title: Pachmarhi

text: The endemic fauna includes chinkara, nilgai, wild dogs, the Indian wolf, bison, Indian giant squirrels, and flying squirrels.


title: Pachmarhi

text: The forests of Pachmarhi, especially in the summer, are densely forested with fruit trees such as mangoes, jamun, custard fruit, and lesser-known but delicious local fruits such as khatua, tendu, chunna, khinni, and chaar. The forest is also known for its abundance of medicinal plants and herbs. Pachmari's forest is also densely forested with oak and blue pine.


title: Pachmarhi

text: Satpura ranges' highest point is 1352 m. It's well-known for its sunrise and sunset views. At night, one can see the lights of neighbouring towns such as Itarsi. During the day, the lush green valley provides a captivating view. The summit can be reached by road or by foot.


title: Pachmarhi

text: This is the third highest peak. It is a pilgrimage site with Lord Siva's temple at the top. There is a Chauragarh fort there built by the king Sangram Shah of Gond dynasty It is Developed by SenaSahebSubha Janoji Maharaj of Nagpur। From the Maratha Era the Pilgrimage from Nagpur Start। It is also a very well known spot for sunrise viewing. The sunrising scene seen here is breathtaking and climbing 1365 steps to reach the point makes it worth.During the festivity of Nagpanchami and Mahashivratri, devotees flock to chauragarh temple in large numbers, heaving up massive near about 2 lakh "trishuls" as offerings which are kept in front of the temple and also in the way of the temple.


title: Pachmarhi

text: This is a waterfall in Pachmarhi. It is named as such because from a distance the waterfall sounds like a bee. Bee Falls takes its name from bees since this place is famous for honey bees.


title: Pachmarhi

text: This waterfall is the most remote. There are Doctor Fish in the pool made by the waterfall. The road to this waterfall is extreme, with very steep inclinations. There is straight downward trekking of 1 km.


title: Pachmarhi

text: This is a conflux of mountain streams behind Dhupgarh. The water in these streams is crystal clear in all seasons except of course autumn.


title: Pachmarhi

text: These are mountain caves with fresh water dripping from them. One can witness ecosystem at work out here with mountains feeding the streams with fresh water, the water that they soak-in during autumn. As the name suggests, these caves and many others like these are the abode of lord Siva.


title: Pachmarhi

text: Also called Rajat Prapat/Big Fall. The falls comes 2800+ feet roaring down the gorge creating a silver streak that gives its name. The view of dense, serene, virgin forest and stream is simply mesmerizing.


title: Pachmarhi

text: Every year from 25 to 31 December, Pachmarhi utsav is organized by govt. Of Mp. In which various celebrities have been called to perform stage shows at utsav ground and various places. At the end of 31 an event is organized by local association Pachmarhi Partyan Mitra and MARRS


title: Pachmarhi

text: Pachmarhi is well connected from Hoshangabad, Bhopal, Itarsi, Chhindwara, Gadarwara, Narsinghpur, Indore, Jabalpur. Buses start from Habibganj ISBT of Bhopal and generally take close to 5–6 hours and from Indore it takes 10–11 hours via Bhopal to reach Pachmarhi. The buses move through different towns like Hoshangabad, Chhindwara, Babai, Sohagpur and Pipariya. The Road name is State Highway 19 and change its name State Highway 19A from village Matkuli to pachmarhi, Matkuli is trijunction of Pipariya-Chhindwara-Pachmarhi way and pachmarhi is nearest from here about 28 km. Pipariya is the nearest railhead, many trains on Mumbai-Kolkata route stop at Pipariya.


title: Pachmarhi

text: Madhya Pradesh Tourism Development Corporation buses are available for Pachmarhi from Indore, Bhopal. These buses are air-conditioned.


title: Gone in the Night (2022 film)

text: Gone in the Night is an 2022 American thriller film, directed by Eli Horowitz, in his directorial debut from a screenplay by Horowitz and Matthew Derby. It stars Winona Ryder, Dermot Mulroney, John Gallagher Jr., Owen Teague and Brianne Tju.


title: Gone in the Night (2022 film)

text: In September 2021, it was announced Winona Ryder, Dermot Mulroney, John Gallagher Jr., Owen Teague and Brianne Tju had joined the cast of the film, with Eli Horowitz directing from a screenplay he wrote alongside Matthew Derby.


title: Gone in the Night (2022 film)

text: The film, then titled "The Cow", had its world premiere at South by Southwest on March 13, 2022. Shortly after, Vertical Entertainment acquired distribution rights to the film.


title: Gone in the Night (2022 film)

text: Richard Roeper of the "Chicago Sun-Times" gave the film a score of 2.5/4, writing: "the twist here is so creatively perverted and strange and bizarre that David Cronenberg might approve. Alas, there's just not enough gristle and gore on the bone of this story to make for a memorably haunting viewer experience." He concluded: "Despite the star performance by Winona Ryder and an intriguing setup, 'Gone in the Night' is destined to fade quickly from our memories." Dennis Harvey of "Variety" wrote: "What at first looks like a standard missing-person suspense tale turns out to have a more complicated agenda — but it is so haphazardly advanced and clumsily articulated, the film itself seems to be fumbling around for a cohering structure or mood." Jon Frosch of "The Hollywood Reporter" called the film "depressingly slack and indecisive, neither leaning hard enough into its B-movie preposterousness nor taking the time to build any real, sustained suspense."


title: For Dummies

text: For Dummies is an extensive series of instructional reference books which are intended to present non-intimidating guides for readers new to the various topics covered. The series has been a worldwide success with editions in numerous languages.


title: For Dummies

text: The books are an example of a media franchise, consistently sporting a distinctive cover—usually yellow and black with a triangular-headed cartoon figure known as the "Dummies Man", and an informal, blackboard-style logo. Prose is simple and direct; bold icons, such as a piece of string tied around an index finger, are placed in the margin to indicate particularly important passages.


title: For Dummies

text: Almost all "Dummies" books are organized around sections called "parts", which are groups of related chapters. Parts are almost always preceded by a Rich Tennant comic that refers to some part of the subject under discussion, though the comics were discontinued in 2012. Sometimes the same Tennant drawing reappears in another "Dummies" book with a new caption.


title: For Dummies

text: Another constant in the "Dummies" series is "The Part of Tens", a section at the end of the books where lists of 10 items are included. They are usually resources for further study and sometimes also include amusing bits of information that do not fit readily elsewhere.


title: For Dummies

text: The first title, "DOS For Dummies", was written by Dan Gookin and published in November 1991 by IDG Books. "DOS For Dummies" became popular due to the rarity of beginner-friendly materials for using DOS. The Windows title written by Andy Rathbone was soon released. While initially the series focused solely on software and technology topics, it later branched out to more general-interest titles, with topics as diverse as "Acne For Dummies", "Chess For Dummies", "Fishing For Dummies" and many other topics. The series is now published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., which acquired Hungry Minds (the new name for IDG Books as of 2000) in early 2001.


title: For Dummies

text: Several related series have been published, including "Dummies 101", with step-by-step tutorials in a large-format book (now discontinued); "More ... for Dummies", which are essentially sequels to the first "... For Dummies" book on the subject; and "For Dummies Quick Reference", which is a condensed alphabetical reference to the subject. A larger "All-in-One Desk Reference" format offers more comprehensive coverage of the subject, normally running about 750 pages. Also, some books in the series are smaller and do not follow the same formatting style as the others.


title: For Dummies

text: Wiley has also launched an interactive online course with Learnstreet based on its popular book, "Java for Dummies", 5th edition.


title: For Dummies

text: A spin-off board game, "Crosswords for Dummies", was produced in the late 1990s. The game is similar to "Scrabble", but instead of letter tiles, players draw short strips of cardboard containing pre-built English words. The words vary in length from three to seven letters, with more points acquired for playing longer words. Another board game, "SAT Game For Dummies", is used in SAT preparation. A "Chess for Dummies" was made, a black-and-yellow chessboard with a picture of a piece, along with a summary of how the piece moves, printed its starting positions, although there is a book with the same name.


title: For Dummies

text: In 2009, French publisher Anuman Interactive obtained the digital exploitation rights and launched many applications based on the "For Dummies" collection, such as "Home Design 3D For Dummies" and "History For Dummies".


title: For Dummies

text: With more than 200 million books in print and around 2,500 titles, "For Dummies" brings together a bevy of authors including Herman Aguinis, Dan Gookin, Karl Barksdale, Michael Taillard, Michael DeMers, Andy Rathbone, Wayne Baker Brooks, Patrick Joseph McGovern, Loren Weisman, Mark Kellner, Mary Jane Sterling, Mark Ryan and Stephen P. Maran.


title: Masahiro Higashide

text: He debuted as a model in the 19th Men's Non-no Exclusive Model Audition in high school. After graduating from high school, he aimed to become a jewelry designer and proceeded to attend a jewelry school. He was active as a model for ZUCCa or Yohji Yamamoto from 2006 to 2011.


title: Masahiro Higashide

text: Higashide graduated from Saitama Prefectural Asaka High School. He practiced kendo daily when he was young because his father is a kendo teacher. His father is also a cook of Japanese cuisine.


title: Masahiro Higashide

text: He married Anne Watanabe on January 1, 2015. Their twin daughters were born in May 2016. Their son was born in November 2017.


title: Masahiro Higashide

text: In January 2020, "Shūkan Bunshun" revealed that Higashide had been having an extramarital affair with actress Erika Karata since 2017, when Watanabe was pregnant with their third child. The report was later confirmed by his agency. The incident has caused Higashide to lose several endorsement deals. On 1 August 2020, Watanabe finalized her divorce with Higashide, promising that they’ll work together to take care of the children.


title: BMW M44

text: The BMW M44 is a DOHC four-cylinder petrol engine which replaced the BMW M42 and was produced from 1996 to 2000 at the Steyr factory. It was produced alongside the BMW M43 SOHC four-cylinder engine, with the M44 being the higher performance engine. In 2000, the M44 was replaced by the BMW N42 engine.


title: BMW M44

text: Compared with the M42, the M44 has roller rocker arms, a hot-wire MAF, displacement increased from and other detail changes such as a grey casst iron crankshaft replacing the forged steel item from the previous M42. As per the final versions of the M42, the M44 has a dual length intake manifold ("DISA"). Peak power is the same as the M42, however mid-range power is increased significantly and peak torque is increased by at 200 rpm lower. There was also a 70% reduction in valve train friction which contributed to the engine being more quiet and fuel efficient than its predecessor.


title: BMW M44

text: The M44B19 has a displacement of , which is achieved through a bore of and a stroke of . A compression ratio of 10.0:1 is used, along with the Bosch Motronic 5.2 engine management system.


title: BMW M44

text: The crankshaft has an increased stroke from the M42's and is cast instead of forged. Also revised were the valve actuators which are of a roller pivoting arm type.


title: Pedant

text: A pedant is a person who is excessively concerned with formalism, accuracy and precision, or one who makes an ostentatious and arrogant show of learning.


title: Pedant

text: The English language word "pedant" comes from the French "pédant" (used in 1566 in Darme & Hatzfeldster's "Dictionnaire général de la langue française") or its older mid-15th century Italian source "pedante", 'teacher, schoolmaster'. (Compare the Spanish "pedante.") The origin of the Italian "pedante" is uncertain, but several dictionaries suggest that it was contracted from the medieval Latin "pædagogans," present participle of "pædagogare", 'to act as pedagogue, to teach' (Du Cange) (see pedagogy). The Latin word is derived from Greek , "paidagōgós", 'child' + 'to lead', which originally referred to a slave who escorted children to and from school but later meant "a source of instruction or guidance".


title: Pedant

text: Obsessive–compulsive personality disorder (OCPD) is in part characterized by a form of pedantry that is excessively concerned with the correct following of rules, procedures, and practices. Sometimes the rules that OCPD sufferers obsessively follow are of their own devising, or are corruptions or reinterpretations of the letter of actual rules.


title: Pedant

text: Pedantry can also be an indication of specific developmental disorders. In particular, people with Asperger syndrome often have behaviour characterized by pedantic speech.


title: Dindigul

text: Dindigul, also spelt Thindukkal (), is a city in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu. It is the administrative headquarters of the Dindigul district. Dindigul is located southwest from the state capital, Chennai, away from Tiruchirappalli, away from Madurai and 72 km away from the Tex City of Karur. The city is known for its locks and biryani. Parts of Dindigul Districts like Palani, Oddanchatram, Vedasandur, Nilakottai,


title: Dindigul

text: The Dindigul Municipality has been upgraded as Municipal Corporation with effect from 19 February 2014. Hon'ble Chief Minister Jayalalithaa handed over the government order to Municipal Chairman V. Marudharaj


title: Dindigul

text: Dindigul is believed to be an ancient settlement region and has been ruled at different times by the Cheras, Early Pandyas, Cholas, Pallava dynasty, the later Pandyas, the Madurai Sultanate, the Dindigul Sultanates, the Vijayanagara Empire, Madurai Nayak Dynasty, Chanda Sahib, the Carnatic kingdom and the British. Dindigul has a number of historical monuments, the Dindigul Fort being the most prominent.


title: Dindigul

text: Industries in Dindigul include safety lock makers, leather tanneries, textile spinning, administrative services, agricultural trading, banking, agricultural machinery and educational services. Dindigul is upgraded to a municipal corporation. The city covers an area of and had a population of 207,327 in 2011. Dindigul is well-connected by road and rail with the rest of Tamil Nadu. It is the 12th-largest urban agglomeration in the state and had a population of 292,512 according to Tamil Nadu's 2011 census. Dindigul has 200,000 hectares of cultivation land, and agriculture continues to be the main occupation of its inhabitants. Located between the Palani and Sirumalai Hills, Dindigul has a reserved forest area of 85 hectares.


title: Dindigul

text: The city's name comes from a portmanteau of the Tamil words Thindu "pillow" and "kal" rock and refers to the bare hill located in the city. The Śaiva poet visited the city and noted it in his "Tevaram". Dindigul was mentioned in poet Palupatai sokkanathar's book . This was later stated by U. V. Swaminatha Iyer (1855-1942) in his foreword to the above book. He also mentions that Dindigul was originally called Thindicharam.


title: Dindigul

text: The history of Dindigul is centered around the Dindigul Fort, located on a small rock hill near the city. Dindigul was on the border of the "moovendars" of ancient Tamilakam, the Pandyas, Cheras and Cholas. The Chera king Dharmabalan is believed to have built the temples of Abirami and Padmagirinathar. The ancient Tamil book, "Silappathikaram" records the city as the northern border of the Pandya kingdom whose capital was Madurai. Historian Strabo mentions about the city in his 20 A.D. work and Pillni, the great historian of the time described the Pandya king in his works.


title: Dindigul

text: During the 1st century CE, the Chola king Karikal Cholan captured the Pandya kingdom and Dindigul came under Chola rule. During the sixth century, the Pallavas took over Dindigul along with most of southern India, and was ruled by them until 8th century CE when the Cholas retook it. During the Delhi Sultanate's raids into southern India, Dindigul was not attacked, and later that century the city became part of the Vijayanagara Empire. The commander of the Vijayanagara army Kampanna Udayar played an important role in the war in capturing Madurai which was under the Madurai Sultanate. In 1559 Nayaks became powerful and their territory bordered with Dindigul in the north. After the death of king Viswanatha Nayak in 1563, Muthukrisna Nayakka became the king of a kingdom in 1602 A.D who built the strong hill fort in 1605 A.D. He also built a fort at the bottom of the hill. Muthuveerappa Nayak and Thirumalai Nayak followed Muthukrishna Nayak. Dindigul came to prominence once again during Nayaks rule of Madurai under Thirumalai Nayak. After his immediate unsuccessful successors, Rani Mangammal became the ruler of the region who ruled efficiently.


title: Dindigul

text: In 1736 Chanda Sahib, the lieutenant of Mughal Empire seized power from Vangaru Nayak. In 1742, the Mysore army under the leadership of Venkatarayar conquered Dindigul. He governed Dindigul as a representative of Maharaja of Mysore. There were 18 palayams (a small region consists of few villages) during his reign and all these palayams were under Dindigul Semai with Dindigul as capital. These palayams wanted to be independent and refused to pay taxes to Venkatarayar. In 1748, Venkatappa was made governor of the region in place of Venkatarayar, who also failed. In 1755, the Maharaja sent Haider Ali to Dindigul to handle the situation. Later Haider Ali became the Maharaja of Mysore and in 1777, he appointed Purshana Mirsaheb as governor of Dindigul. Mirsaheb strengthened the fort and the garrison around it. His wife Ameer-um-Nisha-Begam died during her delivery and her tomb is now called Begambur. In 1783 the British Army, led by Captain Long occupied Dindigul. In 1784, after an agreement between Mysore and British army, Dindigul was restored by Mysore province. In 1788, Tipu Sultan, the Son of Haider Ali, was crowned as King of Dindigul. In 1790, James Stewart of the British army conquered Dindigul again during third war of Mysore. In a pact made on 1792, Tipu ceded Dindigul to the British. Dindigul was the first region to come under British rule in Madurai District. In 1798, the British army strengthened the hill fort with cannons and built sentinel rooms in every corner. The British army, under Statten stayed at Dindigul fort from 1798 to 1859. After that Madurai was made headquarters of the British army and Dindigul was attached to it as a taluk. Dindigul was under the rule of the British until India gained Independence on 15 August 1947. Recently the city has been experiencing new growth and new companies are opening branches here like Chennai Silks, UnlimitED, Jos Allukas and Tanishq.


title: Dindigul

text: Dindugul is located at and has an average elevation of . The town is in Dindigul district, from Chennai and south-west of Tiruchirappalli. Dindigul is located in the foothills of Sirumalai hills. The topography is plain and hilly, with the variation resulting in climatic changes. There are no notable mineral resources available in and around the town. The soil type is thin veneer soil, which is mostly black clayey soil with red soil. Summer season is from March to July, while December to January marks the winter season. The temperature ranges from a maximum of to a minimum of during summer and a maximum of to a minimum of during winter. Dindigul receives rainfall with an average of annually. The Southwest monsoon, with an onset in June and lasting up to August, brings scanty rainfall. Bulk of the rainfall is received during the North East monsoon in the months of October, November and December.


title: Dindigul

text: The climatic conditions of Dindigul are favourable for horticulture and cultivation of different flower varieties. Apart from flowers, Dindigul is famous for producing fruits like orange, pineapple, guava, vegetables like onions, and other non-food crops like tobacco, eucalyptus, and coffee.


title: Dindigul

text: According to 2011 census, Dindigul had a population of 207,327 with a sex-ratio of 1,012 females for every 1,000 males, much above the national average of 929. A total of 19,603 were under the age of six, constituting 10,126 males and 9,477 females. Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes accounted for 7.58% and 0.07% of the population respectively. The average literacy of the city was 81.69%, compared to the national average of 72.99%. The city had a total of 53573 households. There were a total of 77,813 workers, comprising 387 cultivators, 366 main agricultural labourers, 5,328 in house hold industries, 68,163 other workers, 3,569 marginal workers, 46 marginal cultivators, 176 marginal agricultural labourers, 187 marginal workers in household industries and 3,160 other marginal workers. As per the religious census of 2011, Dindigul had 69.11% Hindus, 14.17% Muslims, 16.59% Christians, 0.02% Sikhs, 0.02% Buddhists, 0.01% Jains and 0.1% following other religions.


title: Dindigul

text: As of the provisional population totals of 2011 census, Dindigul urban agglomeration had a population of 292,132, with 145,438 males and 146,694 females. The sex ratio of the town was 1,009 females per 1,000 males; the child sex ratio stood at 964. Dindigul had an average literacy rate of 89.1% with a male literacy of 93.41% and a female literacy of 84.83%. A total of 26,169 of the population of the town was under 6 years of age.


title: Dindigul

text: As of 2001, 15 slums were identified in the town and a total of 85,235 people resided in the slums in 16,841 households. The slum population increased from 16 per cent to 43 per cent during the period of 1991–2001. The town experienced a growth rate of 28 per cent to 40 per cent during the 70s, but declined to 11 percent in 80s and 8 percent.


title: Dindigul

text: The city covers an area of . The population density of the city in the 2001 census was 153 persons per hectare, compared with 2,218 persons per square kilometer in 1971. The density of population is higher in the central areas and along major roads. Hindus form the majority of the urban population, followed by Muslims and Christians. Tamil is the main language spoken in the city, but the use of English is relatively common; English is the medium of instruction in most educational institutions and offices in the service sector.


title: Dindigul

text: According to Indian Census of 2001, Dindigul town's urban workforce participation rate is 35.24 percent. Dindigul, being the headquarters of the district, has registered growth in the secondary and tertiary sectors, with a corresponding decrease in the primary Sector. Major employment in the city is provided by industrial estates, hand loom, trading and commerce activities. Approximately 90 percent of the workforce is employed in the tertiary sector. The district at large has only two industrial estates, with one of them located in the city.


title: Dindigul

text: Oddanchatram is one of the important towns in Dindigul district. Oddanchatram Vegetable market (also known as Gandhi market) is the largest vegetable market in Tamil Nadu. As of 2001, there were approximately 60 tanneries, 165 lock manufacturing units and large number of cotton spinning mills.


title: Dindigul

text: Locks and steel safes are manufactured in Dindigul and operated as a co-operative sector. Locks manufactured in Dindigul are sold in national and international markets and it is well known all over India for the quality of locks. Dindigul locks received geographical indication on 30 August 2019. A decline in lock industry is observed in modern times and other industries like leather, handloom, and aggro opportunities have gained significance. Silk, muslin and blanket manufacturing is common in Dindigul and after Coimbatore, the city has the second largest textile spindling capacity in the State. Chinnalapatti silk, a brand of silk saree is produced out of Chinnalapatti located from the city. The climate condition of the region is conducive for horticulture and agriculture. The district at large produce non-food crops like coffee, flowers, tobacco, and eucalyptus. Dindigul is the center for wholesale trading of fruits like orange, pineapple, sapota and guava, and vegetables like onion.


title: Dindigul

text: Dindigul was an important center of trade in tobacco and manufacture of cigars during the British times. A favorite cigar of Winston Churchill called Churut, the 'Light of Asia', was produced in Dindigul. The tobacco industry is one of the main sources of employment for the inhabitants of Dindigul. The central government has a research center for tobacco in Vedasandur. This is one of the two centers in India, the other one is Rajamundri. In modern times, it has the largest trading center in the state for chewing tobacco and scented betel nuts. Well-known brands of scented chewing tobacco like Angu Vilas, Roja Supari etc. operate out of the city and sent to various places in the state and outside. Dindigul is also one of the leading leather producers and suppliers in the state.


title: Dindigul

text: On 1 November 1866, Dindigul became a municipality. It was promoted to a special-grade municipality as of 1988 and the entire municipal area was included in the jurisdiction of the municipality. On 10 April 2013, it was announced that the municipality would be upgraded to a municipal corporation. On 19 February 2014, Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu, J. Jayalalithaa declared that Dindigul Municipality has been upgraded to Corporation status with immediate effect. The said government order was handed over to the Municipal Chairman, G. Marudharaj The Dindigul municipality has 48 wards and there is an elected councillor for each of those wards. The functions of the municipality are devolved into six departments: general administration/personnel, Engineering, Revenue, Public Health, city planning and Information Technology (IT). All these departments are under the control of a Municipal Commissioner who is the executive head. The legislative powers are vested in a body of 48 members, one each from the 48 wards. The legislative body is headed by an elected Chairperson assisted by a Deputy Chairperson.


title: Dindigul

text: Dindigul comes under the Dindigul assembly constituency and it elects a member to the Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly once every five years. From the 1977 elections, All India Anna Dravid Munnetra Kazhagam (AIADMK) won the assembly seat two times (in 1984 and 1991 elections); Communist Party of India (Marxist) (CPI(M)) six times (1977, 1989, 1996, 2001, 2006 and 2011) and once by Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK, 1996). The current MLA of the constituency is C.Sreenivasan from AIADMK party.


title: Dindigul

text: Dindigul is a part of the Dindigul Lok Sabha constituency and elects its member to Parliament once in five years. The constituency was held by the Indian National Congress four times (1957, 1962, 2004 and 2009 elections), Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK) three times (1967, 1971 and 1980 elections), Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (ADMK) for seven times (1977, 1984, 1989, 1991, 1998, 1999 and 2014 elections) and by Tamil Maanila Congress (TMC) once (1996 elections).


title: Dindigul

text: Law and order in the town is maintained by the Dindigul sub division of the Tamil Nadu Police headed by a Deputy Superintendent. There are three police stations in the town, one of them being an all-women police station. There are special units like prohibition enforcement, district crime, social justice and human rights, district crime records and special branch that operate at the district level police division headed by a Superintendent of Police.


title: Dindigul

text: As of 2011, there are 19 municipal primary schools, 23 other primary schools, eight middle schools and 13 higher secondary schools in the city. There were ten other private schools within the town. There were three engineering colleges and three arts and science colleges. Gandhigram Rural university and Mother Teresa Women's University are the two universities present in Dindigul.


title: Dindigul

text: Electricity supply to Dindigul is regulated and distributed by the Tamil Nadu Electricity Board (TNEB). The town along with its suburbs forms the Dindigul Electricity Distribution Circle. A Chief Distribution engineer is stationed at the regional headquarters. Water supply is provided by the Dindigul Municipal Corporation from Athoor Kamarajar Water Supply Scheme (9.6 MLD), Peranai Water Supply Scheme (7.5 MLD) and Cauvery combined water supply Scheme (6-10 MLD). As of 2001, the total water supply of the town in 14 MLD every day. As per the municipal data for 2011, about 92 metric tonnes of solid waste were collected from Dindigul every day by door-to-door collection and subsequently the source segregation and dumping was carried out by the sanitary department of the Dindigul municipality. There is no underground drainage system in the town and the sewerage system for disposal of sullage is through septic tanks, open drains and public conveniences.


title: Dindigul

text: The municipality maintained a total of of storm water drains in 2011. As of 2011, the municipality maintained a total of 5,489 street lamps: 754 sodium lamps, 173 mercury vapour lamps, 4,551 tube lights and eight high mast beam lamp. The municipality operates one daily market, namely the Dindigul Municipal Market that cater to the needs of the town and the rural areas around it.


title: Dindigul

text: The municipality maintains four dispensaries, five maternity homes, eight family planning centres, three Siddha and one Ayurvedic centre. The Government District Headquarters Hospital is located in Dindigul and has 350 beds. The town has more than five private hospitals, 35 maternity centres, 15 laboratories and one blood bank. The historic St. Joseph Mission Hospital with a bed strength of 250 beds is one of the major hospitals in the city. For all the advanced health care systems, Madurai city is the nearest destination.


title: Dindigul

text: The houses of the people in this city are placed very close together due to which the society here is deeply integrated and collective. The most interesting feature about the houses here is that they painted in bright yellow, orange and blue have much in common with the current colour pallet that seems to have taken over the temple facades in the region. This displays their connection with religion and how they are inspired to create a godly presence within their homes as well.


title: Dindigul

text: There are several noteworthy architectural constructions in Dindigul, owing to its rich history and glorified past.


title: Dindigul

text: <mapframe latitude="10.352547" longitude="77.983897" zoom="8" width="200" height="100" align="center" />


title: Dindigul

text: The Dindigul city corporation maintains of roads. The town has concrete roads, bituminous roads, earthen roads and cut stone pavements. There are three national highways, NH 44 (largest highway in India) connecting Dindigul to Madurai and NH 45A connecting Chennai to Kanyakumari, and NH 83 Coimbatore to Nagapattinam via Oddanchatram, Palani, Dindigul, Tiruchirapalli, Thanjavur via the city. Natham road and Bathalagundu road are the two state highways that pass via the city. Being the district headquarters, a lot of district roads also connect Dindigul to other parts of the district.


title: Dindigul

text: Dindigul is served by town bus service, which provides connectivity within the town and the suburbs. Minibus service operated by private companies cater to the local transport needs. There are 150 town buses operated daily across 128 different routes. The Kamarajar bus stand is an A-grade bus stand covering an area of as of 2007 and is located in the heart of the town. The Tamil Nadu State Transport Corporation operates daily services connecting various cities to Dindigul. The State Express Transport Corporation operates long-distance buses to Chennai, Bengaluru and Tirupati. There is a significant truck transport with around 400–450 trucks entering the town for loading and unloading activities daily. Three wheelers, called autos and Call Taxi are also a common public transport system.


title: Dindigul

text: Dindigul Junction railway station was established in 1875 when rail line for Trichy to Tuticorin was constructed. Dindigul railway junction is located in the rail head from Chennai to Madurai and Karur to Madurai. It is connecting Dindigul to Palani. All south bound trains plying south to Madurai from Chennai pass via Dindigul. There are also passenger trains running either side from Madurai to Tiruchirapalli and Palani. The Dindigul to Palani railway line was electrified in 2022.


title: Dindigul

text: The Kalahastheeswara-Gnanambika temple was built during the 14th century. The Seenivasaperumal temple built in the bottom of the hill was eroded by time. By the 16th century Pandyan acquired the whole chera kingdom with the support of Vijayanagar king Sachudevarayer. Sachudevarayer, on his visit in 1538 A.D. ordered for the repair works of the temple of Abirami Amman and Padmagirinathar. This is inferred from the script written over stone in the Fort temple. Muthukrisna Nayak became the king of Pandaya kingdom in 1602 A.D. He built the strong hill fort in 1605 to secure Dindigul from invasion. He also built a fort at the bottom of the hill, which was later called Pettaiwall. Thirumalai Nayak redressed the Hill fort and he built the front hall of the Kalahastheeswaraswamy temple. Soundararaja Perumal temple in Thadikombu was erected during his reign. During his Nayak's stay in Dindigul, he fell into sickness and believed to have prayed Rangaperumal to relieve his sickness. Rani Mangammal built the six hundred steps for the hill fort. during the months of January and February, a festival honoring Mariamman is celebrated in this temple. It has a sri abirami amman temple, which is reconstructed. Arulmigu Abirami Amman temple is a holy place situated in Dindigul in Tamil Nadu, India. This is one of the important "Shivasthalam" where you can find Padmagiriswarar—Abirami Amman and Kalahastheeswarar—Gnanambigai Sannathi's. The rock hill is called Padmachala, Padmagiri, Lotus Hill.


title: Dindigul

text: Begumbur Periya Pallivasal, Dindigul, Thowheeth Masjid, Ahle Hadees Pallivasal, Bajar Masjid, Mohammadiyapuram Pallivasal, Mandi Pallivasal, Madinah Pallivasal, Ring Road Pallivasal and Makkah Pallivasal are some of the Islamic institutions in Dindigul.St.


title: Dindigul

text: The Dindigul fort is the most appreciated and widely acclaimed. The architecture of this fort has evolved through the different dynasties that ruled over Dindigul. The rock fort is 900 feet tall and has a circumference of 2.75 kilometres. Cannon and gunfire artillery were included in the fort during the 17th century. The people here are eloquent in different formats of arts such as- visual arts, music and dances. In Dindigul, classical dance is one of the favourite hobbies of the people. Apart from classical dance, classical vocal music and Karnatic Raag Sangeet are very common amongst the people here. A number of music and dance schools in Dindigul trains both young and adults on classical music and dance.


title: Dindigul

text: Dindigul is famous for its biryani. The Dindigul biryani chains are famous all over Tamil Nadu. Dindigul biryani is a common and popular dish, and Dindigul is sometimes called Biryani City.


title: Dindigul

text: Sherumalai Mountain, which is the home for a very special variety of small but sweet bananas, is located in the vicinity. Dindigul’s food pallet enjoys the taste of it in raw and in various snack forms. Rice, Sambar and Rasam form the main meals of the people here.


title: Dindigul

text: Joseph's Church at the heart of the town is known for its vast space, architecture and the glass works and special artistic work all over the church. The church was built between 1866 and 1872. It is the headquarters of Dindigul diocese of Roman Catholic Churches in Dindigul.


title: Dindigul

text: The people of Dindigul are known to be extremely hard working and loving. They harbour feelings of great pride in the culture of their city and have taken up various traditional and generational occupations in order to ensure the continuity of various Indian traditions and handicrafts.


title: Dindigul

text: According to 2011 census, Dindigul had a population of 207,327 with a sex-ratio of 1,012 females for every 1,000 males. This was much above the national average of 929. The average literacy of the city was 81.69% against the national average of 72.99%.The city had a total of 53573 households.


title: Dindigul

text: Women generally wear a fabric drape around them, 6 to 8 yards of length. First tied round the waist with pleats gathered in front and then brought over the right shoulder, covering their breasts. A part of the drape is either let free hanging from the shoulder or brought in front along the waist. Apart from sari, younger and unmarried women can also be seen wearing stitched salwars and Kurtas and skirts and blouses. There is also a considerable variety of gold jewellery, women like to adorn themselves with. Ornaments like nose pins, anklets, ear rings, bangles and waist belts or a waist dangler carrying bunch of keys are common to this place. Some common designs of nose pins may have a circular metal ring.


title: Ben McLemore

text: Ben Edward McLemore III (born February 11, 1993) is an American professional basketball player who last played for the Portland Trail Blazers of the National Basketball Association (NBA). He played college basketball for the Kansas Jayhawks.


title: Ben McLemore

text: McLemore was selected with the seventh overall pick in the 2013 NBA draft by the Sacramento Kings. He spent four seasons with the team before signing with the Memphis Grizzlies in July 2017. He was traded back to Sacramento in July 2018, but was waived in February 2019. In July of the same year, McLemore signed with the Houston Rockets. He signed with the Los Angeles Lakers in April 2021 and joined the Trail Blazers in August of the same year.


title: Ben McLemore

text: McLemore played high school basketball at Wellston High School in St. Louis, Missouri for three years before his school was shut down in 2010. He then attended both Oak Hill Academy in Mouth of Wilson, Virginia and Christian Life Center in Humble, Texas during his senior year of high school.


title: Ben McLemore

text: Considered a four-star recruit by Rivals.com, McLemore was listed as the No. 9 shooting guard and the No. 34 player in the nation in 2011.


title: Ben McLemore

text: After committing to Kansas, McLemore was deemed ineligible to play by the NCAA because he attended multiple high schools, resulting in his transcripts being "a little fuzzy". He was allowed to practice with the team and take part in team activities starting in the second semester of the school year.


title: Ben McLemore

text: At the beginning of his college career, McLemore was considered to be either a late first-round or early second-round prospect. However, during his first season as a redshirt freshman, McLemore averaged 15.9 points, 5.2 rebounds, and 2.0 assists, with 49.5% shooting from the field and 87% shooting from the foul line, and was named a finalist for the John R. Wooden Award.


title: Ben McLemore

text: After declaring for the 2013 NBA draft, allegations arose that NBA agent Rodney Blackstock had given thousands of dollars in impermissible benefits to McLemore's AAU coach, Darius Cobb, in exchange for Cobb steering McLemore toward certain financial advisers and NBA agents. Lending credence to Cobb's allegations, McLemore had Blackstock on his guest pass list for at least three Kansas home games that season, and subsequently signed Blackstock as his NBA agent. This set of facts caused the launch of an NCAA investigation to determine whether or not Kansas would have to vacate the basketball games in which McLemore played.


title: Ben McLemore

text: McLemore was selected with the seventh overall pick by the Sacramento Kings in the 2013 NBA draft. On July 13, 2013, he signed his rookie scale contract with the Kings and joined them for the 2013 NBA Summer League. He was named the Western Conference Rookie of the Month for November 2013.


title: Ben McLemore

text: In February 2014, McLemore was selected to participate in the 2014 Sprite Slam Dunk contest. In the Kings' final game of the regular season on April 16, McLemore scored a season-high 31 points in a loss to the Phoenix Suns. In his rookie season, he played all 82 games (55 starts), averaging 8.8 points, 2.9 rebounds and 1.0 assists in 26.7 minutes per game.


title: Ben McLemore

text: In July 2014, McLemore re-joined the Kings for the 2014 NBA Summer League where he helped them win the Summer League championship while averaging 12.6 points in seven games. On October 19, 2014, the Kings exercised their third-year team option on McLemore's rookie scale contract, extending the contract through the 2015–16 season. On March 11, 2015, he scored a season-high 27 points in a win over the Charlotte Hornets. He started in all 82 regular season games for the Kings in 2014–15 while averaging 12.1 points, 2.9 rebounds and 1.7 assists in 32.6 minutes per game.


title: Ben McLemore

text: On October 3, 2015, the Kings exercised their fourth-year team option on McLemore's rookie scale contract, extending the contract through the 2016–17 season. On December 5, he had a season-best game with 19 points and 9 rebounds in a loss to the Houston Rockets. On January 28, 2016, he scored a season-high 26 points in a loss to the New Orleans Pelicans. On February 1, McLemore missed his first game of his career due to a sprained right wrist, snapping his consecutive games streak at 211, which was the second-longest in the NBA behind Tristan Thompson (335). He later missed 10 games in March with a finger-tip injury.


title: Ben McLemore

text: On February 10, 2017, McLemore had a season-high 22 points, helped by a career-best six three-pointers, in a 108–107 win over the Atlanta Hawks. On March 29, 2017, he tied a season high with 22 points in a 112–82 loss to the Utah Jazz.


title: Ben McLemore

text: On July 7, 2017, McLemore signed a multi-year contract with the Memphis Grizzlies. On August 8, 2017, he was ruled out for approximately 12 weeks after fracturing his right foot in a pickup game. On November 2, 2017, McLemore was assigned to the Memphis Hustle of the NBA G League. He was recalled a week later, and made his debut for the Grizzlies on November 11, 2017, recording four points and two rebounds in 18 minutes off the bench in a 111–96 loss to the Houston Rockets. On December 9, 2017, he scored a season-high 17 points in a 102–101 overtime loss to the Oklahoma City Thunder. On January 19, 2018, he set a new season high with 21 points in a 106–88 win over the Sacramento Kings.


title: Ben McLemore

text: On July 17, 2018, McLemore was traded, along with Deyonta Davis, a 2021 second-round pick and cash considerations, to the Sacramento Kings in exchange for Garrett Temple. On February 7, 2019, McLemore was waived by the Kings.


title: Ben McLemore

text: On December 5, 2019, McLemore led the Rockets in scoring with a season-high 28 points, on top of career-best 8-of-17 shooting from behind the three-point arc in a 119–109 win against the Toronto Raptors. On December 7, 2019, McLemore finished with 27 points on 10-of-15 field goal shooting (5-of-9 from beyond the arc) in a 115–109 win against the Phoenix Suns, which is the first time he has contributed more than 25 points in consecutive games in his career.


title: Ben McLemore

text: On April 6, 2021, McLemore signed with the Los Angeles Lakers. On April 8, he made his debut in a loss against the Miami Heat, scoring 6 points off the bench.


title: Ben McLemore

text: Before he was drafted, McLemore's size, style of play, and abilities had garnered comparisons to former NBA All-Star Ray Allen.


title: Ben McLemore

text: On July 4, 2015, Wellston Avenue, the street on which McLemore grew up, was renamed Ben McLemore III Place in his honor.


title: YPbPr

text: YPbPr or Y'PbPr, also written as , is a color space used in video electronics, in particular in reference to component video cables. YPP is gamma corrected YCC color space (it is not analog YUV that was used for analog TV, though component video is an analog interface); the two are numerically equivalent but YPP is designed for use in analog systems while YCC is intended for digital video. The EOTF (gamma correction) may be different from common sRGB EOTF and BT.1886 EOTF. Sync is carried on the Y channel and is a bi-level sync signal, however, in HD formats a tri-level sync is used and is typically carried on all channels.


title: YPbPr

text: YPP is commonly referred to as "component video" by manufacturers; however, there are many types of component video, most of which are some form of RGB. Some video cards come with video-in video-out (VIVO) ports for connecting to component video devices.


title: YPbPr

text: There are other standards of YPP components derivation available: 1920x1035 uses SMPTE 240M (240M defined EOTF and uses SMPTE 170M primaries and white point) and 525 lines 60/1.001 Hz (SMPTE 273M) and 625 lines 50 Hz (ITU-R BT.1358) BT.601 matrix is used.


title: YPbPr

text: To send a green signal as a fourth component is redundant, as it can be derived using the blue, red and luma information.


title: YPbPr

text: When color signals were first added to the NTSC-encoded black and white video standard, the hue was represented by a phase shift of a color reference sub-carrier. P for phase information or phase shift has carried through to represent color information even in the case where there is no longer a phase shift used to represent hue. Thus, the YPP nomenclature derives from engineering metrics developed for the NTSC color standard.


title: YPbPr

text: The same cables can be used for YPP and composite video. This means that the yellow, red, and white RCA connector cables commonly packaged with most audio/visual equipment can be used in place of the YPP connectors, provided the end user is careful to connect each cable to corresponding components at both ends. Also, many TVs use the green connection either for luma only or for composite video input. Since YPP is backwards compatible with the luminance portion of composite video even with just component video decoding one can still use composite video via this input, but only luma information will be displayed, along with the chroma dots. The same goes the other way around so long as 480i or 576i is used.


title: YPbPr

text: Signals using YPP offer enough separation that no color multiplexing is needed, so the quality of the extracted image is nearly identical to the pre-encoded signal. S-Video and composite video mix the signals together by means of electronic multiplexing. Signal degradation is typical for composite video, as most display systems are unable to completely separate the signals, though HDTVs tend to perform such separation better than most CRT units (see dot crawl). S-Video can mitigate some of these potential issues, as its luma is transmitted separately from chroma.


title: YPbPr

text: Among consumer analog interfaces, only YPP and analog RGB component video are capable of carrying non-interlaced video and resolutions higher than 480i or 576i, up to 1080p for YPP.


title: Moore v. Harper

text: Moore v. Harper is a United States Supreme Court case related to the independent state legislature theory (ISL), arising from the redistricting of North Carolina's districts by the North Carolina legislature following the 2020 census, which the state courts found to be too artificial and partisan, and an extreme case of gerrymandering in favor of the Republican Party.


title: Moore v. Harper

text: North Carolina's congressional and legislative districts have been subject to protracted litigation over the 2010s and 2020s in both federal and state courts. In the 2019 decision in "Rucho v. Common Cause", which arose out of district maps in North Carolina, the Supreme Court of the United States held that partisan gerrymandering claims are beyond the reach of federal courts, and that asking for judicial intervention would represent an expansion of powers.


title: Moore v. Harper

text: Courts can still evaluate redistricting maps for racial gerrymandering under the Voting Rights Act. In 2017, the General Assembly modified state law to direct that the speaker of the North Carolina House of Representatives and the president pro tempore of the North Carolina Senate be able to intervene in any litigation over the constitutionality of state law. Following the 2020 United States census, the state gained an additional seat in the U.S. House of Representatives and required a redistricting of the state. The census also showed that the state demographics were about 60% Caucasian and the remaining from other racial backgrounds, with African Americans and Hispanics making up the largest percentages. The Republican-controlled legislature started drafting new maps that they claimed to be in line with a previous North Carolina Supreme Court ruling from 2019 that required the maps to be compliant with the Voting Rights Act to avoid racial gerrymandering, along with an open and transparent process to the voters of the state. State Senator Dan Blue, the state senate's Democratic leader, stated that the resulting maps gave an advantage to the Republican Party in ten seats to the Democrats in four. Multiple lawsuits were filed against the leaders of the North Carolina legislature in November 2021 on claims that the maps were both racially and partisan gerrymandered.


title: Moore v. Harper

text: Wake County Superior Court upheld the maps in January 2022. On the partisan gerrymandering, the court stated that in the lines of "Rucho", "Were we as a court to insert ourselves in the manner requested, we would be usurping the political power and prerogatives of an equal branch of government." The court also said the plaintiffs had not shown sufficient evidence that the new maps were racially gerrymandered. On appeal, the North Carolina Supreme Court held the maps unconstitutional in a 4–3 decision given in February 2022. Under remand to the superior court, the General Assembly attempted to draw up new maps to comply with the Supreme Court decision, but these failed to satisfy the judges on the superior court. A special master team of outside experts were assigned to create a new map, which was accepted by the superior court on February 24, 2022.


title: Moore v. Harper

text: On February 25, 2022, the General Assembly sought a stay for the newly drawn maps pending appeal by the U.S. Supreme Court, to allow for review of the Elections Clause issue. It was denied on March 7, 2022, over the dissent of Justice Samuel Alito, who was joined by Justices Neil Gorsuch and Clarence Thomas. Justice Brett Kavanaugh concurred, asserting the "Purcell" principle counseled against intervention so soon before the election.


title: Moore v. Harper

text: Throughout the litigation, the General Assembly argued their case based on the independent state legislature theory (ISL). This theory is based on language from the Elections Clause in the Article One of the U.S. Constitution, stating: "The Times, Places and Manner of holding Elections for Senators and Representatives, shall be prescribed in each State by the Legislature thereof." The theory is based on the reading that Article I implies that only state legislatures may make any decisions related to election law and prevent any actions from courts or the executive branch from challenging it. This would allow the state legislature to fully control redistricting as well as other voting laws. While the Supreme Court and other courts had already rejected this concept, including as late as "Smiley v. Holm" (1932), the theory gained more traction with Republicans and conservatives since "Bush v. Gore", thus making it a potentially landmark case according to legal experts.


title: Moore v. Harper

text: The North Carolina speaker of the House, president pro tempore of the Senate, and other members of the General Assembly subsequently filed a petition for a writ of certiorari. The Court granted review on June 30, 2022, to be heard in the October 2022–23 term.


title: Moore v. Harper

text: Oral arguments were held December 7, 2022. Court observers stated that it appeared that the ISL theory argued by David H. Thompson was rejected by the three liberal justices (Sotomayor, Kagan, and Jackson) alongside Chief Justice Roberts and Justices Kavanagh and Barrett. While Roberts looked to overturn the North Carolina Court decision, he sought to do it in a way that did not embrace ISL. Justices Alito, Thomas, and Gorsuch appeared to still embrace concepts of the ISL as to rule in favor of the state legislature.


title: Moore v. Harper

text: "Moore v. Harper" has been described as one of the most high-profile cases the Supreme Court has taken up in recent years; former federal judge Michael Luttig called it the "single most important case on American democracy — and for American democracy — in the nation's history". The case is expected to have a significant impact on future federal elections in the U.S. should the court support ISL, and affect efforts to make gerrymandering illegal or remove restrictions on voting. Three of the current justices — Alito, Gorsuch, and Thomas — had stated in the dissent to the Court's March 2022 order denial that they believed the state argued correctly on employing ISL. Should the court rule in the state's favor, the ruling would likely impact the 2024 United States elections.


title: Brining

text: In food processing, brining is treating food with brine or coarse salt which preserves and seasons the food while enhancing tenderness and flavor with additions such as herbs, spices, sugar, caramel or vinegar. Meat and fish are typically brined for less than twenty-four hours while vegetables, cheeses and fruit are brined in a much longer process known as pickling. Brining is similar to marination, except that a marinade usually includes a significant amount of acid, such as vinegar or citrus juice. Brining is also similar to curing, which usually involves significantly drying the food, and is done over a much longer time period.


title: Brining

text: Brining is typically a process in which meat is soaked in a salt water solution similar to marination before cooking. Meat is soaked anywhere from 30 minutes to several days. The amount of time needed to brine depends on the size of the meat: more time is needed for a large turkey compared to a broiler fryer chicken. Similarly, a large roast must be brined longer than a thin cut of meat.


title: Brining

text: Brining can also be achieved by covering the meat in dry coarse salt and left to rest for several hours. The salt draws moisture from the interior of the meat to the surface, where it mixes with the salt and is then reabsorbed with the salt essentially brining the meat in its own juices. The salt rub is then rinsed off and discarded before cooking.


title: Brining

text: Food scientists have two theories about the brining effect, but which one is correct is still under debate.


title: Brining

text: As opposed to dry salting, fish brining or wet-salting is performed by immersion of fish into brine, or just sprinkling it with salt without draining the moisture. To ensure long-term preservation, the solution has to contain at least 20% of salt, a process called "heavy salting" in fisheries; heavy-salted fish must be desalted in cold water or milk before consumption. If less salt is used, the fish is suited for immediate consumption, but additional refrigeration is necessary for longer preservation.


title: Brining

text: Pickled vegetables are immersed in brine, vinegar or vinaigrette for extended periods of time, where they undergo anaerobic fermentation which affects their texture and flavor. Pickling can preserve perishable foods for months. Antimicrobial herbs and spices, such as mustard seed, garlic, cinnamon or cloves, are often added. Unlike the canning process, pickling (which includes fermentation) does not require that the food be completely sterile before it is sealed. The acidity or salinity of the solution, the temperature of fermentation, and the exclusion of oxygen determine which microorganisms dominate, and determine the flavor of the end product.


title: Maculopapular rash

text: A maculopapular rash is a type of rash characterized by a flat, red area on the skin that is covered with small confluent bumps. It may only appear red in lighter-skinned people. The term "maculopapular" is a compound: "macules" are small, flat discolored spots on the surface of the skin; and "papules" are small, raised bumps. It is also described as erythematous, or red.


title: Maculopapular rash

text: This type of rash is common in several diseases and medical conditions, including scarlet fever, measles, Ebola virus disease, rubella, secondary syphilis (Congenital syphilis, which is asymptomatic, the newborn may present this type of rash), erythrovirus (parvovirus B19), chikungunya (alphavirus), zika, smallpox (which has been eradicated), varicella (when vaccinated persons exhibit symptoms from the modified form), heat rash, and sometimes in Dengue fever. It is also a common manifestation of a skin reaction to the antibiotic amoxicillin or chemotherapy drugs. Cutaneous infiltration of leukemic cells may also have this appearance. Maculopapular rash is seen in graft-versus-host disease (GVHD) developed after a hematopoietic stem cell transplant (bone marrow transplant), which can be seen within one week or several weeks after the transplant. In the case of GVHD, the maculopapular lesions may progress to a condition similar to toxic epidermal necrolysis. In addition, this is the type of rash that some patients presenting with Ebola virus hemorrhagic (EBO-Z) fever will reveal but can be hard to see on dark skin people. It is also seen in patients with Marburg hemorrhagic fever, a filovirus not unlike Ebola.


title: Maculopapular rash

text: This type of rash can be as a result of large doses of niacin or no-flush niacin (2000 – 2500 mg), used for the management of low HDL cholesterol.


title: Maculopapular rash

text: This type of rash can also be a symptom of Sea bather's eruption. This stinging, pruritic, maculopapular rash affects swimmers in some Atlantic locales (e.g., Florida, Caribbean, Long Island). It is caused by hypersensitivity to stings from the larvae of the sea anemone (e.g., "Edwardsiella lineate") or the thimble jellyfish ("Linuche unguiculata"). The rash appears where the bathing suit contacts the skin.


title: Betrayal

text: Betrayal is the breaking or violation of a presumptive contract, trust, or confidence that produces moral and psychological conflict within a relationship amongst individuals, between organizations or between individuals and organizations. Often betrayal is the act of supporting a rival group, or it is a complete break from previously decided upon or presumed norms by one party from the others. Someone who betrays others is commonly called a traitor or betrayer. Betrayal is also a commonly used literary element, also used in other fiction like films and TV series, and is often associated with or used as a plot twist.


title: Betrayal

text: Philosophers Judith Shklar and Peter Johnson, authors of "The Ambiguities of Betrayal" and "Frames of Deceit", respectively, contend that while no clear definition of betrayal is available, betrayal is more effectively understood through literature.


title: Betrayal

text: Jackson explains why a clear definition is needed: Betrayal is both a "people" problem and a philosopher's problem. Philosophers should be able to clarify the concept of betrayal, compare and contrast it with other moral concepts, and critically assess betrayal situations. At the practical level people should be able to make honest sense of betrayal and also to temper its consequences: to handle it, not be assaulted by it. What we need is a conceptually clear account of betrayal that differentiates between genuine and merely perceived betrayal, and which also provides systematic guidance for the assessment of alleged betrayal in real life.


title: Betrayal

text: Ben-Yehuda's 2001 work ("Betrayals and Treason Violations of Trust and Loyalty" Westview Press) framed all forms of betrayals and treason under a unifying analytical framework using loyalty, trust and moral boundaries as explanatory tools.


title: Betrayal

text: An act of betrayal creates a constellation of negative behaviours, thoughts, and feelings in both its victims and its perpetrators. The interactions are complex. The victims exhibit anger and confusion, and demand atonement from the perpetrator, who in turn may experience guilt or shame, and exhibit remorse. If, after the perpetrator has exhibited remorse or apologized, the victim continues to express anger, this may in turn cause the perpetrator to become defensive, and angry in turn. Acceptance of betrayal can be exhibited if victims forgo the demands of atonement and retribution; but is only demonstrated if the victims do not continue to demand apologies, repeatedly remind the perpetrator or perpetrators of the original act, or ceaselessly review the incident over and over again.


title: Betrayal

text: If no true apology, atonement, real remorse and plan to change one's behaviors are present, then the one who was betrayed can accept that it happened, and that the perpetrator is unwilling or unable to change. No real change means they can do it again. Lack of validation from the perpetrator can be been described as a "second assault," which can exacerbate the effects of the initial trauma incurred. Accepting the betrayal and going no contact is the best route forward. The alternative is to stay in connection and realize the trespass can happen again, and may choose to avoid doing certain things to decrease severity. For example, if a person gossips, do not tell them your secrets.


title: Betrayal

text: Most adults living in liberal democracies place trust in the state of which they are a citizen. When this trust is betrayed, at its worst, the individual can suffer psychological betrayal trauma. Betrayal trauma has symptoms similar to posttraumatic stress disorder, although the element of amnesia and disassociation is likely to be greater.


title: Betrayal

text: The key difference between traditional posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and betrayal trauma is that the former is historically seen as being caused primarily by fear, whereas betrayal trauma is a response to extreme anger. Fear and anger are the two sides to the fight-or-flight response, and as such are our strongest and most basic psychological emotions.


title: Betrayal

text: Pure political betrayal trauma can be caused by situations such as wrongful arrest and conviction by the legal system of a western democracy; or by discrimination, bullying or other serious mistreatment by a state institution or powerful figure within the state.


title: Betrayal

text: John Gottman's "What Makes Love Last?" describes betrayal as "a noxious invader, arriving with great stealth" that undermines seemingly stable romances and lies at the heart of every failing relationship, even if the couple is unaware of it. Gottman computed a betrayal metric by calculating how unwilling each partner was to sacrifice for the other and the relationship. A consistently elevated betrayal metric served as an indicator that the couple was at risk for infidelity or another serious disloyalty. Some types of betrayal in romantic relationships include sexual infidelity, conditional commitment, a nonsexual affair, lying, forming a coalition against the partner, absenteeism or coldness, withdrawal of sexual interest, disrespect, unfairness, selfishness, and breaking promises.


title: Betrayal

text: The phrase originates from the use of the word cross in the sense of foul play: deliberate collusion to cause someone to lose a contest of some kind.


title: Betrayal

text: It has also been suggested that the term was inspired by the practice of 18th-century British thief taker and criminal Jonathan Wild, who kept a ledger of his transactions and is said to have placed two crosses by the names of persons who had cheated him in some way. This folk etymology is almost certainly incorrect, but there is documentary evidence that the term did exist in the 19th century.


title: Betrayal

text: This use has passed into common parlance, so that, for example, in World War II, British Military Intelligence used the Double Cross System to release captured Nazis back to Germany bearing false information.


title: Betrayal

text: Betrayal blindness is the unawareness, not-knowing, and forgetting exhibited by people towards betrayal.


title: Betrayal

text: The term "betrayal blindness" was introduced in 1996 by Freyd, and expanded in 1999 by Freyd and then again in 2013 by Freyd and Birrell through the Betrayal Trauma Theory. This betrayal blindness may extend to betrayals that are not considered traditional traumas, such as adultery, and inequities. Betrayal blindness is not exclusive to victims. Perpetrators, and witnesses may also display betrayal blindness in order to preserve personal relationships, their relationships with institutions, and social systems upon which they depend.


title: Betrayal

text: The term "Institutional Betrayal" refers to wrongdoings perpetrated by an institution upon individuals dependent on that institution. This includes failure to prevent or respond supportively to wrongdoings by individuals (e.g. sexual assault) committed within the context of the institution.


The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex is a book by English naturalist Charles Darwin, first published in 1871, which applies evolutionary theory to human evolution, and details his theory of sexual selection, a form of biological adaptation distinct from, yet interconnected with, natural selection. The book discusses many related issues, including evolutionary psychology, evolutionary ethics, evolutionary musicology, differences between human races, differences between sexes, the dominant role of women in mate choice, and the relevance of the evolutionary theory to society.


title: The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex

text: As Darwin wrote, he posted chapters to his daughter Henrietta for editing to ensure that damaging inferences could not be drawn, and also took advice from his wife Emma. Many of the figures were drawn by the zoological illustrator T. W. Wood, who had also illustrated Wallace's "The Malay Archipelago" (1869). The corrected proofs were sent off on 15 January 1871 to the publisher John Murray and published on 24 February 1871 as two 450-page volumes, which Darwin insisted was one complete, coherent work, and were priced at £1 4 shillings.


text: Within three weeks of publication a reprint had been ordered, and 4,500 copies were in print by the end of March 1871, netting Darwin almost £1,500. Darwin's name created demand for the book, but the ideas were old news. "Everybody is talking about it without being shocked," which he found, "...proof of the increasing liberality of England".


text: Darwin himself and some of his children edited many of the large number of revised editions, some extensively. In late 1873, Darwin tackled a new edition of the "Descent of Man". Initially, he offered Wallace the work of assisting him, but, when Emma found out, she had the task given to their son George, so Darwin had to write apologetically to Wallace. Huxley assisted with an update on ape-brain inheritance, which Huxley thought "pounds the enemy into a jelly... though none but anatomists" would know it. The manuscript was completed in April 1874 and published on 13 November 1874, and has been the edition most commonly reprinted after Darwin's death and to the present.


text: Darwin's approach to arguing for the evolution of human beings is to outline how similar human beings are to other animals. He begins by using anatomical similarities, focusing on body structure, embryology, and "rudimentary organs" that presumably were useful in one of man's "pre-existing" forms. He then moves on to argue for the similarity of "mental" characteristics.


text: Based on the work of his cousin, Francis Galton, Darwin is able to assert that human character traits and mental characteristics are inherited the same as physical characteristics, and argues against the mind/body distinction for the purposes of evolutionary theory. From this Darwin then provides evidence for similar mental powers and characteristics in certain animals, focusing especially on apes, monkeys, and dogs for his analogies for love, cleverness, religion, kindness, and altruism. He concludes on this point that "Nevertheless the difference in mind between man and the higher animals, great as it is, certainly is one of degree and not of kind." He additionally turns to the behaviour of "savages" to show how many aspects of Victorian England's society can be seen in more primitive forms.


text: In particular, Darwin argues that even moral and social instincts are evolved, comparing religion in man to fetishism in "savages" and his dog's inability to tell whether a wind-blown parasol was alive or not. Darwin also argues that all civilisations had risen out of barbarism, and that he did not think that barbarism is a "fall from grace" as many commentators of his time had asserted.


text: In this section of the book, Darwin also turns to the questions of what after his death would be known as social Darwinism and eugenics. Darwin notes that, as had been discussed by Alfred Russel Wallace and Galton, natural selection seemed to no longer act upon civilised communities in the way it did upon other animals:


text: Darwin felt that these urges towards helping the "weak members" was part of our evolved instinct of sympathy, and concluded that "nor could we check our sympathy, even at the urging of hard reason, without deterioration in the noblest part of our nature". As such, '"we must therefore bear the undoubtedly bad effects of the weak surviving and propagating their kind". Darwin did feel that the "savage races" of man would be subverted by the "civilised races" at some point in the near future, as stated in the human races section below. He did show a certain disdain for "savages", professing that he felt more akin to certain altruistic tendencies in monkeys than he did to "a savage who delights to torture his enemies". However, Darwin is not advocating genocide, but clinically predicting, by analogy to the ways that "more fit" varieties in a species displace other varieties, the likelihood that indigenous peoples will eventually die out from their contact with "civilization", or become absorbed into it completely.


text: His political opinions (and Galton's as well) were strongly inclined against the coercive, authoritarian forms of eugenics that became so prominent in the 20th century. Note that even Galton's ideas about eugenics were not the compulsory sterilisation which became part of eugenics in the United States, or the later genocidal programs of Nazi Germany, but rather further education on the genetic aspects of reproduction, encouraging couples to make better choices for their wellbeing.


text: For each tendency of society to produce negative selections, Darwin also saw the possibility of society to itself check these problems, but also noted that with his theory "progress is no invariable rule." Towards the end of "Descent of Man", Darwin said that he believed man would "sink into indolence" if severe struggle was not continuous, and thought that "there should be open competition for all men; and the most able should not be prevented by laws or customs from succeeding best and rearing the largest number of offspring", but also noted that he thought that the moral qualities of man were advanced much more by habit, reason, learning, and religion than by natural selection. The question plagued him until the end of his life, and he never concluded fully one way or the other about it.


text: In the first chapters of the book, Darwin argued that there is no fundamental gap between humans and other animals in intellectual and moral faculties as well as anatomy. Retreating from his egalitarian ideas of the 1830s, he ranked life on a hierarchic scale which he extended to human races on the basis of anthropology published since 1860: human prehistory outlined by John Lubbock and Edward Burnett Tylor combined archaeology and studies of modern indigenous peoples to show progressive evolution from Stone Age to steam age; the human mind as the same in all cultures but with modern "primitive" peoples giving insight into prehistoric ways of life. Darwin did not support their view that progress was inevitable, but he shared their belief in human unity and held the common attitude that male European liberalism and civilisation had progressed further in morality and intellect than "savage" peoples.


text: He attributed the "great break in the organic chain between man and his nearest allies" to extinction, and as spreading civilisation wiped out wildlife and native human cultures, the gap would widen to somewhere "between man in a more civilised state, as we may hope, than the Caucasian, and some ape as low as a baboon, instead of as at present between the negro or Australian and the gorilla." While there "can be no doubt that the difference between the mind of the lowest man and that of the highest animal is immense", the "difference in mind between man and the higher animals, great as it is, is certainly one of degree and not of kind." At the same time, all human races had many mental similarities, and early artefacts showing shared culture were evidence of evolution through common descent from an ancestral species which was likely to have been fully human.


text: Introducing chapter seven ("On the Races of Man"), Darwin wrote "It is not my intention here to describe the several so-called races of men; but to inquire what is the value of the differences between them under a classificatory point of view, and how they have originated." In answering the question of whether the races should rank as varieties of the same species or count as different species, Darwin discussed arguments which could support the idea that human races were distinct species. This included the geographical distribution of mammal groups which was correlated with the distribution of human races, and the finding of Henry Denny that different species of lice affected different races differently.


text: Darwin then presented the stronger evidence that human races are all the same species, noting that when races mixed together, they intercrossed beyond the "usual test of specific distinctness" and that characteristics identifying races were highly variable. He put great weight on the point that races graduate into each other, writing "But the most weighty of all the arguments against treating the races of man as distinct species, is that they graduate into each other, independently in many cases, as far as we can judge, of their having intercrossed", and concluded that the stronger evidence was that they were not different species.


text: This conclusion on human unity was supported by monogenism, including John Bachman's evidence that intercrossed human races were fully fertile. Proponents of polygenism opposed unity, but the gradual transition from one race to another confused them when they tried to decide how many human races should count as species: Louis Agassiz said eight, but Morton said twenty-two. Darwin commented that the "question whether mankind consists of one or several species has of late years been much agitated by anthropologists, who are divided into two schools of monogenists and polygenists." The latter had to "look at species either as separate creations or as in some manner distinct entities" but those accepting evolution "will feel no doubt that all the races of man are descended from a single primitive stock". Although races differed considerably, they also shared so many features "that it is extremely improbable that they should have been independently acquired by aboriginally distinct species or races." He drew on his memories of Jemmy Button and John Edmonstone to emphasise "the numerous points of mental similarity between the most distinct races of man. The American aborigines, Negroes and Europeans differ as much from each other in mind as any three races that can be named; yet I was incessantly struck, whilst living with the Fuegians on board the "Beagle," with the many little traits of character, shewing how similar their minds were to ours; and so it was with a full-blooded negro with whom I happened once to be intimate." Darwin concluded that "...when the principles of evolution are generally accepted, as they surely will be before long, the dispute between the monogenists and the polygenists will die a silent and unobserved death."


text: Darwin rejected both the idea that races had been separately created, and the concept that races had evolved in parallel from separate ancestral species of apes. He reviewed possible explanations of divergence into racial differences such as adaptations to different climates and habitats, but found inadequate evidence to support them, and proposed that the most likely cause was sexual selection, a subject to which he devoted the greater part of the book to, as described in the following section.


text: Part II of the book begins with a chapter outlining the basic principles of sexual selection, followed by a detailed review of many different taxa of the kingdom Animalia which surveys various classes such as molluscs and crustaceans. The tenth and eleventh chapters are both devoted to insects, the latter specifically focusing on the order Lepidoptera, the butterflies and moths. The remainder of the book shifts to the vertebrates, beginning with cold blooded vertebrates (fishes, amphibians and reptiles) followed by four chapters on birds. Two chapters on mammals precede those on humans. Darwin explained sexual selection as a combination of "female choosiness" and "direct competition between males".


text: Darwin's theories of evolution by natural selection were used to try to show women's place in society was the result of nature. One of the first women to critique Darwin, Antoinette Brown Blackwell published "The Sexes Throughout Nature" in 1875. She was aware she would be considered presumptuous for criticising evolutionary theory but wrote that "disadvantages under which we [women] are placed...will never be lessened by waiting". Blackwell's book answered Darwin and Herbert Spencer, who she thought were the two most influential living men. She wrote of "defrauded womanhood" and her fears that "the human race, forever retarding its own advancement...could not recognize and promote a genuine, broad, and healthful equilibrium of the sexes".


text: In the "Descent of Man", Darwin wrote that by choosing tools and weapons over the years, "man has ultimately become superior to woman", but Blackwell's argument for women's equality went largely ignored until the 1970s when feminist scientists and historians began to explore Darwin. As recently as 2004, Griet Vandermassen, aligned with other Darwinian feminists of the 1990s and early 2000s (decade), wrote that a unifying theory of human nature should include sexual selection. But then the "opposite ongoing integration" was promoted by another faction as an alternative in 2007. Nonetheless, Darwin's explanation of sexual selection continues to receive support from both social and biological scientists as "the best explanation to date".


text: In Darwin's view, anything that could be expected to have some adaptive feature could be explained easily with his theory of natural selection. In "On the Origin of Species", Darwin wrote that to use natural selection to explain something as complicated as a human eye, "with all its inimitable contrivances for adjusting the focus to different distances, for admitting different amounts of light, and for the correction of spherical and chromatic aberration" might at first appear "absurd in the highest possible degree," but nevertheless, if "numerous gradations from a perfect and complex eye to one very imperfect and simple, each grade being useful to its possessor, can be shown to exist", then it seemed quite possible to account for within his theory.


text: More difficult for Darwin were highly evolved and complicated features that conveyed apparently no adaptive advantage to the organism. Writing to colleague Asa Gray in 1860, Darwin commented that he remembered well a "time when the thought of the eye made me cold all over, but I have got over this stage of the complaint, & now small trifling particulars of structure often make me very uncomfortable. The sight of a feather in a peacock's tail, whenever I gaze at it, makes me sick!" Why should a bird like the peacock develop such an elaborate tail, which seemed at best to be a hindrance in its "struggle for existence"? To answer the question, Darwin had introduced in the "Origin" the theory of sexual selection, which outlined how different characteristics could be selected for if they conveyed a "reproductive" advantage to the individual. In this theory, male animals in particular showed heritable features acquired by sexual selection, such as "weapons" with which to fight over females with other males, or beautiful plumage with which to woo the female animals. Much of "Descent" is devoted to providing evidence for sexual selection in nature, which he also ties into the development of aesthetic instincts in human beings, as well as the differences in coloration between the human races.


text: Darwin had developed his ideas about sexual selection for this reason since at least the 1850s, and had originally intended to include a long section on the theory in his large, unpublished book on species. When it came to writing "Origin" (his "abstract" of the larger book), though, he did not feel he had sufficient space to engage in sexual selection to any strong degree, and included only three paragraphs devoted to the subject. Darwin considered sexual selection to be as much of a theoretical contribution of his as was his natural selection, and a substantial amount of "Descent" is devoted exclusively to this topic.


text: It was Darwin's second book on evolutionary theory, following his 1859 work, "On the Origin of Species", in which he explored the concept of natural selection and which had been met with a firestorm of controversy in reaction to Darwin's theory. A single line in this first work hinted at such a conclusion: "light will be thrown on the origin of man and his history". When writing "The Variation of Animals and Plants Under Domestication" in 1866, Darwin intended to include a chapter including man in his theory, but the book became too big and he decided to write a separate "short essay" on ape ancestry, sexual selection and human expression, which became "The Descent of Man".


text: The book is a response to various debates of Darwin's time far more wide-ranging than the questions he raised in "Origin". It is often erroneously assumed that the book was controversial because it was the first to outline the idea of human evolution and common descent. Coming out so late into that particular debate, while it was clearly Darwin's intent to weigh in on this question, his goal was to approach it through a specific theoretical lens (sexual selection), which other commentators at the period had not discussed, and consider the evolution of morality and religion. The theory of sexual selection was also needed to counter the argument that beauty with no obvious utility, such as exotic birds' plumage, proved divine design, which had been put strongly by the Duke of Argyll in his book "The Reign of Law" (1868).


text: The major sticking point for many in the question of human evolution was whether human mental faculties could have possibly been evolved. The gap between humans and even the smartest ape seemed too large, even for those who were sympathetic to Darwin's basic theory. Alfred Russel Wallace, the co-discoverer of evolution by natural selection, believed that the human mind was too complex to have evolved gradually, and began over time to subscribe to a theory of evolution that took more from spiritualism than it did the natural world. Darwin was deeply distressed by Wallace's change of heart, and much of the "Descent of Man" is in response to opinions put forth by Wallace. Darwin focuses less on the question of whether humans evolved than he does on showing that each of the human faculties considered to be so far beyond those of beasts—such as moral reasoning, sympathy for others, beauty, and music—can be seen in kind (if not degree) in other animal species (usually apes and dogs).


text: Darwin was a long-time abolitionist who had been horrified by slavery when he first came into contact with it in Brazil while touring the world on the "Beagle" voyage many years before (slavery had been illegal in the British Empire since 1833). Darwin also was perplexed by the "savage races" he saw in South America at Tierra del Fuego, which he saw as evidence of man's more primitive state of civilisation. During his years in London, his private notebooks were riddled with speculations and thoughts on the nature of the human races, many decades before he published "Origin" and "Descent".


text: When making his case that human races were all closely related and that the apparent gap between humans and other animals was due to closely related forms being extinct, Darwin drew on his experiences on the voyage showing that "savages" were being wiped out by "civilized" peoples.


text: When Darwin referred to "civilised races" he was almost always describing European cultures, and apparently drew no clear distinction between biological races and cultural races in humans. Few made that distinction at the time, an exception being Alfred Russel Wallace.


text: In his book "Why Freud Was Wrong", Richard Webster argued that "The Descent of Man" was influenced by racist prejudice, and that in it Darwin looked forward to the extermination of what he considered to be savage races.


text: Since the publication of "Origin", a wide variety of opinions had been put forward on whether the theory had implications towards human society. One of these, later known as Social Darwinism, has been attributed to Herbert Spencer's writings before publication of "Origin", and argued that society would naturally sort itself out, and that the more "fit" individuals would rise to positions of higher prominence, while the less "fit" would succumb to poverty and disease. On this interpretation, Spencer alleged that government-run social programmes and charity hinder the "natural" stratification of the populace. But while Spencer did first introduce the phrase "survival of the fittest" in 1864, he always vigorously denied this interpretation of his works, arguing that the natural course of social evolution is toward greater altruism, and that the good done by charity and giving aid to the less fortunate, so long as done without coercion and in such a way as to foster independence rather than dependence, outweighs any harm done by saving the less fit. In any case, Spencer was primarily a Lamarckian evolutionist; hence, fitness could be acquired in a single generation and thus in no way did "survival of the fittest" as a tenet of Darwinian evolution predate it.


text: Another of these interpretations, later known as eugenics, was put forth by Darwin's cousin, Francis Galton, in 1865 and 1869. Galton argued that just as physical traits were clearly inherited among generations of people, so could be said for mental qualities (genius and talent). Galton argued that social mores needed to change so that heredity was a conscious decision, to avoid over-breeding by "less fit" members of society and the under-breeding of the "more fit" ones. In Galton's view, social institutions such as welfare and insane asylums were allowing "inferior" humans to survive and reproduce at levels faster than the more "superior" humans in respectable society, and if corrections were not soon taken, society would be awash with "inferiors." Darwin read his cousin's work with interest, and devoted sections of "Descent of Man" to discussion of Galton's theories. Neither Galton nor Darwin, though, advocated any eugenic policies such as those undertaken in the early 20th century, as government coercion of any form was very much against their political opinions.


text: Darwin's views on sexual selection were opposed strongly by his co-discoverer of natural selection, Alfred Russel Wallace, though much of his "debate" with Darwin took place after Darwin's death. Wallace argued against sexual selection, saying that the male-male competition aspects were simply forms of natural selection, and that the notion of female mate choice was attributing the ability to judge standards of beauty to animals far too cognitively undeveloped to be capable of aesthetic feeling (such as beetles).


text: Wallace also argued that Darwin too much favoured the bright colours of the male peacock as adaptive without realising that the "drab" peahen's coloration is itself adaptive, as camouflage. Wallace more speculatively argued that the bright colours and long tails of the peacock were "not" adaptive in any way, and that bright coloration could result from non-adaptive physiological development (for example, the internal organs of animals, not being subject to a visual form of natural selection, come in a wide variety of bright colours). This has been questioned by later scholars as quite a stretch for Wallace, who in this particular instance abandoned his normally strict "adaptationist" agenda in asserting that the highly intricate and developed forms such as a peacock's tail resulted by sheer "physiological processes" that were somehow not at all subjected to adaptation.


text: Apart from Wallace, a number of scholars considered the role of sexual selection in human evolution controversial. Darwin was accused of looking at the evolution of early human ancestors through the moral lens of the 19th century Victorian society. Joan Roughgarden, citing many elements of sexual behaviour in animals and humans that cannot be explained by the sexual selection model, suggested that the function of sex in human evolution was primarily social. Joseph Jordania suggested that in explaining such human morphological and behavioural characteristics as singing, dancing, body painting, wearing of clothes, Darwin (and proponents of sexual selection) neglected another important evolutionary force, intimidation of predators and competitors with the ritualised forms of warning display. Warning display uses virtually the same arsenal of visual, audio, olfactory and behavioural features as sexual selection. According to the principle of aposematism (warning display), to avoid costly physical violence and to replace violence with the ritualised forms of display, many animal species (including humans) use different forms of warning display: visual signals (contrastive body colours, eyespots, body ornaments, threat display and various postures to look bigger), audio signals (hissing, growling, group vocalisations, drumming on external objects), olfactory signals (producing strong body odors, particularly when excited or scared), behavioural signals (demonstratively slow walking, aggregation in large groups, aggressive display behaviour against predators and conspecific competitors). According to Jordania, most of these warning displays were incorrectly attributed to the forces of sexual selection.


text: While debates on the subject continued, in January 1871 Darwin started on another book, using leftover material on emotional expressions, which became "The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals".


text: In recent years controversy also involved the peacock tail, the most famous symbol of the principle of sexual selection. A seven-year Japanese study of free-ranging peafowl came to the conclusion that female peafowl do not select mates merely on the basis of their trains. Mariko Takahashi found no evidence that peahens expressed any preference for peacocks with more elaborate trains, such as trains having more ocelli, a more symmetrical arrangement or a greater length. Takahashi determined that the peacock's train was not the universal target of female mate choice, showed little variance across male populations, and, based on physiological data collected from this group of peafowl, do not correlate to male physical conditions. Adeline Loyau and her colleagues responded to Takahashi's study by voicing concern that alternative explanations for these results had been overlooked and that these might be essential for the understanding of the complexity of mate choice. They concluded that female choice might indeed vary in different ecological conditions. Jordania suggested that peacock's display of colourful and oversize train with plenty of eyespots, together with their extremely loud call and fearless behaviour has been formed by the forces of natural selection (not sexual selection), and served as a warning (aposematic) display to intimidate predators and rivals.


text: In January 1871, Thomas Huxley's former disciple, the anatomist St. George Mivart, had published "On the Genesis of Species" as a critique of natural selection. In an anonymous "Quarterly Review" article, he claimed that the "Descent of Man" would unsettle "our half educated classes" and talked of people doing as they pleased, breaking laws and customs. An infuriated Darwin guessed that Mivart was the author and, thinking "I shall soon be viewed as the most despicable of men", looked for an ally. In September, Huxley wrote a cutting review of Mivart's book and article and a relieved Darwin told him "How you do smash Mivart's theology... He may write his worst & he will never mortify me again". As 1872 began, Mivart politely inflamed the argument again, writing "wishing you very sincerely a happy new year" while wanting a disclaimer of the "fundamental intellectual errors" in the "Descent of Man". This time, Darwin ended the correspondence.


title: History of New York (state)

text: The history of New York begins around 10,000 B.C. when the first people arrived. By 1100 A.D. two main cultures had become dominant as the Iroquoian and Algonquian developed. European discovery of New York was led by the Italian Giovanni da Verrazzano in 1524 followed by the first land claim in 1609 by the Dutch. As part of New Netherland, the colony was important in the fur trade and eventually became an agricultural resource thanks to the patroon system. In 1626 the Dutch thought they had bought the island of Manhattan from Native Americans. In 1664, England renamed the colony New York, after the Duke of York and Albany, brother of King Charles II. New York City gained prominence in the 18th century as a major trading port in the Thirteen Colonies.


title: History of New York (state)

text: New York played a pivotal role during the American Revolution and subsequent war. The Stamp Act Congress in 1765 brought together representatives from across the Thirteen Colonies to form a unified response to British policies. The Sons of Liberty were active in New York City to challenge British authority. After a major loss at the Battle of Long Island, the Continental Army suffered a series of additional defeats that forced a retreat from the New York City area, leaving the strategic port and harbor to the British army and navy as their North American base of operations for the rest of the war. The Battle of Saratoga was the turning point of the war in favor of the Americans, convincing France to formally ally with them. New York's constitution was adopted in 1777, and strongly influenced the United States Constitution. New York City was the national capital at various times between 1785 and 1790, where the Bill of Rights was drafted. Albany became the permanent state capital in 1797. In 1787, New York became the eleventh state to ratify the United States Constitution.


title: History of New York (state)

text: New York hosted significant transportation advancements in the 19th century, including the first steamboat line in 1807, the Erie Canal in 1825, and America's first regularly scheduled rail service in 1831. These advancements led to the expanded settlement of western New York and trade ties to the Midwest settlements around the Great Lakes.


title: History of New York (state)

text: Due to New York City's trade ties to the South, there were numerous southern sympathizers in the early days of the American Civil War and the mayor proposed secession. Far from any of the battles, New York ultimately sent the most men and money to support the Union cause. Thereafter, the state helped create the industrial age and consequently was home to some of the first labor unions.


title: History of New York (state)

text: During the 19th century, New York City became the main entry point for European immigrants to the United States, beginning with a wave of Irish during their Great Famine. Millions came through Castle Clinton in Battery Park before Ellis Island opened in 1892 to welcome millions more, increasingly from eastern and southern Europe. The Statue of Liberty opened in 1886 and became a symbol of hope. New York boomed during the Roaring Twenties, before the Wall Street Crash of 1929, and skyscrapers expressed the energy of the city. New York City was the site of successive tallest buildings in the world from 1913 to 1974.