title: Sanjiv Bhatt

text: In February 2012, Bhatt accused the SIT of destroying evidence in collusion with the Gujarat government. Bhatt has once again written to the NMC seeking state intelligence and police records, documents and log books pertaining to Godhra riots as he thought the remaining records too may be destroyed by the Government.


title: Sanjiv Bhatt

text: He also claimed before the panel that Modi was want only giving misleading answers and unfortunately the investigation officer didn't contradict him with all evidences that were available at his disposal.


title: Sanjiv Bhatt

text: Bhatt suggested in March 2012 that the final report of the NMC should be submitted to the governor of Gujarat rather than to its chief minister, Modi. He also thought that the earlier NMC report, which concerned the Godhra train incident and had been produced in 2008, should be recalled from the chief minister and presented instead to the governor. The basis for his request was that Modi's actions formed a part of the terms of reference of the enquiry and that "no person shall be a judge in his own cause". He also criticised the earlier report, in which the NMC had exonerated Modi of any wrongdoing in relation to the riots. Bhatt believed that the NMC lacked the official authority to make such a statement. He also criticised the failure of the NMC to summon Modi to appear before it, and a few days later he requested that Modi should be summoned on the basis of an affidavit that had been filed with the commission by the late Amarsinh Chaudhary, a former Gujarat Chief Minister, in 2002. Bhatt claimed that the affidavit showed that Chaudhary had met with Modi during the period of the riots because he was concerned about reports of events in the Gulbarg Society, including the situation of Ehsan Zafri. According to Bhatt, the affidavit records that Chaudhary had found Modi to be not very "responsive" when they met and that he had received reports that the police were not acting as they should during the events.


title: Sanjiv Bhatt

text: Bhatt had filed a plea before the Supreme Court seeking a special investigative probe into two First Information Reports filed against him by the Gujarat Police. The first FIR was for forcing his official driver, K D Panth, a subordinate officer, to file a false affidavit that he had transported Bhatt on 27 February 2002 to Chief Minister Narendra Modi's residence where Bhatt alleged that Modi had instructed officers to allow riots following the Godhra train carnage. The second FIR was that he had hacked the email of a law enforcement official, namely Tushar Mehta, then additional advocate general of Gujarat. In his plea before the court, Bhatt asserted that both FIRs filed against him were politically motivated and should be probed by a Supreme Court monitored investigative team to uncover abuse of power by the Modi government.


title: Sanjiv Bhatt

text: On 13 October 2015, a bench comprising Chief Justice H L Dattu and Justice Arun Mishra dismissed Bhatt's plea and ordered a speedy trial to be conducted in both cases. It used email evidence to rule that Bhatt had deliberately colluded with leaders of the opposition Congress Party, NGO activists and certain elements in the media to furnish false evidence about his attendance at 27 February 2002 meeting chaired by Modi so that he could falsely allege that Modi had incited riots."The exchange of emails which are self-explanatory indicate that the petitioner was in active touch with leaders of rival political party, NGOs, their lawyers, tried to play media card, and was being tutored by NGOs. The manner in which he acted is apparent from the aforesaid emails and need not be repeated. Petitioner had probably forgotten that he was senior IPS officer," the bench said. Referring to his past conduct, the bench said there were three departmental inquiries pending against him and he was also accused of committing atrocities on peaceful and innocent villagers in Jamjodhpur which resulted in the death of one person. The court said Bhatt had also invoked the provisions of TADA during his tenure. Moreover, the Court condemned Bhatt's conduct as underhanded and unbefitting of a senior police officer.


title: Sanjiv Bhatt

text: The Supreme Court on 14 October 2015 cleared the way for criminal prosecution of sacked IPS officer Sanjiv Bhatt for allegedly hacking the email account of the then additional advocate general of Gujarat Tushar Mehta and for forcing a junior police official to file a false affidavit in a Gujarat riots case.


title: Sanjiv Bhatt

text: Bhatt's allegation on inaction of police officers upon instruction from Modi was also supported by K. S. Subramanian who was a member of fact finding team led by former Supreme Court Justice V. R. Krishna Iyer. His conclusion was the outcome of his interaction with former Gujarat police chief Chakravarthy and P.C. Pandey who was then Ahmedabad police commissioner.


title: Sanjiv Bhatt

text: At a convention marking the tenth anniversary of the Godhra, Bhatt said that he is unable to see any justice for the victims of riots. Bhatt was issued summon by National Commission for Minorities along with other retired and serving police officers of Gujarat to testify the role of Modi to bring out the truth of 27 February 2002 meeting which held at Modi's home. The summon was issued to Bhatt on the basis of a complaint filed by Niyazbibi Malek.


title: Sanjiv Bhatt

text: Bhatt contacted Pratibha Patil, the Indian President, in April 2012. He sought a probe against Modi. He has requested the centre to appoint two member commission to enquire the role and conduct of Modi, his officials and police officers in the Godhra massacre. He also demanded an investigation into the government's measures on the rehabilitation for victims.


title: Sanjiv Bhatt

text: The SIT released all details of its investigations related to the Jaffri complaint of complicity on 7 May 2012, following deposition of its final report with the courts. The release included the two reports of Ramachandran, the "amicus", that had been submitted in January and July 2011. The documents revealed that the SIT believed that Bhatt had not been present at the meeting and that this was supported both by statements from those who had been present and by analysis of Bhatt's telephone records, which suggested that he was in Ahmedabad at the time. The SIT also found that the fax message that Bhatt claimed to have sent never existed and he concocted it later and the signatures of his superior officers were forged. Their preliminary report did note that there was a lack of credibility among the witnesses present at the meeting, some of whom had retired and were claiming either a loss of memory or had been in receipt of retirement benefits that might impact upon their neutrality. In addition, the SIT considered Bhatt to be an unreliable witness who had attempted to coach other witnesses, had not provided adequate explanation for his nine-year silence regarding the events surrounding the meeting and had been imprecise in his description of the events. They also though that he had "an axe to grind" against the state.


title: Sanjiv Bhatt

text: The Ramachandran reviews painted a different picture. He queried how the SIT could rely on the testimony of witnesses who were present at the meeting when the investigation had itself raised doubts concerning their credibility, and he provided a rationale that could explain Bhatt's presence despite his relatively low rank. He also disputed the SIT conclusions regarding the telephone records analysis and said that the matter of presence needed to be tested in court because the evidence available was insufficient to discount Bhatt's claim. Bhatt had claimed that there were two meetings on the day in question, at different times. Ramachandran's reports also showed that he thought that, if they were true, the alleged statements made by Modi were actionable in law and that the veracity of those allegations should also be tested in court. Ramachandran accepted that Bhatt had not acted in a manner consistent with his official duties but noted that


title: Sanjiv Bhatt

text: There were other differences of opinion between the SIT and Ramachandran but there were also points upon which they agreed. One of these was that the murdered Haren Pandya, who had been the Gujarat Home Minister at the time of the riots but later had a falling out with Modi, could not have been at the meeting and therefore could not have vouched for Bhatt's presence there, as had been claimed by a former judge in February 2012.


title: Sanjiv Bhatt

text: After the official release of the Amicus curiae's report, "The Times of India" described Bhatt as pivot in the case against Modi. Bhatt criticised the published SIT report on the Godhra attack, claiming that the SIT was shielding Modi. Besides his deposition before NCM, Bhatt has filed an affidavit in National Commission of Minorities (NCM).In his affidavit Bhatt has asked the rights panel to initiate action against the SIT headed by R K Raghavan for incorrectly recording his statements or tweaking them to give a clean chit to Chief Minister Narendra Modi.


title: Sanjiv Bhatt

text: He also alleged that certain very crucial portions of his statement, including the timings of extremely consequential meetings with the chief minister Narendra Modi on 27 February & 28 February 2002, have either been incorrectly recorded or deliberately tweaked by the SIT, possibly with the ulterior motive and intent of shielding certain powerful persons including the chief minister from legal punishment.


title: Sanjiv Bhatt

text: Concerns have been raised at various times regarding the personal safety of Bhatt. At the time of filing his Supreme Court affidavit in April 2011, Bhatt requested the Court for protection and the Gujarat government assured the Supreme Court that it would provide personal safety arrangements. This situation had arisen because Bhatt believed that the SIT had passed on his testimony to the state government and thus he feared for the security of himself and his family.


title: Sanjiv Bhatt

text: His wife, Shweta, alleged that there was harassment during the period that he spent in jail under arrest in October 2011. She requested that the Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA) of the Government of India intervene to ensure that both he and his family were protected. The MHA instructed the government of Gujarat accordingly.


title: Sanjiv Bhatt

text: Bhatt had been provided with two personal guards but considered this to be insufficient. In November 2011 he requested improved security, including provision of a bullet proof car. He repeated his demands in February 2012, when he also raised objections on personal safety grounds to a request from the Gujarat police that he should return his service revolver.


title: Sanjiv Bhatt

text: In November 2013 Bhatt alleged that city police was not providing him adequate security, and there was an increased threat to his and his family members' lives from the "right-wing fundamentalists and the supporters of Narendra Modi". Earlier, Bhatt had alleged that his security had been downsized. The office of Commissioner of Police Shivanand Jha said that after the assessment of threat perception, it was decided that Bhatt should be provided with two armed personal security officers. However, Bhatt wrote to the commissioner, saying that he was being "provided with only one armed PSO".


title: Helles

text: Helles or hell is a traditional German pale lager beer, produced chiefly in Southern Germany, particularly Munich. The German word "hell" can be translated as "bright", "light", or "pale".


title: Helles

text: Helles-style beers typically are full-bodied, mildly sweet and light-coloured, with low bitterness. The beer is clear due to filtration prior to bottling, although some restaurants and breweries do offer an unfiltered version. Munich-style helles is a yellow beer brewed using cool fermentation with a lager yeast such as "Saccharomyces pastorianus", bitter hops such as Hallertau hops, and an original specific gravity (prior to fermentation) between 1.044 and 1.053 (11 to 13 degrees plato), and between 4.5 and 6% alcohol by volume. Helles has a less pronounced hop flavour than pilsner beers.


title: Helles

text: Until the 1960s, Helles was universally available in German-speaking regions. In many regions, Helles was slowly replaced by pilsner-style beers, which was also driven by changing consumer preferences from draft beer to bottled beer. In regions outside of Southern Germany, Helles is regaining popularity, particularly Berlin, where the beer's traditional image has become trendy.


title: Helles

text: Helles enjoys great popularity in the Southern German regions of Bavaria, Franconia, and Baden-Württemberg. It can be referred to as , , , "Munich lager", or "export". No clear distinction is drawn between lager and export, although export typically is closer in style to Dortmunder Export, which has a slightly higher ABV of 5.5% for extended shelf life.


title: Vorkutlag

text: The Vorkuta Corrective Labor Camp (), commonly known as the Vorkuta Gulag or Vorkutlag (Воркутлаг), was a major GULAG labor camp of the Soviet Union located in Vorkuta from 1932 to 1962.


title: Vorkutlag

text: The Vorkuta Gulag was one of the largest camps in the GULAG system with 73,000 prisoners at its peak in 1951, containing Soviet and foreign prisoners including prisoners of war, dissidents, political prisoners ("enemies of the state") and common criminals who were used as forced labor in the coal mining works. The Vorkuta Gulag was the site of the Vorkuta Uprising in July 1953.


title: Vorkutlag

text: The Vorkuta Gulag was established by Soviet authorities in 1932, on a site in the basin of the Pechora River, located within the Komi ASSR of the Russian SFSR (present-day Komi Republic, Russia), approximately from Moscow and above the Arctic Circle. The city of Vorkuta was established to support the camp, which was constructed to exploit the resources of the Pechora Coal Basin, the second largest coal basin in the Soviet Union. There were approximately 132 sub-camps in the Vorkuta Gulag system during the height of its use in the Soviet prison system. From 1939, Polish prisoners were held at Vorkuta following the Occupation of Poland until the German invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941. Vorkuta was then also used to hold German prisoners of war captured on the Eastern Front in World War II as well as criminals, Soviet citizens and those from Soviet-allied countries deemed to be dissidents and enemies of the state during the Soviet era.


title: Vorkutlag

text: The Vorkuta uprising occurred at the Vorkuta Gulag in July 1953, when inmates at various camps who were forced to work in the region's coal mines went on strike. The uprising, beginning as a mostly passive walkout, escalated into a strike involving 18,000 inmates across the Vorkuta camp system and lasted for approximately two weeks. On 1 August, the Vorkuta Gulag's camp chief Derevyanko ordered troops to fire at the strikers, resulting in the deaths of at least 53 workers, although estimates vary.


title: Vorkutlag

text: The Vorkuta camp was liquidated by order of the USSR Ministry of Internal Affairs and eventually closed in 1962, but large numbers of Soviet citizens who were former prisoners remained living in Vorkuta, either due to the restrictions on their settlement or their poor financial situation, or having nowhere to go. Memorial, a Russian human rights organization that focuses on recording and publicising the human rights violations of the Soviet Union's totalitarianism, estimates that of the 40,000 people collecting state pensions in the Vorkuta area, 32,000 are former gulag inmates or their descendants.


title: Kacper Kozłowski (footballer)

text: Kacper Szymon Kozłowski (born 16 October 2003) is a Polish professional footballer who plays as a midfielder for Dutch club Vitesse, on loan from Brighton & Hove Albion, and the Poland national team.


title: Kacper Kozłowski (footballer)

text: Kozłowski started his career with Pogoń Szczecin. In January 2022, he transferred to Premier League side Brighton & Hove Albion where he was immediately loaned to Brighton's sister club Union SG of Belgian First Division A for the rest of the season.


title: Kacper Kozłowski (footballer)

text: In August 2022, Kozłowski joined Vitesse in the Netherlands on loan until the end of the 2022–23 season.


title: Kacper Kozłowski (footballer)

text: In June 2021, Kozłowski featured for Poland at UEFA Euro 2020 in a 1–1 draw with Spain, to become the youngest player of any nationality to play at a European Championship, aged 17 years and 246 days, breaking the previous record of Jude Bellingham, who himself had broken the same record only six days prior.


title: Department of motor vehicles

text: A department of motor vehicles (DMV) is a government agency that administers motor vehicle registration and driver licensing. In countries with federal states such as in North America, these agencies are generally administered by subnational governments, while in unitary states such as many of those in Europe, DMVs are organized nationally by the central government.


title: Department of motor vehicles

text: Depending on the location, the "DMV" can also be known as "division of motor vehicles," "driver and motor vehicle services," or "bureau of motor vehicles".


title: Department of motor vehicles

text: Driver licensing and vehicle registration in the United States are handled by the state government in all states but Hawaii, where local governments perform DMV functions. In Canada, driver licensing and vehicle registration are handled at the provincial government level.


title: Department of motor vehicles

text: The Uniform Vehicle Code prefers the name "Department of Motor Vehicles". The acronym "DMV" is most commonly used to describe the agency (where it exists); however, diverse titles are used in different jurisdictions.


title: Department of motor vehicles

text: The location of a department or division of motor vehicles within the structure of a state's government tends to vary widely.


title: Department of motor vehicles

text: Hawaii is the only U.S. state where no part of the state government performs DMV functions; it has completely delegated vehicle registration and driver licensing to county governments.


title: Department of motor vehicles

text: In Kentucky, the Transportation Cabinet sets the policies and designs for licenses and vehicle registration; but the actual registration and licensing are handled by county clerks' (vehicle registration) and Circuit Court clerks' (drivers licensing) offices. Likewise, in Tennessee, the Department of Revenue and the Driver License Services Division of the Department of Safety and Homeland Security establishes policies and designs for licenses and vehicle registration, but the actual registration and licensing are handled by county clerks.


title: Department of motor vehicles

text: In the District of Columbia, which is not part of any state, the DMV (formerly the Bureau of Motor Vehicle Services) is part of the city government.


title: Department of motor vehicles

text: In Virginia, the Department of Motor Vehicles handles both driver licensing and vehicle registration, while the Virginia State Police and the Department of Environmental Quality administer safety inspection and emission inspection, respectively. The program is simply "administered" by the state; actual inspections are performed by specific authorized employees of privately owned gas stations and garages licensed by the state.


title: Department of motor vehicles

text: In some states, the DMV is not a separate cabinet-level department, but instead is a division or bureau within a larger department. Departments that perform DMV functions include the Department of Justice (Montana), the Department of Public Safety (Texas, Ohio), the Department of Revenue (Missouri, Kansas, and Colorado), and the Department of Transportation (Arizona, Delaware, Maryland, North Carolina, Oregon, Pennsylvania, and Wisconsin). In New Hampshire and Tennessee, the Division of Motor Vehicles and the Driver License Services Division, respectively, is a division of each state's Department of Safety (in Tennessee, Department of Safety and Homeland Security). In Vermont, the Department of Motor Vehicles is a subunit of the state Agency of Transportation.


title: Department of motor vehicles

text: Some states do not separate DMV functions into distinct organizational entities at all, but simply bundle them into responsibilities assigned to an existing government agency. For example, in the state of Washington, the Department of Licensing is responsible for driver's licenses and vehicle and boat registrations in addition to most other business and occupational licensing. In Maine, Michigan, and Illinois, the Secretary of State's offices perform responsibilities that would be handled by the DMV in other states.


title: Department of motor vehicles

text: Almost all long-term residents ("long term" in this case means over 30 days) of a state who wish to operate motor vehicles must possess a driver's license issued by their state DMV, and their vehicles must show license plates (and current registration tags or stickers) issued by that agency.


title: Department of motor vehicles

text: Armed Forces active duty service members are an exception to this general rule; by federal law, servicemembers do not change legal residence when relocating to a new duty station unless they take voluntary action to do so. These individuals have the option of retaining the license and vehicle registration of their legal residence or obtaining a new license and registration locally. Some states also let out-of-state college students maintain their existing license and/or registration.


title: Department of motor vehicles

text: The federal government registers vehicles which it owns or leases through the General Services Administration (GSA), a federal agency, rather than with any state or territorial DMV. GSA contracts with Federal Prison Industries for the manufacturing of "U.S. Government" plates to be mounted on such vehicles. However, federal employees authorized to drive such vehicles must still be licensed by their home state or territory.


title: Department of motor vehicles

text: The Office of Foreign Missions at the U.S. Department of State has a Diplomatic Motor Vehicles program that issues driver's licenses to foreign diplomats and their dependents, registers their vehicles, and issues special diplomatic license plates.


title: Department of motor vehicles

text: In countries with no national identification card (like the United States), driver's licenses have often become the "de facto" identification card for many purposes, and DMV agencies have effectively become the agency responsible for verifying identity in their respective states, even the identity of non-drivers. The REAL ID Act of 2005 is an attempt to provide a national standard for identification cards in the United States as identification cards are commonly used in everyday life.


title: Department of motor vehicles

text: In some states, besides conducting the written and hands-on driving tests that are a prerequisite to earning a driver's license, DMVs also regulate private driving schools and their instructors. All DMVs issue their state's driver's manual, which all drivers are expected to know and abide by. Knowledge of the driver's manual is tested prior to issuing a permit or license.


title: Department of motor vehicles

text: DMVs are responsible for providing an identification number for vehicles, either with a permanent vehicle registration plate or temporary tag. See also Vehicle registration plates of the United States. A vehicle registration program tracks detailed vehicle information, such as odometer history, to prevent automobile-related crimes such as odometer fraud.


title: Department of motor vehicles

text: Many DMVs allow third parties to issue registration materials. These may include companies that specialize in processing registration application paperwork (often called "tag agents") or car dealers. Tag agents are given direct access to DMV systems (as in Louisiana). Dealers often use their state DMV's electronic vehicle registration (EVR) program.


title: Department of motor vehicles

text: The certification of ownership of automotive vehicles is handled by each state's DMV normally by issuing a vehicle title. The types of vehicles certified by a DMV varies by state. While almost all DMVs title vehicles that are driven on roadways, the responsibility to title boats, mobile homes, and off-road vehicles can be the responsibility of other agencies such as a Department of Natural Resources (DNR).


title: Department of motor vehicles

text: As the issuer of vehicle titles, DMVs are also usually responsible for recording liens made with an automobile as collateral on a secured loan. Several DMVs provide an Electronic Lien and Title program for lienholders.


title: Department of motor vehicles

text: Duties of the DMV include enforcement of state and federal laws regarding motor vehicles. Many departments have sworn law enforcement officers who enforce DMV regulations that are codified in state law. In North Carolina, for example, the DMV contains an element known as "License and Theft." Stolen motor vehicles are tracked down by "Inspectors," sworn law enforcement officers of the state employed by the DMV, and suspected cases of fraudulent registrations, license plates, and/or theft of those elements are investigated. Inspectors also investigate independent inspection stations licensed by the DMV. At times, some of these stations violate DMV regulations codified by law. The most common of these violations is passing inspection for a vehicle with windows tinted below the legal limits. The penalty for such a violation is a $1,000 fine and, for first time offenders, a revocation of the inspection permit for 30 days. Inspection stations face permanent permit revocation for subsequent offenses. In New York, the Division of Field Investigations (DFI) is the criminal investigations arm of the DMV. It employs investigators to combat auto theft, identity theft, and fraudulent document-related crimes that take place in New York. These investigators are armed New York State peace officers with statewide authority to enforce laws and handle investigations. In Texas, the Automobile Burglary and Theft Prevention Authority (ABTPA) educates Texans on how to protect themselves from motor vehicle theft and awards financial grants to curtail auto theft and burglary. The division is also involved in a program that helps to prevent stolen motor vehicles from entering Mexico.


title: Department of motor vehicles

text: Compared to standard law enforcement officers, DMV law enforcement agents operate with greater flexibility when it comes to their specific police powers. If a person under investigation by the DMV refuses to answer questions or meet with DMV law enforcement agents, their registration and tags may be canceled. Although a citizen has a constitutional right not to speak or meet with sworn law enforcement officers while under investigation, no constitutional right protects a person's motor vehicle registration with a state agency. Another example of this flexibility of police powers is found in the policies of many states regarding suspected DUI offenders. If a person is stopped by police under suspicion of driving while impaired, and refuses a breath test to determine blood alcohol content, the DMV automatically revokes that person's license for one year. Even if evidence of that person's impairment is found insufficient at trial, the individual loses their driving privileges simply for having refused the sobriety test.


title: Department of motor vehicles

text: In most states, a separate identification card indicating residency is optionally provided in the case that one does not have a driver's license.


title: Department of motor vehicles

text: A liquor identification is also provided in some jurisdictions for residents to affirm their age of majority to sellers of liquor, although a state-issued ID that proves the individual is over the legal drinking age often suffices. This is another measure to prevent minors from purchasing alcohol.


title: The Rapture (1991 film)

text: The Rapture is a 1991 drama film written and directed by Michael Tolkin. It stars Mimi Rogers as a woman who converts from a swinger to a born-again Christian after learning that a true Rapture is upon the world.


title: The Rapture (1991 film)

text: Sharon, a young Los Angeles woman, engages in a swinging, libidinous lifestyle. She comes into contact with a sect that advises her that the Rapture is imminent.


title: The Rapture (1991 film)

text: In time, she comes to accept this belief herself and becomes a born-again Christian. She then starts living a pious life, eventually marrying and having a daughter, Mary. When her husband Randy is killed in a senseless murder, however, she begins to question the benevolence of God. She believes God has called her to go to the desert to wait for the Rapture, and instead of leaving her daughter safely with friends, she decides Mary must come with her. Foster, a police officer, is concerned for their well-being after they are reduced to stealing food while they wait, but Sharon is insistent that the end is near.


title: The Rapture (1991 film)

text: Sharon begins to despair after a period of time, and at her daughter's urging, decides to hasten their ascendance to Heaven. She kills Mary with a gunshot but is unable to take her own life afterwards, afraid she will be condemned as having killed herself. She confesses to Foster what she had done and is jailed.


title: The Rapture (1991 film)

text: After an apparition of Mary (accompanied by two angels) appears in the night, the Rapture occurs. While Sharon sits in her cell early the next morning, a loud trumpet blast is heard all over the world, signaling the start of the Rapture. Later on, Sharon and Foster, after driving out into the desert, are both raptured to a Purgatory-like landscape. Foster, who had been an atheist his whole life, accepts God and is allowed entrance to Heaven, but Sharon blames God for Mary's death, even though God did not tell her to take Mary with her to the desert, and she cannot renounce her anger at what she sees as God's cruelty. Mary pleads with her to accept God back into her heart so she can join her and Randy in Heaven, but Sharon refuses, choosing to remain alone in the purgatory-like landscape for eternity.


title: The Rapture (1991 film)

text: Prior to Rogers' involvement, Sissy Spacek, Meg Ryan, and Rachel Ward passed on taking the role of Sharon. Tolkin noted that Rogers' Scientology beliefs played no bearing on her casting: "Mimi's background in Scientology played no role in my casting her, nor did I see it as a problem — we never even discussed it." Rogers added that "my own religious views didn't affect my approach to the picture at all." In another interview, though, she noted that the role was easier thanks to her view of Jesus:


title: The Rapture (1991 film)

text: "The Rapture" grossed $1.3 million at the North American box office against a production budget of $3 million.


title: The Rapture (1991 film)

text: On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 67% based on 30 reviews, with an average rating of 6.48/10. Rogers especially won praise for her performance, with the "Los Angeles Times" calling it an "astonishingly stunning performance." "Entertainment Weekly" noted that Rogers "delivers a subtle and complex performance." Roger Ebert gave "The Rapture" 4/4 stars and praised Tolkin for avoiding the "pious banalities" of most religious movies, instead "examining the logic of the final judgment as radically and uncompromisingly as he can." John Simon of the "National Review" described "The Rapture" as "a piece of apocalyptic trash megalomaniacal to the point of imbecility".


title: Pope Formosus

text: Pope Formosus (896) was the bishop of Rome and ruler of the Papal States from 6 October 891 until his death on 4 April 896. His reign as pope was troubled, marked by interventions in power struggles over the Patriarchate of Constantinople, the Kingdom of West Francia, and the Holy Roman Empire. Because he sided with Arnulf of Carinthia against Lambert of Spoleto, Formosus's remains were exhumed and put on trial in the Cadaver Synod. Several of his immediate successors were primarily preoccupied by the controversial legacy of his pontificate.


title: Pope Formosus

text: Probably a native of Rome, Formosus was born around 816. He became cardinal bishop of Porto in 864. Two years later, Pope Nicholas I appointed him a legate to Bulgaria (866). He also undertook diplomatic missions to France (869 and 872).


title: Pope Formosus

text: Upon the death of Louis II of Italy in 875, the nobles elected his uncle Charles the Bald to be the new emperor. Formosus conveyed Pope John VIII's invitation for Charles to come to Rome to be crowned. Charles took the crown at Pavia and received the imperial insignia in Rome on 29 December. The supporters of Louis' other uncle, Louis the German, or Louis's widow, Engelberga, opposed the coronation. Fearing political retribution, many of them left Rome surreptitiously. Formosus fled to Tours after despoiling the cloisters in Rome. On April 19, John VIII called a synod which ordered Formosus and other papal officials to return to Rome. When Formosus did not comply, he was removed from the ranks of the clergy and excommunicated on the grounds that he had deserted his diocese without papal permission, and had aspired to the position of archbishop of Bulgaria. Additional charges included the accusations that he had opposed the emperor; "conspired with certain iniquitous men and women for the destruction of the Papal See"; and had despoiled the cloisters in Rome. The condemnation of Formosus and others was announced in July 872. In 878 the sentence of excommunication was withdrawn after he promised never to return to Rome or exercise his priestly functions.


title: Pope Formosus

text: In 867, while Formosus was serving as legate to the Bulgarian court, Boris I requested that he be named archbishop of Bulgaria. Since the canons forbade a bishop to change sees, the request was denied. As early as 872 he was a candidate for the papacy; Johann Peter Kirsch suggests that the pope may have viewed the cardinal as a potential rival. In 883, John VIII's successor, Marinus I, restored Formosus to his suburbicarian diocese of Portus. Following the reigns of Marinus, Adrian III (884–885) and Stephen V (885–891), Formosus was unanimously elected pope on 6 October 891.


title: Pope Formosus

text: Shortly after his election, Formosus was asked to intervene in the Patriarchate of Constantinople, where Photius I had been ejected and Stephen I, the son of Emperor Basil I, had taken the office. Formosus refused to reinstate those who had been ordained by Photius, as his predecessor, Stephen V, had nullified all of Photius' ordinations. However, the Eastern bishops determined to recognize Photius' ordinations nonetheless. Formosus also immediately immersed himself in the dispute between Odo of Paris and Charles the Simple for the French throne. Siding with Charles, Formosus zealously exhorted Odo to cede the throne to Charles, to no avail.


title: Pope Formosus

text: Formosus was deeply distrustful of Guy III of Spoleto, the reigning emperor, and began looking for support against him. To bolster his position, Guy forced Formosus to crown his son Lambert as co-emperor in April 892. The following year, however, Formosus persuaded Arnulf of Carinthia to advance to Rome and liberate Italy from Guy's control. In 894, Arnulf's army occupied all the country north of the Po River. Guy died in December, leaving his son Lambert in the care of his mother, Agiltrude, an opponent of the Carolingians. In autumn 895 Arnulf undertook his second Italian campaign, progressing to Rome by February and seizing the city from Agiltrude by force on February 21. The following day, Formosus crowned Arnulf as emperor in St. Peter's Basilica. The new emperor moved against Spoleto but was struck with paralysis on the way and was unable to continue the campaign.


title: Pope Formosus

text: During his papacy, Formosus also had to contend with the Saracens, who were attacking Lazio. On 4 April 896, Formosus died. He was succeeded by Boniface VI, whose papacy lasted 15 days.


title: Pope Formosus

text: Stephen VI, the successor of Boniface VI, influenced by Lambert and Agiltrude, sat in judgment of Formosus in 897, in what is known as the Cadaver Synod. The corpse was disinterred, clad in papal vestments, and seated on a throne to face all the charges from John VIII. The verdict was that the deceased had been unworthy of the pontificate. The was applied to Formosus, all his measures and acts were annulled, and the orders conferred by him were declared invalid. The papal vestments were torn from his body, the three fingers from his right hand he had used in blessings were cut off, and the corpse was thrown into the Tiber, later to be retrieved by a monk.


title: Pope Formosus

text: Following the death of Stephen VI, Formosus' body was reinterred in St Peter's Basilica. Further trials of this nature against deceased persons were banned, but Sergius III (904–911) reapproved the decisions against Formosus. Sergius demanded the re-ordination of the bishops consecrated by Formosus, who in turn had conferred orders on many other clerics, causing great confusion. Later the validity of Formosus' pontificate was re-reinstated. The decision of Sergius with respect to Formosus has subsequently been universally disregarded by the Catholic Church, since Formosus' condemnation had little to do with piety and more to do with politics.


title: 2014–15 Golden State Warriors season

text: The 2014–15 Golden State Warriors season was the 69th season of the franchise in the National Basketball Association (NBA), and their 53rd in the San Francisco Bay Area. The Warriors finished the season 67–15, a new franchise record for wins in a season, beating their previous best record of winning 59 games in the 1975–76 season. They are the tenth NBA team to win 67 games in a season. Golden State reached the 2015 NBA Finals and defeated the Cleveland Cavaliers 4–2, to win their first title in 40 years, and the fourth in franchise history. Their 83 total wins for the season was the third most for a team in NBA history, they went 83–20 combining regular season and playoff games.


title: 2014–15 Golden State Warriors season

text: Under first-year head coach and former NBA player Steve Kerr, the Warriors began the season 10–2, the best start in franchise history. They went 5–0 on the road in November, their second perfect road trip in franchise history, and first since 1978. Between November 13 and December 14, the Warriors won a franchise record 16 games in a row, improving to 21–2 on the season, before the record was snapped by the Memphis Grizzlies. On January 21, the team established a new franchise record of 17 straight home wins, extending the record to 19 before losing to the Chicago Bulls on January 27. With their win against the Portland Trail Blazers on March 24, they clinched the Pacific Division for the first time since the 1975–76 season, also tying the franchise record for road wins in a season with 24. Golden State finished with a road record of 28–13, and a franchise home win–loss record of 39–2, tied for second all-time best home record. On March 28, the Warriors won their 60th game and clinched the best record in the Western Conference and set a franchise record for regular season wins (the 1975–76 Warriors had won 59). They finished the regular season with a record of 67–15.


title: 2014–15 Golden State Warriors season

text: Numerous Warriors set individual records over the course of the season. Stephen Curry won the NBA Most Valuable Player Award, the first Warriors player to win since Wilt Chamberlain in the 1959–60 NBA season, when the franchise was still located in Philadelphia. He also broke his own NBA record for made three-pointers in a season of 272, finishing with 286. On January 23, 2015, Klay Thompson broke the NBA record for most points scored in a quarter with 37, finishing the game with a career high 52 points. On April 15, head coach Steve Kerr won his 63rd game with the Warriors and broke the NBA record for most wins by a rookie head coach. Curry and Thompson, dubbed the "Splash Brothers", broke the single-season record for most three-pointers made by a pair of teammates. Both also made the All-Star team, Curry as a starter and Thompson as a reserve. Together, they sank 525 three-pointers over the course of the season, smashing the prior NBA record of 484 (set by themselves in 2013–14).


title: Great Northern Railway (U.S.)

text: The Great Northern Railway was an American Class I railroad. Running from Saint Paul, Minnesota, to Seattle, Washington, it was the creation of 19th-century railroad entrepreneur James J. Hill and was developed from the Saint Paul & Pacific Railroad. The Great Northern's route was the northernmost transcontinental railroad route in the U.S.


title: Great Northern Railway (U.S.)

text: In 1970, the Great Northern Railway merged with three other railroads to form the Burlington Northern Railroad, which merged in 1996 with the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway to form the Burlington Northern and Santa Fe Railway.


title: Great Northern Railway (U.S.)

text: The Great Northern was built in stages, slowly creating profitable lines, before extending the road further into undeveloped Western territories. In a series of the earliest public relations campaigns, contests were held to promote interest in the railroad and the ranchlands along its route. Fred J. Adams used promotional incentives such as feed and seed donations to farmers getting started along the line. Contests were all-inclusive, from the largest farm animals to the largest freight carload capacity, and were promoted heavily to immigrants and newcomers from the East.


title: Great Northern Railway (U.S.)

text: The very first predecessor railroad to the company was the St. Paul and Pacific Railroad owned by William Crooks. He had gone bankrupt running a small line between St. Paul and Minneapolis. He named the locomotive he ran for himself and the "William Crooks" would be the first locomotive of the Great Northern Railway. J.J. Hill convinced New York banker John S. Kennedy, Norman Kittson (a wealthy fur trader friend), Donald Smith (a Hudson's Bay Company executive), George Stephen (Smith's cousin and president of the Bank of Montreal), and others to invest $5.5 million in purchasing the railroad. On March 13, 1878, the road's creditors formally signed an agreement transferring their bonds and control of the railroad to J.J. Hill's investment group. On September 18, 1889, Hill changed the name of the Minneapolis and St. Cloud Railway (a railroad which existed primarily on paper, but which held very extensive land grants throughout the Midwest and Pacific Northwest) to the Great Northern Railway. On February 1, 1890, he consolidated his ownership of the StPM&M, Montana Central Railway, and other rail lines to the Great Northern.


title: Great Northern Railway (U.S.)

text: The Great Northern had branches that ran north to the Canada–US border in Minnesota, North Dakota, and Montana. It also had branches that ran to Superior, Wisconsin, and Butte, Montana, connecting with the iron range of Minnesota and copper mines of Montana. In 1898 Hill purchased control of large parts of the Messabe Iron Range in Minnesota and its rail lines. The Great Northern began large-scale shipment of ore to the steel mills of the Midwest.


title: Great Northern Railway (U.S.)

text: The railroad's best-known engineer was John Frank Stevens, who served from 1889 to 1903. Stevens was acclaimed for his 1889 exploration of Marias Pass in Montana and determined its practicability for a railroad. Stevens was an efficient administrator with remarkable technical skills and imagination. He discovered Stevens Pass through the Cascade Mountains, set railroad construction standards in the Mesabi Range, and supervised the construction of the Oregon Trunk Line. He then became the chief engineer of the Panama Canal.


title: Great Northern Railway (U.S.)

text: The logo of the railroad, a Rocky Mountain goat, was based on a goat William Kenney, one of the railroad's presidents, had used to haul newspapers as a boy.


title: Great Northern Railway (U.S.)

text: The mainline began at Saint Paul, Minnesota, heading west along the Mississippi River bluffs, crossing the river to Minneapolis on a massive multi-piered stone arch bridge just below the Saint Anthony Falls. The bridge ceased to be used as a railroad bridge in 1978 and is now used as a pedestrian river crossing with excellent views of the falls and of the lock system. The mainline headed northwest from the Twin Cities, across North Dakota and eastern Montana. The line then crossed the Rocky Mountains at Marias Pass. It then followed the Flathead River and then Kootenai River to Bonners Ferry, Idaho, south to Sandpoint, Idaho, west to Newport, Washington, and then to Spokane, Washington. The company town and extensive railroad facility of Hillyard, Washington was named after James J. Hill and briefly manufactured the R Class 2-8-8-2 around 1927 which was the largest steam locomotive in the world at the time. From there the mainline crossed the Cascade Mountains through the Cascade Tunnel under Stevens Pass, reaching Seattle, Washington, in 1893, with the driving of the last spike at Scenic, Washington, on January 6, 1893. The Great Northern electrified Steven's Pass and briefly owned the electric Spokane and Inland Empire Railway. The deadliest avalanche in US history swept two Great Northern trains off the tracks at Wellington, Wa. by the Cascade Tunnel killing 96 people.


title: Great Northern Railway (U.S.)

text: The mainline west of Marias Pass has been relocated twice. The original route over Haskell Pass, via Kalispell and Marion, Montana, was replaced in 1904 by a more circuitous but flatter route via Whitefish and Eureka, joining the Kootenai River at Rexford, Montana. A further reroute was necessitated by the construction of the Libby Dam on the Kootenai River in the late 1960s. The United States Army Corps of Engineers built a new route through the Salish Mountains, including the Flathead Tunnel, second-longest in the United States, to relocate the tracks away from the Kootenai River. This route opened in 1970. The surviving portions of the older routes (from Columbia Falls to Kalispell and Stryker to Eureka), are now operated by Watco as the Mission Mountain Railroad.


title: Great Northern Railway (U.S.)

text: The Great Northern mainline crossed the continental divide through Marias Pass, the lowest crossing of the Rockies south of the Canada–US border. Here, the mainline forms the southern border of Glacier National Park, which the GN promoted heavily as a tourist attraction. GN constructed stations at East Glacier and West Glacier entries to the park, stone and timber lodges at the entries, and other inns and lodges throughout the Park. Many of the structures have been listed on the National Register of Historic Places due to unique construction, location, and the beauty of the surrounding regions.


title: Great Northern Railway (U.S.)

text: In 1931, the GN also developed the "Inside Gateway", a route to California that rivaled the Southern Pacific Railroad's route between Oregon and California. The GN route was further inland than the SP route and ran south from the Columbia River in Oregon. The GN connected with the Western Pacific at Bieber, California; the Western Pacific connected with the Atchison, Topeka, and Santa Fe in Stockton, California, and together the three railroads (GN, WP, and ATSF) competed with Southern Pacific for traffic between California and the Pacific Northwest. With a terminus at Superior, Wisconsin, the Great Northern was able to provide transportation from the Pacific to the Atlantic by taking advantage of the shorter distance to Duluth from the ocean, as compared to Chicago.


title: Great Northern Railway (U.S.)

text: The Great Northern energetically promoted settlement along its lines in North Dakota and Montana, especially by Germans and Scandinavians from Europe. The Great Northern bought its lands from the federal government it received no land grants and resold them to farmers one by one. It operated agencies in Germany and Scandinavia that promoted its lands, and brought families over at low cost, building special colonist cars to transport immigrant families. The rapidly increasing settlement in North Dakota's Red River Valley along the Minnesota border between 1871 and 1890 was a major example of large-scale "bonanza" farming.


title: Great Northern Railway (U.S.)

text: During World War II, the Army moved its Military Railway Service (MRS) headquarters to Fort Snelling, Minnesota. The MRS worked collaboratively with commercial railroading in the U.S. The Great Northern sponsored the 704th Grand Railroad Division. It was the second Grand Division that the Army stood up. The Great Northern also sponsored the 732nd Railroad Operating Battalion (ROB). They were one of two spearhead ROBs. The 732nd operated in support of the Patton's 3rd Armored Division crossing into Germany with them. The Officers of the 732nd were all previous employees of the Great Northern.


title: Great Northern Railway (U.S.)

text: On March 2, 1970, the Great Northern, together with the Northern Pacific Railway, the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad and the Spokane, Portland and Seattle Railway, merged to form the Burlington Northern Railroad. The BN operated until 1996 when it merged with the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway to form the Burlington Northern and Santa Fe Railway.


title: Great Northern Railway (U.S.)

text: GN operated various passenger trains, but the "Empire Builder" was their premier passenger train. It was named in honor of James J. Hill, known as the "Empire Builder." Amtrak still operates the "Empire Builder" today, running it over the old Great Northern's Northern Transcon north of St. Paul.


title: Great Northern Railway (U.S.)

text: In 1951 the company owned 844 locomotives, including 568 steam, 261 diesel-electric and 15 all-electric, as well 822 passenger-train cars and 43.897 freight-train cars.


title: Great Northern Railway (U.S.)

text: The Great Northern had numerous paint scheme variations and color changes over the years, but Rocky the goat was consistently featured.


title: Great Northern Railway (U.S.)

text: In addition to the Stone Arch Bridge, parts of the railway have been turned into pedestrian and bicycle trails. In Minnesota, the Cedar Lake Trail is built in areas that were formerly railroad yards for the Great Northern Railway and the Minneapolis and St. Louis Railway. Also in Minnesota, the Dakota Rail Trail is built on 26.5 miles of the railroad right-of-way. In Kalispell Montana there are several sections of rails to trails, one, the farthest west, starts in Kila, MT, and goes to Kalispell Montana. This section of rail way was taken out in the early 1900's. Further west, the Iron Goat Trail in Washington follows the late 19th-century route of the Great Northern Railway through the Cascades and gets its name from the railway's logo. The Spokane and Inland Empire Railroad that James J. Hill purchased in 1929 is now a bicycle path between Spokane, Wa and Coeur d'Alene, Id. and Spokane, Wa. and Pullman, Wa.


title: Hyperconjugation

text: In organic chemistry, hyperconjugation (σ-conjugation or no-bond resonance) refers to the delocalization of electrons with the participation of bonds of primarily σ-character. Usually, hyperconjugation involves the interaction of the electrons in a sigma (σ) orbital (e.g. C–H or C–C) with an adjacent unpopulated non-bonding p or antibonding σ* or π* orbitals to give a pair of extended molecular orbitals. However, sometimes, low-lying antibonding σ* orbitals may also interact with filled orbitals of lone pair character (n) in what is termed "negative hyperconjugation". Increased electron delocalization associated with hyperconjugation increases the stability of the system. In particular, the new orbital with bonding character is stabilized, resulting in an overall stabilization of the molecule. Only electrons in bonds that are in the β position can have this sort of direct stabilizing effect — donating from a sigma bond on an atom to an orbital in another atom directly attached to it. However, extended versions of hyperconjugation (such as double hyperconjugation) can be important as well. The Baker–Nathan effect, sometimes used synonymously for hyperconjugation, is a specific application of it to certain chemical reactions or types of structures.


title: Hyperconjugation

text: Hyperconjugation can be used to rationalize a variety of chemical phenomena, including the anomeric effect, the gauche effect, the rotational barrier of ethane, the beta-silicon effect, the vibrational frequency of exocyclic carbonyl groups, and the relative stability of substituted carbocations and substituted carbon centred radicals, and the thermodynamic Zaitsev's rule for alkene stability. More controversially, hyperconjugation is proposed by quantum mechanical modeling to be a better explanation for the preference of the staggered conformation rather than the old textbook notion of steric hindrance.


title: Hyperconjugation

text: Hyperconjugation was suggested as the reason for the increased stability of carbon-carbon double bonds as the degree of substitution increases. Early studies in hyperconjugation were performed by in the research group of George Kistiakowsky. Their work, first published in 1937, was intended as a preliminary progress report of thermochemical studies of energy changes during addition reactions of various unsaturated and cyclic compounds. The importance of hyperconjugation in accounting for this effect has received support from quantum chemical calculations. The key interaction is believed to be the donation of electron density from the neighboring C–H σ bond into the π* antibonding orbital of the alkene (σ→π*). The effect is almost an order of magnitude weaker than the case of alkyl substitution on carbocations (σ→p), since an unfilled p orbital is lower in energy, and, therefore, better energetically matched to a σ bond. When this effect manifests in the formation of the more substituted product in thermodynamically controlled E1 reactions, it is known as Zaitsev's rule, although in many cases the kinetic product also follows this rule. ("See Hofmann's rule for cases where the kinetic product is the less substituted one.")


title: Hyperconjugation

text: One set of experiments by Kistiakowsky involved collected heats of hydrogenation data during gas-phase reactions of a range of compounds that contained one alkene unit. When comparing a range of monoalkyl-substituted alkenes, they found any alkyl group noticeably increased the stability, but that the choice of different specific alkyl groups had little to no effect.


title: Hyperconjugation

text: A portion of Kistiakowsky's work involved a comparison of other unsaturated compounds in the form of CH=CH(CH)n-CH=CH (n=0,1,2). These experiments revealed an important result; when n=0, there is an effect of conjugation to the molecule where the ΔH value is lowered by 3.5 kcal. This is likened to the addition of two alkyl groups into ethylene. Kistiakowsky also investigated open chain systems, where the largest value of heat liberated was found to be during the addition to a molecule in the 1,4-position. Cyclic molecules proved to be the most problematic, as it was found that the strain of the molecule would have to be considered. The strain of five-membered rings increased with a decrease degree of unsaturation. This was a surprising result that was further investigated in later work with cyclic acid anhydrides and lactones. Cyclic molecules like benzene and its derivatives were also studied, as their behaviors were different from other unsaturated compounds.


title: Hyperconjugation

text: Despite the thoroughness of Kistiakowsky's work, it was not complete and needed further evidence to back up his findings. His work was a crucial first step to the beginnings of the ideas of hyperconjugation and conjugation effects.


title: Hyperconjugation

text: The conjugation of 1,3-butadiene was first evaluated by Kistiakowsky, a conjugative contribution of 3.5 kcal/mol was found based on the energetic comparison of hydrogenation between conjugated species and unconjugated analogues. Rogers who used the method first applied by Kistiakowsky, reported that the conjugation stabilization of 1,3-butadiyne was zero, as the difference of ΔH between first and second hydrogenation was zero. The heats of hydrogenation (ΔH) were obtained by computational G3(MP2) quantum chemistry method.


title: Hyperconjugation

text: Another group led by Houk suggested the methods employed by Rogers and Kistiakowsky was inappropriate, because that comparisons of heats of hydrogenation evaluate not only conjugation effects but also other structural and electronic differences. They obtained -70.6 kcal/mol and -70.4 kcal/mol for the first and second hydrogenation respectively by ab initio calculation, which confirmed Rogers’ data. However, they interpreted the data differently by taking into account the hyperconjugation stabilization. To quantify hyperconjugation effect, they designed the following isodesmic reactions in 1-butyne and 1-butene.


title: Hyperconjugation

text: Deleting the hyperconjugative interactions gives virtual states that have energies that are 4.9 and 2.4 kcal/mol higher than those of 1-butyne and 1-butene, respectively. Employment of these virtual states results in a 9.6 kcal/mol conjugative stabilization for 1,3-butadiyne and 8.5 kcal/mol for 1,3-butadiene.


title: Hyperconjugation

text: A relatively recent work (2006) by Fernández and Frenking (2006) summarized the trends in hyperconjugation among various groups of acyclic molecules, using energy decomposition analysis or EDA. Fernández and Frenking define this type of analysis as "...a method that uses only the pi orbitals of the interacting fragments in the geometry of the molecule for estimating pi interactions." For this type of analysis, the formation of bonds between various molecular moieties is a combination of three component terms. ΔE represents what Fernández and Frenking call a molecule's “quasiclassical electrostatic attractions.” The second term, ΔE, represents the molecule's Pauli repulsion. ΔE, the third term, represents stabilizing interactions between orbitals, and is defined as the sum of ΔE and ΔE. The total energy of interaction, ΔE, is the result of the sum of the 3 terms.


title: Hyperconjugation

text: A group whose ΔE values were very thoroughly analyzed were a group of enones that varied in substituent.


title: Hyperconjugation

text: Fernández and Frenking reported that the methyl, hydroxyl, and amino substituents resulted in a decrease in ΔE from the parent 2-propenal. Conversely, halide substituents of increasing atomic mass resulted in increasing ΔE. Because both the enone study and Hammett analysis study substituent effects (although in different species), Fernández and Frenking felt that comparing the two to investigate possible trends might yield significant insight into their own results. They observed a linear relationship between the ΔE values for the substituted enones and the corresponding Hammett constants. The slope of the graph was found to be -51.67, with a correlation coefficient of -0.97 and a standard deviation of 0.54. Fernández and Frenking conclude from this data that ..."the electronic effects of the substituents R on pi conjugation in homo- and heteroconjugated systems is similar and thus appears to be rather independent of the nature of the conjugating system.".


title: Hyperconjugation

text: An instance where hyperconjugation may be overlooked as a possible chemical explanation is in rationalizing the rotational barrier of ethane (CH). It had been accepted as early as the 1930s that the staggered conformations of ethane were more stable than the eclipsed conformation. Wilson had proven that the energy barrier between any pair of eclipsed and staggered conformations is approximately 3 kcal/mol, and the generally accepted rationale for this was the unfavorable steric interactions between hydrogen atoms.


title: Hyperconjugation

text: In their 2001 paper, however, Pophristic and Goodman revealed that this explanation may be too simplistic. Goodman focused on three principal physical factors: hyperconjugative interactions, exchange repulsion defined by the Pauli exclusion principle, and electrostatic interactions (Coulomb interactions). By comparing a traditional ethane molecule and a hypothetical ethane molecule with all exchange repulsions removed, potential curves were prepared by plotting torsional angle versus energy for each molecule. The analysis of the curves determined that the staggered conformation had no connection to the amount of electrostatic repulsions within the molecule. These results demonstrate that Coulombic forces do not explain the favored staggered conformations, despite the fact that central bond stretching decreases electrostatic interactions.


title: Hyperconjugation

text: Goodman also conducted studies to determine the contribution of vicinal (between two methyl groups) vs. geminal (between the atoms in a single methyl group) interactions to hyperconjugation. In separate experiments, the geminal and vicinal interactions were removed, and the most stable conformer for each interaction was deduced.


title: Hyperconjugation

text: From these experiments, it can be concluded that hyperconjugative effects delocalize charge and stabilize the molecule. Further, it is the vicinal hyperconjugative effects that keep the molecule in the staggered conformation. Thanks to this work, the following model of the stabilization of the staggered conformation of ethane is now more accepted:


title: Hyperconjugation

text: Hyperconjugation can also explain several other phenomena whose explanations may also not be as intuitive as that for the rotational barrier of ethane.


title: Hyperconjugation

text: The matter of the rotational barrier of ethane is not settled within the scientific community. An analysis within quantitative molecular orbital theory shows that 2-orbital-4-electron (steric) repulsions are dominant over hyperconjugation. A valence bond theory study also emphasizes the importance of steric effects.


title: Take Me Home Tour (One Direction)

text: The Take Me Home Tour was the second headlining concert tour by English-Irish boy band One Direction, in support of their second studio album, "Take Me Home" (2012). The tour began on 23 February 2013 in London, England, and concluded on 3 November 2013 in Chiba, Japan. It was announced by member Liam Payne at the BRIT Awards in early 2012, originally billed as the UK & Ireland Arena Tour. In mid-2012, the tour expanded to include North America and Australia following the band's international breakthrough. The tour was documented in the film "" directed by Morgan Spurlock.


title: Take Me Home Tour (One Direction)

text: The Take Me Home Tour was commercially successful, with many sold-out shows and overwhelming demand for tickets, prompting organisers to add more dates to the itinerary. In the UK and Ireland, ticket sales reached 300,000 within a day of release, which included a six sell-out dates at the O2 Arena in London. In Australia and New Zealand, ticket sales grossed US$15.7 million, with all 190,000 tickets sold for eighteen shows held in Australia and New Zealand. The tour placed at number 10 on "Pollstar"s Year-End Top 20 Worldwide Tours list, grossing $114 million from the 123 shows.


title: Take Me Home Tour (One Direction)

text: On 21 February 2012, One Direction attended the 2012 BRIT Awards at which they received the Best British Single award for their debut single "What Makes You Beautiful". During One Direction's acceptance speech, member Liam Payne stated that they would embark on their first arena concert tour. Reports soon followed that the tour would consist of fifteen dates across the UK and Ireland. One Direction's official website confirmed the dates, with tickets to be made available on 25 February.


title: Take Me Home Tour (One Direction)

text: On 11 January 2013, the group announced the North American leg as a part of a '2013 World Tour'. The North American leg was set to begin a 25-city run in Sunrise, Florida, on 13 June 2013 and to stop in Toronto, Chicago, Denver, Montreal and Las Vegas before wrapping up in Los Angeles on 7 August. Tickets for the North American leg of the concert series went on sale 21 April 2012, at Ticketmaster.com and LiveNation.com. Group member Niall Horan said in a statement released to MTV News, "Our fans are simply the best in the world. The support they have shown us has been incredible and we're all so grateful to each and every one of them. We can't wait to see everyone this summer, at Madison Square Garden and of course when we play our world tour in 2013."


title: Take Me Home Tour (One Direction)

text: On 18 April 2012, the Australian leg was announced. The leg was set to begin in Brisbane on 13 September 2013 and visit Sydney, Melbourne and Adelaide before heading west to Perth. The tour then returned to the east coast for five additional shows before travelling to New Zealand for three shows. Tickets for the Australasian leg went on sale on 28 April 2012, except for the Perth dates, which went on sale on 28 June.


title: Take Me Home Tour (One Direction)

text: In June 2012, continental European dates were reported to be in the process of being added and were confirmed on 29 October 2012. The continental European dates compromises of shows in France, Norway, Sweden, Germany, Belgium, the Netherlands, Italy, Spain, Switzerland, Portugal and Denmark in April and May 2013. Tickets went on sale between 2 and 5 November 2012, depending on the venue.


title: Take Me Home Tour (One Direction)

text: Having initially announced 15 shows across the UK and Ireland, the group added extra shows around the UK and Ireland due to high demand, which included matinée performances at various dates. One Direction announced the extra shows on their Twitter page throughout the morning after the initial dates went on sale. British ticket sales reached 300,000 within a day of release. The original dates sold out within minutes—with 1,000 tickets selling per minute, with two or three extra dates having been added at each city. Notable dates that sold out include six dates at The O2 Arena in London, while four dates at The O2 in Dublin also sold out within an hour—as did four Belfast Odyssey Arena dates. In North America, the group added additional shows due to "overwhelming demand". The tickets for the added shows went on sale in May 2012. In Australia and New Zealand, tickets also ignited commercial success pulling sales of US$15.7million, with all 190,000 tickets being sold for eighteen shows to be held in Australia and New Zealand from September 2013. Tickets for the Perth shows, which went on sale later than the rest of Australia, sold out in six minutes.


title: Take Me Home Tour (One Direction)

text: In May 2012, as One Direction added more dates to their 2013 World Tour, Andy Greene, associate editor of "Rolling Stone" magazine, declared that the boy band are "being worked like dogs". "The Daily Star Sunday" revealed that many of their shows planned for 2013 had sold out and that they were adding an extra 25 performances in 20 US cities, some of which priced at more than £200 for one ticket. The article additionally noted that "One Direction could eclipse the big tour megabucks earned by rock giants U2 and The Rolling Stones". Greene ultimately declared: "I've never known a band announce a second summer tour before a first summer tour is over. It's insane – they're working them like dogs and printing money right now".


title: Take Me Home Tour (One Direction)

text: In July 2013, the tour ranked 12th on "Pollstar"s "Top 100 Mid Year Worldwide Tours", earning $49.6 million from 68 shows. The tour ranked 10th "Pollstar"s Year-End Top 20 Worldwide Tours list, grossing $114 million.


title: Take Me Home Tour (One Direction)

text: On 29 October 2013, it was announced that the band had sold a record-breaking 81,542 tickets at Sydney's Allphones Arena. The previous record was held by Metallica with 74,244. The executives of the arena unveiled the first entertainer's "Star" in the Sydney Olympic Park precinct to commemorate the achievement.


title: Take Me Home Tour (One Direction)

text: This set list is representative of the show on 24 February 2013 in London. It is not representative of all concerts for the duration of the tour.


title: Josh Altman

text: Josh Altman (born March 10, 1979) is an American real estate agent, real estate investor and reality television personality. He appears on the television show "Million Dollar Listing", on the Bravo! television network. He has also appeared on "Keeping Up with the Kardashians" and "Giuliana and Bill" on the E! network. Although similar in name to a television producer, Altman was not affiliated with the Netflix documentary "" as claimed in some outlets.


title: Josh Altman

text: Josh Altman was born to a Jewish family on March 10, 1979, in Newton, Massachusetts. He had a Bar Mitzvah in both the US and in Israel.


title: Josh Altman

text: Altman attended Newton South High School from which he graduated in 1997. Among his high school graduating classmates were actors B. J. Novak and John Krasinski. After high school, Altman went to Syracuse University, where he received a degree in Speech Communications in 2001. As often mentioned by Altman on Million Dollar Listing episodes and elsewhere, he was a kicker for a brief period on the 1998 Syracuse Orangemen football team. He did not appear in any games.


title: Josh Altman

text: After college, Altman moved to Los Angeles to pursue a career in real estate. He started as an investor and flipper. He then ran a real estate finance company for three years before joining his brother, Matt Altman, to form The Altman Brothers at the real estate brokerage, Hilton and Hyland. Altman specializes in the Platinum Triangle (Beverly Hills, Bel Air, and Holmby Hills) and the Sunset Strip and Hollywood Hills luxury housing market. He has represented entertainers, athletes, and international clientele.


title: Josh Altman

text: In 2010, as part of The Altman Brothers, Altman sold $40,000,000 in real estate, followed by $60,000,000 in 2011. , he has sold $75,000,000. He is known for selling an Ocean Drive condo for $10.5 million, recorded as the highest sale in the history of Santa Monica for a condo. In 2010, he sold the former home of Norm Zada, who formerly published the magazine, "Perfect 10", for $16,500,000, the sixth largest sale in Los Angeles county. In 2013, Altman was ranked #30 in national team sales by The Wall Street Journal with $200,000,000 in sales.


title: Josh Altman

text: Altman consults with various media outlets including "Wall Street Journal", and "Boston Herald". Altman has been featured as a keynote celebrity speaker and host at engagements such as The Luxe Event in Seattle, Century 21 Allstars Sales Rally, 65th Annual Installation Luncheon for Downey Association of Realtors, Renter's Warehouse Event and hosted Terra Bella Presents "The American Dream".


title: Josh Altman

text: , Altman co-stars with Josh Flagg and Tracy Tutor, and formerly with Madison Hildebrand, on the reality television show "Million Dollar Listing Los Angeles." He appeared for the first time during the fourth season in 2011. Altman returned to the show for the fifth season on May 6, 2012. The show follows three young real estate agents in Los Angeles as they sell high-end homes. He also appeared as a real estate agent on "Keeping Up with the Kardashians" and "Giuliana and Bill".


title: Josh Altman

text: Altman wrote the book "It's Your Move: My Million Dollar Method for Taking Risks with Confidence and Succeeding at Work and Life". It was published by HarperCollins in 2015.


title: Josh Altman

text: Throughout his career, Altman has invested in real estate, generally flipping houses on a part-time basis. In August 2014, it was reported that Altman profited over one million dollars flipping just one property.


title: Eileen Heckart

text: Anna Eileen Heckart ( Herbert; March 29, 1919 – December 31, 2001) was an American stage and screen actress whose career spanned nearly 60 years.


title: Eileen Heckart

text: Heckart was born Anna Eileen Herbert in Columbus, Ohio. The daughter of Esther (), who wed Leo Herbert (not the child's father) at her own mother's insistence so her child would not be born with the stigma of illegitimacy. Eileen was soon after legally adopted by her maternal grandmother's wealthy second husband, J.W. Heckart, the surname by which she would be known her entire life. She had two stepsisters, Anne and Marilyn. She graduated from Ohio State University with a B.A. in drama. She additionally studied drama at HB Studio in New York City.


title: Eileen Heckart

text: Heckart began her Broadway career as the assistant stage manager and an understudy for "The Voice of the Turtle" in 1943. Her many credits include "Picnic", "The Bad Seed", "A View from the Bridge", "A Memory of Two Mondays", "The Dark at the Top of the Stairs", "A Family Affair", "And Things That Go Bump in the Night", "Barefoot in the Park", "Butterflies Are Free", "You Know I Can't Hear You When the Water's Running", and "The Cemetery Club".


title: Eileen Heckart

text: Heckart won the 1953 Theatre World Award for "Picnic". Her nominations include Tony Award nominations for "Butterflies Are Free", "Invitation to a March", and "The Dark at the Top of the Stairs".


title: Eileen Heckart

text: In 2000, at age 81, she appeared off-Broadway in Kenneth Lonergan's "The Waverly Gallery". For this performance, she won several awards, including the Drama Desk Award, the Lucille Lortel Award, the Drama League Award and the Outer Critics Circle Award. That same year, she was inducted into the American Theatre Hall of Fame and received an honorary Tony Award for lifetime achievement.


title: Eileen Heckart

text: She was granted three honorary doctorates by Sacred Heart University, Niagara University, and Ohio State University.


title: Eileen Heckart

text: Heckart won the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress for her work in the 1972 movie adaptation of "Butterflies Are Free" and was nominated in 1956 for her performance as the bereaved, besotted Mrs. Daigle in "The Bad Seed" (1956), both of which were roles Heckart originated on Broadway. Heckart appeared in "the Hiding Place" (1976) as a nurse working inside the concentration camp and later appeared as a Vietnam War widow in the Clint Eastwood film "Heartbreak Ridge" (1986). She played Diane Keaton's meddling mother in the 1996 comedy film "The First Wives Club".


title: Eileen Heckart

text: On television, Heckart had starring roles in "The Five Mrs. Buchanans", "Out of the Blue", "Partners in Crime", and "Backstairs at the White House" (Emmy nomination as Eleanor Roosevelt). In 1994, she won an Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Comedy Series for her appearance as Rose Stein on "Love & War". In 1988, she appeared as Ruth in the "Tales from the Darkside" episode "Do Not Open This Box". Her other guest roles included "The Fugitive" (where she appeared in three episodes as a nun, "Sister Veronica"), "The Mary Tyler Moore Show" (two Emmy nominations as journalist Flo Meredith, a role she carried over to a guest appearance on MTM's spinoff "Lou Grant"), "Love Story", "Rhoda", "Alice", "Murder One", "Hawaii Five-O", "Gunsmoke", "Cybill", "The Cosby Show" (one Emmy nomination as Mrs. Hickson), and many others.


title: Eileen Heckart

text: Heckart played two unrelated characters on the daytime soap opera "One Life to Live". During the 1980s, she played Ruth Perkins, the mother of Allison Perkins, who had kidnapped the newborn baby of heroine Viki Lord Buchanan under orders from phony evangelist and mastermind criminal Mitch Laurence. During the early 1990s, she played the role of Wilma Bern, mother of upstate Pennsylvania mob boss Carlo Hesser and his meek twin, Mortimer Bern. She appeared in the 1954 legal drama "Justice", based on case files of New York's Legal Aid Society. She appeared in an episode of the medical drama "The Eleventh Hour", titled "There Should Be an Outfit Called 'Families Anonymous!'" (1963), and an episode of "Home Improvement", titled "Losing My Religion". She also played the role of Amanda Cooper on the "Little House on the Prairie" episode "Dance With Me".


title: Eileen Heckart

text: In 1942, Heckart married insurance broker John Harrison Yankee, Jr., her college sweetheart. They had three sons. Her son Luke Yankee is the author of her 2006 biography "Just Outside the Spotlight: Growing Up with Eileen Heckart".


title: Eileen Heckart

text: On December 31, 2001, Heckart died of lung cancer at her home in Norwalk, Connecticut, at the age of 82. She was cremated with her ashes scattered outside the Music Box Theatre in Manhattan, New York.


title: Silhouette (clustering)

text: Silhouette refers to a method of interpretation and validation of consistency within clusters of data. The technique provides a succinct graphical representation of how well each object has been classified. It was proposed by Belgian statistician Peter Rousseeuw in 1987.


title: Silhouette (clustering)

text: The silhouette value is a measure of how similar an object is to its own cluster (cohesion) compared to other clusters (separation). The silhouette ranges from −1 to +1, where a high value indicates that the object is well matched to its own cluster and poorly matched to neighboring clusters. If most objects have a high value, then the clustering configuration is appropriate. If many points have a low or negative value, then the clustering configuration may have too many or too few clusters.


title: Silhouette (clustering)

text: The silhouette can be calculated with any distance metric, such as the Euclidean distance or the Manhattan distance.


title: Silhouette (clustering)

text: to be the "smallest" (hence the formula_4 operator in the formula) mean distance of to all points in any other cluster (i.e., in any cluster of which is not a member). The cluster with this smallest mean dissimilarity is said to be the "neighboring cluster" of because it is the next best fit cluster for point .


title: Silhouette (clustering)

text: Note that is not clearly defined for clusters with size = 1, in which case we set formula_11. This choice is arbitrary, but neutral in the sense that it is at the midpoint of the bounds, -1 and 1.


title: Silhouette (clustering)

text: For to be close to 1 we require formula_12. As is a measure of how dissimilar is to its own cluster, a small value means it is well matched. Furthermore, a large implies that is badly matched to its neighbouring cluster. Thus an close to 1 means that the data is appropriately clustered. If is close to -1, then by the same logic we see that would be more appropriate if it was clustered in its neighbouring cluster. An near zero means that the datum is on the border of two natural clusters.


title: Silhouette (clustering)

text: The mean over all points of a cluster is a measure of how tightly grouped all the points in the cluster are. Thus the mean over all data of the entire dataset is a measure of how appropriately the data have been clustered. If there are too many or too few clusters, as may occur when a poor choice of is used in the clustering algorithm (e.g., k-means), some of the clusters will typically display much narrower silhouettes than the rest. Thus silhouette plots and means may be used to determine the natural number of clusters within a dataset. One can also increase the likelihood of the silhouette being maximized at the correct number of clusters by re-scaling the data using feature weights that are cluster specific.


title: Silhouette (clustering)

text: Kaufman et al. introduced the term "silhouette coefficient" for the maximum value of the mean over all data of the entire dataset, i.e.,


title: Silhouette (clustering)

text: where formula_14 represents the mean over all data of the entire dataset for a specific number of clusters .


title: Silhouette (clustering)

text: Computing the silhouette coefficient needs all pairwise distances, making this evaluation much more costly than clustering with k-means. For a clustering with centers formula_15 for each cluster formula_2, we can use the following simplified Silhouette for each point formula_17instead, which can be computed using only distances:


title: Silhouette (clustering)

text: which has the additional benefit that is always defined, then define accordingly the simplified silhouette and simplified silhouette coefficient


title: Silhouette (clustering)

text: If the cluster centers are medoids (as in k-medoids clustering) instead of arithmetic means (as in k-means clustering), this is also called the medoid-based silhouette or medoid silhouette.


title: Silhouette (clustering)

text: If every object is assigned to the nearest medoid (as in k-medoids clustering), we know that formula_22, and hence formula_23.


title: Silhouette (clustering)

text: Instead of using the average silhouette to evaluate a clustering obtained from, e.g., k-medoids or k-means, we can try to directly find a solution that maximizes the Silhouette. We do not have a closed form solution to maximize this, but it will usually be best to assign points to the nearest cluster as done by these methods. Van der Laan et al. proposed to adapt the standard algorithm for k-medoids, PAM, for this purpose and call this algorithm PAMSIL:


title: Silhouette (clustering)

text: The loop in step 3 is executed for pairs, and involves computing the silhouette in , hence this algorithm needs time, where is the number of iterations.


title: Silhouette (clustering)

text: Because this is a fairly expensive operation, the authors propose to also use the medoid-based silhouette, and call the resulting algorithm PAMMEDSIL. It needs time.


title: Silhouette (clustering)

text: Batool et al. propose a similar algorithm under the name OSil, and propose a CLARA-like sampling strategy for larger data sets, that solves the problem only for a subsample.


title: Silhouette (clustering)

text: By adopting recent improvements to the PAM algorithm, FastMSC reduces the runtime using the medoid silhouette to just .


title: Lotion

text: Lotion is a low-viscosity topical preparation intended for application to the skin. By contrast, creams and gels have higher viscosity, typically due to lower water content. Lotions are applied to external skin with bare hands, a brush, a clean cloth, or cotton wool.


title: Lotion

text: While a lotion may be used as a medicine delivery system, many lotions, especially hand lotions and body lotions and lotion for allergies are meant instead to simply smooth, moisturize, soften and, sometimes, perfume the skin.


title: Lotion

text: Some skincare products, such as sunscreen and moisturizer, may be available in multiple formats, such as lotions, gels, creams, or sprays.


title: Lotion

text: Dermatologists can prescribe lotions to treat or prevent skin diseases. It is not unusual for the same drug ingredient to be formulated into a lotion, cream and ointment. Creams are the most convenient of the three but inappropriate for application to regions of hairy skin such as the scalp, while a lotion is less viscous and may be readily applied to these areas (many medicated shampoos are in fact lotions). Historically, lotions also had an advantage in that they may be spread thinly compared to a cream or ointment and may economically cover a large area of skin, but product research has steadily eroded this distinction. Non-comedogenic lotions are recommended for use on acne prone skin.


title: Lotion

text: Since health care workers must wash their hands frequently to prevent disease transmission, hospital-grade lotion is recommended to prevent skin dermatitis caused by frequent exposure to cleaning agents in the soap. A 2006 study found that application of hospital-grade lotion after hand washing significantly reduced skin roughness and dryness.


title: Lotion

text: Care must be taken not to use consumer lotions in a hospital environment, as the perfumes and allergens may be a danger to those who are immunodeficient or with allergies.


title: Lotion

text: Most cosmetic lotions are moisturizing lotions, although other forms, such as tanning lotion, also exist.


title: Lotion

text: Cosmetic lotions may be marketed as anti-aging lotions, which can also be classified as a cosmetic in many cases, and may contain fragrances. The Food and Drug Administration voiced concern about lotions not classified as drugs that advertise anti-aging or anti-wrinkle properties.


title: Lotion

text: Most lotions are oil-in-water emulsions using a substance such as cetearyl alcohol to keep the emulsion together, but water-in-oil lotions are also formulated. The key components of a skin care lotion, cream or gel emulsion (that is mixtures of oil and water) are the aqueous and oily phases, an emulsifier to prevent separation of these two phases, and, if used, the drug substance or substances. Various other ingredients such as fragrances, glycerol, petroleum jelly, dyes, preservatives, proteins and stabilizing agents are commonly added to lotions.


title: Lotion

text: Depending on their composition, lotions can be comedogenic, meaning that they can result in the increased formation of comedones (clogged hair follicles). People who are prone to acne or forming comedones often prefer lotions that are designed to be non-comedogenic (not causing outbreaks).


title: Lotion

text: All topical products, including lotions, can result in the percutaneous (through the skin) absorption of their ingredients. Though this has some use as a route of drug administration, it more commonly results in unintended side effects. For example, medicated lotions such as diprolene are often used with the intention of exerting only local effects, but absorption of the drug through the skin can occur to a small degree, resulting in systemic side effects such as hyperglycemia and glycosuria.


title: Lotion

text: Absorption through the skin is increased when lotions are applied and then covered with an occlusive layer, when they are applied to large areas of the body, or when they are applied to damaged or broken skin.


title: Lotion

text: Lotions containing some aromas or food additives may trigger an immune reaction or even cause users to develop new allergies.


title: Lotion

text: There is currently no regulation over use of the term "hypoallergenic", and even pediatric skin products with the label were found to still contain allergens. Those with eczema are especially vulnerable to an allergic reaction with lotion, as their compromised skin barrier allows preservatives to bind with and activate immune cells.


title: Lotion

text: The American Academy of Allergy, Asthma, and Immunology released a warning in 2014 that natural lotion containing ingredients commonly found in food (such as goats milk, cow's milk, coconut milk, or oil) may introduce new allergies, and an allergic reaction when those foods are later consumed. A paper published in 2020 by researchers at St. George's, University of London found that "frequent skin moisturization in early life might promote the development of food allergy, most likely through transcutaneous sensitization".


title: Pinko

text: Pinko is a pejorative coined in 1925 in the United States to describe a person regarded as being sympathetic to communism, though not necessarily a Communist Party member. It has since come to be used to describe anyone perceived to have radical leftist or socialist sympathies.


title: Pinko

text: The term has its origins in the notion that "pink" is a lighter shade of "red," a color associated with communism. Thus "pink" could describe a "lighter form of communism", purportedly promoted by supporters of socialism who were not themselves actual or "card carrying" communists. The term pinko has a pejorative sense, whereas "pink" in this definition can be used in a purely descriptive sense, such as in the term pink tide.


title: Pinko

text: One of the first recorded uses of "pinko" was in "Time" magazine in 1925 as a variant on the noun and adjective "pink", which had been used along with "parlor pink" since the beginning of the 20th century to refer to those of leftish sympathies, usually with an implication of effeteness. In the 1920s, for example, a "Wall Street Journal" editorial described supporters of the Progressive politician Robert La Follette as “visionaries, ne’er do wells, parlor pinks, reds, hyphenates [Americans with divided allegiance], soft handed agriculturalists and working men who have never seen a shovel.”


title: Pinko

text: "Pinko" was widely used during the Cold War to label individuals accused of supporting the Soviet Union and Communist China, including many supporters of former vice president Henry Wallace's 1948 U.S. presidential campaign of the Progressive Party. Many politicians, like Richard Nixon, exploited the fear of communism by referring to their opponents as "pinkos". The word was predominantly used in the United States, where opposition to Communism grew strong among the population, especially during the McCarthy era. It was also in common use in South Africa during the apartheid era. In his two presidential campaigns, Alabama governor George Wallace often railed at what he called "the left-wing pinko press" and "pseudo-pinko-intellectuals."


title: Pinko

text: Some of the most infamous uses of the term "pink" came during future president Richard Nixon's 1950 Senate campaign against Helen Gahagan Douglas: "She's pink right down to her underwear!" — a play on the fact that, at the time, pink was the usual color of women's undergarments. Nixon regularly referred to her as "the Pink Lady", and his campaign distributed political flyers printed on sheets of pink paper.


title: Jill Flint

text: Jill Flint is an American television and film actress, best known for her role of Jill Casey in the USA Network TV series "Royal Pains", and as the popular character Lana Delaney on CBS' award-winning series "The Good Wife". She also plays one of the lead characters, Dr. Jordan Alexander, in the NBC medical drama "The Night Shift", and had a recurring role on "Bull" as Diana Lindsay.


title: Jill Flint

text: Flint has appeared in several feature films including "Cadillac Records" with Adrien Brody, and "The Women". She appeared as Bex on "Gossip Girl". She was a series regular in USA Network's hit series "Royal Pains". She was also seen as recurring character FBI Agent Lana Delaney on "The Good Wife" (CBS). She starred on "The Night Shift" (NBC) as Dr. Jordan Alexander from 2014 to 2017. She also appeared as the on-again, off-again romantic interest to Dr. Jason Bull on the CBS series "Bull".


title: Political history of the world

text: The political history of the world is the history of the various political entities created by the human race throughout their existence and the way these states define their borders. Throughout history, political systems have expanded from basic systems of self-governance and monarchy to the complex democratic and totalitarian systems that exist today. In parallel, political entities have expanded from vaguely defined frontier-type boundaries, to the national definite boundaries existing today.


title: Political history of the world

text: The primate ancestors of human beings already had social and political skills. The first forms of human social organization were families living in band societies as hunter-gatherers.


title: Political history of the world

text: After the invention of agriculture around the same time (7,000-8,000 BCE) across various parts of the world, human societies started transitioning to tribal forms of organization.


title: Political history of the world

text: There is evidence of diplomacy between different tribes, but also of endemic warfare. This could have been caused by theft of livestock or crops, abduction of women, or resource and status competition.


title: Political history of the world

text: The Three-age system of periodization of prehistory was first introduced for Scandinavia by Christian Jürgensen Thomsen in the 1830s. By the 1860s, it was embraced as a useful division of the "earliest history of mankind" in general and began to be applied in Assyriology. The development of the now-conventional periodization in the archaeology of the Ancient Near East was developed in the 1920s to 1930s.


title: Political history of the world

text: The early distribution of political power was determined by the availability of fresh water, fertile soil, and temperate climate of different locations. These were all necessary for the development of highly organized societies. The locations of these early societies were near, or benefiting from, the edges of tectonic plates. the Indus Valley Civilization was located next to the Himalayas (which were created by tectonic pressures) and the Indus and Ganges rivers, which deposit sediment from the mountains to produce fertile land. A similar dynamic existed in Mesopotamia, where the Tigris and Euphrates did the same with the Zagros Mountains. Ancient Egypt was helped by the Nile depositing sediments from the East African highlands of its origins, while the Yellow River and Yangtze acted in the same way for Ancient China. Eurasia was advantaged in the development of agriculture by the natural occurrence of domesticable wild grass species and the east-west orientation of the landmass, allowing for the easy spread of domesticated crops. A similar advantage was given to it by half of the world's large mammal species living there, which could be domesticated.


title: Political history of the world

text: The development of agriculture allowed higher populations, with the newly dense and settled societies becoming hierarchical, with inequalities in wealth and freedom. As the cooling and drying of the climate by 3800 BCE caused drought in Mesopotamia, village farmers began co-operating and started creating larger settlements with irrigation systems. This new water infrastructure in turn required centralised administration with complex social organisation. The first cities and systems of greater social organisation emerged in Mesopotamia, followed within a few centuries by ones at the Indus and Yellow River Valleys. In the cities, the workforce could specialise as the whole population did not have to work for food production, while stored food allowed for large armies to create empires. The first empires were those of Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia. Smaller kingdoms existed in North China Plain, Indo-Gangetic Plain, Central Asia, Anatolia, Eastern Mediterranean, and Central America, while the rest of humanity continued to live in small tribes.


title: Political history of the world

text: The first states of sorts were those of early dynastic Sumer and early dynastic Egypt, which arose from the Uruk period and Predynastic Egypt respectively at approximately 3000BCE. Early dynastic Egypt was based around the Nile River in the north-east of Africa, the kingdom's boundaries being based around the Nile and stretching to areas where oases existed. Upper and Lower Egypt were unified around 3150 BCE by Pharaoh Menes. This process of consolidation was driven by the crowding of migrants from the expanding Sahara in the Nile Delta. Nevertheless, political competition continued within the country between centers of power such as Memphis and Thebes. The prevailing north-east trade winds made it easier to sail up the river, thereby helping the unification of the state. The geopolitical environment of the Egyptians had them surrounded by Nubia in the smaller southern oases of the Nile unreachable by boat, as well as by Libyan warlords operating from the oases around modern-day Benghazi, and finally by raiders across the Sinai and the sea. The country was well defended by natural barriers formed by the Sahara on both sides, though this also limited its ability to expand into a larger empire, mostly remaining a regional power along the Nile (except for a conquest of the Levant in the second millennium BCE). The lack of timber also made it too expensive to build a large navy for power projection across the Mediterranean or Red Seas.


title: Political history of the world

text: Mesopotamia is situated between the major rivers of Tigris and Euphrates, and the first political power in the region was the Akkadian Empire starting around 2300 BCE. They were preceded by Sumer, and later followed by Babylon, and Assyria. They faced competition from the mountainous areas to the north, strategically positioned above the Mesopotamian plains, with kingdoms such as Mitanni, Urartu, Elam, and Medes. The Mesopotamians also innovated in governance by writing the first laws.