusion. The fear of sex, women, foreignness." John C. Tibbetts notes that both Helen Vaughan in "The Great God Pan" and Lucy Westenra in "Dracula" are "demon women of voracious and malignant sexuality". Theodora Goss also notes similarities between the death of Helen Vaughan in Machen's novella and Lucy's death in "Dracula". Tibbetts also notes that Machen's portrayal of Helen Vaughan as demonic and hyper-sexual may have influenced a similar character, The Woman of Songs, in Richard Marsh's "The Beetle" (1897).


title: The Great God Pan

text: "The Great God Pan" was highly influential on the circle of writers around H. P. Lovecraft. The structure of Machen's story influenced the structure of Lovecraft's "The Call of Cthulhu" (1928). "Pan"s depiction of a monstrous half-human hybrid inspired the plot of Lovecraft's "The Dunwich Horror" (1929), which refers to Machen's novella by name. According to Lovecraft scholar Robert M. Price, "The Dunwich Horror' is in every sense an homage to Machen and even a pastiche. There is little in Lovecraft's wonderful story that does not come directly out of Machen's fiction." "Pan" also inspired Lovecraft to create his character Nodens who appears most prominently in "The Dream-Quest of Unknown Kadath" (1943).


title: The Great God Pan

text: Clark Ashton Smith was inspired by "The Great God Pan" to write his story "The Nameless Offspring" (1931), which also features a monstrous child born of a human and a supernatural entity. It has been suggested that Michael Arlen's novel "Hell! Said the Duchess" (1934) is a parody of "The Great God Pan", as Arlen was influenced by Machen's work. "The Great God Pan" influenced Peter Straub's novel "Ghost Story" (1979) in its depiction of a shapeshifting monster who terrifies those it encounters. Straub himself frequently credited "The Great God Pan" as having been a major influence on his work.


title: The Great God Pan

text: According to film historians Keith McDonald and Roger Clark, Mexican film director Guillermo del Toro's portrayal of the faun in his 2006 dark fantasy film "Pan's Labyrinth" was inspired by the "ambivalent and possibly dangerous" portrayals of Pan in late Victorian and early Edwardian novels, including Machen's "The Great God Pan" and "Pan's Garden" (1912) by Algernon Blackwood. Del Toro deliberately chose to imitate the darker, more sinister fauns of Machen and Blackwood rather than the "sweetly domesticated figure" of Mr. Tumnus from C. S. Lewis's "The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe" (1950). The original title of the film in Spanish is "El Laberinto del Fauno" ("The Labyrinth of the Faun"), but the English title "Pan's Labyrinth" emphasizes the connection between del Toro's film and the body of late nineteenth-century writings about Pan, including "The Great God Pan".


title: The Great God Pan

text: Stephen King wrote that his novella "N." from his story collection "Just After Sunset" (2008) is "a riff on Arthur Machen's "The Great God Pan"... Mine isn't anywhere near [as] good [as the original], but I loved the chance to put neurotic behavior—obsessive/compulsive disorder—together with the idea of a monster-filled macroverse." King has also cited Machen's novella as an influence on his novel "Revival" (2014). Similar to "Pan", "Revival" features an experiment on a young woman's brain which allows her to see into another world. Josh Malerman said "The Great God Pan" partly inspired his novel "Bird Box" (2014).


title: Open market operation

text: In macroeconomics, an open market operation (OMO) is an activity by a central bank to give (or take) liquidity in its currency to (or from) a bank or a group of banks. The central bank can either buy or sell government bonds (or other financial assets) in the open market (this is where the name was historically derived from) or, in what is now mostly the preferred solution, enter into a repo or secured lending transaction with a commercial bank: the central bank gives the money as a deposit for a defined period and synchronously takes an eligible asset as collateral.


title: Open market operation

text: Central banks usually use OMO as the primary means of implementing monetary policy. The usual aim of open market operations is—aside from supplying commercial banks with liquidity and sometimes taking surplus liquidity from commercial banks—to manipulate the short-term interest rate and the supply of base money in an economy, and thus indirectly control the total money supply, in effect expanding money or contracting the money supply. This involves meeting the demand of base money at the target interest rate by buying and selling government securities, or other financial instruments. Monetary targets, such as inflation, interest rates, or exchange rates, are used to guide this implementation.


title: Open market operation

text: In the post-crisis economy, conventional short-term open market operations have been superseded by major central banks by quantitative easing (QE) programmes. QE are technically similar open-market operations, but entail a pre-commitment of the central bank to conduct purchases to a predefined large volume and for a predefined period of time. Under QE, central banks typically purchase riskier and longer-term securities such as long maturity sovereign bonds and even corporate bonds.


title: Open market operation

text: The central bank maintains loro accounts for a group of commercial banks, the so-called direct payment banks. A balance on such a loro account (it is a nostro account in the view of the commercial bank) represents central bank money in the regarded currency.