title: Phronesis

text: Phronesis (), translated into English by terms such as prudence, practical virtue and practical wisdom, or, colloquially, sense (as in "good sense", "horse sense") is an ancient Greek word for a type of wisdom or intelligence relevant to practical action. It implies both good judgment and excellence of character and habits, and was a common topic of discussion in ancient Greek philosophy, in ways that are still influential today.


title: Phronesis

text: In Aristotelian ethics, for example in the "Nicomachean Ethics", the concept is distinguished from other words for wisdom and intellectual virtues – such as "episteme" and "techne" – because of its practical character. The traditional Latin translation was , the source of the English word "prudence". Among other proposals, Thomas McEvilley has proposed that the best translation is "mindfulness".


title: Phronesis

text: In some of Plato's dialogues, Socrates proposes that "phronēsis" is a necessary condition for all virtue. Being good, is to be an intelligent or reasonable person with intelligent and reasonable thoughts. "Phronēsis" allows a person to have moral or ethical strength.


title: Phronesis

text: In Plato's "Meno", Socrates explains how "phronēsis", a quality synonymous with "moral understanding", is the most important attribute to learn, although it cannot be taught and is instead gained through the development of the understanding of one's own self.


title: Phronesis

text: In the 6th book of his "Nicomachean Ethics", Plato's student and friend Aristotle famously distinguished between two intellectual virtues: "sophia" (wisdom) and "phronesis", and described the relationship between them and other intellectual virtues. "Sophia" is a combination of "nous", the ability to discern reality, and "epistēmē", which is concerned with things which "could not be otherwise... e.g., the necessary truths of mathematics" and is logically built up and teachable. This involves reasoning concerning universal truths. "Phronesis" involves not only the ability to decide how to achieve a certain end, but also the ability to reflect upon and determine good ends consistent with the aim of living well overall.


title: Phronesis

text: Aristotle points out that although "sophia" is higher and more serious than "phronesis", the highest pursuit of wisdom and happiness requires both, because "phronesis" facilitates "sophia". He also associates "phronesis" with political ability.


title: Phronesis

text: According to Aristotle's theory of rhetoric, "phronesis" is one of the three types of appeal to character ("ethos"). The other two are respectively appeals to "arete" (virtue) and "eunoia" (goodwill).


title: Phronesis

text: Gaining "phronesis" requires experience, according to Aristotle who wrote that:...although the young may be experts in geometry and mathematics and similar branches of knowledge ["sophoi"], we do not consider that a young man can have Prudence ["phronimos"]. The reason is that Prudence ["phronesis"] includes a knowledge of particular facts, and this is derived from experience, which a young man does not possess; for experience is the fruit of years.


title: Phronesis

text: "Phronesis" is concerned with particulars, because it is concerned with how to act in particular situations. One can learn the principles of action, but applying them in the real world, in situations one could not have foreseen, requires experience of the world. For example, if one knows that one should be honest, one might act in certain situations in ways that cause pain and offense; knowing how to apply honesty in balance with other considerations and in specific contexts requires experience.


title: Phronesis

text: Aristotle holds that having "phronesis" is both necessary and sufficient for being virtuous; because "phronesis" is practical, it is impossible to be both "phronetic" and akratic; i.e., prudent persons cannot act against their "better judgement".


title: Phronesis

text: Pyrrhonism denies that the existence and value of "phronesis" has been demonstrated. The Pyrrhonist philosopher Sextus Empiricus explained the problem of "phronesis" as follows:


title: Phronesis

text: Thus, insofar as it is up to his phronesis, the wise man does not acquire self-control, or if he does, he is the most unfortunate of all, so that the art of living has


title: Phronesis

text: would seem to be idly pretentious in what is termed the "ethics" part of their so-called "philosophy".


title: Phronesis

text: In light of his fundamental ontology, Martin Heidegger interprets Aristotle in such a way that "phronesis" (and practical philosophy as such) is the original form of knowledge and thus primary to "sophia" (and theoretical philosophy).


title: Phronesis

text: Heidegger interprets the "Nicomachean Ethics" as an ontology of Human Existence. The practical philosophy of Aristotle is a guiding thread in his Analysis of Existence according to which "facticity" names our unique mode of being-in-the-world. Through his "existential analytic", Heidegger recognises that "Aristotelian phenomenology" suggests three fundamental movements of life including "póiesis", "práxis", "theoría", and that these have three corresponding dispositions: "téchne", "phrónesis" and "sophía". Heidegger considers these as modalities of Being inherent in the structure of "Dasein" as being-in-the-world that is situated within the context of concern and care. According to Heidegger phronesis in Aristotle's work discloses the right and proper way to "Dasein". Heidegger sees phronesis as a mode of comportment in and toward the world, a way of orienting oneself and thus of caring-seeing-knowing and enabling a particular way of being concerned.


title: Phronesis

text: While "techne" is a way of being concerned with things and principles of production and theoria a way of being concerned with eternal principles, phronesis is a way of being concerned with one's life (qua action) and with the lives of others and all particular circumstances as purview of praxis. Phronesis is a disposition or habit, which reveals the being of the action while deliberation is the mode of bringing about the disclosive appropriation of that action. In other words, deliberation is the way in which the phronetic nature of "Dasein’s" insight is made manifest.


title: Phronesis

text: Phronesis is a form of circumspection, connected to conscience and resoluteness respectively being-resolved in action of human existence ("Dasein") as "práxis". As such it discloses the concrete possibilities of being in a situation, as the starting point of meaningful action, processed with resolution, while facing the contingencies of life.


title: Phronesis

text: However Heidegger's ontologisation has been criticised as closing "práxis" within a horizon of solipsistic decision that deforms its political sense that is its practico-political configuration (Volpi, 2007).


title: Phronesis

text: Phronesis according to Kristjansson, Fowers, Darnell and Pollard phronesis is about making decisions in regards to moral events or circumstances. There is recent work to bring back the virtue of practical judgement to overcome disagreements and conflicts in the form of Aristotle’s phronesis. In Aristotle’s work, phronesis is the intellectual virtue that helps turn one’s moral instincts into practical action by inculcating the practical know-how to translate virtue in thought into concrete successful action and this will produce phronimos by being able to weigh up the most integral parts of various virtues and competing goals in moral situations. Moral virtues helps any person to achieve the end, phronesis, is what it takes to figure out the right means to gain that end. Without moral virtues, phronesis degenerates into a inability to make those practical actions in regards to committing to those ends that are genuine goods for man and without phronesis we may be lost in regards to exercising decisive judgment on any moral matter. The concept of phronesis includes the telos that is the "well-being for all in society." The common wisdom model was developed by Grossmann, Weststrate, Ardelt et al as explaining the foundation for making moral functioning to occur and by strategy for fitting it to the context of the situation at hand, using major scholars research on the idea that wisdom is best described as morally-grounded excellence in social-cognitive processing, by empirical wisdom scientists. Moral grounding is what the researchers found that the following is the moral basis: "balance of self-interests and other interests, pursuit of truth (as opposed to dishonesty), and orientation toward shared humanity". And secondly it means excellence in social cognitive processing: "context adaptability (e.g. practical or pragmatic reasoning, optimization of behavior towards achieving certain outcomes),


title: Phronesis

text: perspectivism (e.g. considering diverse perspectives, foresight and long-term thinking), dialectical and reflective thinking (e.g. balancing and integrating points of view, entertaining opposites) and epistemic modesty (e.g. unbiased/accurate thinking, looking through illusions, understanding your own limitations)."


title: Phronesis

text: In "After Virtue", Alasdair MacIntyre called for a phronetic social science. He points out that for every prediction made by a social scientific theory there are usually counter-examples. Hence the unpredictability of human beings and human life requires a focus on practical experiences.


title: Phronesis

text: The psychologist Heiner Rindermann uses in his book "Cognitive Capitalism" the term "phronesis" for describing a rational approach of thinking and action: "a circumspect and thoughtful way of life in a rational manner" (p. 188). Intelligence is supporting such a "burgher" lifestyle.


title: Danish India

text: Danish India () was the name given to the colonies of Denmark (Denmark–Norway before 1814) in India, forming part of the Danish colonial empire. Denmark–Norway held colonial possessions in India for more than 200 years, including the town of Tharangambadi in present-day Tamil Nadu state, Serampore in present-day West Bengal, and the Nicobar Islands, currently part of India's union territory of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. The Danish and Norwegian presence in India was of little significance to the major European powers as they presented neither a military nor a mercantile threat. Dano-Norwegian ventures in India, as elsewhere, were typically undercapitalised and never able to dominate or monopolise trade routes in the same way that British, French, and Portuguese ventures could.


title: Danish India

text: Despite these disadvantages, the Danish-Norway concerns managed to cling to their colonial holdings and, at times, to carve out a valuable niche in international trade by taking advantage of wars between larger countries and offering foreign trade under a neutral flag. For this reason their presence was tolerated for many years until the growth in British naval power led to the occupation and forced sale of the Danish holdings during the nineteenth century.


title: Danish India

text: The success of Dutch and English traders in the 17th century spice trade was a source of envy among Danish and Norwegian merchants. On March 17, 1616, Christian IV the King of Denmark-Norway, issued a charter creating a Danish East India Company with a monopoly on trade between Denmark-Norway and Asia for 12 years. It would take an additional two years before sufficient capital had been raised to finance the expedition, perhaps due to lack of confidence on the part of Danish investors. It took the arrival of the Dutch merchant and colonial administrator, Marchelis de Boshouwer, in 1618 to provide the impetus for the first voyage. Marcelis arrived as an envoy (or at least claimed to do so) for the emperor of Ceylon, Cenerat Adassin, seeking military assistance against the Portuguese and promising a monopoly on all trade with the island. His appeal had been rejected by his countrymen, but it convinced the Danish King.


title: Danish India

text: The first expedition set sail in 1618 under Admiral Ove Gjedde, taking two years to reach Ceylon and losing more than half their crew on the way. Upon arriving in May 1620, they found the Emperor no longer desiring any foreign assistance — having made a peace agreement with the Portuguese three years earlier. Nor, to the dismay of the Admiral, was the Emperor the sole, or even the "most distinguished king in this land".


title: Danish India

text: Failing to get the Dano-Norwegian-Ceylonese trade contract confirmed, the Dano-Norwegians briefly occupied the Koneswaram Temple before receiving word from their trade director, Robert Crappe.


title: Danish India

text: Crappe had sailed on the scouting freighter "Øresund" one month before the main fleet. "Øresund" had attacked Portuguese vessels off the coast of Karaikal and was himself sunk, with most of the crew killed or taken prisoner. The heads of two crew members were placed on spikes on the beach as a warning to the Dano-Norwegians. Crappe and 13 of the crew had escaped the wreck, making it to shore where they were captured by Indians and taken to the Nayak of Tanjore (now Thanjavur in Tamil Nadu). The Nayak turned out to be interested in trading opportunities, and Crappe negotiated a treaty granting them the village of Tranquebar (or Tharangamabadi), the right to construct a "stone house" (Fort Dansborg), and permission to levy taxes. This was signed on 20 November 1620.


title: Danish India

text: The early years of the colony were arduous, with poor administration and investment, coupled with the loss of almost two-thirds of all the trading vessels dispatched from Denmark. The ships that did return made a profit on their cargo, but total returns fell well short of the costs of the venture. Moreover, the geographical location of the colony was vulnerable to high tidal waves that repeatedly destroyed what people built — roads, houses, administrative buildings, markets, etc. Although the intention had been to create an alternative to the English and Dutch traders, the dire financial state of the company and the redirection of national resources towards the Thirty Years' War led the colony to abandon efforts to trade directly for themselves and, instead, to become neutral third party carriers for goods in the Bay of Bengal.


title: Danish India

text: By 1625 a factory had been established at Masulipatnam (present-day Krishna district of Andhra Pradesh), the most important emporium in the region. Lesser trading offices were established at Pipli and Balasore. Despite this, by 1627 the colony was in such a poor financial state that it had just three ships left and was unable to pay the agreed-upon tribute to the "Nayak", increasing local tensions. The Danish-Norwegian presence was also unwanted by English and Dutch traders. They saw the Danes and Norwegians as benefitting from the protection of their navies, without bearing any of the cost. However, the English and Dutch could make no moves to decisively quash the Danish-Norwegian trade, owing to the entanglement of all these trading nations in wars in Europe—most notably, the Thirty Years' War; the consequent ramifications to each nation's foreign policy effectively muted the English and Dutch reactions.


title: Danish India

text: The lack of financial return led to repeated efforts by the major stockholders of the company to have it dissolved. The King, Christian IV, resisted these efforts until his death in 1648. Two years later his son, Frederick III, abolished the company.


title: Danish India

text: Although the company had been abolished, the colony was a royal property and still held by a garrison unaware of court developments back at home. As the number of Danes-Norwegians declined through desertions and illness, Portuguese and Portuguese-Indian natives were hired to garrison the fort until eventually, by 1655, Eskild Anderson Kongsbakke was the commander and sole remaining Dane in Tranquebar.


title: Danish India

text: An illiterate commoner, Kongsbakke was loyal to his country and successfully held the fort under a Danish-Norwegian flag against successive sieges by the Nayak for non-payment of tribute, whilst seizing ships in the Bay of Bengal. Using the proceeds of the sale of their goods to repair his defenses, he built a wall around the town and negotiated a settlement with the Nayak.


title: Danish India

text: Kongsbakke's reports, sent to Denmark via other European vessels, finally convinced the Danish-Norwegian government to relieve him. The frigate "Færø" was dispatched to India, commanded by Capt Sivardt Adelaer, with an official confirmation of his appointment as colony leader. It arrived May 1669 — ending 19 years of isolation.


title: Danish India

text: Trade between Denmark-Norway and Tranquebar now resumed, a new Danish East India Company was formed, and several new commercial outposts were established, governed from Tranquebar: Oddeway Torre on the Malabar coast in 1696, and Dannemarksnagore, southeast of Chandernagore in 1698. The settlement with the Nayak was confirmed and Tranquebar was permitted to expand to include three surrounding villages.


title: Danish India

text: During the Napoleonic Wars, Denmark-Norway practiced a policy of armed neutrality whilst carrying French and Dutch goods from the Dutch East Indies to Copenhagen. This led to the English Wars during which Britain destroyed the Danish-Norwegian fleet, devastated the Danish East India Company's India trade, and occupied Dansborg, Balasore and Frederiksnagore from 1801 to 1802, and again, from 1808 to 1815. In 1814 Norway gained independence from Denmark.


title: Danish India

text: Italy made an attempt at buying the Nicobar Islands from Denmark between 1864 and 1868. In an attempt to gain colonies for the nascent kingdom, the Nicobar Islands were a prospect since it was about to be vacated by the Danes anyway. Biago Caranti, subordinate to the Italian Minister of Agriculture and Commerce Luigi Torelli, first proposed the idea in his report to Torelli in 1865, where he mentioned that apart from establishing a penal colony, the islands were also valuable due to their location and potential for growing tobacco plantations. Such a distant outpost would also bring prestige to the Italian State. Torelli started a negotiation that looked promising, but failed due to the unexpected end of his Office and the first La Marmora Cabinet. The negotiations were interrupted and never brought up again.


title: Danish India

text: The Danish colonies went into decline, and the British ultimately took possession of them, making them part of British India: Serampore was sold to the British in 1839, and Tranquebar and most minor settlements in 1845 (11 October 1845 Frederiksnagore sold; 7 November 1845 other continental Danish India settlements sold); on 16 October 1868 all Danish rights to the Nicobar Islands, which since 1848 had been gradually abandoned, were sold to Britain. The islands were formally annexed by Britain in 1869.


title: Danish India

text: After the Danish colony of Tranquebar was ceded to the British, it lost its special trading status and had its administrative roles transferred to Nagapattinam. The town rapidly dwindled in importance, although the expansion of the British into South India led to Tranquebar becoming a hub for missionary activity for some time and a place particularly known for training native priests. By the end of the 19th century, the mission established by Ziegenbalg was functioning entirely independently and lives on today as the Tamil Evangelical Lutheran Church.


title: Danish India

text: Now primarily a fishing village, the legacy of the Dano-Norwegian colonial presence is entirely local but can be seen in the architecture of the small town that lies within the boundaries of the old (and long gone) city walls. In fact, journalist Sam Miller describes the town as the most recognisably European of the former colonial settlements.


title: Danish India

text: Although only a handful of colonial buildings can be definitely dated to the Danish era, many of the town's residential buildings are in classical styles that would not be dissimilar to those of the era and that contribute to the historic atmosphere. The remaining Dano-Norwegian buildings include a gateway inscribed with a Danish Royal Seal, a number of colonial bungalows, two churches and principally – the Dansborg Fort, constructed in 1620. The Fort was declared a protected monument by the Government of Tamil Nadu in 1977 and now houses a museum dedicated to the Dano-Norwegians in India.


title: Danish India

text: There are no known descendants of the Dano-Norwegian settlers in or around the town. Since 2001, Danes have been active in mobilising volunteers and government agencies to purchase and restore Danish colonial buildings in Tranquebar. St. Olav's Church, Serampore still stands.


title: Stephen Fulton (boxer)

text: Stephen Fulton Jr. (born July 17, 1994) is an American professional boxer. He is the unified super bantamweight world champion, having held the WBO title since January 2021 and the WBC title since November 2021. He previously held the IBO super bantamweight title in 2019.


title: Stephen Fulton (boxer)

text: As of December 2021, he is ranked as the #1 junior featherweight by Transnational Boxing Rankings Board, "The Ring", and Boxrec.


title: Stephen Fulton (boxer)

text: Fulton made his professional debut against the journeyman Issac Badger on October 14, 2014. He won the fight by a second-round technical knockout. Immediately after this victory, Fulton signed with Premier Boxing Champions. Over the course of the following five years, Fulton amassed a 15-0 record with 6 stoppage victories.


title: Stephen Fulton (boxer)

text: Fulton was scheduled to challenge Paulus Ambunda for the IBO super bantamweight title on May 11, 2019 at the EagleBank Arena in Fairfax, Virginia, United States. Fulton dominated throughout the bout and scored a knockdown over the Namibian champion in the eight round. Although Fulton was unable to finish his opponent, he won the fight by a wide unanimous decision, with all three judges scoring the fight 120–107 in his favor.


title: Stephen Fulton (boxer)

text: Fulton moved up in weight for his next fight, as he was scheduled to face Isaac Avelar in a 124 lbs catchweight bout. The fight was set for August 24, 2019, at the Bert Ogden Arena in Edinburg, Texas, United States. Fulton won the fight with a body shot in the sixth round of the ten round bout. Fulton called for a title unification fight with either Brandon Figueroa or Daniel Roman in his post-fight interview, stating "...Figueroa does not want to fight me and if he does, he will get stopped in the mid rounds. If me and Danny Roman fight, it will be explosive but the same thing will happen, he will get stopped".


title: Stephen Fulton (boxer)

text: Fulton was scheduled to face the unbeaten Arnold Khegai on January 25, 2020 at the Barclays Center in New York City, United States. The fight was for the vacant WBO Inter-Continental super bantamweight belt, as well as the status of the WBO super bantamweight mandatory title challenger. Khegai took the center of the ring for the first four rounds, while Fulton remained passive and attempted to outfight. Fulton was more active from the fifth round onward, dictating the subsequent rounds. He won the fight by unanimous decision, with two judges awarding him a 117–111 scorecard, while the third judge scored the fight 116–112 in his favor.


title: Stephen Fulton (boxer)

text: His victory against Khegai earned Fulton the right to challenge the reigning WBO champion Emanuel Navarrete. However, on July 11, 2020, Navarrete vacated the super bantamweight title in order to move up to featherweight. Fulton was scheduled to face Angelo Leo for the vacant WBO super bantamweight title on August 1, 2020. On July 29, 2020, Fulton and two members of his team tested positive for COVID-19, forcing him to withdraw from the title fight. Leo was rescheduled to face Tramaine Williams, whom he beat by unanimous decision. On December 20, 2020, it was announced that Angelo Leo would make the first defense of his WBO super bantamweight title against Fulton. The fight was scheduled as the main event of a triple-header set for January 23, 2021, at the Park Theater in Las Vegas, Nevada, United States. Leo appeared slower and less powerful than Fulton, who won almost every round of the bout. Fulton won the fight by unanimous decision, with scores of 118–110, 119–109 and 119–109.


title: Stephen Fulton (boxer)

text: Fulton was scheduled to face the WBC super bantamweight titlist Brandon Figueroa in a title unification bout on September 18, 2021, at the Park Theater in Las Vegas, Nevada, United States. The fight was originally set for September 11, but was pushed back a week, as PBC required a new main event following the negotiation breakdown between Canelo Alvarez and Caleb Plant. The fight was once again postponed on September 8, as Figueroa tested positive for COVID-19. The fight was rescheduled for November 27, 2021. Fulton entered the bout as a -340 favorite to win the bout. Fulton won by twelve rounds majority decision, with scores of 114-114 and two 116-112's for him. Figueroa out-landed Fulton 314 to 269 in total punches, although Fulton was the more accurate boxer, landing 37% of his punches to Figueroa's 29.6%. The majority of media members scored the fight in Fulton's favor.


title: Stephen Fulton (boxer)

text: It was revealed on March 6, 2022, that Fulton would make his first title defense as a unified champion against Daniel Roman, who was at the time the WBC mandatory super bantamweight title challenger, as well as the #1 ranked WBO super bantamweight contender. Fulton's first title defense as a unified champion headlined a Showtime broadcast card, which took place on 4 June 2022, at the Minneapolis Armory in Minneapolis, Minnesota. Fulton justified his role as the -550 betting favorite, as he won the fight by a wide unanimous decision in front of a sold out crowd of 4,695. Judges Mike Fitzgerald and Patrick Morley scored the fight 120–108 for Fulton, while judge Nathan Palmer awarded Fulton a 119–109 scorecard. He out-landed Roman 218 to 113 in total punches (with a 36% accuracy rate) and 112 to 68 in power punches (with a 46% accuracy rate). Fulton called out the WBA (Super) and IBF super bantamweight champion Murodjon Akhmadaliev in his post-fight interview, stating: "You already know what’s next. I want [Murodjon Akhmadaliev]. I got to finish this up.".


title: Stephen Fulton (boxer)

text: On November 9, 2022, the WBC formally approved Fulton's petition to face Brandon Figueroa for the interim WBC featherweight championship. As the reigning featherweight champion Rey Vargas moved up in weight to contest the vacant super featherweight title, the interim title fight would be promoted to undisputed, should Vargas stay at a higher weight class. Fulton and Figueroa faced each other a year prior in a unified title bout, with Fulton winning by majority decision.


title: Volvo Amazon

text: The Volvo Amazon was a mid-sized car manufactured and marketed by Volvo Cars from 1956 to 1970 and introduced in the United States as the "122S" at the 1959 New York International Auto Show.


title: Volvo Amazon

text: The Amazon shared the wheelbase, tall posture and high H-point seating of its predecessor, the PV444/544, and was offered in two-door sedan, four-door sedan, and five-door wagon body styles — all noted for their "ponton" styling. In 1959 Volvo became the world's first manufacturer to provide front seat belts as standard equipment — by providing them on all Amazon models, including the export models — and later becoming the first car featuring three-point seat belts as standard equipment.


title: Volvo Amazon

text: When introduced, the car was named the Amason (with an 's'), deriving from the fierce female warriors of Greek mythology, the Amazons. German motorcycle manufacturer Kreidler had already registered the name, and the two companies agreed that Volvo could only use the name domestically (i.e., within Sweden), modifying the spelling to Amazon. Subsequently, Volvo began its tri-digit nomenclature and the line became known as the 120 Series.


title: Volvo Amazon

text: The Amazon was originally manufactured at Volvo's Lundby plant in Gothenburg and subsequently at the company's Torslandaverken plant, which began operating in 1964. By the end of production, 234,653 four-door models, 359,917 two-door models and 73,220 station wagons had been produced, of which 60% were exported; for a total of 667,791 vehicles.


title: Volvo Amazon

text: The Amazon sedan's ponton genre, three-box styling was inspired by US cars of the early 1950s, strongly resembling the Chrysler New Yorker sedan and the Chrysler 300C hardtop Coupe. According to designer Jan Wilsgaard, the Amazon's styling was inspired by a Kaiser he saw at the Gothenburg harbour.


title: Volvo Amazon

text: The Amazon featured strong articulation front to rear, pronounced "shoulders", and slight but visible tailfins. These features became inspiration for Peter Horbury when reconceiving Volvo's design direction with the V70 after decades of rectilinear, slab-sided, boxy designs.


title: Volvo Amazon

text: The Amazon's bodywork was constructed of phosphate-treated steel (to improve paint adhesion) and with heavy use of undercoating and anti-corrosive oil treatment.


title: Volvo Amazon

text: The station wagon (estate) version was introduced at the 1962 Stockholm Auto Show, and Volvo manufactured 73,000 examples between 1962 and 1969. The Amazon estate featured a two-piece tailgate, with the lower section folding down to provide a load surface and the upper section that hinged overhead. The vehicle's rear license plate, attached to the lower tailgate, could fold "up" such that when the tailgate was lowered and the vehicle in use, the license plate was still visible. This idea was used by the original 1959 Mini. In recent years a similar arrangement was used on the tailgate of the Subaru Baja.


title: Volvo Amazon

text: Under prototype designation 1200, following the PV444's internal designation as the 1100, the Amazon was released in the press in February 1956, with production initially set to begin in July of the same year, and deliveries commenced in August 1956 — under the now modified internal designation 120 series. Further iterations included the 121, the base model with a single carburetor engine, the 122S introduced in 1958 as a performance model equipped with a dual carburetor engine. The Amazon's handbrake location, outboard of the driver's seat, was intended to accommodate subsequent bench seat models with column shift transmissions- these were produced in small numbers and made available to certain export markets. Buyers began to receive the first cars in February 1957, and initial models were two-tone red and black with light gray roof, light grey with a black roof, followed by a dark blue with gray roof in 1958.


title: Volvo Amazon

text: In 1966 the Volvo PV ended production, replaced by the Amazon , a less expensive version of the Amazon, without exterior chrome trim, a passenger-side sunshield or cigarette lighter, and with a three-speed rather than four-speed transmission — available in black with red interior and later white or black with red interior. The newer Volvo 140 was becoming the company's mainstream model, and the last of the four-door 120 saloons were produced in 1967. In 1967 came the 123GT, which was a Model 130 with high-compression four-cylinder B18B engine (from the Volvo P1800), M41 gearbox, fully reclining seats, front fog and driving lights (on some markets), alternator, fender mounted mirrors, special steering wheel, dash with a shelf and tachometer, and other cosmetic upgrades. In 1969 the displacement of the old B18 engine was increased and the engine was called the B20. Of note: Volvo Cars arriving in Canada at the port of Halifax, Nova Scotia would have the (not-yet-legal) radial tires removed and replaced with bias-ply tires of-the-day before being accepted by DOT for delivery. Also, the European 'Flash-to-Pass' feature of the turn signal toggle would be disconnected for the British market as it did not have Department of Transport approval. Somehow, whereas most North American vehicles would only have lap safety belts until 1968, both driver and passenger got the 'three-point' shoulder belts, a Volvo safety feature. Fortunately, these remained in place for the new owners and doubtless saving many from death and injury from accidents.


title: Volvo Amazon

text: Original specifications for the Amazon included the new Volvo B16 engine, a 3-speed manual gearbox (H6) and rear-wheel drive. In 1958 the sport model, "Amazon Sport", was released and later the same year the Amazon became the first series produced car with a three-point safety belt in the front seats as standard. In 1962, Volvo introduced a two-door version, a five-door wagon, and the new B18 engine, deleting two-tone paint and upholstery. In 1965 the Amazon color-coordinated embossed vinyl upholstery and door panels became available. The new gearbox selections were the three-speed M30 (briefly offered with an automatic electric clutch), the four-speed M40 and the M41 with four-speed and overdrive. The M31 gearbox was also introduced in 1961 but was only available that year (a three-speed fully synchronized gearbox with overdrive on both second and third direct gears). Gearbox options on the 121 were the M30, M31 and M40 while gearbox options on the 122S were the M40 and M41 gearboxes. In 1964 the Borg-Warner BW35 three-speed automatic transmission also became available on the four-door and two-door. From 1967 to 1968 the BW35 was also available on the five-door wagon.


title: The Rat Pack (film)

text: The Rat Pack is a 1998 American HBO made-for-television drama film about the Rat Pack. The movie stars Ray Liotta as Frank Sinatra, Joe Mantegna as Dean Martin, Don Cheadle as Sammy Davis, Jr., and Angus Macfadyen as Peter Lawford. Despite his membership in the Pack, Joey Bishop (played by Bobby Slayton) is given minimal screen time, while John F. Kennedy (played by William L. Petersen), depicted as an on-and-off friend of Sinatra's, is given a more central role.


title: The Rat Pack (film)

text: Also featured in supporting roles are Željko Ivanek as Bobby Kennedy, Veronica Cartwright as Rocky Cooper (wife of Gary Cooper), Deborah Kara Unger as Ava Gardner, Megan Dodds as May Britt, Dan O'Herlihy as Joseph Kennedy, Robert Miranda as Sam Giancana, John Diehl as Joe DiMaggio and Barbara Niven as Marilyn Monroe.


title: The Rat Pack (film)

text: Don Cheadle won a Golden Globe for his performance as Sammy Davis Jr. "The Rat Pack" won three Emmy awards and earned several more nominations, including acting ones for Cheadle and Mantegna.


title: The Rat Pack (film)

text: The main icon Frank Sinatra discusses the movie's main narrative begins during high points in the solo careers of the Rat Pack: Dean Martin was doing well without the help of the Rat Pack posy Jerry Lewis; Sinatra's career never dwindled and was actually doing better than ever during this moment; Sammy Davis Jr., is recovering not only his career, but his health after a car crash in which he lost an eyeball, and standup comic Joey Bishop is attempting to get his foot in the door by doing opening comedy acts. The Pack merges into one whole unite with actor Peter Lawford, who has been ostracized since being caught in the public eye with Sinatra's ex-wife, Ava Gardner.


title: The Rat Pack (film)

text: Lawford has married Patricia Kennedy. Abandoning a notion to seduce Pat for his own amusement, Sinatra becomes more interested in her brother John F. Kennedy's political goals. He sincerely believes Jack Kennedy would be a great president, but he also feels having a close connection in the White House could majorly benefit his own public image. Sinatra arranges for the entire Pack to perform at a JFK campaign fund-raiser. Sinatra also knows Kennedy's infatuation with the opposite sex and introduces him to Marilyn Monroe, who begins seeing Kennedy behind the back of her husband, baseball star Joe DiMaggio.


title: The Rat Pack (film)

text: Kennedy's pompous father, Joseph P. Kennedy, feels Sinatra's mob ties might hurt Jack's chances of defeating Richard Nixon in the election. He insists that Sinatra help the campaign from behind the scenes only; hypocritically, he also asks Sinatra to use those same mob ties to pursue West Virginia unions' support Kennedy's way. They go on to combine their stage acts for joint performances. They even parlay their friendship into a movie collaboration, "Ocean's 11", working and playing together at the same time.


title: The Rat Pack (film)

text: Davis is sometimes secretly hurt by the racist jokes of their stage act, especially after his girlfriend, actress May Britt, insinuates that the rest of the Pack is laughing at him, not with him. Davis has a more serious brush with racism when he and Britt announce their engagement, which results in a mixed-marriage protest in front of Davis's hotel. Davis day-dreams about scaring the protesters away with a song and dance routine in which he wields a gun. But he concedes the possible political repercussions of an interracial marriage. He postpones the wedding to avoid hurting Sinatra, who had agreed to serve as best man. In the White House, President Kennedy seeks to renew his friendship with Sinatra. The two go sailing and plan for Kennedy to stay at Sinatra's Palm Springs residence during an upcoming West Coast presidential trip. Thrilled by the idea, Sinatra returns home and arranges for a guest compound to be built for Kennedy and his entourage.


title: The Rat Pack (film)

text: However, the FBI finds a potential mafia link to the White House through a woman, Judy Campbell, who shared phone calls, and possibly affairs, with both Kennedy and mob boss Sam "Momo" Giancana after being introduced by Sinatra to each. Kennedy's brother, attorney general Robert F. Kennedy, insists that the President cancel his stay at Sinatra's house and cut off all ties to the entertainer. This enrages Sinatra, who had sunk a lot of money and time into the renovation and had been at least partially responsible for Kennedy's being elected president. Sinatra takes out his wrath on Lawford, who as Kennedy's brother-in-law was Sinatra's direct link to the White House. Lawford finds himself repeatedly serving as a messenger between Sinatra and the Kennedys, including JFK's secret dalliances with Monroe, and he is sick of it. Lawford dreads delivering the news of Kennedy's decision to cancel his visit to Sinatra's house and stay instead with Bing Crosby, a Republican. A furious Sinatra physically throws Lawford out of his home and vows never to forgive him. The movie depicts this incident as the beginning of the end of the Rat Pack's influence in both politics and entertainment.


title: The Rat Pack (film)

text: The film received mixed reviews from critics. On Rotten Tomatoes, it holds a rating of 57% from 30 reviews with the consensus: "While it evokes its time period with a keen sense of swagger, "The Rat Pack" is troubled by uneven lead performances and fairly routine biopic trappings."


title: Hero Alom

text: Ashraful Hossen Alom (; born 20 January 1985), best known as Hero Alom (), is a Bangladeshi freelancer music video model and actor active on social media. He is not a member of Bangladesh film industry, though he works as an independent artist who shares videos in social platform. His YouTube channel subscriber is up to 1.47 Million.


title: Hero Alom

text: He is mostly known for his absurdist music videos which shows him dancing with random women, which he has become a target of online trolling and the subject of memes in Bangladesh and other South Asian countries. A Hindi play based on Alom, directed by NSD-graduate Mahesh Ruprao Ghodeswar, was staged in 2019, in Ahmedabad and Mumbai.


title: Hero Alom

text: Earlier in his life, Alom had been employed selling CDs and later started a satellite TV connection business. He began making music videos as a hobby. Some of his music videos went viral in 2015, and Alom became a popular target of online trolling and a popular subject of memes in Bangladesh. As of December 2018, Alom has acted in one feature film.


title: Hero Alom

text: In 2018 Alom decided to contest in 2018 Bangladeshi general election and he bought his candidature form for Bogra-4 constituency buying a Jatiya Party (E) nomination paper ahead of the 11th national elections, but Jatiya Party denied him nomination. Later, he sought his candidacy as an independent candidate. On 10 December High Court instructed Bangladesh Election Commission to accept his candidature form as the latter authority denied his candidature earlier and Alom contested in the election as an independent candidate. His candidacy drew so much media attention that, in 2018, he became the 2nd Bangladeshi only behind Khaleda Zia to be in the top 10 in the category of people in 2018 google search trend in Bangladesh.


title: Hero Alom

text: Eventually he lost in the election getting only 638 votes in his name and BNP candidate Mosharraf Hossain won the seat of that constituency.


title: Hero Alom

text: He was arrested in March 2019 for allegedly assaulting his wife for dowry.Alom had earlier assaulted her when she had protested against his “second marriage”, according to Sumi. Alom came home to Erulia village on the outskirts of the town on Monday night after two months and spoke to a woman on mobile phone for three hours, his wife said. According Sumi's father Saiful Alam, he rescued Sumi from Alom’s home on Tuesday night and took her to the hospital.In the police complaint, he alleged Alom also demanded Tk 200,000 in dowry from him.


title: Hero Alom

text: He was arrested again on August 6, 2022 by Dhaka Police for exploiting and disgrading old classical Bengali songs. He said, “The police picked me up at 6 am and kept me there for eight hours. They asked me why I sing Rabindra and Nazrul songs.” He was mainly arrested for making a music video from Rabindranath Tagore's song changing its original tone and lyrics. In response, Dhaka's chief detective Harun-or-Rashid said Alom was arrested for wearing the police uniform in his videos without proper permission. The chief detective added that they had also received several complaints against Alom for his take on old classical songs. “We received many complaints against him. (He) totally changed the (traditional) style (of singing)... He assured us that he won’t repeat this,” he said.


title: Hero Alom

text: Alom currently lives in Erulia, near Bogra, with his wife, Sadia Akter Sumi, and their children, Aalo and Kabir.


title: Hizbul Mujahideen

text: Hizbul Mujahideen, also spelled Hizb-ul-Mujahideen (, ), is an Islamist militant organization operating in the Kashmir region. Its goal is to separate Kashmir from India and merge it with Pakistan. It is one of the most important players that evolved the narrative of the Kashmir conflict from nationalism to radical jihad.


title: Hizbul Mujahideen

text: Founded in September 1989 as an umbrella group of Islamist militants, Hizbul Mujahideen quickly came under the control of Jamaat-e-Islami Kashmir – it is considered the military wing of Jamaat-e-Islami. It was supported, since its inception, by Pakistan's Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI). The organisation's headquarters is located in Muzaffarabad in Pakistani-administered Kashmir, with liaison offices in Islamabad and Rawalpindi, Pakistan's political capital and military headquarters respectively.


title: Hizbul Mujahideen

text: The group has claimed responsibility for multiple armed attacks in Kashmir. It has been designated a terrorist group by the European Union, India, Canada, and the United States. It remains a lawfully-operating organisation in Pakistan.


title: Hizbul Mujahideen

text: The efforts for the creation of the Hizbul Mujahideen go back to 1980, when Pakistani President Zia ul-Haq called the chief of Jamaat-e-Islami in Azad Kashmir, Maulana Abdul Bari, and asked for assistance in raising an insurgency in Indian-administered Kashmir. Zia said that he would be able to divert funds and resources from the American-sponsored war in Afghanistan for a conflict in Kashmir.


title: Hizbul Mujahideen

text: Bari travelled to the Kashmir Valley and met with the leaders of Jamaat-e-Islami Kashmir. Protracted negotiations continued for three years when finally, the founding amir of the Jamaat-e-Islami Kashmir, Maulana Saaduddin Tarabali, was invited for a meeting with Zia ul-Haq in May 1983. Saaduddin wanted complete operational control of the insurgency, with Pakistan's role limited to military training and financial support. Pakistan agreed albeit reluctantly, and a deal was struck. Maulana Saaduddin sent his own son as part of the first group of volunteers for military training.


title: Hizbul Mujahideen

text: However, the progress with Jamaat-e-Islami was sluggish. The ISI got frustrated with it and started looking for other options. It made contact with Jammu and Kashmir Liberation Front (JKLF) in 1984 and struck a deal with it in 1986. According to scholars, JKLF was only a short-term expedient for ISI, a means to spur Jamaat-e-Islami into action.


title: Hizbul Mujahideen

text: Some 10,000 militants were trained by July 1988, operating in fifty units, when an insurgency was launched. Operating under the JKLF banner were also a number of Islamist jihadi groups that owed loyalty to Jamaat-e-Islami: a group called "Zia Tigers" operating since 1987, "Al-Hamza" since 1988, "Hizbul Ansar" led by Muzaffar Shah, a largest and best organized group called "Ansarul Islam", and a subsidiary of it called "Al-Badr". According to Arif Jamal,


title: Hizbul Mujahideen

text: "this vast network of jihadi groups worked within the JKLF for many months; they were among the most active members of the insurgency."


title: Hizbul Mujahideen

text: to bring the various Islamist groups together and create a serious organisation parallel to the JKLF. "Hizbul Mujahideen" ("Party of holy warriors") was his chosen name for the new umbrella group.


title: Hizbul Mujahideen

text: While his efforts were under way, Ansarul Islam, which was under pressure from the Indian security forces, had also changed its name to "Hizbul Mujahideen". The two organisations operated in parallel for a few weeks, but merged in October 1989. Muhammad Ahsan Dar was chosen as the leader of the united group in this meeting, but Hilal Ahmed Mir (alias Nasirul Islam) of the former Ansarul Islam is said to have been elected as its amir later.


title: Hizbul Mujahideen

text: The launch of insurgency by JKLF in July 1988 alerted the members of the Jamaat-e-Islami Kashmir to the fact that "a new game has started". Informal relationships with the militant groups were strengthened, with various Jamaat members taking direct roles. The senior leadership of the Jamaat did not get involved, except for Syed Ali Shah Geelani, who worked with Muhammad Ahsan Dar in his personal capacity.


title: Hizbul Mujahideen

text: The ISI and the Jamaat-e-Islami of Azad Kashmir were intent on bringing Hizbul Mujahideen under the control of Jamaat-e-Islami Kashmir. A meeting was arranged in Kathmandu on 14 January 1990, with participants from the Jamaat organisations from Pakistan, Azad Kashmir and the Kashmir Valley. The Kashmiri Jamaat was resistant to direct involvement in the insurgency, saying that it would destroy the organisation and open it to Indian assault. But Syed Ali Shah Geelani dramatically appeared when the negotiations stalled and pushed the Jamaat into supporting the insurgency.


title: Hizbul Mujahideen

text: Having decided to participate in the militancy, states Arif Jamal, the Jamaat-e-Islami Kashmir moved to "decisive action, activating a decade of planning".


title: Hizbul Mujahideen

text: The constitution of Hizbul Mujahideen was finalised on 10 June 1990, under ISI direction. It allowed Jamaat-e-Islami Kashmir to nominate one of its members as the leader of the group, which, according to Arif Jamal, "virtually turned the organization into a subsidiary of Jamat-i-Islami". The Jamaat nominee was to be called the patron, who would nominate an amir, who would in turn nominate a chief commander. Jamaat appointed Mohammad Yusuf Shah, its district chief of Srinagar, as the patron of Hizb. He took the "nom de guerre" of "Syed Salahuddin", and quickly consolidated total control over the organisation.


title: Hizbul Mujahideen

text: In a power play, Ahsan Dar announced at a press conference in July 1990 that Hizbul Mujahideen had formed an alliance with Jamaat. This only served to strengthen Yusuf Shah's position and a weakening of his own. Hilal Ahmed Mir, who was Deobandi by persuasion, reacted against the announcement and ended up getting marginalised as well. He quit the group and set up a new one, which came to be called Jamiatul Mujahideen. Masood Sarfraz came again in September 1990 to consolidate the grouping. Tehreek-i-Jihad-i-Islami, another umbrella group formed in 1989, also merged with Hizbul Mujahideen and its leader Abdul Majeed Dar was appointed as the secretary general. After the completion of consolidation, Yusuf Shah alias Salahuddin left for Azad Kashmir, where he managed the group's relationship with the ISI as well as the Jamaat of Azad Kashmir.


title: Hizbul Mujahideen

text: By the time of its establishment, the organisation asserted a strength of over 10,000 armed cadres, the majority of whom were trained in Pakistan, with some having received training in Afghanistan during the Afghan Civil War. Heavily critical of all other actors who accepted or advocated for Kashmir's complete independence as the third option (as an alternative to merging with either India or Pakistan) in the Kashmir conflict, the group solely advocated for an outright integration of Kashmir with Pakistan. Paul Staniland, an American political scientist at the University of Chicago, notes that the organisation primarily mobilised through the Jamaat-e-Islami network, and initially represented a minority politico-religious ideology of theirs.


title: Hizbul Mujahideen

text: The organisation's first major strike is deemed to be the assassination of Maulvi Farooq Shah, the then Mirwaiz of Kashmir and chairman of the All Jammu and Kashmir Awami Action Committee, a coalition of disparate political parties in Jammu and Kashmir, on 21 May 1990. 21 people were killed in the clashes that ensued. The group gradually sought for a greater control of the socio-economic sphere of Kashmir and in June 1990 asked farmers to abstain from exporting their produce through "Hindu middlemen" in order to severe the link between the "local rich class" and their counterparts in the Indian state.


title: Hizbul Mujahideen

text: On 27 October 1990, the organisation adopted a resolution supporting the merger of Jammu and Kashmir with Pakistan.


title: Hizbul Mujahideen

text: The group grew and units were set up at the Jammu province by February 1991. Field intelligence units were also set up across different places. Cadre was extensively mobilised in the name of Islam The establishment of the Supreme Advisory Council followed by a student wing took place in spring 1991. The latter though became a separate organisation in its entirety, in June 1991, under the leadership of Nasir-ul-Islam, after it organised the kidnapping of a high-profile bureaucrat. After a 1991 merger with Tehreek-e-Jihad-e-Islami (TJI), which was backed by Jamaat, Hizb-ul-Mujahideen gained significant military might and its strength reached about 10,000 fighters.


title: Hizbul Mujahideen

text: By the end of March 1991, Hizbul Mujahideen demanded that the local government provides the list of all permanent residence certificates and that all non-residents leave the state within one month.


title: Hizbul Mujahideen

text: The first three years of the insurgency (1990–92) were dominated by the Jammu Kashmir Liberation Front (JKLF). Despite being supported by Pakistan, they under the renewed ideology of their new leaders shifted to a secular pro-independence stance and attracted huge support in the valley in their strategy to organise a mass-resistance, that would compel India to withdraw from Kashmir.


title: Hizbul Mujahideen

text: But, a lack of a social fabric among the new mass-recruits, (who often did not share a common ideology) coupled with an urban-centric focus led to the gradual weakening of JKLF. Indian counter-insurgency operations removed much of its leadership, wiping out its central control. Pakistan was also heavily incentivised by the popularisation of Jihadi sentiments in the Kashmiri youth; and utilised the situation to gain control over Kashmir. By 1991, ISI had begun to cease providing of funds to JKLF, (which stood its ground for independence of the territory) and were instead advocating splinter factions to break off and form their own militant groups after receiving due training in their territory. Subsequently, Hizbul Mujahideen came to be favoured by the ISI as a potentially valuable resource and finally, after JKLF rejected certain demands of nuancing their pro-independence stance; all of their erstwhile camps in Azad Kashmir were handed over to Hizbul Mujahideen. Jamaat also scoped the opportunity and choose to infiltrate Hizbul Mujahideen from within, by installing loyal members at key central positions. Numerous jihadi factions too departed from JKLF and were subsumed within Hizbul Mujahideen.


title: Hizbul Mujahideen

text: Soon enough, arrests by Indian forces necessitated a re-organisation of the central command and in the reshuffle, Ahsan Dhar, a moderate leader with an independent mind was asked to step down and Syed Salahuddin, a radical Jamaat loyalist, was appointed instead. Dar was soon expelled by Salahuddin loyalists in late 1991 and formed a splinter group-- "Muslim Mujahideen", which quickly fell apart after his arrest in 1993. An overall restructuring to enable a collective, hierarchical and institutionalised leadership along the lines of Jamaat soon followed which lend a much-needed organisational strength that lacked JKLF. Hizbul Mujahideen also managed to increase their penetration into the rural belt courtesy the utilisation of Jamaat's socio-religious authority and homogeneity. An implementation of Sunni culture in the ground-roots helped their cause further.


title: Hizbul Mujahideen

text: In the meanwhile, Hizb-ul Mujahideen rigidly opposed JKLF, all throughout and had rejected JKLF's nationalist agenda in favour of an Islamist one. There were increasing clashes with one another and the differences reached their peak by 1991, as it publicly opposed JKLF's agreement to a solution of the dispute without the aid of UN resolutions. Military clashes between JKLF and Hizbul Mujahideen became increasingly commonplace after the first such incident in April 1991 wherein a JKLF area commander was killed. It began to systematically target members of JKLF, killing them and intimidating others to defect. JKLF leaders had alleged Hizbul Mujahideen militants to be informers for the Indian forces and Amanullah Khan even complained of his cadres in Pakistan being coerced to join the ranks of Hizbul Mujahideen. Fuelled by resources from Pakistan State actors and Pakistan Jamaat; Hizbul Mujahideen also targeted other militant groups, killing hundreds while neutralising and disarming more than 7,000.


title: Hizbul Mujahideen

text: Hizbul Mujahideen also murdered several of the pro-independence intelligentsia with JKLF leanings. Some of these killings included Hriday Nath Wanchoo, a Kashmiri Pandit human rights advocate. Hizbul Mujahideen militant Ashiq Hussain Faktoo was convicted for his killing. Other prominent killings included Dr. Abdul Ahad Guru who was a cardiologist and JKLF ideologue, Mirwaiz Qazi Nisar and Mirwaiz Maulvi Farooq, Mohammed Maqbool Malik, Prof. Abdul Ahad Wani, Muhammad Sultan Bhat, Abdul Ghani Lone, and Abdul Majeed Dar.


title: Hizbul Mujahideen

text: Hizbul Mujahideen was instrumental in preventing the return of Kashmiri Pandits after their ethnic cleansing from the valley, Salahuddin spoke of them being Hindu agents whilst threatening to auction their properties. Many of operations of the outfit during 1994-95 were designed to polarise the masses along religious lines.


title: Hizbul Mujahideen

text: By 1994, many JKLF members had denounced militancy and some even joined state politics, which led to further splintering amongst JKLF and a complete yield of its military dominance to Hizbul Mujahideen which grew up to be the major force in Kashmir despite facing a much widespread and effective counter insurgency response from the Indian forces. This survival has been attributed to its widespread penetration across rural networks. By 1996, the arm-bearing factions of JKLF were entirely crushed and with other local insurgent factions having either disbanded or becoming defunct or having switched loyalties to the Indian cause; Hizbul Mujahideen was the sole militant group operating in the valley.


title: Hizbul Mujahideen

text: Analysts and academics though believe that Hizbul Mujahideen lacked popular support in the valley and that their aversion to pro-independence ideas and Sufi practices alienated many Kashmiris.


title: Hizbul Mujahideen

text: But roughly beginning the same time, Hizbul Mujahideen actually started to lose their popular influence in the valley. People from the fellow militant groups often aligned with the counter insurgency operations to avenge the Hizbul Mujahideen or protect themselves from the organisation, killing many Hizbul commanders in the process. They also imparted ground intelligence to the Indian forces; thus systematically degrading Hizbul Mujahideen's own networks. A simultaneous targeting of Jamaat's militants led to their revoking theirs open support for organisation, which destroyed the social fabric of Hizbul Mujahideen to a large extent. By the end of the 1990s; Hizbul Mujahideen was forced to go for a retreat. The Al-Badr faction split in 1998 due to a dislike of excessive interference by Jamaat.


title: Hizbul Mujahideen

text: In the following years, the group started to fragment as ISI pushed foreign extremists into Hizbul Mujahideen. Rivalries developed often leading to violence, and one such incident culminated in the killing of 21 people in a Pakistan administered Kashmir village in 1998. Several Hizbul Mujahideen members were increasingly displeased with ISI's manners of treating the Kashmiris and with more militants joining mainstream politics, they were pushed to the sidelines.


title: Hizbul Mujahideen

text: Starting April 2000, there were alleged parleys between Abdul Majid Dar, the Kashmir commander and other top leaders of Hizbul Mujahideen with Research and Analysis Wing (RAW) and Intelligence Bureau (IB) officials in Delhi and other venues; that led to the build-up of a ceasefire offer. Offensive counter-insurgency operations against the group were also reduced. On 24 July 2000, Dar, along with four other Hizb commander (some Hizb commanders didn't agree with Dar) made an unconditional ceasefire declaration for a span of 3 months, from the outskirts of Srinagar and asserted it to be backed by the consent of the local populace, who were surveyed. Majeed Dar had also apparently visited Pakistan before the announcement for consultations with the Hizbul Mujahideen Central Command. The ceasefire was welcomed and approved in India, near unanimously and was immediately ratified by the Pakistan-based commander Syed Salahuddin who until then was against any diplomatic resolution. The Pakistani government soon enough ordered its forward posts on the LOC, to abide by a no-shoot first policy.


title: Hizbul Mujahideen

text: A unit-commander from Pakistan-administered Kashmir in the Pir-Panjal area disagreed with the ceasefire and was expelled along with his faction; leading to a violent clash with the Pakistan Jamaat.


title: Hizbul Mujahideen

text: On the next day, United Jihad Council (UJC), a coalition of 16 radical Islamist organisations (that comprised Hizbul Mujahideen and was incidentally chaired by Salahuddin himself), severely criticised the ceasefire declaration. Hizbul Mujahideen was soon revoked of its council membership and Salahuddin lost his chair. Jamaat leaders too vociferously criticised the ceasefire declaration and alleged it to be an act of sabotage. LeT launched multiple attacks killing and injuring numerous civilians as a form of protest against the ceasefire declaration with an aim to derail it.


title: Hizbul Mujahideen

text: Two rounds of talks were smoothly held and a cricket match was played out between Indian armed forces and Hizbul Mujahideen. The Indian government did not agree to indulge with Pakistan and whilst Pakistani government initially maintained a neutral posture of abiding by the wishes of the Kashmiri populace, it later changed its stance and demanded a representation. Salahuddin then called off the talks on 8 August under flimsy pretexts; interpreting an address of Vajpayee to the Parliament as calling for a strict abidance of the Indian delegation to the Indian constitution. He also re-warned of more escalation and threatened to spill their activities over the rest of India; incidentally Hizbul Mujahideen's earlier stance was to wage war against the Indian occupation but not against India. The US State Department as well as the British Foreign Office blamed Hizbul Mujahideen for the failure of the process.


title: Hizbul Mujahideen

text: The ceasefire move, its immediate endorsement and subsequent withdrawal highlighted deep divisions between the more hawkish operatives in Pakistan-administered Kashmir and those based in India. Dar was soon removed from his role of military commander and in May 2002, he was formally expelled from the Hizb along with a number of supporters and commanders whilst being.denounced as an agent of Research and Analysis Wing (RAW). Dar and several other ex-leaders were assassinated by Hizbul Mujahideen between 2001 and 2003. By 2003, most key leaders of Hizbul Mujahideen were in Azad Kashmir and they were quite inactive in Kashmir; a fragmented Hizbul Mujahideen survived a total collapse but had metamorphosed into a vanguard group.


title: Hizbul Mujahideen

text: Yet, in 2004 it was still "regarded as one of the most influential groups involved in the conflict over Kashmir." As of 2009, it was supposedly "the brand name of the Kashmir militancy because of being the largest and the most important in terms of its effectiveness in perpetrating violence across Kashmir."


title: Hizbul Mujahideen

text: On 8 July 2016, Hizbul Mujahideen commander, Burhan Muzaffar Wani, along with 2 other insurgents were killed by Indian security forces. Widespread protests erupted in the Kashmir valley after Wani's death, causing unrest in the valley for nearly half a year. More than 96 people died while over 15,000 civilians and more than 4,000 security personnel were injured. The violence which erupted after his death was described as the worst unrest in the region since the 2010 Kashmir unrest, with Kashmir being placed under 53 consecutive days of curfews imposed by authorities.


title: Hizbul Mujahideen

text: Wani was succeeded by Sabzar Bhat, who had previously been a close aide of his. Indian security forces considered Bhat effective at using social media to recruit youth towards militancy. Indian security forces previously located him in Ruthsana, in March 2017, but he was able to evade them after a 15-hour gunfight that left one policeman dead.


title: Hizbul Mujahideen

text: Bhat was killed in May 2017 and subsequently buried in Pulwama. His death sparked clashes and a police-imposed curfew, during which a youth was killed in clashes with the Central Reserve Police Force. Internet and phone service across Kashmir was suspended in an attempt to calm the region. A previously unknown militant group, Mujahideen Taliban-e-Kashmir, claimed it had provided information on Bhat to security forces. The claim remains unverified, though some analysts suggested it reflected a growing schism between various militant groups in Kashmir, with members of Hizbul Mujahideen concerned that Zakir Musa may have betrayed Bhat.


title: Hizbul Mujahideen

text: Riyaz Naikoo, the Hizbul Mujahideen chief in Kashmir, was killed by Indian security forces on 6 May 2020. On 10 May 2020, Gazi Haider (aka Saifullah and Saif-ul-Islam Mir) was appointed the new operations commander. He was formerly the district commander of Hizbul Mujahideen in Pulwama. Soon after, on 19 May 2020, Ashraf Sehrai's son, Junaid Sehrai, 29, a Hizbul Mujaheddin commander, was killed by Indian security forces. On 1 November 2020, Ghazi Haider was killed in an operation, in Srinagar by Indian security forces, including the Jammu and Kashmir police's counterinsurgency Special Operations Group (SOG), the Central Reserve Police Force (CRPF), and soldiers from the Indian Army's 53rd Rashtriya Rifles.


title: Metaphysics (Aristotle)

text: Metaphysics (Greek: τὰ μετὰ τὰ φυσικά, "things after the ones about the natural world"; Latin: "Metaphysica") is one of the principal works of Aristotle, in which he develops the doctrine that is sometimes referred to as "Wisdom", sometimes as "First Philosophy", and sometimes as "Theology," in English. It is one of the first major works of the branch of western philosophy known as metaphysics.


title: Metaphysics (Aristotle)

text: It is a compilation of various texts treating abstract subjects, notably Being, different kinds of causation, form and matter, the existence of mathematical objects and the cosmos.


title: Metaphysics (Aristotle)

text: The "Metaphysics" is considered to be one of the greatest philosophical works. Its influence on the Greeks, the Muslim philosophers, Maimonides thence the scholastic philosophers and even writers such as Dante was immense. Aristotle gives an epistemology of causation: his theory of four causes to supplement the material and formal causes of earlier theories. Also his ontological theory of immanent realism critiqued Plato's theory of forms which Aristotle had studied as Plato's pupil at the Academy in Athens, in that its dialectic method of definition was unsuited to account for matter or change. The "physical method" of Democritus and the atomists, on the other hand, engaged a scientific method to facts and problems, but no direct inquiry into the nature of definitions. This reduced the essence of things to material configurations, with a chain of causal necessities depending ultimately on chance. Aristotle sought to combine the virtues of these two methods. His metaphysics is directed against unified systems like the dialectic idealism of Plato, which reduces philosophy to mathematics, or the materialism of Democritus, which reduces it to physics. His worldview is rooted in an analysis of natural language, common sense, and the observations gathered from the natural sciences. The result is a synthesis of the naturalism of empirical science, with a critical enquire into language, ontology and epistemology which has now informed intellectual traditions around the world for more than two thousand years.


title: Metaphysics (Aristotle)

text: At the heart of the book lie three questions. What is existence, and what sorts of things exist in the world? How can things continue to exist, and yet undergo the change we see about us in the natural world? And how can this world be understood?


title: Metaphysics (Aristotle)

text: By the time Aristotle was writing, the tradition of Greek philosophy was only two hundred years old. It had begun with the efforts of thinkers in the Greek world to theorize about the common structure that underlies the changes we observe in the natural world. Two contrasting theories, those of Heraclitus and Parmenides, were an important influence on both Plato and Aristotle.


title: Metaphysics (Aristotle)

text: Heraclitus emphasized the constantly changing nature of apparent reality. By contrast, Parmenides argued that we can reach certain conclusions by means of reason alone, making no use of the senses. What we acquire through the process of reason is fixed, unchanging and eternal. The world is not made up of a variety of things in constant flux, but of one single Truth or reality. Plato's theory of forms is a synthesis of these two views. Given, any object that changes is in an imperfect state. Then, the form of each object we see in this world is an imperfect reflection of the perfect form of the object. For example, Plato claimed a chair may take many forms, but in the perfect world there is only one perfect form of chair.


title: Metaphysics (Aristotle)

text: Aristotle encountered the theory of forms when he studied at the Academy, which he joined at the age of about 18 in the 360s BCE but its conception in the "Metaphysics" is re-elaborated. Aristotle thought that in every change there is something which persists (for example, Socrates), and something else which did not exist before, but comes into existence as a result of the change (musical Socrates). To explain how Socrates comes to be born (since he did not exist before he was born) Aristotle says that it is "matter" ("hyle") that underlies the change. The matter has the "form" of Socrates imposed on it to become Socrates himself. Thus all the things around us, "all substances", are composites of two radically different things: form and matter. This doctrine is sometimes known as Hylomorphism (from the Greek words for "matter" and "form").


title: Metaphysics (Aristotle)

text: Subsequent to the arrangement of Aristotle's works by scholars at Alexandria in the first century CE, a number of his treatises were referred to as τὰ μετὰ τὰ φυσικά ("ta meta ta physika"; literally, "the [writings] after the "Physics""). This is the origin of the title for collection of treatises now known as Aristotle's "Metaphysics". Some have interpreted the expression "τὰ μετὰ τὰ φυσικά" to imply that the subject of the work goes "beyond" that of Aristotle's "Physics" or that it is metatheoretical in relation to the "Physics". But others believe that "τὰ μετὰ τὰ φυσικά" referred simply to the work's place in the canonical arrangement of Aristotle's writings, which is at least as old as Andronicus of Rhodes or even Hermippus of Smyrna. Within the Aristotelian corpus itself, the metaphysical treatises are referred to as τὰ περὶ τῆς πρώτης φιλοσοφίας (literally, "the [writings] concerning first philosophy"); "first philosophy" was what Aristotle called the subjects of metaphysics. (He called the study of nature or natural philosophy "second philosophy" ("Metaphysics" 1037a15).)


title: Metaphysics (Aristotle)

text: It is notoriously difficult to specify the date at which Aristotle wrote these treatises as a whole or even individually, especially because the "Metaphysics" is, in Jonathan Barnes' words, "a farrago, a hotch-potch", and more generally because of the difficulty of dating "any" of Aristotle's writings.


title: Metaphysics (Aristotle)

text: In the manuscripts, books are referred to by Greek letters. The second book was given the title "little alpha," apparently because it appears to have nothing to do with the other books (and, very early, it was supposed not to have been written by Aristotle) or, although this is less likely, because of its shortness. This, then, disrupts the correspondence of letters to numbers, as book 2 is little alpha, book 3 is beta, and so on. For many scholars, it is customary to refer to the books by their letter names. Thus book 1 is called Alpha (Α); 2, little alpha (α); 3, Beta (Β); 4, Gamma (Γ); 5, Delta (Δ); 6, Epsilon (Ε); 7, Zeta (Ζ); 8, Eta (Η); 9, Theta (Θ); 10, Iota (Ι); 11, Kappa (Κ); 12, Lambda (Λ); 13, Mu (Μ); 14, Nu (Ν).


title: Metaphysics (Aristotle)

text: The order in which the books were written is not known; their arrangement is due to later editors. Based on a careful study of the content and of the cross-references within them, W. D. Ross concluded that books A, B, Γ, E, Z, H, Θ, M, N, and I "form a more or less continuous work", while the remaining books α, Δ, Κ and Λ were inserted into their present locations by later editors. However, Ross cautions that books A, B, Γ, E, Z, H, Θ, M, N, and I — with or without the insertion of the others — do not constitute "a complete work".


title: Metaphysics (Aristotle)

text: In the 20th century two general editions have been produced by W. D. Ross (1924) and by W. Jaeger (1957). Editing the "Metaphysics" has become an open issue in works and studies of the new millennium. New critical editions have been produced of the books Gamma (Myriam Hecquet, "Aristote, Métaphysique Gamma", Peeters 2008), Alpha (Oliver Primavesi, "Aristotle Metaphysics Alpha", OUP 2012), and Lambda (Silvia Fazzo, "Il libro Lambda della Metafisica di Aristotel"e, "Elenchos", Bibliopolis 2012, and Stefan Alexandru, "Aristotle's Metaphysics Lambda", Philosophia Antiqua, Brill 2014) books. Differences from their more-familiar 20th Century critical editions (W. D. Ross, 1924, W. Jaeger 1957) mainly depend on the stemma codicum of Aristotle's Metaphysics, of which different versions have been proposed since 1970 (Silvio Bernardinello, "Eliminatio codicum della Metafisica di Aristotele", Padua, Antenore, 1970), most remarkably by Dieter Harlfinger in 1979 ("Zur Überlieferungsgeschichte der Metaphysik", in Pierre Aubenque (ed.), "Essais sur la Métaphysique d'Aristote", Paris, Vrin, 1979).


title: Metaphysics (Aristotle)

text: Book I or Alpha outlines "first philosophy", which is a knowledge of the first principles or causes of things. The wise are able to teach because they know the "why" of things, unlike those who only know "that" things are a certain way based on their memory and sensations. Because of their knowledge of first causes and principles, they are better fitted to command, rather than to obey. Book Alpha also surveys previous philosophies from Thales to Plato, especially their treatment of causes.


title: Metaphysics (Aristotle)

text: Book II or "little alpha": The purpose of this chapter is to address a possible objection to Aristotle's account of how we understand first principles and thus acquire wisdom. Aristotle replies that the idea of an infinite causal series is absurd, and thus there must be a first cause which is not itself caused. This idea is developed later in book Lambda, where he develops an argument for the existence of God, whom he calls the prime or unmoved mover.


title: Metaphysics (Aristotle)

text: Book IV or Gamma: Chapters 2 and 3 argue for its status as a subject in its own right. The rest is a defense of (a) what we now call the principle of contradiction, the principle that it is not possible for the same proposition to be (the case) and not to be (the case), and (b) what we now call the principle of excluded middle: "tertium non datur" — there cannot be an intermediary between contradictory statements.


title: Metaphysics (Aristotle)

text: Book V or Delta ("philosophical lexicon") is a list of definitions of about thirty key terms such as cause, nature, one, and many.


title: Metaphysics (Aristotle)

text: Book VI or Epsilon has two main concerns. Aristotle is first concerned with a hierarchy of the sciences. As we know, a science can be either productive, practical or theoretical. Because theoretical sciences study being or beings for their own sake—for example, Physics studies beings that can be moved (1025b27)—and do not have a target (τέλος, end or goal; τέλειος, complete or perfect) beyond themselves, they are superior. The study of being "qua" being, or First Philosophy, is superior to all the other theoretical sciences because it is concerned the "ultimate" causes of "all" reality, not just the secondary causes of a part of reality. The second concern of Epsilon is proving that being (τὸ ὄν) considered "per accidens" (κατὰ συμβεβηκός) cannot be studied as a science. "Per accidens" being does not involve art (τέχνη), nor does exist by necessity ("per se" or καθ᾽ αὑτό), and therefore does not deserve to be studied as a science. Aristotle dismisses the study of the "per accidens" as a science fit for Sophists, a group whose philosophies (or lack thereof) he consistently rejects throughout the "Metaphysics".


title: Metaphysics (Aristotle)

text: Book Zeta begins with the remark that ‘Being’ has many senses. The purpose of philosophy is to understand being. The primary kind of being is what Aristotle calls "substance". What substances are there, and are there any substances besides perceptible ones? Aristotle considers four candidates for substance: (i) the ‘essence’ or ‘what it was to be a thing’ (ii) the Platonic universal, (iii) the genus to which a substance belongs and (iv) the substratum or ‘matter’ which underlies all the properties of a thing. He dismisses the idea that matter can be substance, for if we eliminate everything that is a property from what can have the property, we are left with something that has no properties at all. Such 'ultimate matter' cannot be substance. Separability and 'this-ness' are fundamental to our concept of substance.


title: Metaphysics (Aristotle)

text: Chapters 4–12 are devoted to Aristotle's own theory that "essence" is the criterion of substantiality. The essence of something is what is included in a "secundum se" ('according to itself') account of a thing, i.e. which tells what a thing is by its very nature. You are not musical by your very nature. But you are a human by your very nature. Your essence is what is mentioned in the definition of you.


title: Metaphysics (Aristotle)

text: Chapters 13–15 consider, and dismiss, the idea that substance is the universal or the genus, and are mostly an attack on the Platonic theory of Ideas. Aristotle argues that if genus and species are individual things, then different species of the same genus contain the genus as individual thing, which leads to absurdities. Moreover, individuals are incapable of definition.


title: Metaphysics (Aristotle)

text: Chapter 17 takes an entirely fresh direction, which turns on the idea that substance is really a cause.


title: Metaphysics (Aristotle)

text: Book Eta consists of a summary of what has been said so far (i.e., in Book Zeta) about substance, and adds a few further details regarding difference and unity.


title: Metaphysics (Aristotle)

text: Theta sets out to define potentiality and actuality. Chapters 1–5 discuss potentiality. We learn that this term indicates the potential (δύναμις, "dunamis") of something to change: potentiality is "a principle of change in another thing or in the thing itself qua other" (1046a9). In chapter 6 Aristotle turns to actuality. We can only know actuality through observation or "analogy;" thus "as that which builds is to that which is capable of building, so is that which is awake to that which is asleep...or that which is separated from matter to matter itself" (1048b1–4). Actuality is the completed state of something that had the potential to be completed. The relationship between actuality and potentiality can be thought of as the relationship between form and matter, but with the added aspect of time. Actuality and potentiality are diachronic (across time) distinctions, whereas form and matter are synchronic (at one time) distinctions.


title: Metaphysics (Aristotle)

text: Book XII or Lambda: Further remarks on beings in general, first principles, and God or gods. This book includes Aristotle's famous description of the unmoved mover, "the most divine of things observed by us", as "the thinking of thinking".


title: Metaphysics (Aristotle)

text: Many scholars believe that Aristotle's works as we have them today are little more than lecture notes.


title: Metaphysics (Aristotle)

text: Many of his works are extremely compressed and thus baffling to beginners. Nowhere is this more evident than in the "Metaphysics" — Ibn Sina (Avicenna), one of the greatest Medieval Islamic philosophers, said that he had read the "Metaphysics" of Aristotle forty times, but still did not understand it. Only later, after having read al-Farabi's, "Purposes of the Metaphysics of Aristotle", did he understand Aristotle's book.


title: Metaphysics (Aristotle)

text: In the 19th century, with the rise of textual criticism, the "Metaphysics" was examined anew. Critics, noting the wide variety of topics and the seemingly illogical order of the books, concluded that it was actually a collection of shorter works thrown together haphazardly. Werner Jaeger further maintained that the different books were taken from different periods of Aristotle's life. Everyman's Library, for their 1000th volume, published the "Metaphysics" in a rearranged order that was intended to make the work easier for readers.


title: Metaphysics (Aristotle)

text: With the Fall of Rome in the latter half of the 5th century, knowledge of, and access to "Metaphysics" was lost to the non-Greek speaking world. The translation of "Metaphysics" into Arabic in Baghdad in the 9th century led to a rediscovery of Aristotle's work in the Arabic speaking world. These Arabic translations derived from early Syriac translations from the original Greek (see Medieval Philosophy). The flourishing of Arabic Aristotelian scholarship reached its peak with the work of Ibn Rushd (Latinized: Averroes), whose extensive writings on Aristotle's work led to his later designation as "The Commentator" by future generations of scholars.


title: Metaphysics (Aristotle)

text: Maimonides wrote the Guide to the Perplexed in the 12th century, to demonstrate the compatibility of Aristotelian science with Biblical revelation.


title: Metaphysics (Aristotle)

text: The Fourth Crusade (1202-1204) facilitated the discovery and delivery of many original Greek manuscripts back to the European centers of learning. Finally, after over 700 years of obscurity, the work could finally be studied in the original and properly translated into Latin. One of the first Latin translations was made by William of Moerbeke. William's translations are literal, and were intended faithfully to reflect the Greek word order and style. These formed the basis of the commentaries of Albert the Great, Thomas Aquinas and Duns Scotus. They were also used by modern scholars for Greek editions, as William had access to Greek manuscripts that are now lost. Werner Jaeger lists William's translation in his edition of the Greek text in the Scriptorum Classicorum Bibliotheca Oxoniensis (Oxford 1962).


title: Bette Davis filmography

text: This is a complete filmography of Bette Davis. Davis began acting in films in 1931, initially as a contract player with Universal Studios, where she made her film debut in "Bad Sister". She was initially seen as unappealing by studio executives, and was assigned to a string of B-movies early in her career.


title: Bette Davis filmography

text: Davis made a transition to Warner Bros. in 1932, and made her breakthrough performance in "The Man Who Played God", opposite George Arliss. She continued in a succession of films, but did not gain further recognition until she agreed to star in John Cromwell's adaptation of the W. Somerset Maugham's "Of Human Bondage" on a loan-out to RKO. The role of Mildred Rogers had been rejected by several actresses, but Davis achieved critical acclaim for her performance. "Dangerous" (1935) became the first time she won an Academy Award for Best Actress.


title: Bette Davis filmography

text: In 1936, convinced her career would be ruined by appearing in mediocre films, Davis walked out on her Warner Brothers contract, and decided to make films in England. Davis explained her viewpoint to a journalist, saying: "I knew that, if I continued to appear in any more mediocre pictures, I would have no career left worth fighting for." She eventually settled her disagreements with Warner Brothers, and returned to the studio in 1937. During the time, she was one of the numerous actresses considered for the part of Scarlett O'Hara in David O. Selznick's film version of "Gone with the Wind", but she was not tested. Warner Brothers cast her in "Jezebel", as a reward for being turned down by Selznick. It was a critical and box office success, and earned her another Best Actress Academy Award.


title: Bette Davis filmography

text: Davis was at the peak of her career in the late 1930s and early-to-mid 1940s, at a time when she was one of the highest-paid actresses in Hollywood and turned down parts she found inferior. She received an Academy Award nomination for her performance in "Dark Victory", and earned acclaim for her performances in "The Old Maid" and "The Letter". Davis also earned acclaim for her portrayal of Elizabeth I of England in "The Private Lives of Elizabeth and Essex", with Errol Flynn and Olivia de Havilland. Davis later appeared in the melodrama "The Little Foxes", and in the comedy film "The Man Who Came to Dinner".


title: Bette Davis filmography

text: One of Davis' biggest successes at Warner Bros. was "Now, Voyager", which earned her another Academy Award nomination. Her later films for the studio, including "Winter Meeting" and "Beyond the Forest", failed at the box office. She turned down leading roles in "Mildred Pierce" and "Possessed" - both films eventually went to Joan Crawford. As her popularity waned, Warner Brothers dropped her contract in 1949, and from thereafter on, she occupied a freelance career.


title: Bette Davis filmography

text: Davis received a career revival in "All About Eve" for 20th Century-Fox. She played an aging Broadway star, Margo Channing, who is manipulated by an obsessed fan. The film was one of the biggest hits of 1950, and she was again nominated for an Academy Award, but lost to Judy Holliday. Although Davis earned strong reviews for her performance in "The Star", her career waned throughout the remainder of the decade.


title: Bette Davis filmography

text: In the 1960s, Davis received yet another revival in popularity. Although her appearance in "Pocketful of Miracles" was negatively received, she earned praise for her portrayal of the faded child star, Jane Hudson, in "What Ever Happened to Baby Jane?", which garnered her a final nomination for an Academy Award. She retained a cult status throughout the remainder of her career, and appeared in several other thriller films, such as "Hush...Hush, Sweet Charlotte" and "The Nanny".


title: Bette Davis filmography

text: Davis starred in her final film "Wicked Stepmother", although she felt about the poor script. The film had production problems, with Davis often quarreling with Larry Cohen, and she withdrew from the film shortly after production began. After fifty-eight years of acting, she made her final appearance.


title: Beacon

text: A beacon is an intentionally conspicuous device designed to attract attention to a specific location. A common example is the lighthouse, which draws attention to a fixed point that can be used to navigate around obstacles or into port. More modern examples include a variety of radio beacons that can be read on radio direction finders in all weather, and radar transponders that appear on radar displays.


title: Beacon

text: Beacons can also be combined with semaphoric or other indicators to provide important information, such as the status of an airport, by the colour and rotational pattern of its airport beacon, or of pending weather as indicated on a weather beacon mounted at the top of a tall building or similar site. When used in such fashion, beacons can be considered a form of optical telegraphy.


title: Beacon

text: Beacons help guide navigators to their destinations. Types of navigational beacons include radar reflectors, radio beacons, sonic and visual signals. Visual beacons range from small, single-pile structures to large lighthouses or light stations and can be located on land or on water. Lighted beacons are called "lights"; unlighted beacons are called "daybeacons". Aerodrome beacons are used to indicate locations of airports and helipads.


title: Beacon

text: Handheld beacons are also employed in aircraft marshalling, and are used by the marshal to deliver instructions to the crew of aircraft as they move around an active airport, heliport or aircraft carrier.


title: Beacon

text: Historically, beacons were fires lit at well-known locations on hills or high places, used either as lighthouses for navigation at sea, or for signalling over land that enemy troops were approaching, in order to alert defenses. As signals, beacons are an ancient form of optical telegraph and were part of a relay league.


title: Beacon

text: Systems of this kind have existed for centuries over much of the world. The ancient Greeks called them "phryctoriae", while beacons figure on several occasions on the column of Trajan.


title: Beacon

text: In ancient China, sentinels on and near the Great Wall of China used a sophisticated system of daytime smoke and nighttime flame to send signals along long chains of beacon towers.


title: Beacon

text: Legend has it that Zhōu Yōu Wáng, king of the Western Zhou dynasty, played a trick multiple times in order to amuse his often melancholy concubine, ordering beacon towers lit to fool his Marquess and soldiers. But when enemies, led by Marquess of Shen really arrived at the wall, although the towers were lit, no defenders came, leading to Yōu's death and the collapse of the Western Zhou dynasty.


title: Beacon

text: Thucydides wrote that during the Peloponnesian War, the Peloponnesians who were in Corcyra were informed by night-time beacon signals of the approach of sixty Athenian vessels from Lefkada.


title: Beacon

text: In the 10th century, during the Arab–Byzantine wars, the Byzantine Empire used a beacon system to transmit messages from the border with the Abbasid Caliphate, across Anatolia to the imperial palace in the Byzantine capital, Constantinople. It was devised by Leo the Mathematician for Emperor Theophilos, but either abolished or radically curtailed by Theophilos' son and successor, Michael III. Beacons were later used in Greece as well, while the surviving parts of the beacon system in Anatolia seem to have been reactivated in the 12th century by Emperor Manuel I Komnenos.


title: Beacon

text: In Scandinavia many hill forts were part of beacon networks to warn against invading pillagers. In Finland, these beacons were called "vainovalkeat", "persecution fires", or "vartiotulet", "guard fires", and were used to warn Finn settlements of imminent raids by the Vikings.


title: Beacon

text: In Wales, the Brecon Beacons were named for beacons used to warn of approaching English raiders. In England, the most famous examples are the beacons used in Elizabethan England to warn of the approaching Spanish Armada. Many hills in England were named Beacon Hill after such beacons. In England the authority to erect beacons originally lay with the King and later was delegated to the Lord High Admiral. The money due for the maintenance of beacons was called "Beaconagium" and was levied by the sheriff of each county. In the Scottish borders country, a system of beacon fires was at one time established to warn of incursions by the English. Hume and Eggerstone castles and Soltra Edge were part of this network.


title: Beacon

text: In Spain, the border of Granada in the territory of the Crown of Castile had a complex beacon network to warn against Moorish raiders and military campaigns. Due to the progressive advance of the borders throughout the process of the Reconquista, the entire Spanish geography is full of defensive lines of castles, towers and fortifications, visually connected to each other, which served as fortified beacons. Some examples are the Route of the Vinalopó castles or the distribution of the castles in Jaén.


title: Beacon

text: Infrared strobes and other infrared beacons have increasingly been used in modern combat when operating at night as they can only be seen through night vision goggles. As a result, they are often used to mark friendly positions as a form of IFF to prevent friendly fire and improve coordination. Soldiers will typically affix them to their helmets or other gear so they are easily visible to others using night vision including other infantry, ground vehicles, and aerial platforms (drones, helicopters, planes, etc).


title: Beacon

text: Passive markers include IR patches, which reflect infrared light, and chemlights. The earliest such beacons were often IR chemlights taped to helmets.


title: Beacon

text: As time went on, more sophisticated options began to emerge with electronically powered infrared strobes with specific mounting solutions for attaching to helmets or load bearing equipment. These strobes may have settings which allow constant on or strobes of IR light, hence the name.


title: Beacon

text: Advancements in near-peer technology, however, present risk since if friendly units can see the strobe with night vision so could enemies with night vision capabilities. As a result, some in the American military have stressed that efforts should be made to improve training regarding light discipline (IR and visible) and other means of reducing a unit's visible signature.


title: Beacon

text: Vehicular beacons are rotating or flashing lights affixed to the top of a vehicle to attract the attention of surrounding vehicles and pedestrians. Emergency vehicles such as fire engines, ambulances, police cars, tow trucks, construction vehicles, and snow-removal vehicles carry beacon lights.


title: Beacon

text: The color of the lamps varies by jurisdiction; typical colors are blue and/or red for police, fire, and medical-emergency vehicles; amber for hazards (slow-moving vehicles, wide loads, tow trucks, security personnel, construction vehicles, etc.); green for volunteer firefighters or for medical personnel, and violet for funerary vehicles. Beacons may be constructed with halogen bulbs similar to those used in vehicle headlamps, xenon flashtubes, or LEDs. Incandescent and xenon light sources require the vehicle's engine to continue running to ensure that the battery is not depleted when the lights are used for a prolonged period. The low power consumption of LEDs allows the vehicle's engine to remain turned off while the lights operate.


title: Beacon

text: Beacons have also allegedly been abused by shipwreckers. An illicit fire at a wrong position would be used to direct a ship against shoals or beaches, so that its cargo could be looted after the ship sank or ran aground. There are, however, no historically substantiated occurrences of such intentional shipwrecking.


title: Beacon

text: In wireless networks, a beacon is a type of frame which is sent by the access point (or WiFi router) to indicate that it is on.


title: Beacon

text: Bluetooth based beacons periodically send out a data packet and this could be used by software to identify the beacon location. This is typically used by indoor navigation and positioning applications.


title: Beacon

text: "Beaconing" is the process that allows a network to self-repair network problems. The stations on the network notify the other stations on the ring when they are not receiving the transmissions. Beaconing is used in Token ring and FDDI networks.


title: Beacon

text: In Aeschylus' tragedy "Agamemnon", a chain of eight beacons staffed by so-called "lampadóphoroi" inform Clytemnestra in Argos, within a single night's time, that Troy has just fallen under her husband king Agamemnon's control, after a famous ten years siege.


title: Beacon

text: In J. R. R. Tolkien's high fantasy novel, "The Lord of the Rings", a series of beacons alerts the entire realm of Gondor when the kingdom is under attack. These beacon posts were staffed by messengers who would carry word of their lighting to either Rohan or Belfalas. In Peter Jackson's , the beacons serve as a connection between the two realms of Rohan and Gondor, alerting one another directly when they require military aid, as opposed to relying on messengers as in the novel.


title: Beacon

text: An infrared beacon (IR beacon) transmits a modulated light beam in the infrared spectrum, which can be identified easily and positively. A line of sight clear of obstacles between the transmitter and the receiver is essential. IR beacons have a number of applications in robotics and in Combat Identification (CID).


title: Beacon

text: Infrared beacons are the key infrastructure for the Universal Traffic Management System (UTMS) in Japan. They perform two-way communication with travelling vehicles based on highly directional infrared communication technology and have a vehicle detecting capability to provide more accurate traffic information.


title: Beacon

text: A sonar beacon is an underwater device which transmits sonic or ultrasonic signals for the purpose of providing bearing information. The most common type is that of a rugged watertight sonar transmitter attached to a submarine and capable of operating independently of the electrical system of the boat. It can be used in cases of emergencies to guide salvage vessels to the location of a disabled submarine.


title: Sniper Elite III

text: Sniper Elite III is a 2014 third-person tactical shooter stealth video game developed and published by Rebellion Developments. The game is a prequel to its 2012 predecessor "Sniper Elite V2", and is the third installment in the "Sniper Elite" series. A direct sequel, "Sniper Elite 4", was released in 2017.


title: Sniper Elite III

text: "Sniper Elite III" is set around three years prior to the events of "V2", following the exploits of OSS officer Karl Fairburne as he participates in the North African conflict during World War II, and works to stop the development of a deadly new weapon and eliminate the renegade Nazi commander responsible for it.


title: Sniper Elite III

text: The game retains and builds on the mechanics of "Sniper Elite V2". Players go through large sandbox-style battlefield maps based on locations from the North African theater of World War II.


title: Sniper Elite III

text: The sniper rifle is the player's primary weapon, though additional weapons, including submachine guns and pistols (silenced or not depending on the situation) are available. In addition to hand grenades, the player can deploy tripwire booby traps, two different types of land mines, and dynamite. Binoculars can be used to tag enemies, displaying their position and movements. Small fires can be set to distract enemies or detonate explosives. The player-character can hold their breath while aiming to properly line up a shot. A red icon appears in the scope, marking the projected point of impact. There are weapon parts spread out all over the game or found when looting dead enemies, allowing players to customize their weapons in the pre-deployment menu; the menu also allows equipment loadouts.