title: Kategoria Superiore

text: Football was first introduced to Albania by an English-Maltese priest named Gut Ruter, who visited the Saverian college in Shkodër in 1908. The first football club in Albania was Indipendenca, founded in Shkodër in 1912 by Palokë Nika. The first 90-minute game to be played with two 45 minute halves took place in October 1913 between Indipendenca Shkodër and the occupying Austro-Hungarian Imperial Navy. The game is considered to be the first international game to be played in Albania, and it ended in a 2–1 loss for Indipendenca, with the captain and founder of the club Palokë Nika scoring the only goal for the Albanians.


title: Kategoria Superiore

text: Albania was invaded by Italy in April 1939 and World War II soon broke out, meaning the Albanian Football Association, much like the other organisations in the country, ceased operating. Despite the war, three championships were held between 1939 and 1942, with Tirana winning the championships in 1939 and 1942 and Shkodra winning in 1940. Despite calls to recognise these championships, the Albanian Football Association maintains the position that the championships were not organised by them and cannot be formally recognised.


title: Kategoria Superiore

text: Since the 2014–15 Kategoria Superiore, the league consists of 10 clubs, who face each other four times in a conventional round-robin tournament for a total of 36 matches. At the end of the season, the two lowest-placed teams are relegated to the Kategoria e Parë, while two highest-placed teams of the Kategoria e Parë are promoted in their place. The 8th ranked team qualifies to the play-off round, which they play against the Kategoria e Parë play-off winner. Teams are ranked by total points, then head-to-head record, then goal difference, and then goals scored.


title: Kategoria Superiore

text: Since 1930, the competition has not been played a total of 9 times: 1935, 1938–44, 1949, 1962. Furthermore, the champion award was not given during the 1968–69 season.


title: Kategoria Superiore

text: The all-time table of football clubs that have participated in the Kategoria Superiore, prior to the 2021–2022 season. The ranking is based on the total accumulated points by each club. Teams in bold are part of the 2022–23 season.


title: Kategoria Superiore

text: UEFA Country Ranking for league participation in 2022–23 European football season (Previous year rank in italics).


title: Wild Mood Swings

text: Wild Mood Swings is the tenth studio album by English rock band the Cure, released on 7 May 1996 by Fiction Records.


title: Wild Mood Swings

text: "Wild Mood Swings" charted at number nine on the UK Albums Chart, staying on chart for six weeks, and charted at number 12 in the US "Billboard" 200. Four singles were released from the album, the first being "The 13th", released in April 1996, followed by "Mint Car" released in June, "Strange Attraction" released in United States in October and "Gone!" released in Europe in December 1996.


title: Wild Mood Swings

text: "Jupiter Crash" was played on the 2004 Curiosa Tour, and "Want" was usually played as the third song during the 2000 Bloodflowers Tour. "Treasure", "Jupiter Crash", "Mint Car", and "Want" have been played at various points since 2000, with "Want" being a set staple.


title: Wild Mood Swings

text: "Wild Mood Swings" received a mixed response from critics. A favourable review came from "Trouser Press", which described the album as "a potent and sweeping dissertation on melancholy and tentative dreams denied", calling it "consistently compelling". However, the album was the lowest-selling Cure album in 12 years, and it marked the beginning of a downward trend in the Cure's future album sales.


title: Princess Alexandra of Luxembourg

text: Princess Alexandra of Luxembourg, Princess of Nassau and Princess of Bourbon-Parma (Alexandra Joséphine Teresa Charlotte Marie Wilhelmine; born 16 February 1991) is the fourth child and only daughter of Henri, Grand Duke of Luxembourg, and Maria Teresa, Grand Duchess of Luxembourg.


title: Princess Alexandra of Luxembourg

text: Princess Alexandra was born at the Grand Duchess Charlotte Maternity Hospital in Luxembourg. She was raised in the Luxembourg countryside at Fischbach Castle, and later at Berg Castle, where her family moved upon her father's ascent to the Luxembourg throne.


title: Princess Alexandra of Luxembourg

text: Through her father, she is directly linked and related to many European royal families, which include; Belgium, The Netherlands, Sweden, Austria, Liechtenstein, Portugal, and Spain. Her paternal great-grandfather was King Leopold III of Belgium, her great-grandmother was Princess Astrid of Sweden and the current King Philippe of Belgium is her second cousin. Her paternal aunts are Archduchess Marie Astrid of Austria and Princess Margaretha of Liechtenstein. Her godparents are Archduchess Maria-Anna of Austria and Prince Michel of Ligne. Her siblings are: Hereditary Grand Duke Guillaume, Prince Félix, Prince Louis and Prince Sébastien. She is sixth in line of succession to the throne.


title: Princess Alexandra of Luxembourg

text: She attended private schools in Luxembourg, primary school at the Angelsberg School and her secondary education at the Lycée Vauban. She received her baccalauréat with honors in Literature.


title: Princess Alexandra of Luxembourg

text: Alexandra pursued her university studies abroad in the United States at the private Catholic Franciscan University of Steubenville. After studying psychology and social sciences in the United States, she went on to continue her studies in Paris where she received a bachelor's degree in philosophy, with concentrations in ethics and anthropology. As of 2017, she holds a master's degree in inter-religious studies from the Irish School of Ecumenics with a specialization in Conflict Resolution.


title: Princess Alexandra of Luxembourg

text: The Princess gained International Relations working experience while doing an internship at the Security Council at the United Nations in New York (when Luxembourg was a non-permanent member) where the Grand Duchy owns a historic mansion located at 17 Beekman Place in Manhattan named Luxembourg House, and also while working in journalism in the Middle East. She works as a volunteer helping refugees.


title: Princess Alexandra of Luxembourg

text: As a linguist, Princess Alexandra is fluent in Luxembourgish, French, English, Spanish, German, and Italian. She is passionate about literature and travel, by which discovering new cultures and languages. She plays tennis regularly, enjoys alpine skiing and currently resides between Paris and Luxembourg. She vacations each summer with her family at their summer home on the French Riviera.


title: Princess Alexandra of Luxembourg

text: The Princess is an active working member of the Grand Ducal Royal Family. She attends official and royal functions where she is regularly seen using the Luxembourg Royal Family Jewel Collection representing her country such as Luxembourg's New Year celebrations at the Grand Ducal Palace, representing Luxembourg at the Olympics, receiving foreign state visitors, representing Luxembourg on state visits abroad, official visits to the Vatican, royal weddings, funerals, and art events.


title: Princess Alexandra of Luxembourg

text: In May 2017, she received and hosted Catherine, Duchess of Cambridge, on her visit to Luxembourg. And in November 2017, with her Father the Grand Duke of Luxembourg, she represented Luxembourg on an official state visit to Japan being hosted by Emperor Akihito and Empress Michiko of Japan.


title: Princess Alexandra of Luxembourg

text: As a child on an official state visit to the Vatican in 2003, as a Royal Princess of Luxembourg using her Privilège du blanc permission, she dressed in white in the presence of Pope John Paul II.


title: Princess Alexandra of Luxembourg

text: She has been granted High Patronage to the Foundations of "Lëtzebuerger Déiereschutzliga and" the "Lëtzebuerger Blannevereenegung."


title: Princess Alexandra of Luxembourg

text: On 7 November 2022, the Grand Ducal Court of Luxembourg announced the engagement of Princess Alexandra to Nicolas Bagory. The wedding will take place in spring 2023.


title: Princess Alexandra of Luxembourg

text: She is currently sixth in line of succession to the throne. She had previously been excluded from birth until 2011, when her father issued absolute primogeniture in respect to his daughter Princess Alexandra and all of Grand Duke Henri's female descendants equal rights to males to the line of succession to the Luxembourg throne. Her brother, Prince Louis gave up his place in the line of succession when he firstly married.


title: Expulsion of the Moriscos

text: The Expulsion of the Moriscos () was decreed by King Philip III of Spain on April 9, 1609. The Moriscos were descendants of Spain's Muslim population who had been forced to convert to Christianity. Since the Spanish were fighting wars in the Americas, feeling threatened by the Turks raiding along the Spanish coast and by two Morisco revolts in the century since Islam was outlawed in Spain, it seems that the expulsions were a reaction to an internal problem of the stretched Spanish Empire. Between 1609 through 1614, the Crown systematically expelled Moriscos through a number of decrees affecting Spain's various kingdoms, with varying levels of success.


title: Expulsion of the Moriscos

text: Although initial estimates of the number expelled such as those of Henri Lapeyre range between 275,000 and 300,000 Moriscos (or 4% of the total Spanish population), the extent and actual success of the expulsion order in purging Spain of its Moriscos has been increasingly challenged by modern historians, starting with the seminal studies carried out by François Martinez (1999) and Trevor J. Dadson (2007). Dadson estimates that, out of a total Morisco population of 500,000, a figure accepted by many, around 40% avoided expulsion altogether and tens of thousands of those expelled managed to return.


title: Expulsion of the Moriscos

text: The places where the expulsion was particularly successful were the eastern Kingdom of Valencia, where Muslims represented the bulk of the peasantry and ethnic tension with the Christian, Catalan-speaking middle class was high; as a result, this region implemented the expulsion most severely and successfully, leading to the economic collapse and depopulation of much of its territory, worsened by the bubonic plague which hit Valencia only a few years later. The Kingdom of Aragon was, after Valencia, the part of the peninsula with the largest rate of expelled Moriscos and suffered the consequences as disastrously as Valencia, according to Henri Lapeyre.


title: Expulsion of the Moriscos

text: Of those permanently expelled, the majority eventually settled in the Barbary Coast (Maghreb), with around 30,000 to 75,000 people ultimately returning to Spain. Those who avoided expulsion or who managed to return to Spain merged into the dominant culture. The last mass prosecution against Moriscos for crypto-Islamic practices took place in Granada in 1727, with most of those convicted receiving relatively light sentences. By the end of the 18th century, indigenous Islam and Morisco identity were considered to have been extinguished in Spain.


title: Expulsion of the Moriscos

text: Suspicions and tensions between Moriscos, who were called New Christians, and the other Christians, who were called Old Christians, were high in some parts of Spain but practically nonexistent in others. While some Moriscos did hold influence and power, and even had positions in the clergy, others, particularly in Valencia and Aragon, were a source of cheap labour for the local aristocracy. Where sectarian conflict existed, Old Christian communities suspected the Moriscos of not being sincere in their Christianity. The Moors who remained Muslims were known as Mudéjar. Many of the Moriscos, in contrast, were devout in their new Christian faith, and in Granada, many Moriscos even became Christian martyrs, and were killed by Muslims for refusing to renounce Christianity. Much of the enmity between the Old and New Christians was based on ethnicity rather than religion.


title: Expulsion of the Moriscos

text: Several revolts broke out, the most notable being the 1568–1573 revolt against an edict of Phillip II's banning Arabic, Arabic names, and requiring Moriscos to give up their children to be educated by priests. After the suppression of the revolt, Philip ordered the dispersal of the Moriscos of Granada to other areas. Philip expected that this would break down the Morisco community and facilitate their assimilation into the rest of the Christian population. This may have happened to a degree to Granada's Moriscos, but not in Valencia or Aragon, where Islam was still widely practised and ethnic tensions were much higher than in the rest of Spain.


title: Expulsion of the Moriscos

text: At around the same time, Spain recognized the loss of more than half of its holdings in the Low Countries to the Protestant Dutch Republic. The ruling class already thought of Spain as the defender of Catholic Christendom, and this defeat helped lead to a radicalization of thinking and a desire to strike a blow to regain Spain's honor. Some critiques of Spain from Protestant countries included insults of the Spanish as corrupted by the Muslims and crypto-Muslims amongst them, which some of the nobility may have taken personally.


title: Expulsion of the Moriscos

text: The situation further deteriorated in the early 17th century. A recession struck in 1604 as the amount of gold and treasure from Spain's American holdings fell. The reduction in the standard of living led to increased tension between the Moriscos and Old Christians for precious jobs.


title: Expulsion of the Moriscos

text: The number of Moriscos in Spain at the time of expulsion is unknown and most estimates are based on the numbers of Moriscos who were expelled. Figures of between 300,000 and 400,000 are often cited. However, modern studies estimate between 500,000 and one million Moriscos present in Spain at the beginning of the 17th century out of a total population of 8.5 million.


title: Expulsion of the Moriscos

text: A significant proportion resided in the former Crown of Aragon, where it is estimated they constituted a fifth of the population, and the Valencia area specifically, where they were a third of the total population. The rich and those who lived in the cities were mostly Christians, while the Moriscos occupied the outlying countryside and the poor suburbs of the cities.


title: Expulsion of the Moriscos

text: In the Crown of Castile, which included the Guadalquivir valley in present Andalusia, the situation was considerably different. Overall, the proportion of Moriscos is considered to be lower but more significantly, the majority of them were former Mudejar (Muslims) Christians who were highly integrated in mainstream society, had abandoned many of their distinguishing cultural traits and crucially, unlike in Valencia, they did not suffer from hostility from their old-Christian neighbours, many of whom actively protected them from attempts by the Crown to expel them, to the point that in Plasencia the Crown officials sent to deport the Moriscos were immediately jailed upon arrival and in Avila the local Moriscos were integrated in the clergy and government positions to avoid expulsion.


title: Expulsion of the Moriscos

text: At the time however, an additional Morisco community co-existed with these Mudejar Moriscos: a large number of Granada Moriscos who had been deported or dispersed after the uprising and war of the Alpujarras, who were the target of more suspicion within the communities in which they settled. Local sympathies for Moriscos meant that Castile and Andalusia experienced only half-hearted efforts at identifying and expelling them. The expulsion was slower and a far less thorough process than in the Crown of Aragon and particularly Valencia and a significant portion of Moriscos – according to Dadson a majority – either avoided expulsion or returned in the years following expulsion.


title: Expulsion of the Moriscos

text: In the Kingdom of Valencia, which held the bulk of the Morisco population in the Crown of Aragón, the situation was radically different to Castile. Valencian Moriscos were the overwhelming majority of the landless peasantry and lived segregated from Christian populations. Economic and social rivalry was a major driver of resentment towards them, particularly from the Middle classes of artisans. This had boiled over before in 1520, when in the Revolt of the Brotherhoods, the artisan guilds of Valencia revolted against both the landed aristocracy and the Muslim mudéjar peasantry. Although the rebellion was ultimately defeated in 1523, the rebels killed many, and forced the mass baptism and conversion of the remainder of the Muslim population. In 1525, these forced conversions were upheld by King Charles, thus creating the Moriscos of Valencia. The plight of the Valencian Moriscos was the worst during the expulsion due to the long-standing hostility of their Christian neighbors.


title: Expulsion of the Moriscos

text: There was practically universal agreement in Spain that Islam was a threat that should be crushed. However, it was not clear how that should apply to the Moriscos, who were officially Christian. Some clerics such as Fray Luis de Aliaga, a royal councilor, supported giving time to the Moriscos to assimilate and become full Christians. This option was lightly supported by the Catholic Church in Rome, too. The most dedicated defenders of the Moriscos were the Valencian and Aragonese nobility, as their self-interest was involved. These nobles benefited the most from the poor and cheap workforce that the Moriscos provided.


title: Expulsion of the Moriscos

text: Opposing this view were a variety of notables and classes of people. Clerics against Aliaga included Jaime Bleda, the most prominent member of the Inquisition in Valencia. Bleda made several early proposals to King Philip III to banish or otherwise end the Morisco problem; he even recommended genocide. At first, these entreaties were without success. In 1596 the Duke of Lerma, King Philip III's chief financial officer, accused the Moriscos of collaboration with the Muslim Barbary pirates, a charge that had dogged them for years. Still, while many in the population held to this, others considered that this threat had long since passed. The Council of Aragon, in opposing any punitive measures, wrote that even if they wished to betray Spain, the Moriscos were in no position to do so "for they possess no arms, nor supplies, nor fortified positions, nor a base for the Turkish fleet." Nothing came of it at the time, but the Duke of Lerma continued his antipathy toward the Moriscos.


title: Expulsion of the Moriscos

text: The Duke of Lerma eventually convinced King Philip III with the help of the Archbishop of Valencia, Juan de Ribera, who considered the Moriscos as universally heretics and traitors. The archbishop added an idea to make the plan more persuasive to the king: the king could confiscate the assets and properties of the Moorish population, thereby providing a dramatic one-time boost to the royal coffers. Ribera also encouraged the king to enslave the Moriscos for work in galleys, mines, and abroad as he could do so "without any scruples of conscience," but this proposal was rejected.


title: Expulsion of the Moriscos

text: On April 9, 1609, the edict was signed to expel the Moriscos. The government knew that exiling so many would be problematic. It was decided to start with Valencia, where the Morisco population was greatest. Preparations were taken in the strictest secrecy. Starting in September, tercio battalions arrived from Italy. They took up positions in the main ports of Valencia: Alfaques, Dénia, and Alicante. On September 22, the viceroy ordered the publication of the decree. The Valencian aristocracy met with the government to protest the expulsion, as losing their workers would ruin their agricultural incomes. The government offered some of the confiscated property and territory of the Moriscos to them in exchange, but this didn't come close to compensating for the loss. The Moriscos would be allowed to take anything they could carry, but their homes and land would pass into the hands of their masters. Burning or other destruction of their homes before the transfer was prohibited on pain of death.


title: Expulsion of the Moriscos

text: Certain exceptions were granted: six families out of every 100 would be allowed to stay behind and maintain the infrastructure of towns that had been predominantly Morisco-inhabited. Very few took advantage of this, considering that it was thought likely that they would still be exiled later. Additionally, the exile was optional for children less than four years old. This was later expanded to 16 years of age. Archbishop Ribera strongly opposed this part of the measure; he lobbied that at the very least the children should be separated from their parents, enslaved, and Christianized "for the good of their souls."


title: Expulsion of the Moriscos

text: On September 30, the first of the exiles were taken to the ports, where, as a last insult, they were forced to pay their own fare for the trip. The Moriscos were transported to North Africa, where at times they were attacked as invaders by the people of the recipient countries. Other times, small revolts broke out on the ships, causing some of the exiles to be slain in battle with the crew. This caused fears in the Morisco population remaining in Valencia, and on October 20 there was a rebellion against the expulsion. The rebels numbered 6,000 and held the remote valley of Ayora and Muela de Cortes. Five days later, a new rebellion broke out on the southern coast, with 15,000 rebels holding the Valley of Lugar.


title: Expulsion of the Moriscos

text: The rebels were defeated by November. In only three months, 116,000 Moriscos had been transported to North Africa from Valencia. The start of 1610 saw the expulsion of the Moriscos of Aragon (the specific area of Aragon, not all the lands of the old Crown of Aragon); 41,952 were sent to North Africa via Alfaques, and 13,470 were sent over the Pyrenees Mountains to France. The exasperated French sent most of them to the port of Agde, and those who took the land route were charged both the transit fee and the sea fare. In September, the Moriscos of Catalonia were exiled. Andalusia exiled some 32,000 Moriscos as well.


title: Expulsion of the Moriscos

text: The expulsion of the Moriscos of Castile, Extremadura and Andalusia (then all part of the Crown of Castile) was the most difficult task, since they were dispersed across the land after being broken in 1571 by the rebellion rather than being concentrated in any one place. Because of this, the Moriscos were given a first option of voluntary departure, where they could take their most valuable possessions and anything else that might sell. Thus, in Castile the expulsion lasted three years, from 1611 to 1614.


title: Expulsion of the Moriscos

text: It is very difficult to gauge the success of the expulsion in purging Spain of its Morisco population, a topic which has been recently subject to academic reassessment. Even estimates of the number of Moriscos present in Spain prior to expulsion vary, ranging from numbers based on records of expulsion orders, such as those of Lynch and Lapeyre, (around 300,000) to more recent estimates of up to one million.


title: Expulsion of the Moriscos

text: Equally, traditional Spanish historiography, and early studies which drew heavily from it, paint a picture of a well-run affair that succeeded in channeling the vast majority of Moriscos (around 270,000) out of the country in a short period of time. As a result, early estimates of Moriscos who succeeded in remaining in the country after the expulsion were as low as 15,000.


title: Expulsion of the Moriscos

text: However, a number of recent investigative studies have challenged the traditional discourse on the supposed success of the expulsion in purging Spain of its Morisco population. A number of modern studies have concluded that expulsion met widely differing levels of success, particularly within the two major Spanish crowns of Castile and Aragon. One of the earliest anglophone re-examinations of Morisco expulsion was carried out by Trevor J. Dadson in 2007. Dadson estimated that as much as 40% of Moriscos (around 200,000) never left the country, and up to 70,000 of those expelled managed to return. A significant section of his work is devoted to the example of Villarubia de los Ojos in southern Castile. The Morisco population of this town, who may not have been authentic Moriscos but who had been classified as Moriscos to appropriate their property, was the target of three expulsions which they managed to avoid or from which they succeeded in returning from to their town of origin, being protected and hidden by their non-Morisco neighbours. Dadson provides numerous examples, of similar incidents throughout Spain whereby Moriscos were protected and supported by non-Moriscos and returned en masse from North Africa, Portugal or France to their towns of origin.


title: Expulsion of the Moriscos

text: A similar study on the expulsion in Andalusia concluded it was an inefficient operation which was significantly reduced in its severity by resistance to the measure from local authorities and populations. It further highlights the constant flow of returnees from North Africa, creating a dilemma for the local inquisition who did not know how to deal with those who had been given no choice but to convert to Islam during their stay in Muslim lands as a result of the Royal Decree. Upon the coronation of Felipe IV, the new king gave the order to desist from attempting to impose measures on returnees and in September 1628 the Council of the Supreme Inquisition ordered inquisitors in Seville not to prosecute expelled Moriscos "unless they cause significant commotion."


title: Expulsion of the Moriscos

text: An investigation published in 2012 sheds light on the thousands of Moriscos who remained in the province of Granada alone, surviving both the initial expulsion to other parts of Spain in 1571 and the final expulsion of 1604. These Moriscos managed to evade the royal decrees in various ways, thereafter hiding their true origin. More surprisingly, by the 17th and 18th centuries much of this group accumulated great wealth by controlling the silk trade and also holding about a hundred public offices. Most of these lineages were nevertheless completely assimilated over generations despite their practice of endogamy. A compact core of active crypto-Muslims was prosecuted by the Inquisition in 1727, receiving comparatively light sentences. These convicts kept alive their identity until the late 18th century.


title: Expulsion of the Moriscos

text: Besides, many Moriscos of the Catalan Low Ebro were officially excluded from expulsion and remained in their villages and towns, as well as some other expelled who returned, given the fact that they were very well integrated into Catalan Christian society, unlike those in Aragon, Valencia and even the Moriscos of the Catalan Low Segre.


title: Expulsion of the Moriscos

text: Spain's Morisco population was the last population who self-identified and traced its roots to the various waves of Muslim conquerors from North Africa. Modern population genetics generally assume Moriscos to have had both significant Iberian and North African ancestry, even if, after centuries of presence and intermarriage in the Iberian peninsula they were unlikely to differ significantly in ethnic terms from the wider Spanish population. For this reason studies in population genetics, which aim to ascertain Morisco ancestry in modern populations, search for Iberian or European genetic markers among contemporary Morisco descendants in North Africa, and for North African genetic markers among modern day Spaniards.


title: Expulsion of the Moriscos

text: A number of recent genetic studies demonstrated that the African influence on the Iberian Peninsula is, by far, more intense than in other European surrounding territories and populations. Approximately 5% of Spaniards have E-M81 Y-haplogroup, which is the characteristic haplogroup of North Africans or Berbers which is generally attributed to Islamic rule and settlement of the Iberian peninsula. Common North African genetic markers which are relatively high frequencies in the Iberian peninsula as compared to most of the European continent are Y-chromosome E1b1b1b1 (E-M81) and mtDNA Haplogroups L and U6. Studies coincide that North African admixture tends to increase in the South and West of the peninsula, peaking in parts of Andalusia, Extremadura and North West Castile. Distribution of North African markers are largely absent from the northeast of Spain as well as the Basque country. The uneven distribution of admixture in Spain has been explained by the extent and intensity of Islamic colonization in a given area, but also by the varying levels of success in attempting to expel the Moriscos in different regions of Spain, as well as forced and voluntary Morisco population movements during the 16th and 17th centuries.


title: Expulsion of the Moriscos

text: As for tracing Morisco descendants in North Africa, to date there have been few genetic studies of populations of Morisco origin in the Maghreb region, although studies of the Moroccan population have not detected significant recent genetic inflow from the Iberian peninsula. A recent study of various Tunisian ethnic groups has found that all were indigenous North African, including those who self-identified as Andalusians.


title: Expulsion of the Moriscos

text: The Council of Castile evaluated the expulsion in 1619 and concluded that it had no economic impact for the country. This was basically true for Castile, as some scholars of the expulsion have found no economic consequences on sectors where the Morisco population was important. However, in the Kingdom of Valencia, fields were abandoned and a vacuum was left in sectors of the economy the native Christians could not possibly fill. With the removal by 33% of the inhabitants of the Kingdom of Valencia, some counties in the north of the current Alicante province lost virtually their entire population. The infrastructure decayed, and the Christian nobles and landlords fell into arrears. Strapped for cash, many of the Valencian nobles increased rents on their Christian tenants to get even close to their previous income. The increase in rents drove off any new tenants from coming to replace them, and as a result agricultural output in Valencia dropped greatly.


title: Expulsion of the Moriscos

text: The expulsion was a crippling blow not just to the economies of Aragon and Valencia, but also to the power of their nobles. The former Crown of Aragon had been in the shadow of the richer and more populous Crown of Castile for some time, but with this, their stature dropped still further. Of the eastern kingdoms themselves, the Catalan nobles now rose to prominence, their incomes far less affected since, unlike their southern and western neighbours, they never had a significant Morisco population. Thus the expulsion helped shift power away from its traditional centers in Valencia to Catalonia within the Crown of Aragon.


title: Expulsion of the Moriscos

text: In reaction to the policy of Spain to facilitate access to Spanish citizenship by descendants of the Jews who were expelled from Spain, there has been demand from Muslims to apply a similar policy to the descendants of the "Moriscos". In 2006 this demand received support from the parliament of Andalusia but has not gained broader support.


title: Forced labour

text: Forced labour, or unfree labour, is any work relation, especially in modern or early modern history, in which people are employed against their will with the threat of destitution, detention, violence including death, or other forms of extreme hardship to either themselves or members of their families.


title: Forced labour

text: Unfree labour includes all forms of slavery, penal labour and the corresponding institutions, such as debt slavery, serfdom, corvée and labour camps.


title: Forced labour

text: Many forms of unfree labour are also covered by the term forced labour, which is defined by the International Labour Organization (ILO) as all involuntary work or service exacted under the menace of a penalty.


title: Forced labour

text: However, under the ILO Forced Labour Convention of 1930, the term forced or compulsory labour does not include:


title: Forced labour

text: Unfree labour is often more easily instituted and enforced on migrant workers, who have travelled far from their homelands and who are easily identified because of their physical, ethnic, linguistic, or cultural differences from the general population, since they are unable or unlikely to report their conditions to the authorities.


title: Forced labour

text: In many contexts, the use of unfree labour is prohibited under the law and is mainly associated with the underground economy. In other contexts, established industries have embraced the use of unfree labour as a socially accepted practice in that time and place. Use of compelled labour is especially common when the labour involved can not be performed without risk of death, disfigurement, disability, or diminished life expectancy; in the extreme, these detriments render the voluntary labour market uneconomic, and the industry in question is forced to either adopt compelled labour or discontinue operations altogether.


title: Forced labour

text: Industries which continue to employ unfree labour worldwide include agriculture, domestic work, manufacture, and hospitality. Mining, defence, the merchant marine and transport infrastructure, which employed questionable practices during the heyday of railway track construction (often involving the use of high explosives or constructing high wooden trestle bridges in sheer mountain canyons), and of canal excavation (sometimes in conditions of permafrost) also have historical ties.


title: Forced labour

text: Unfree labour re-emerged as an issue in the debate about rural development during the years following the end of the Second World War, when a political concern of Keynesian theory was not just economic reconstruction (mainly in Europe and Asia) but also planning (in developing "Third World" nations). A crucial aspect of the ensuing discussion concerned the extent to which different relational forms constituted obstacles to capitalist development, and why.


title: Forced labour

text: During the 1960s and 1970s unfree labour was regarded as incompatible with capitalist accumulation, and thus an obstacle to economic growth, an interpretation advanced by exponents of the then-dominant semi-feudal thesis. From the 1980s onwards, however, another and very different Marxist view emerged, arguing that evidence from Latin America and India suggested agribusiness enterprises, commercial farmers and rich peasants reproduced, introduced or reintroduced unfree relations.


title: Forced labour

text: However, recent contributions to this debate have attempted to exclude Marxism from the discussion. These contributions maintain that, because Marxist theory failed to understand the centrality of unfreedom to modern capitalism, a new explanation of this link is needed. This claim has been questioned by Tom Brass (2014), ‘Debating Capitalist Dynamics and Unfree Labour: A Missing Link?’, The Journal of Development Studies, 50:4, 570–82. He argues that many of these new characteristics are in fact no different from those identified earlier by Marxist theory and that the exclusion of the latter approach from the debate is thus unwarranted.


title: Forced labour

text: The International Labour Organization (ILO) estimates that at least 12.3 million people are victims of forced labour worldwide; of these, 9.8 million are exploited by private agents and more than 2.4 million are trafficked. Another 2.5 million are forced to work by the state or by rebel military groups. From an international law perspective, countries that allow forced labour are violating international labour standards as set forth in the Abolition of Forced Labour Convention (C105), one of the fundamental conventions of the ILO.


title: Forced labour

text: According to the "ILO Special Action Programme to Combat Forced Labour" (SAP-FL), global profits from forced trafficked labour exploited by private agents are estimated at US$44,3 billion per year. About 70% of this value (US$31.6 billion) come from trafficked victims. At least the half of this sum (more than US$15 billion) comes from industrialized countries.


title: Forced labour

text: Trafficking is a term to define the recruiting, harbouring, obtaining and transportation of a person by use of force, fraud, or coercion for the purpose of subjecting them to involuntary acts, such as acts related to commercial sexual exploitation (including forced prostitution) or involuntary labour.


title: Forced labour

text: The archetypal and best-known form of unfree labour is chattel slavery, in which individual workers are legally owned throughout their lives, and may be bought, sold or otherwise exchanged by owners, while never or rarely receiving any personal benefit from their labour. Slavery was common in many ancient societies, including ancient Egypt, Babylon, Persia, ancient Greece, Rome, ancient Israel, ancient China, classical Arab states, as well as many societies in Africa and the Americas. Being sold into slavery was a common fate of populations that were conquered in wars. Perhaps the most prominent example of chattel slavery was the enslavement of many millions of black people in Africa, as well as their forced transportation to the Americas, Asia, or Europe, where their status as slaves was almost always inherited by their descendants.


title: Forced labour

text: The term "slavery" is often applied to situations which do not meet the above definitions, but which are other, closely related forms of unfree labour, such as debt slavery or debt-bondage (although not all repayment of debts through labour constitutes unfree labour). Examples are the Repartimiento system in the Spanish Empire, or the work of Indigenous Australians in northern Australia on sheep or cattle stations (ranches), from the mid-19th to the mid-20th century. In the latter case, workers were rarely or never paid, and were restricted by regulations and/or police intervention to regions around their places of work.


title: Forced labour

text: In late 16th century Japan, "unfree labour" or slavery was officially banned; but forms of contract and indentured labour persisted alongside the period's penal codes' forced labour. Somewhat later, the Edo period's penal laws prescribed "non-free labour" for the immediate families of executed criminals in Article 17 of the (Tokugawa House Laws), but the practice never became common. The 1711 was compiled from over 600 statutes that were promulgated between 1597 and 1696.


title: Forced labour

text: Blackbirding involves kidnapping or trickery to transport people to another country or far away from home, to work as a slave or low-paid involuntary worker. In some cases, workers were returned home after a period of time.


title: Forced labour

text: Serfdom bonds labourers to the land they farm, typically in a feudal society. Serfs typically have no legal right to leave, change employers, or seek paid work, though depending on economic conditions many did so anyway. Unlike chattel slaves, they typically cannot be sold separately from the land, and have rights such as the military protection of the lord.


title: Forced labour

text: A truck system, in the specific sense in which the term is used by labour historians, refers to an unpopular or even exploitative form of payment associated with small, isolated and/or rural communities, in which workers or self-employed small producers are paid in either: goods, a form of payment known as truck wages, or tokens, private currency ("scrip") or direct credit, to be used at a company store, owned by their employers. A specific kind of truck system, in which credit advances are made against future work, is known in the U.S. as debt bondage.


title: Forced labour

text: Many scholars have suggested that employers use such systems to exploit workers and/or indebt them. This could occur, for example, if employers were able to pay workers with goods which had a market value below the level of subsistence, or by selling items to workers at inflated prices. Others argue that truck wages were a convenient way for isolated communities, such as during the early colonial settlement of North America, to operate when official currency was scarce.


title: Forced labour

text: By the early 20th century, truck systems were widely seen, in industrialized countries, as exploitative; perhaps the most well-known example of this view was a 1947 U.S. hit song "Sixteen Tons". Many countries have Truck Act legislation that outlaws truck systems and requires payment in cash.


title: Forced labour

text: Though most closely associated with Medieval Europe, governments throughout human history have imposed regular short stints of unpaid labour upon lower social classes. These might be annual obligations of a few weeks or something similarly regular that lasted for the labourer's entire working life. As the system developed in the Philippines and elsewhere, the labourer could pay an appropriate fee and be exempted from the obligation.


title: Forced labour

text: A form of forced labour in which peasants and members of lower castes were required to work for free existed in India before independence. This form of labour was known by several names, including "veth", "vethi", and .


title: Forced labour

text: Another historically significant example of forced labour was that of political prisoners, people from conquered or occupied countries, members of persecuted minorities, and prisoners of war, especially during the 20th century. The best-known example of this are the concentration camp system run by Nazi Germany in Europe during World War II, the "Gulag" camps run by the Soviet Union, and the forced labour used by the military of the Empire of Japan, especially during the Pacific War (such as the Burma Railway). Roughly 4,000,000 German POWs were used as "reparations labour" by the Allies for several years after the German surrender; this was permitted under the Third Geneva Convention provided they were accorded proper treatment. China's ("labour reform") system and North Korea's camps are current examples.


title: Forced labour

text: About 12 million forced labourers, most of whom were Poles and Soviet citizens () were employed in the German war economy inside Nazi Germany. More than 2000 German companies profited from slave labour during the Nazi era, including Daimler, Deutsche Bank, Siemens, Volkswagen, Hoechst, Dresdner Bank, Krupp, Allianz, BASF, Bayer, BMW, and Degussa. In particular, Germany's Jewish population was subject to slave labour prior to their extermination.


title: Forced labour

text: In Asia, according to a joint study of historians featuring Zhifen Ju, Mark Peattie, Toru Kubo, and Mitsuyoshi Himeta, more than 10 million Chinese were mobilized by the Japanese army and enslaved by the Kōa-in for slave labour in Manchukuo and north China. The U.S. Library of Congress estimates that in Java, between 4 and 10 million (Japanese: "manual labourer") were forced to work by the Japanese military. About 270,000 of these Javanese labourers were sent to other Japanese-held areas in South East Asia. Only 52,000 were repatriated to Java, meaning that there was a death rate of 80%.


title: Forced labour

text: The Khmer Rouge attempted to turn Cambodia into a classless society by depopulating cities and forcing the urban population ("New People") into agricultural communes. The entire population was forced to become farmers in labour camps.


title: Forced labour

text: Convict or prison labour is another classic form of unfree labour. The forced labour of convicts has often been regarded with lack of sympathy, because of the social stigma attached to people regarded as "common criminals". In some countries and historical periods, however, including the modern United States, prison labour has been forced upon people who have been victims of prejudice, convicted of political crimes, convicted of "victimless crimes", or people who committed theft or related offences because they lacked any other means of subsistence—categories of people who typically are entitled to compassion according to current ethical ideas.


title: Forced labour

text: Three British colonies in Australia— New South Wales, Van Diemen's Land and Western Australia—are examples of the state use of convict labour. Australia received thousands of convict labourers in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries who were given sentences for crimes ranging from those now considered to be minor misdemeanors to such serious offences as murder, rape and incest. A considerable number of Irish convicts were sentenced to transportation for treason while fighting against British rule in Ireland.


title: Forced labour

text: More than 165,000 convicts were transported to Australian colonies from 1788 to 1868. Most British or Irish convicts who were sentenced to transportation, however, completed their sentences in British jails and were not transported at all.


title: Forced labour

text: It is estimated that in the last 50 years more than 50 million people have been sent to Chinese camps.


title: Forced labour

text: A more common form in modern society is indenture, or "bonded labour", under which workers sign contracts to work for a specific period of time, for which they are paid only with accommodation and sustenance, or these essentials in addition to limited benefits such as cancellation of a debt, or transportation to a desired country.


title: Forced labour

text: As mentioned above, there are several exceptions of unfree or forced labour recognized by the "International Labour Organization":


title: Forced labour

text: Some countries practice forms of civil conscription for different major occupational groups or inhabitants under different denominations like "civil conscription", "civil mobilization", "political mobilization" etc. This obligatory services on the one hand has been implemented due to long-lasting labour strikes, during wartimes or economic crisis, to provide basic services like medical care, food supply or supply of the defence industry. On the other hand, this service can be obligatory to provide recurring and inevitable services to the population, like fire services, due to lack of volunteers.


title: Forced labour

text: Between December 1943 and March 1948 young men in the United Kingdom, the so-called Bevin Boys, had been conscripted for the work in coal mines. In Belgium in 1964, in Portugal and in Greece from 2010 to 2014 due to the severe economic crisis, a system of civil mobilization was implemented to provide public services as a national interest.


title: Forced labour

text: In Switzerland in most communities for all inhabitants, no matter if they are Swiss or not, it is mandatory to join the so-called "Militia Fire Brigades", as well as the obligatory service in Swiss civil defence and protection force.


title: Forced labour

text: Conscripts in Singapore are providing the personnel of the country's fire service as part of the national service in the Civil Defence Force.


title: Forced labour

text: In Austria and Germany citizens have to join a compulsory fire brigade if a volunteer fire service can not be provided, due to lack of volunteers. In 2018 this regulation is executed only in a handful of communities in Germany and currently none in Austria.


title: Forced labour

text: Beside the conscription for military services, some countries draft citizens for paramilitary or security forces, like internal troops, border guards or police forces. While sometimes paid, conscripts are not free to decline enlistment. Draft dodging or desertion are often met with severe punishment. Even in countries which prohibit other forms of unfree labour, conscription is generally justified as being necessary in the national interest and therefore is one of the five exceptions to the Forced Labour Convention, signed by the most countries in the world.


title: Forced labour

text: Community service is a non-paying job performed by one person or a group of people for the benefit of their community or its institutions. Community service is distinct from volunteering, since it is not always performed on a voluntary basis. Although personal benefits may be realized, it may be performed for a variety of reasons including citizenship requirements, a substitution of criminal justice sanctions, requirements of a school or class, and requisites for the receipt of certain benefits.


title: Forced labour

text: During the Cold War in some communist countries like Czechoslovakia, the German Democratic Republic or the Soviet Union the originally voluntary work on Saturday for the community called "Subbotnik", "Voskresnik" or "Akce Z" became "de facto" obligatory for the members of a community.


title: Forced labour

text: In some Austrian and German states it is feasible for communities to draft citizens for public services, called hand and hitch-up services. This mandatory service is still executed to maintain the infrastructure of small communities.


title: Destroy Rebuild Until God Shows

text: Destroy Rebuild Until God Shows (abbreviated as D.R.U.G.S.) formed in 2010, is an American post-hardcore band from Pontiac, Michigan, United States. They released their debut self-titled album on February 22, 2011. The band were stylized as a "supergroup" before their break up in 2012. The band reformed in 2020 with Craig Owens, Jona Weinhofen, Aaron Patrick and Aaron Stechauner and they released their second album "Destroy Rebuild" on June 17, 2022.


title: Destroy Rebuild Until God Shows

text: The band was formed in late 2009/early 2010, after Craig Owens was let go by Chiodos. The band's members were announced in several YouTube video updates on Craig Owens' official YouTube page. The band's members included vocalist Craig Owens (Chiodos), drummer Aaron Stern (Matchbook Romance), guitarist/vocalist Nick Martin (Underminded), guitarist/vocalist Matt Good (From First to Last), and bassist Adam Russell (Story of the Year). The band played their first live shows to sold out crowds at the Pike Room inside The Crofoot in Pontiac, MI on November 28 and 29, 2010.


title: Destroy Rebuild Until God Shows

text: On November 11, 2010, D.R.U.G.S. released their first song, "If You Think This Song Is About You, It Probably Is." On December 6, 2010, they released their second song, "Mr. Owl Ate My Metal Worm." This was followed by "Sex Life", released on January 18, 2011, which is the first single from the album.


title: Destroy Rebuild Until God Shows

text: On January 31, 2011, D.R.U.G.S. released their fourth song off of their self-titled album, "My Swagger Has a First Name" to all those who pre-ordered the album. The band's debut self-titled album was given a release date of February 22, 2011, through Decaydance/Sire Records.


title: Destroy Rebuild Until God Shows

text: The band headlined a 7-date tour of the UK between March 4–10, 2011, and headlined the Alternative Press Tour with Black Veil Brides and supporting acts VersaEmerge, Conditions and I See Stars, between March 18 – April 29, 2011.


title: Destroy Rebuild Until God Shows

text: D.R.U.G.S. played main stage on the 2011 Vans Warped Tour for the entirety of the tour, with the exceptions of July 17, 19 and 21. Vocalist Craig Owens stated that the band would not play those three dates due a prior commitment he made to be on set for the movie K-11. Owens also stated that D.R.U.G.S. would make up those three dates as well as give away merchandise and a special meet and greet and advised fans that were supposed to go those shows to keep their ticket stubs.


title: Destroy Rebuild Until God Shows

text: On July 12, 2011, D.R.U.G.S. released a live EP titled "Live From Hot Topic", which includes 5 live songs: "The Only Thing You Talk About", "My Swagger has a First Name", "Mr. Owl Ate My Metal Worm", "Graveyard Dancing" and "If You Think This Song is About You, It Probably Is".


title: Destroy Rebuild Until God Shows

text: The band played the Counter Revolution tour in Australia, and played the WWIII tour with Asking Alexandria and Hollywood Undead in November.


title: Destroy Rebuild Until God Shows

text: On November 28, 2011 the band posted a previously unreleased b-side from their first album. The song is called "Rehab in Rifle Rounds" and was released as a one-year celebration.


title: Destroy Rebuild Until God Shows

text: The band has recently parted ways with Warner Brother and so they have parted ways with Decaydance. On January 16, 2012, a song titled "Scream If You're Crazy" was released on to Noisecreep.


title: Destroy Rebuild Until God Shows

text: On January 18, 2012 the band made this announcement: "It is with bittersweet sentiment that we announce some news today. Our bass player, Adam Russell, has made the personal decision to move on from Destroy Rebuild Until God Shows to pursue other opportunities. While we are happy to see him make a choice that will ultimately be best for him, of course, we are sad to see him go. Please know that we remain close friends and supporters of Adam, and that there are no hard feelings. Rest assured this will not affect our current tour schedule. Our close friend, Tai “Never Wrong, Always” Wright, will be filling in on bass duties on the upcoming SIN Tour which starts Thursday in Chicago."


title: Destroy Rebuild Until God Shows

text: The band completed their first headlining tour, the seven-week-long Strength In Numbers (S.I.N) Tour, along with a handful of DIY-style shows with opening acts Like Moths To Flames, Hit The Lights, Sparks The Rescue, and The Action Blast.


title: Destroy Rebuild Until God Shows

text: On April 26, 2012, Chiodos released a video update hinting that Craig Owens had re-joined the band and replaced Brandon Bolmer, who joined the band after Owens was kicked out. The following day, Matt Good, Nick Martin, and Aaron Stern announced that they have decided to leave the band. It has been confirmed that Craig Owens decided to leave D.R.U.G.S. as well, thus leading the band towards a complete break up.


title: Destroy Rebuild Until God Shows

text: After the departures of Good, Martin and Stern, vocalist Craig Owens had indeed re-joined Chiodos as their lead vocalist.


title: Destroy Rebuild Until God Shows

text: On August 24, 2012 it announced that Matt Good, Nick Martin, Adam Russell and Aaron Stern will be re-uniting without Owens. It was also announced that they're currently working on a new album with this new band with a current unknown name.


title: Destroy Rebuild Until God Shows

text: On August 30, 2012, Matt Good stated via Twitter that "People I have to clear some things up. No one is in DRUGS anymore except Craig. If he wants to keep going then that's his thing." Good later tweeted "But all the other sides minus Craig are gonna (write) some new music for y'all."


title: Destroy Rebuild Until God Shows

text: In February 2020, an Instagram account for the band was made and a VK page that leaked information about many upcoming songs, signalling a reunion of the band with Owens being the only founding member to return since their break up in 2012. In March 2020 Owens confirmed the possibility of upcoming tour dates on his Twitter account the following day new single was shared dubbed ""King I Am"" demo was released following a Forbes Magazine Q&A. In February 2021, the band announced they have signed to Velocity Records with a planned future album release.


title: Destroy Rebuild Until God Shows

text: On September 8, 2021, the band announced guitarist Jona Weinhofen, formerly of Bring Me the Horizon, Bleeding Through and I Killed the Prom Queen, was joining the group as their new guitarist. On December 15, 2021, the band announced that bassist and backing vocalist Aaron Patrick, formerly of All That Remains, Bury Your Dead and Devildriver, would be joining the group.


title: Destroy Rebuild Until God Shows

text: On February 2, 2022, the band debuted their first single featured on their second album "Destroy Rebuild" featuring Owens, Weinhofen and Patrick titled "Destiny". The song was released through Velocity Records. On April 22, 2022, Aaron Stechauner was revealed to be the new drummer.


title: Freddie Roach

text: Frederick Steven Roach (born March 5, 1960) is an American boxing trainer and former professional boxer. Roach is widely regarded as one of the best boxing trainers of all time. He is the enduring boxing coach of the eight-division world champion Manny Pacquiao, five-time and four-division world champion Miguel Cotto, former WBC middleweight champion Julio César Chávez Jr., three-time world champion James Toney, former UFC middleweight and three-time welterweight champion Georges St-Pierre, as well as top prospects Jose Benavidez, Peter Quillin, and Vanes Martirosyan. Roach was the trainer of two-time women's world champion Lucia Rijker. He has also trained former light welterweight champion Amir Khan.


title: Freddie Roach

text: Roach was trained by his father Paul Roach at a young age along with his brothers Joey and Pepper. In an interview with Dan Patrick on the AUDIENCE channel, Roach disclosed that throughout his youth, he was involved in over 300 street fights. Fearing for his own safety in one fight, he claims to have bitten another man's eye out in self-defense.


title: Freddie Roach

text: As a teenager, he was a dominant force in the New England amateur and AAU ranks. Roach turned pro in 1978, fighting as a lightweight and won his first 10 bouts. Roach trained under Eddie Futch and went 26–1 before appearing in a historic match at the Boston Garden on June 11, 1982. The card that night was the first of two times that all three Fighting Roach Brothers appeared at the same time. Brothers Joey and Pepper won their undercard bouts but in the main event, Freddie lost a unanimous decision to Rafael Lopez. Freddie would rebound and go on to contend twice for regional championships.


title: Freddie Roach

text: Late in his career, Roach, who was known for being able to take on a barrage of punches, began showing early signs of Parkinson's disease. Futch asked Roach to retire but the boxer refused and continued to fight with his father as his trainer. He went on to lose five of his last six fights before retiring at age 26. His best payday was $7,500.


title: Freddie Roach

text: Roach has trained 27 world champions to date. After his retirement from fighting, Roach worked in a variety of jobs around Las Vegas including telemarketing and a busboy before taking a job with his former trainer and mentor Eddie Futch as an unpaid assistant in 1986. He excelled in his new position and worked as Futch's assistant for five years.


title: Freddie Roach

text: In 1991, actor Mickey Rourke returned to boxing midway through his acting career, and hired Roach to train him in Hollywood, California. In 1995, when Rourke decided to quit boxing, he gave gym equipment to Roach, and it can be found in the Wild Card Boxing Club on Vine Street.


title: Freddie Roach

text: Roach owns the Wild Card Boxing Club in Los Angeles and works alongside his brother Pepper. He is one of the most popular trainers in boxing. Roach's prized ward is eight-division world champion Manny Pacquiao. Roach also once trained Oscar De La Hoya for his May 5, 2007 superfight against Floyd Mayweather Jr. His first world champion was Virgil Hill, whom he took over from his own former trainer, Eddie Futch. He is also the former trainer for British boxers Gary Stretch (former WBC light middleweight champion), training Stretch for his WBO middleweight title challenge against Chris Eubank, and Amir Khan, who became the WBA light welterweight champion on July 18, 2009, and the IBF light welterweight champion on July 23, 2011, under Roach's tutelage. Roach also trains welterweight boxer Zachary "Kid Yamaka" Wohlman among many others. and can usually be seen nearby when his boxers are interviewed.


title: Freddie Roach

text: In the world of mixed martial arts (MMA), Roach has trained former UFC heavyweight champion Andrei Arlovski and was one of his primary trainers for Arlovski's victory over Ben Rothwell on July 19 at Affliction's inaugural show. He has also trained MMA fighter Dan Hardy for his fight with Marcus Davis at UFC 99 as well as MMA greats, Tito Ortiz, Anderson Silva, and BJ Penn. In May 2010, he began a training engagement with Georges St-Pierre in advance preparation for the fighter's successful UFC welterweight title defense against Josh Koscheck at UFC 124. Roach has also trained many other prominent mixed martial artists, such as: pro-boxer and kickboxer, and former EliteXC lightweight champion, K. J. Noons, Roger Huerta, and Rameau Thierry Sokoudjou. In March 2010, Roach expressed interest in wanting to train former Pride FC and WAMMA heavyweight champion, Fedor Emelianenko.


title: Freddie Roach

text: Roach suffers from Parkinson's disease. As chronicled in the HBO series "Real Sports with Bryant Gumbel", he is able to actively control the disease through medication, injections, and his training of boxers. Roach's doctors feel that his active in-ring training routines with his fighters and tremendous eye-hand coordination that he has to exhibit have made it possible to slow the progress of the disease.


title: Dissidia Final Fantasy

text: The game features characters from different "Final Fantasy" games and centers on a great conflict between Cosmos, the goddess of harmony, and Chaos, the god of discord. The two summon multiple warriors to fight for their sides in their thirteenth war. During the story, the player controls the ten warriors chosen by Cosmos, the protagonists from the first ten "Final Fantasy" games, in their journey. The game's English and international versions also give access to other features such an arcade mode.


title: Dissidia Final Fantasy

text: "Dissidia" originated from "Kingdom Hearts" director Tetsuya Nomura's desire to create a spin-off for the franchise but then changed to the "Final Fantasy" series. Besides designing the characters, Nomura worked with the Square staff with the desire to make it appealing to Western players. "Dissidia" was well-received commercially and critically, with positive reviews and sales of over 1.8 million. A follow-up titled "Dissidia 012 Final Fantasy" was released in March 2011 and features several new characters and gameplay features.


title: Dissidia Final Fantasy

text: "Dissidia Final Fantasy"'s genre has been described as "dramatic progressive action" and its graphics are in three dimensions. It has wireless one-on-one multiplayer and fights revolving around the use of individual special skills of characters to do damage to opponents. Players can also customize their characters with equipment.


title: Dissidia Final Fantasy

text: Character movement is fully functional within the three-dimensional field map. Characters are able to perform special maneuvers using the environment by pressing the Triangle button. Traps with a variety of ill effects can be found throughout the arena. Characters' equipment can be customized, and they can gain EXP and gil from battles.


title: Dissidia Final Fantasy

text: Similar to many fighting games, the aim is for the player to reduce their opponent's HP to zero. A character's offensive (and, to a lesser extent, defensive) power is shown in numerical form called BRV or "Bravery Points". Both characters start out with a set amount of BRV, and each must reduce their health to 0 by attacking them with a HP attack. Players can steal BRV from their opponent by attacking them with the basic "BRV attack" to add it to their own total and gain the upper hand. Players can then use the "HP attack" to cause direct damage to their opponent; HP damage is equal to the player's current amount of Bravery. However, once an HP attack is used, the character's own BRV is reduced to 0 and then slowly recovers to its starting amount. A character whose BRV total has been depleted (past 0 BRV and into the negatives) is forced into "Break mode", where, aside from not being able to cause HP and BRV damage (But being able to gain BRV), all attacks made against them cause critical damage and the opponent gets all of the BRV in the "Bravery Pool" (a number that can be seen at the bottom of the screen), massively boosting their BRV amount.


title: Dissidia Final Fantasy

text: One main feature of the combat system is the "EX Gauge", which can be filled in a variety of ways, such as inflicting damage on opponents, taking damage from opponents, and obtaining EX cores scattered around the field of play. Once the EX Gauge is filled, the character can enter their "EX Mode", significantly increasing their power and enabling new attacks, including the "EX Burst", an unavoidable and very damaging special attack similar to the Limit Break mechanic seen in many games in the series. The player on the offense charges up the attack by following the on-screen instructions, while the player on the defense can reduce the amount of damage taken by continuously pressing the circle button. Once the EX Burst is executed, EX Mode ends.


title: Dissidia Final Fantasy

text: In a gameplay mode exclusive to Western releases, the Arcade mode converts the game in a traditional fighting game, with all RPG elements removed and characters' abilities being stripped down to the basics to balance the playing field. Within the Arcade Mode, there are three tiers: Normal, Hard, and Time Attack; beating any tier of the Arcade mode will reward the player with PP (player points) and special items that can be used in story mode. All characters, including villains, are playable in Arcade mode; for example, Golbez, Sephiroth, Kuja, and Jecht are available for use in this mode from the start, but they still need to be bought via the PP Catalog for use in other modes.


title: Dissidia Final Fantasy

text: The story revolves around two gods: the goddess of harmony, and the god of discord. The game unites both protagonists and antagonists from installments of the main "Final Fantasy" series, their stories narrated by the first "Final Fantasy" game's Cid of the Lufaine. Other than the gods and their champions, the player also deals with crystal-like doppelgangers called Manikins. The game has an overarching storyline that requires playing through all of the characters to complete. The game contains twenty-two total playable characters: ten heroes and ten villains, one of each representing "Final Fantasy" through "Final Fantasy X", and two secret characters: a heroine representing "Final Fantasy XI", and a villain representing "Final Fantasy XII". Initially, only the ten main heroes are playable in all gameplay modes; the ten main villains are playable in Arcade mode, but must still be unlocked for access in all other gameplay modes.


title: Dissidia Final Fantasy

text: The gods Cosmos and Chaos have been locked in eternal conflict with "World B", a mirror dimension to the realm of "World A" where the first "Final Fantasy" takes place, summoning several warriors from other worlds from the main series to battle in a never-ending cycle of death and rebirth until the balance is tipped in favor of Chaos. As the war seems to be nearing its end, the ten warriors of Cosmos band together to strike back at Chaos's minions and restore balance. Having lost much of her power in the previous cycle, Cosmos gives her ten warriors—Warrior of Light, Firion, Onion Knight, Cecil, Bartz, Terra, Cloud, Squall, Zidane, and Tidus—the task of retrieving the ten crystals that will help them defeat Chaos. They each set out on a journey called a "Destiny Odyssey", where their respective stories are told and interlink with one another. During their travels the heroes encounter their villains, defeating them through epiphanies about themselves that help them obtain their crystals.


title: Dissidia Final Fantasy

text: Following the "Destiny Odysseys" is the "Shade Impulse", where all ten warriors have their crystals but arrive too late to save Cosmos, who is killed by Chaos. The heroes begin to fade away but are saved by the power of the crystals, allowing them to use what time they have left to strike back against the villains and defeat Chaos. In the end, the other warriors leave World A for their respective worlds, the Warrior of Light embarks on another adventure, setting up the events of the original "Final Fantasy", and Cosmos revives to reign over World B.


title: Dissidia Final Fantasy

text: The game also features two other storylines with "Distant Glory", where Shanttoto and Gabranth are introduced to the player in two different areas where they are trapped and have to find a way out. The other story mode, "Inward Chaos", serves as an alternate scenario in which Chaos has never been defeated and the player is guided by an entity known as Shinryu to defeat Chaos.


title: Dissidia Final Fantasy

text: "Dissidia Final Fantasy" was originally envisioned by creative producer Tetsuya Nomura as a "Kingdom Hearts" spin-off featuring a cast of Disney characters while the Square Enix staff were developing "Kingdom Hearts II". Nomura later felt uncomfortable with the Disney characters fighting each other and instead opted to use "Final Fantasy" characters, although the original idea eventually gave rise to the development of "Kingdom Hearts 358/2 Days", with the game's multiplayer mode inspired by "Dissidia's" gameplay. The game was made in commemoration of the franchise's 20th anniversary and despite being handled by young employees, Nomura noticed there was no pressure, having assisted them in the designing various areas from the gameplay. The game was directed by Takeshi Arakawa whom Nomura noted that his experience in a previous Square Enix game, "The World Ends With You", had a good effect in the game. To have their desired way of fighting, the team chose the PlayStation Portable console. There were plans for online play but the console's capacities made them unable to add such a feature. Developing the game took three years due with the battle system requiring two years and the RPG mode one.


title: Dissidia Final Fantasy

text: Deciding the "Final Fantasy" heroes was easy for the staff except for Terra Branford. While her game, "Final Fantasy VI", features multiple characters that would fit the role of the main character, Terra was chosen in the end so that there would be a female fighter in Cosmos' side. For villains, they decided to include warriors who had a strong rivalry with the heroes rather than automatically choosing the games' final bosses. This resulted in the inclusion of non-final bosses such as "Final Fantasy IV"s Golbez, "Final Fantasy IX"s Kuja and "Final Fantasy X"s Jecht who were connected with their games' leads, Cecil Harvey, Zidane Tribal and Tidus, respectively. Shantotto from "Final Fantasy XI" was used based on her popularity, while Gabranth was used to represent "Final Fantasy XII" in Balthier's place as the latter had already been featured in "" and Square wanted his inclusion to surprise gamers. Other characters meant to have been featured were "Final Fantasy IV"s Kain Highwind and "Final Fantasy XIII"s Lightning.


title: Dissidia Final Fantasy

text: Nomura was responsible for the character designs, which changed much of the look and style of Yoshitaka Amano's illustrations. Working in the "Final Fantasy" and "Final Fantasy IX" designs brought no difficulties since in for the former game, Nomura based his designs on Amano's illustrations while he had already been involved in handling his illustrations in the latter. On the other hand, Nomura had difficulties making Onion Knight as it ended being too cartoony and requested advice from Amano. Nomura's own original illustrations were also redesigned for "Dissidia"; Nomura commented to the Japanese gaming magazine "Famitsu" that Tidus was designed to look younger than he was in "Final Fantasy X" to "match the design touch of the rest of the "Dissidia"" cast.


title: Dissidia Final Fantasy

text: On April 6, 2007, Square Enix filed for United States trademark registration of "Dissidia"; the mark's relation to "Final Fantasy" was omitted. The title was connected with "Final Fantasy" when Square Enix introduced "Dissidia Final Fantasy" on May 8, 2007, with an official Japanese website.


title: Dissidia Final Fantasy

text: The "Dissidia Final Fantasy Original Soundtrack" by Takeharu Ishimoto was released on December 24, 2008, and is available in both regular and special editions, similar to the game itself. Most tracks are often remixes done by Ishimoto of past "Final Fantasy" music originally composed by Nobuo Uematsu.


title: Dissidia Final Fantasy

text: The main theme of the game is "The Messenger" by Your Favorite Enemies. The tracks "Cosmos" and "Chaos - Last Battle 1" are also performed by Your Favorite Enemies. "The Messenger" is the main theme song of the game, with lyrics from both "Cosmos" and "Chaos - Last Battle 1." "Cosmos" features female vocals, while "Chaos" is dominated by male vocals. In YFE's documentary on the conception of the songs for "Dissidia", lyricist-vocalist Alex Foster admitted that the lyrics have no direct connection to themes of the game; rather, he left it up to the listeners to interpret the lyrics based on their thoughts and ideas.


title: Dissidia Final Fantasy

text: For the western localization, the Square Enix staff used analysis from their subsidiary companies in London and Los Angeles to readjust the game for Western audiences. Director Takeshi Arakawa and producer Yoshinori Kitase announced that the release date for the western world would be August 25, 2009 (starting in North America), and that it will include a number of small changes, including re-adjustments in gameplay, new gameplay events, an arcade gameplay mode, a shortened tutorial, new moves for playable characters, and extra cutscenes featuring cameos from several other characters from the main characters' original games that do not appear in the Japanese version. Arakawa referred to the Western version as a more action-based game than the original Japanese version which was more RPG-based.


title: Dissidia Final Fantasy

text: For the "Dissidia Final Fantasy" US release, Gamestop released the game with two additional covers for anyone who reserved it before it came out. On August 24, 2009, it was announced that there would be an international version of the game. Named , this revision of the game would be a direct port of the North American version of the game, retaining all the extra features added, and was released in Japan on November 1, 2009. Both English and Japanese voices are available in battle, with the player deciding which language the characters will speak.


title: Dissidia Final Fantasy

text: SCEA later announced a "Dissidia Final Fantasy"-themed PSP bundle, which included a "Mystic Silver" PSP system, a copy of "Dissidia Final Fantasy", a 2GB memory stick, and a copy of "". It was also released on August 25, 2009.


title: Dissidia Final Fantasy

text: Studio BentStuff published the "Dissidia Final Fantasy Ultimania α" as the initial reference guide for the game. Released on December 4, 2008, this book became part of the Ultimania series, which includes the Kingdom Hearts Ultimania α. Suntory Ltd. also collaborated with Square Enix to create the "Dissidia Final Fantasy Potion" drinks which were released on December 9, 2008, in Japan to promote the game's release.


title: Dissidia Final Fantasy

text: Square Enix released a line of Trading Arts figures in early 2009 with Series 1 containing Cloud Strife, Squall Leonhart, Zidane Tribal, Tidus, and the Warrior of Light. A second series was later released featuring Sephiroth, Terra, Bartz, Firion, and Cecil.


title: Dissidia Final Fantasy

text: "Dissidia" sold well according to Takeshi Arakawa, despite concerns about piracy. As of August 17, 2009, "Dissidia Final Fantasy" has sold 910,000 copies in Japan, making it the fourth best-selling game for the PSP in Japan. It was the 12th best-selling game in Japan in 2008, selling 660,262 copies. In the United States, "Dissidia" debuted as the 7th top-selling software of the August 2009 charts with 130,000 copies, despite only four days of availability. Figures from the NPD Group list "Dissidia Final Fantasy" as the best-selling PSP game of 2009.


title: Dissidia Final Fantasy

text: "Dissidia" was well received by the Japanese gaming magazine "Famitsu" with individual scores of 9/9/10/8, earning the game a place in its "Best Picks of This Week" feature as well as its "Platinum Hall of Fame." The game's battle system was described as fast-paced and exhilarating, with simple controls capable of producing battles like those found in "", though it was noted that the action can become difficult to follow when things got hectic and that some of the more technical aspects of the game can be hard to grasp. The game was also praised for its story and cutscenes, with one reviewer noting that the history was "exacting".


title: Dissidia Final Fantasy

text: The game also enjoyed positive reviews by American critics. "1UP.com" and "GameSpot" praised the fighting system and visuals, with the latter commenting on the mix of RPG and action gameplay. The story received mixed reactions, as "GameSpot" stated that it would only interest fans of the franchise, while "1UP.com" enjoyed its references to previous games. RandomNPC called the game "one of the few must-have games for the PSP." "Game Informer" was critical, claiming the story and gameplay were too similar to past "Final Fantasy" titles and would turn off new players.


title: Dissidia Final Fantasy

text: In the Best of E3 2009, "Dissidia" was awarded "Best Fighting Game" by IGN. "Dissidia" also received awards from "Famitsu" and in the Japan Game Awards 2008. In 2010, the game was included as one of the titles in the book "1001 Video Games You Must Play Before You Die".


title: Dissidia Final Fantasy

text: Following the game's positive reception by gamers in Japan that surpassed Nomura's expectations, he already had in mind several new ideas for a sequel and wished to feature Kain in it. Yoshinori Kitase stated that the fight between Cloud and Sephiroth from the film "Advent Children" was popular enough to make Japanese gamers do a remake of it for the crossover "Dissidia Final Fantasy" and expected Western fans to also emulate it.


title: Dissidia Final Fantasy

text: A follow up to "Dissidia" titled "Dissidia 012 Final Fantasy" was released in March 2011 for the PlayStation Portable. Since "Dissidia" had a concrete ending, the team decided to make the story a prequel. Tetsuya Nomura stated that there would be no more "Dissidia" games following "Dissidia 012" although the series may continue "in another form" since the team already believed they did enough with the fighting genre. The main story of "Dissidia" also served as a basis for the 2012 rhythm game "Theatrhythm Final Fantasy" for the Nintendo 3DS, which also uses multiple characters from the "Final Fantasy" series. In 2013, Ichiro Hazama stated that he and much of the team intended to make a third "Dissidia" title, but did not mention possible platforms. In February 2015 at Japan Amusement Expo (JAEPO), a gameplay teaser trailer was unveiled for a new game titled "Dissidia Final Fantasy" coming to arcades in Japan, later released for PlayStation 4 as "Dissidia Final Fantasy NT". Unlike the previous "Dissidia" titles, this game features 3v3 combat, as well as adding new playable characters such as Y’shtola and Ramza Beoulve. A freemium mobile spinoff titled "Dissidia Final Fantasy Opera Omnia" was released in February 1, 2017 for Japan, and January 30, 2018 for international territories respectively.


title: Pegasus Bridge

text: Pegasus Bridge, originally called the Bénouville Bridge after the neighbouring village, is a road crossing over the Caen Canal, between Caen and Ouistreham in Normandy. The original bridge, built in 1934, is now a war memorial and is the centrepiece of the Memorial Pegasus museum at nearby Ranville. It was replaced in 1994 by a modern design which, like the old one, is a bascule bridge.


title: Pegasus Bridge

text: On 6 June 1944, during the Second World War, the bridge was, along with the nearby Ranville Bridge over the Orne River (another road crossing, later renamed Horsa Bridge), the objective of members of D Company, 2nd (Airborne) Battalion, Oxfordshire and Buckinghamshire Light Infantry, a glider-borne force who were part of the 6th Airlanding Brigade of the 6th Airborne Division during Operation Tonga in the opening minutes of the Allied invasion of Normandy. Under the command of Major John Howard, D Company was to land close by the bridges in six Airspeed Horsa gliders and, in a "coup-de-main" operation, take both intact and hold them until relieved by the main British invasion forces. The successful capture of the bridges played an important role in limiting the effectiveness of a German counter-attack in the aftermath of the Normandy invasion.


title: Pegasus Bridge

text: Later in 1944, the Bénouville Bridge was renamed Pegasus Bridge in honour of the operation. The name is derived from the shoulder emblem worn by British airborne forces of I Airborne Corps (United Kingdom), which depicts Bellerophon riding the flying horse Pegasus.


title: Pegasus Bridge

text: Pegasus Bridge and the structure that replaced it in 1994 are examples of a distinct sub type of bascule bridge, the "Scherzer rolling lift bascule bridge" or "rolling bridge". Bridges of this type do not pivot about a hinge point, but roll back on curved tread plates attached to the girders of the main span. This design allows a greater clearance of the waterway for a given opening angle.


title: Pegasus Bridge

text: On the night of 5 June 1944, a force of 181 men, led by Major John Howard, took off from RAF Tarrant Rushton in Dorset, southern England in six Horsa gliders to capture Pegasus Bridge, and also "Horsa Bridge", a few hundred yards to the east, over the Orne River. The force was composed of D Company (reinforced with two platoons of B Company), 2nd Battalion, Oxford and Bucks Light Infantry; 20 sappers of the Royal Engineers of 249 Field Company (Airborne); and men of the Glider Pilot Regiment. The object of this action was to prevent German armour from crossing the bridges and attacking the eastern flank of the landings at Sword Beach.


title: Pegasus Bridge

text: Five of the Ox and Bucks's gliders landed as close as 47 yards from their objectives from 16 minutes past midnight. The attackers poured out of their battered gliders, completely surprising the German defenders, and took the bridges within 10 minutes. They lost two men in the process, Lieutenant Den Brotheridge and Lance corporal Fred Greenhalgh.


title: Pegasus Bridge

text: Greenhalgh drowned in a nearby pond when his glider landed. Lieutenant Brotheridge was mortally wounded crossing the bridge in the first minutes of the assault and became the first member of the invading Allied armies to die as a result of enemy fire on D-Day.


title: Pegasus Bridge

text: One glider, assigned to the capture of the Orne river bridge, landed at the bridge over the River Dives, some 7 miles off. Most of the soldiers in this glider moved through German lines towards the village of Ranville where they eventually re-joined the British forces. The Ox and Bucks were reinforced at 03.00hrs by Lieutenant Colonel Pine-Coffin's 7th Parachute Battalion, and linked up with the beach landing forces with the arrival of Lord Lovat's Commandos.


title: Pegasus Bridge

text: Among the first of the 7th Battalion reinforcements was Lieutenant Richard Todd, a young actor, who, nearly two decades later, would play Major Howard in the film "The Longest Day".


title: Pegasus Bridge

text: In 1984, as part of the 40th anniversary commemorations, the Royal Yacht Britannia sailed past the bridge on route to Caen. The ship passed in the early hours, escorted by two tugs and HMS Torquay.


title: Pegasus Bridge

text: The original Pegasus Bridge now resides in the grounds of the Pegasus Museum. The museum was inaugurated by the Prince of Wales on 4 June 2000, Brigadier James Hill, Françoise Gondrée foundress with General Sir Richard Nelson Gale as Président


title: Pegasus Bridge

text: and lies at the Eastern end of the current bridge. The original bridge was replaced in 1994 by the wider, stronger structure, built by Spie Batignolles. It had been extended by 5 metres in the early 1960s to accommodate the widening of the canal and remained in use until 1993. After its replacement, Pegasus Bridge was left on waste ground. The bridge was sold to the museum for the symbolic price of one Franc.


title: Pegasus Bridge

text: Many of the soldiers killed in the actions of June 1944 are buried in the war cemetery at Ranville. Lt. Brotheridge's grave, which is located in the churchyard next to the cemetery, has a commemorative plaque that was installed by the Gondrée family. The museum contains a café and a small museum shop that sells Pegasus Bridge related material. Arlette Gondrée, who now runs Café Gondrée, was a small child living in the home when it was liberated.


title: Pegasus Bridge

text: It is not certain that the famous Gondrée café was the first French house to be liberated during D-Day. In the book "Commando du Pont Pegase", French historian Norbert Hugedé writes that it was the house owned by Mr Picot that was liberated first, a few hours before the Gondrées' house.


title: Wind rose

text: A wind rose is a graphic tool used by meteorologists to give a succinct view of how wind speed and direction are typically distributed at a particular location. Historically, wind roses were predecessors of the compass rose (found on charts), as there was no differentiation between a cardinal direction and the wind which blew from such a direction. Using a polar coordinate system of gridding, the frequency of winds over a time period is plotted by wind direction, with colour bands showing wind speed ranges. The direction of the longest spoke shows the wind direction with the greatest frequency.


title: Wind rose

text: Before the development of the compass rose, a wind rose was included on maps in order to let the reader know which directions the 8 major winds (and sometimes 8 half-winds and 16 quarter-winds) blew within the plan view. No differentiation was made between cardinal directions and the winds which blew from those directions. North was depicted with a fleur de lis, while east was shown as a Christian cross to indicate the direction of Jerusalem from Europe.


title: Wind rose

text: Presented in a circular format, the modern wind rose shows the frequency of winds blowing "from" particular directions over a specified period. The length of each "spoke" around the circle is related to the frequency that the wind blows from a particular direction per unit time. Each concentric circle represents a different frequency, emanating from zero at the center to increasing frequencies at the outer circles. A wind rose plot may contain additional information, in that each spoke is broken down into colour-coded bands that show wind speed ranges. Wind roses typically use 16 cardinal directions, such as north (N), NNE, NE, etc., although they may be subdivided into as many as 32 directions. In terms of angle measurement in degrees, North corresponds to 0°/360°, East to 90°, South to 180° and West to 270°.


title: Wind rose

text: Compiling a wind rose is one of the preliminary steps taken in constructing airport runways, as aircraft can have a lower ground speed at both landing and takeoff when pointing against the wind.


title: Holyoke, Massachusetts

text: Holyoke is a city in Hampden County, Massachusetts, United States, that lies between the western bank of the Connecticut River and the Mount Tom Range. As of the 2020 census, the city had a population of 38,238. Located north of Springfield, Holyoke is part of the Springfield Metropolitan Area, one of the two distinct metropolitan areas in Massachusetts.


title: Holyoke, Massachusetts

text: Holyoke is among the early planned industrial cities in the United States. Built in tandem with the Holyoke Dam to utilize the water power of Hadley Falls, it is one of a handful of cities in New England built on the grid plan. During the late 19th century the city produced an estimated 80% of the writing paper used in the United States and was home to the largest paper mill architectural firm in the country, as well as the largest paper, silk, and alpaca wool mills in the world. Although a considerably smaller number of businesses in Holyoke work in the paper industry today, it is still commonly referred to as "The Paper City". Today the city contains a number of specialty manufacturing companies, as well as the Massachusetts Green High Performance Computing Center, an intercollegiate research facility which opened in 2012. Holyoke is also home to the Volleyball Hall of Fame and known as the "Birthplace of Volleyball", as the internationally played Olympic sport was invented and first played at the local YMCA chapter by William G. Morgan in 1895.


title: Holyoke, Massachusetts

text: While managing the Holyoke Testing Flume in the 1880s, hydraulic engineer Clemens Herschel invented the Venturi meter to determine the water use of individual mills in the Holyoke Canal System. This device, the first accurate means of measuring large-scale flows, is widely used in a number of engineering applications today, including waterworks and carburators, as well as aviation instrumentation. Powered by these municipally-owned canals, Holyoke has among the lowest electricity costs in the Commonwealth, and as of 2016 between 85% and 90% of the city's energy was carbon neutral, with administrative goals in place to reach 100% in the future.


title: Holyoke, Massachusetts

text: The Indigenous people of Holyoke and South Hadley Falls were the Algonquian peoples. Though records are incomplete, the area was settled by the Pocomtuc, sometimes referred to as the Agawam or Nonotuck.


title: Holyoke, Massachusetts

text: English colonists arrived in the Connecticut River Valley in 1633, when traders from the Plymouth Plantation established a post at Windsor, Connecticut. In 1636, Massachusetts Bay Colony assistant treasurer and Puritan iconoclast William Pynchon led a group of settlers from Roxbury, Massachusetts to the Valley to establish Springfield on land scouts had found to be advantageous for farming and trading. This settlement was built north of the Connecticut River's first major falls, Enfield Falls, where seagoing vessels had to transfer cargo into smaller shallops to continue northward on the river. Due to its proximity to the banks of the river Springfield quickly became a successful settlement on the Bay Path to Boston, as well as the Massachusetts Path to Albany. Originally, the settlement spanned both sides of the river but was partitioned in 1774 with the land on the western bank becoming West Springfield, Massachusetts. This area, previously allotted to landowners on the east side of the river in Springfield, was settled by colonists by 1655, and included what is now Holyoke. Holyoke as a geographic entity was initially incorporated as the 3rd parish of West Springfield on July 7, 1786, and was called "Ireland" or "Ireland Parish". The area's first post office, "Ireland", was established June 3, 1822, with Martin Chapin as first postmaster; it was discontinued in 1883. Another, "Ireland Depot", was established February 26, 1847, with John M. Chapin as first postmaster, and assumed the town name upon Holyoke's incorporation. Though the name Hampden was considered, the area was subsequently named for earlier Springfield settler William Pynchon's son-in-law, Elizur Holyoke, who had first explored the area in the 1650s. Following land acquisitions and development by the Hadley Falls Company, the town of Holyoke was officially incorporated on March 14, 1850. The first official town meeting took place a week later, on March 22, 1850.


title: Holyoke, Massachusetts

text: A part of Northampton known as Smith's Ferry was separated from the rest of the town by the creation of Easthampton in 1809. The shortest path to downtown Northampton was on a road near the Connecticut River oxbow, which was subject to frequent flooding. The neighborhood became the northern part of Holyoke in 1909.


title: Holyoke, Massachusetts

text: Holyoke had few inhabitants until the construction of the dam and the Holyoke Canal System in 1849 and the subsequent construction of water-powered mills, particularly paper mills, the first and last to operate in the city, being those of the Parsons Paper Company. At one point over 25 paper mills were in operation in the city. The Holyoke Machine Company, manufacturer of the Hercules water turbine, was among many industrial developments of the era.


title: Holyoke, Massachusetts

text: Holyoke's population rose from just under 5,000 in 1860 to over 60,000 in 1920. Due to this staggering growth the municipality was officially incorporated as a city on April 7, 1873, only 23 years after its initial incorporation as the "Town of Holyoke". Later that year the city elected its first mayor, William B. C. Pearsons, who, a quarter-century earlier, had established himself among the first lawyers in the city, and was the first editorial writer of the area newspaper-of-record, the "Hampden Freeman", best known as the "Holyoke Transcript-Telegram".


title: Holyoke, Massachusetts

text: By 1885, Holyoke was the largest single producer of paper of any city in the United States, producing around 190 tons per day, more than double the next-largest producer, Philadelphia, producing 69 tons per day despite having a population nearly 40 times its size. Before 1900 Holyoke would produce 320 tons per day, predominantly of writing paper. In 1888, Holyoke's paper industry spurred the foundation of the American Pad & Paper Company (AMPAD), which was one of the largest suppliers of office products in the world. Holyoke was also previously the location of the headquarters of the American Writing Paper Company, a trust company established in 1899 with the merging of 23 rag paper mills, 13 of which were located in Holyoke. At one point the company was the largest producer of fine papers in the world, however incompetent leadership lacking technical knowledge of the industry led the company to fold by 1963. The availability of water power enabled Holyoke to support its own electric utility company and maintain it independently of America's major regional utilities. The city was thus a rare unaffected area in the Northeast blackout of 1965, for example.


title: Holyoke, Massachusetts

text: In addition to developments in the paper and textile industries, a number of industrial inventions would arise out of the city in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The first and most prominent hydraulic testing lab in the United States, the Holyoke Testing Flume performed 3,176 tests to establish turbine efficiency from 1870 to 1932. Among the flume's resulting developments were Clemens Herschel's Venturi meter in 1888, the first accurate way to measure large-scale flows, as well as the Hercules turbine by John B. McCormick in 1899, the first mixed flow turbine. Other pioneering developments included the first use of Hans Goldschmidt's exothermic welding process in the Americas in 1904, by George E. Pellissier and the Holyoke Street Railway. In electronics, the world's first commercial toll line, between the city's Hotel Jess and a location in Springfield, entered service on June 15, 1878. The city was also home to Thaddeus Cahill's New England Electric Music Company which, on March 16, 1906, demonstrated the Telharmonium, the world's first electromechanical instrument, a predecessor of the synthesizer.


title: Holyoke, Massachusetts

text: Holyoke is located at (42.203191, −72.623969). According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , of which is land and (6.70%) is water. The city is bordered by Southampton and Westfield to the west, Easthampton to the north, Hadley, South Hadley and Chicopee as river borders to the east, and West Springfield to the south.


title: Holyoke, Massachusetts

text: Holyoke is the location of East Mountain, the Mount Tom Range, and Mount Tom, at the highest traprock peak on the Metacomet Ridge, a linear mountain range that extends from Long Island Sound to the Vermont border. The most densely populated area, lying between the Mount Tom Range and the Connecticut River, is characterized by a series of terraces separated by wooded ravines, known as dingles, which drain to the river. Mount Tom is characterized by its high cliffs, sweeping vistas, and microclimate ecosystems. The Metacomet-Monadnock Trail traverses the Mount Tom Range and East Mountain. Fossilized dinosaur tracks and specimens can be found at the foot of these mountains due to their unique geology. A species of dinosaur, "Podokesaurus holyokensis", whose fossils were first discovered across the river in South Hadley, was given its name for the area, and the city has in recent years passed measures to try to protect fossils in parks from theft or vandalism.


title: Holyoke, Massachusetts

text: The city of Holyoke contains 15 distinct neighborhoods. Some, like Springdale and Oakdale, were conceived by individual developers as streetcar suburbs for mill workers in the 19th century, whereas others like Rock Valley and Elmwood were villages within West Springfield that predate the city. Additionally a number of names such as Ewingville and Elmwood Heights have been used historically but have become defunct as separate entities. In alphabetical order, Holyoke's neighborhoods are: