title: Karen conflict

text: The British feared to lose control of the Burman wing of the army. To control the Burman wing of the army the British official Thomas saw the Karen as the answer. Thomas most likely hoped that the British trained Karen officials would use their higher positions to gain influence in the anti-British Burman squadrons. The 'Karenization' of the army led Karen to hold the highest positions. The chief of staff General Smith Dun, the chief of the air force Saw Shi Sho and the chief of operations were all ethnic Karen. The chief of operation was trained in Sandhurst Brig. Saw Kya Doe. All the supporting services, the staff, supply and ammunition depots, the artillery and signal corps were commanded by Karen officers. Despite the dominance of Karen in high positions, the Karen leadership was afraid of Burmese retaliation and refrained from radical reorganisation of the Burmese wing of the army.


title: Karen conflict

text: On 4 January 1948 Burma gained its independence from Britain. State authority and state structures were still very fragile. In February 1948 four hundred thousand Karen in a peaceful demonstration showed their solidarity with the creation of a Karen State. Within three months after independence, the Communist Party Burma began an armed rebellion and similarly some Karen separatist groups started an armed struggle for independence. Many members of the KNDO's were former wartime veterans and were in the anti-Japanese (and thus anti-Burmese) resistance.


title: Karen conflict

text: The creation of the KNDO and the AFPFL government's distrust of the Karen 'collaborators' enhanced the ancient old tensions between the Karen and the Burmans. The British Service Mission (BSM) advised the Burmese military after independence on arms purchase and other things. BSM personnel particularly favoured Karens for promotion and positions of authority within the army. Burmans thought of this as suspicious.


title: Karen conflict

text: Sporadic fighting took place between Karen militias and Burman troops in early 1948. However the Karen led Burmese army helped to suppress the communist rebellion throughout 1948 and thus supported the AFPFL government. In May 1948 the AFPFL government made a concession to the communist rebels and opened the door to the communist to participate in national politics. Karen army and political leaders, mostly rightist oriented, interpreted this as a proof of the AFPFL government that it was impossible for Karen to live within a state controlled by this government.


title: Karen conflict

text: In June 1948 former PBF officers started organising meetings to find a solution to the growing power of Karen in the Burmese army and to stop the communist rebellion. From May to August there were minor outbreaks of violence between government controlled Karen and Burman troops, both fighting the communist. A split in the third Burif troops on 10 August 1948 immediately exacerbated the tension between Burmese officers and the Karen military leadership.


title: Karen conflict

text: The Karen leadership distrusted the intent of the Third Burifs led by the later president of Burma, Ne Win. These army desertions resulted in a stronger Karen grip on the army. The army and the KNDO by this time controlled large parts of the countryside. On 14 August 1948, Karen armed militias took over Twante near Rangoon. Other Karen militias took over Thaton and Kyaikkami a week later. On 30 August, the KNDO took over Thaton and a KNDO group took over Moulmein.


title: Karen conflict

text: 1948 was a year characterised by violence in Burma. Every single group owning arms tried to reach for more authority through violence. In general two camps could be identified. One camp could be labelled as rightist and pro-western. These were Karen army leadership, the KNDO, Karen Peace Guerillas (local defence units, of which some members would today be labelled as criminals), most of the police and the Union Auxiliary Forces. The other camp could be defined as leftist and anti-British.


title: Karen conflict

text: This group was made up by the AFPFL government, some battalions of Burmans within the government army, the Sitwundan (a police/army force established by prime minister U-Nu in the summer of 1948 as a reaction to the Karen dominated army and the rightist/pro-western police force) and local village defence units and local political armies that rejected communists and rightists. The last four months of 1948 saw an escalation of violence throughout Burma. All sides fought for their vision of Burma. Some British officers stayed in the jungle of Eastern Burma to support the struggle for independence in Burma. One of them was arrested in Rangoon on 18 September.


title: Karen conflict

text: The Burmese press blew the incident up stating a Karen rebellion was at hands and this led to more Burmese violence towards the Karen. On 19 September, Tin Tut, a leader of rightist levies and viewed as an ally by many Karen, was assassinated in Rangoon. General Smith Dun acted as a mediator for a peace deal between KNDO units and the AFPFL government in November. This outraged pro-AFPFL officers within the army.


title: Karen conflict

text: On 13 November 1948 the KNU demanded an independent Karen-Mon state which would surround Rangoon. The Burmese press saw this as a move against the Union government. The escalation of tension and violence resulted in larger incidents in December. On Christmas Eve a locally raised ethnic Burman Sitwundan group threw handgrenades into a church in Palaw, killing eighty Christian Karen. The following weeks hundreds of Karen were murdered by Sitwundan and Socialist groups for which KNDO troops starting retaliating.


title: Karen conflict

text: The AFPFL government relied on Karen, Kachin and Chin battalions to fight insurgencies throughout Burma in the period following the WWII. Karen troops still fought for the AFPFL government up until December 1948. In January 1948 the then prime minister of Burma U Nu and Karen leader Saw Ba U Gyi toured the Irrawaddy riverdelta to prevent escalation of violence. Ordered by Gen. Smith Dun and with permission of U Nu, local KNDO units took the Twante channel, connecting Rangoon with the Irrawaddy river, from communist rebels. Resembling the chaos of those days, the Rangoon newspapers reported this to be the beginning of the Karen insurgency. This event largely attributed to the rising tension of the time between Karens and Burmans.


title: Karen conflict

text: Later in January 1948 KNDO units raided the arm depots of the army in the KNDO controlled town of Insein, near Rangoon. Sitwundan units and Burmese students and others moved in on Insein during January and skirmishes occurred. KNDO leaders reacted with calling in more enforcements from outlying districts. KNDO units trained out in the open in Insein Township and set up road blocks in the area. Burmans living in Insein lost patience and started arming themselves, not relying on the government to protect them. Confrontations spread to wherever Burmans and Karens were living close together, mostly in the river delta. In mid-January 150 Karen were killed in Taikkyi Township. Lacking central authority local KNDO units attacked Burmese targets in retaliation. At the same time the Burmese press inflamed public opinion.


title: Karen conflict

text: Colonel Min Maung, a Karen, was asked to create a diversion to break the stalemate by KNU leader Saw Ba U Gyi. On 27 January 1949, Colonel Min Maung's First Karen Rifles seized the town of Taungoo. Karen naval commander Saw Jack attacked Pathein and other Karen troops seized the town of Pyu the following day. On 30 January, the KNDO was outlawed by the Union government of Burma and the Karen were purged out of the army two days later. Prime Minister Nu expelled all Karen leaders from their military posts, replacing general Smith Dun with Ne Win. The remainder of Karen in the official armed forces either joined the rebellion or were put into camps.


title: Karen conflict

text: The Insein skirmishes escalated into a battle by 31 January 1949. Taungoo wasn't retaken by the government until March 1949 and the town of Insein not until May 1949, after heavy losses on both sides. On 14 June 1949 the KNU proclaimed the Karen Free State or Kawthoolei together with the Four Principles (see below). These principles have formed the heart of the KNU insurgency ever since


title: Karen conflict

text: The Karen National Union declared war to the Burmese government on 31 January 1949. Ever since the start the conflict has been characterised by seasonal dependent fighting, internal struggles within the KNU and atrocities being committed by both sides. The KNU/KNLA army has been divided into seven brigades. Occasionally a brigade Commander would act independently from the KNU leadership.


title: Karen conflict

text: Shortly after the outbreak of the conflict Then KNU president Saw Ba U Gyi created the Four Principles:


title: Karen conflict

text: These hard-line principles have prevented the KNU from compromising and making any concessions towards the Tatmadaw.


title: Karen conflict

text: In the 1950s the conflict was well under way. A remarkable development was that prominent Karen such as General Smith Dun refused to join the rebellion. The KNU booked several military successes against the Burmese army. Yet this changed throughout the 1950s. In 1954 the British Service Mission (BSM) was closed. The BSM was a legacy of the colonial time and many employees sympathised with the Karen. Furthermore, during this decade the Tatmadaw reorganised and transformed into a modern standing army. The Tatmadaw introduced the Four Cuts strategy in the late 1960s. The strategy is aimed to cut off rebellious groups of their four sources of food, funds, intelligence and recruits. This strategy has been proven to be very effective. In 1963–1964 peace talks were held with no result.


title: Karen conflict

text: The 1970s the KNU struggled with several internal rebellions like the rise of the Telecon. This religious sect was found in the nineteenth century. The leaders of Telecon have presented themselves as the true Karen, thus posing a threat to KNU leadership. In 1972 Telecon leaders were executed after an invitation from the KNLA's Sixth Brigade Commander. Another example of internal KNU conflict is the case of Lt-Col. Thu Mu Hae. Thu Mu Hae's Sixteenth Battalion under the command of the KNLA's Sixth Brigade Commander had been acting independently since the late 1980s. Officials from the KNU could only enter Kawkareik township if they were accompanied by fifty soldiers or more, because Thu Mu Hae had in effect a private warlord army.


title: Karen conflict

text: The Karen Conflict has been portrayed by the outside world as a conflict which was fought in the hills along the Burma–Thailand border. But in the 1950s and 1960s Karen insurgency groups also attacked Burmese targets in the Irrawaddy riverdelta. The Four Cuts strategy of the Tatmadaw eventually forced the Karen armed units in the delta to continue fighting from their stronghold in the border hills. Since 1966 General Bo Mya was the KNU leader in the eastern division of the Karen conflict.


title: Karen conflict

text: A remarkable turnaround was in 1976, the year when General Bo Mya became the KNU's president. The KNU reformed under Gen. Bo Mya and after 1976 the KNU developed a strong anti-communist character.


title: Karen conflict

text: In 1976 the KNU changed its demand for an independent Karen State or Kawthoolei into a demand for more autonomy. The history of the Karen insurgency was also rewritten and the history of the communist inspired wing of the KNU, led by the Karen veteran and the KNU's strategist Mahn Ba Zan, was left out. Mahn Ba Zan had led the Karen insurgency in the riverdelta in the 1950s and 1960s.


title: Karen conflict

text: The KNU reached the height of its power in the 1980s and early 1990s. In 1989 a ceasefire proposal designed by the Tatmadaw was refused by the Karen National Union. In 1994 peace talks between the KNU leadership and the Tatmadaw were held again. But the KNU leadership refused to accept a ceasefire. Former KNU Foreign Affairs Secretary David Taw has described how in 1993 exile Burmese politicians told General Bo Mya not to pursue a ceasefire with the military government. They expected that the 'international community' would soon start to support the KNU through diplomacy. In December 1994 a thousand KNU soldiers established the Democratic Karen Buddhist Army or DKBA. These Buddhists troops had been complaining for years about anti-Buddhist discrimination by local Christian KNU officers.


title: Karen conflict

text: These Buddhists Karen soldiers were dissatisfied with the Christian leadership and corruption of the KNU and their decision to stop the ceasefire negotiations. A final split was triggered by a dispute over the building of a Buddhist pagoda on a military strategic hill near Manerplaw. With the help of the Tatmadaw this group overran the headquarter of the KNU in the city of Manerplaw, near the border with Thailand. The DKBA developed into a stronger and bigger organisation than the KNU within several years.


title: Karen conflict

text: In 1995, 1996 and 1997 several meetings were held between the KNU leadership and military officials of the Tatmadaw. However General Bo Mya and other hard-liners refused to accept any government constructed ceasefire proposal. In 1997 the KNU leadership hardened their position, demanding the release of political prisoners and more political dialogue. This resulted in further decimation of the strength of the KNU. In 1997 former KNU-KNLA armed units established the Karen Peace Force or KPF. In 1998 the forestry minister of the KNU established the P'doh Aung San Group. In the same year a small ceasefire group was founded in Northern Karen State in Taungoo district.


title: Karen conflict

text: In the Southern part of Karen State or Myanmar two twin brothers established God's Army in February 1997 in the immediate aftermath of this offensive. The twin brothers led villagers and old KNLA members of the Fourth Brigade of the Tenasserim Region into armed clashes with government troops, separated from the KNU's leaders. Eventually the two hundred strong militia occupied a hospital in Thailand's Ratchaburi and broke up after this.


title: Karen conflict

text: After the fall of Manerplaw the KNU also lost its stronghold just north of it called Kawmoora. A direct result of all this was that the KNU lost most of its income derived from tax revenue, logging deals and cross-border trade. The loss of its financial base was also due to changing international relations. The threat of Communism disappeared in the 1990s, thus the US and Thai government changed policies. When the KNU attacked an oil pipeline in Karen state in 1995, the US government gave an official warning to the KNU for the first time.


title: Karen conflict

text: Shortly after its founding, the Democratic Karen Buddhist Army (DKBA) agreed to a ceasefire with the Burmese army and government. While not necessarily aligned with the government, the DKBA has primarily focused on opposition to the KNU. The DKBA has never developed a unifying Karen nationalist political policy, and partly due to its lack in English language skills, the DKBA lacks international support. Unlike the KNU, the DKBA does not use terms like democratic, liberal, human rights and other terms welcomed by Western democratic discourse. Areas controlled by the DKBA teach Burmese instead of Karen, thus following official government policy. Many of the DKBA's armed forces have been transformed into Border Guard Forces, also known as BGFs.


title: Karen conflict

text: The Thai government historically used Karen State as a buffer zone against the Burmese. After the Second World War the Thai were afraid of a communist insurgency developing from a union between Thai and Burmese communists, supported by China. Thus the Thai and US government supported Karen rebellions through the 1960s, 1970s and 1980s. The US government however also supported the Burmese government to fight communists. The US government provided weapons and American produced helicopters. The KNU has claimed that these weapons have been used against them.


title: Karen conflict

text: General Bo Mya once described the KNU as Thailands' 'foreign legion', because the KNU guarded the border the organisation prevented Thai and Burmese communists from unification. The strong shift to the right in 1976 under Bo Mya was a strategy to gain support from the Thai government. Thailands' policy changed in the 1990s when the Thai government started engaging its neighbours national government as equals. In 1997 Burma became a member of the ASEAN. The Thai government subsequently turned away from supporting the Karen armed groups.


title: Karen conflict

text: The first Karen started to cross the border with Thailand in 1984 as a result from a major Four Cuts offensive by the Tatmadaw which lasted up to 1990. By the mid-1990s tens of thousands of Karen refugees were living in camps along the Thai border. After the fall of Manerplaw in 1995, 10,000 refugees crossed the border, most of them Karen.


title: Karen conflict

text: The Karen Conflict has been able to run for several decades because it has profited from being located in a border area. The introduction of the Burmese Way to Socialism helped to create a financial base for the KNU which has profited greatly from bordertrade with Thailand. The KNU levied taxes on in- and outgoing products. Besides that the KNU and other Karen armed groups have used the refugee camps in Thailand as sources for limited material support. KNU/KNLA family members received shelter in and supplies from the camps.


title: Karen conflict

text: After the fall of Manerplaw in 1995, the KNU leadership has moved their headquarters to the border town of Mae Sot in Thailand. This has caused tension between the KNU leadership and the KNU officers on the ground within Burma. There is also disagreement amongst the Brigade leaders themselves, particularly between the Third and Fifth Brigades and the Fourth Brigade in the South, in the Tenasserim region. The Tatmadaw opened a new offensive in 1997. This again resulted in a new stream of Karen refugees towards Thailand. The border at Mae Sot was closed for a short period in 2010 because of rising tensions between the KNU and the DKBA.


title: Karen conflict

text: The organisational structure of the KNU was so successful it has been copied by other insurgent groups in Burma. Each unit of the KNU was self-supporting. Not only the armed units, but also the hospitals and schools were self-supporting. The strength of this strategy is that it is hard to erase such a movement since it is very spread out and lacks a centre. The weakness and disadvantage of the KNU has been that KNU units had trouble getting help from their neighbouring KNU units.


title: Karen conflict

text: At least two million people of many different ethnic groups are internally displaced in Burma. Another two million ethnic minorities from Burma have found refuge in neighbouring countries. A large portion of this latter group is Karen. The first Karen refugees started to arrive in Thailand in 1984. The KNU has greatly benefited from the refugee camps in Thailand. The KNU has used these camps as safehavens and has been provided with food and other materials through family members and friends who stayed in the camps.


title: Karen conflict

text: Around two hundred thousand Karen and Karenni are placed in nine refugee camps within Thailand on the Myanmar–Thailand border. Since 2006 a resettlement program has been set up. 73,775 Karen people were resettled in July 2011 to mostly Western countries, predominantly the United States of America. In January 2011 the Thai Burmese Border Consortium (TBBC) set the total number of refugees at 141,549 people.


title: Karen conflict

text: The Karen split up into many different armed units after the 1990s. The Karen National Union (KNU) was heavily weakened after this decade. In 2004 substantial ceasefire talks were held again between Gen. Bo Mya and Burmese general Khin Nyunt. Unfortunately, Khin Nyunt was expulsed from the government. In 2005 two more peace talks were held, but it was clear that the new government under the leadership of Than Shwe was not interested in establishing a ceasefire. In 2006 the long-term leader and Second World War veteran General Bo Mya died.


title: Karen conflict

text: Old-time general-secretary of the KNU, Padoh Mahn Sha Lah Phan took over Bo Mya's function. Padoh Mahn Sha was important for political relations and the reorganisation of the KNU. On 14 February 2008, he was assassinated. In 2007 Major General Htin Maung left with a sizeable portion of the KNLA Seventh Brigade. This group now calls themselves KNU-KNLA Peace Council. If further decimated the strength and influence of the KNU.


title: Karen conflict

text: In November 2010 Myanmar–Thailand border areas saw an upsurge in fighting following elections in November 2010. Twenty thousand people fled over the border to Thailand in November 2010. For the first time in fifteen years, the KNU and the DKBA were united to fight the Tatmadaw. But as of early 2011 the KNU is only one in seven Karen armed factions that are active in fighting. The KNU barely holds any territory inside Burma and the future of the organisation and the Karen struggle for independence is uncertain. An initial ceasefire was reached on 12 January 2012 in Hpa-an and fighting has stopped in nearly all Karen State.


title: Karen conflict

text: The KNU signed the Nationwide Ceasefire Agreement (NCA) with the government of Myanmar on 15 October 2015, along with seven other insurgent groups. However, in March 2018, the government of Myanmar violated the agreement by sending 400 Tatmadaw soldiers into KNU-held territory to build a road connecting two military bases. Armed clashes erupted between the KNU and the Myanmar Army in the Ler Mu Plaw area of Hpapun District, resulting in the displacement of 2,000 people. On 17 May 2018, the Tatmadaw agreed to "temporarily postpone" their road project and to withdraw troops from the area.


title: Karen conflict

text: On 27 April 2021, KNU insurgents captured the army camp of Thaw Le Hta on the west bank of the Salween River, which forms Myanmar's border with Thailand. The Tatmadaw later retaliated with airstrikes on KNU positions. There were no casualties reported by either side.


title: Karen conflict

text: On 21 March 2022, Karen forces overran the Maw Khee base near the Thai border in Dooplaya District. The junta army suffered casualties when they tried to counter-attack the KNLA in the village of Bla Doh.


title: Karen conflict

text: On 17 May, the KNLA took back the Thay Baw Bo camp south of Myawaddy from the Tatmadaw, which had occupied the camp since 1990.


title: Bellary

text: Bellary, officially Ballari, in the eponymous Bellary district, is a city in the state of Karnataka, India.


title: Bellary

text: Bellary was a part of Rayalaseema (Ceded Districts) which was part of Madras Presidency till 1 November 1956.


title: Bellary

text: The Union Ministry of Home Affairs of the Government of India approved a proposal to rename the city in October 2014 and Bellary was renamed to "Ballari" on 1 November 2014.


title: Bellary

text: Granite rocks and hills form a prominent feature of Bellari. The city is spread mainly around two hills of granite composition, the "Bellary Hill" and the "Kumbara Gudda".


title: Bellary

text: "Bellary Hill" has a circumference of nearly and a height of . The length of this rock from north-east to south-west is about . To the east and south lies an irregular heap of boulders, to the west there is an unbroken monolith, and the north is walled by bare, rugged ridges.


title: Bellary

text: "Kumbara Gudda" looks like the profile of a human face from the south-east. It is also known as "Face Hill".


title: Bellary

text: According to the 2011 Census of India, the urban population of Bellary was 410,445; of whom 206,149 were male and 204,296 female. 280,610 of the population were literate and 52,413 of the population were under 7 years of age. The population in 2001 was recorded as 316,766.


title: Bellary

text: Both Kannada (36.25%) and Telugu (27.31%) are predominant languages, Kannada is the official language,


title: Manuel Uribe

text: Manuel Uribe Garza (11 June 1965 – 26 May 2014) was a Mexican man who suffered from morbid obesity to one of the greatest extents known in recorded history. After reaching a peak weight of around and having been unable to leave his bed since 2002, he lost approximately —over one third of his body weight—with the help of doctors and nutritionists by February 2008. However, he died in his hometown on 26 May 2014 weighing .


title: Manuel Uribe

text: Uribe drew worldwide attention in January 2006, when he made an emotional plea on a Mexican television network that prompted both private and public assistance. He was also featured on "The World's Heaviest Man", a 2007 television documentary about his bedridden life and attempts to overcome his obesity, and in "The World's Heaviest Man Gets Married", a similar documentary that was broadcast in 2009 by the Discovery Channel.


title: Manuel Uribe

text: Manuel Uribe returned to Mexico and eventually made an emotional plea for help on national television. The government appointed a group of doctors and certified nutritionists to help him lose weight, but while he turned down offers for gastric bypass surgery in Italy and Spain, he caught the attention of Barry Sears, the creator of the Zone diet. Sears prescribed him a diet high in protein and low in carbohydrates that consisted of five meals in small portions that included egg-white omelets, salads, chicken, fish, fruits and spring greens. His dramatic reduction in weight – reportedly by February 2008 – prompted him to set his sights on a second "Guinness World Record": "The World's Greatest Loser of Weight", which presumably was never certified.


title: Manuel Uribe

text: Uribe tried to capitalize on his new-found fame by announcing plans to launch the Manuel Uribe Foundation, an institution aiming to educate Mexican people about nutrition and obesity, but the organization was never legally constituted. On 3 October 2008, he gave diet advice to José Luis Garza, a critically obese and bedridden fellow Mexican who weighed . Garza, a former chef at a bowling alley who was unable to get out of his bed for four months, commented: "Manuel inspires me with courage and the will to live. I understand that this is a matter of life and death and that I have to follow the instructions that are given to me." Uribe's girlfriend Claudia Solís visited Garza's home with kiwifruit, grapefruit, pears, and protein supplements, and Uribe promised to help Garza get a wheel-equipped iron bed; however, Garza died five days later on 8 October 2008.


title: Manuel Uribe

text: On 26 October 2008, after four years together, Uribe – who weighed in at after shedding – married his second wife Claudia from his bed. He said: "I am proof you can find love in any circumstances. It's all a question of faith. I have a wife and will form a new family and live a happy life." He was transported to the civil wedding on his specially-reinforced four-poster bed, draped with cream and gold and adorned in bright sunflowers, on the back of a truck. Donning a white silk shirt with a sheet around his legs, he waited to greet Claudia as she walked down a flight of stairs wearing a strapless ivory dress and a tiara in front of over 400 guests.


title: Manuel Uribe

text: Despite the publicity, his second marriage was short-lived and ended, according to Uribe's mother, some three-and-a-half years before his death in 2014.


title: Manuel Uribe

text: Uribe was hospitalized on 2 May 2014 after suffering several cardiac arrhythmias and liver failure. He died on 26 May 2014 at age 48 from liver failure. After his death, his body was cremated and his ashes were buried at an undisclosed place in Monterrey.


title: Olde English 800

text: Olde English 800 is a brand of American malt liquor produced by the Miller Brewing Company. It was introduced in 1964 and owned by Miller Brewing Company since 1999. It is available in a variety of serving sizes including, since the late 1980s, a bottle.


title: Olde English 800

text: Olde English 800, also known as 8 ball, was introduced in 1964. It had its origins in the late 1940s as "Ruff's Olde English Stout", brewed by Peoples Brewing Company of Duluth, Minnesota. Rebranded Olde English 600, it was later sold to Bohemian Breweries of Spokane, Washington, and then to Blitz-Weinhard of Portland, Oregon, where it became Olde English 800. By the time Blitz-Weinhard was sold to the Pabst Brewing Company in 1979, Olde English Malt Liquor had become their top brand.


title: Olde English 800

text: In August 1989, when the brand was owned by Pabst and targeted by the brewer towards the "urban contemporary market", a coalition of "22 public interest groups involved in minority issues" criticized the marketing of Olde English – which as a malt liquor has a high alcohol content in comparison to most beers – for what they characterized as an "emphasis on black and Hispanic consumers."


title: Olde English 800

text: In 1991, 1992, 1994, and 1995, while still owned by Pabst, Olde English was awarded a gold medal in the American Malt Liquor category at the Great American Beer Festival. In 1992, Pabst introduced "Old English 800 Draft", a cold-filtered instead of pasteurized "draft-style" malt liquor. Olde English received the gold medal in the American Style Specialty Lager category in 1997. The 1999 acquisition of Olde English 800 by Miller meant its share of the U.S. malt liquor business grew to 36 percent; it also led to a "less controversial" marketing strategy for the brand, one that by 2000 included the sponsorship of a series of minority business seminars.


title: Olde English 800

text: In 2010, the 3.2% ABW version of Olde English was rated one of "the worst beer[s] in the world" by RateBeer.com, a beer rating website.


title: Olde English 800

text: Currently it is available in a 16-ounce [473 ml] pint can, 24-ounce [710 ml] "tallboy" can, or a 22-ounce [651 ml], 40-ounce [1.183 litre] or 42-ounce [1.242 litre] plastic bottle. It was originally available in 12-ounce [355 ml] or 32-ounce [947 ml] "King Size" (c.1999) cans and 22-, 40-, 45- or 64-ounce glass bottles.


title: Elche

text: Elche () is a city and municipality of Spain, belonging to the province of Alicante, in the Valencian Community. According to 2014 data, Elche has a population of 228,647 inhabitants, making it the third most populated municipality in the region (after Valencia and Alicante) and the 20th largest Spanish municipality. It is part of the comarca of Baix Vinalopó.


title: Elche

text: Part of the municipality is coastal yet the city proper is roughly away from the Mediterranean Sea. A small creek called Vinalopó flows through the city. Elche is the centre of the footwear industry in Spain. The main airport of the province of Alicante (Alicante–Elche Miguel Hernández Airport) is located inside Elche's municipality, and it serves both Elche and Alicante, being the fifth-busiest airport in Spain.


title: Elche

text: Together with Alicante and other municipalities, Elche form a conurbation of some 800,000 inhabitants. The city is noted by its urban Palm Grove, designated as World Heritage Site.


title: Elche

text: "L'Alcúdia" is 10 km from the current city's location and the immediate predecessor of current day Elche. This original location was settled by the Greeks and then occupied by Carthaginians and Romans. Greek Ionian colonists from the Achaean city Helike established their new colony, naming it "Helíkē" () around 600BC. It was a point of resistance against Carthaginian advance in Spain between the First and Second Punic Wars. The Romans called the city "Ilici" or "Illice" and granted it the status of colonia; after a brief Byzantine rule, the Goths took over, establishing an episcopal see.


title: Elche

text: Elche lost importance during the period of Moorish occupation, when it was moved slightly north to its present location. James II of Aragon took the city from the Moors in the 13th century, during the "Reconquista". The city grew throughout the 18th century and became more important during the 19th century with the arrival of the railway and a booming industrial development of what used to be the traditional footwear industry.


title: Elche

text: Many archaeological remains have been found in Elche, with the stone bust of the "Lady of Elche" ("Dama de Elche/Dama d'Elx" in Spanish and Valencian, respectively) being the most important. This may date from the Iberian period (4th century BC). The original is in the National Archaeological Museum of Spain.


title: Elche

text: The espadrille industry developed in the 19th century, eventually becoming the leading Spanish municipality at producing textile footwear. By the late century, local entrepreneurs began to invest in leather footwear factories. The footwear industry grew during the Great War and thereafter.


title: Elche

text: The city is known for the Palmeral de Elche, that is an UNESCO World Heritage Site and is the only palm grove in Europe with North African origins and the largest on the continent. The Palm Grove also constitutes the northernmost and one of the largest palm groves in the world. Today, the city of Elche contains 97 orchards composed of 70,000 date palms, concentrated in the east bank of the Vinalopó. Outside the Elche city domain, other large plantations contain approximately 130,000 date palms. In total, Elche and its vicinity hold 200,000 palms. The Palm Grove ranges over 3.5 km (1.4 sq mi), including 1.5 km (0.58 sq mi) within the city of Elche. The Palm Grove of Elche comprises the National Artistic Garden, Palm Grove Museum, Route of El Palmeral, and Municipal Park.


title: Elche

text: It shares borders with Santa Pola, Guardamar del Segura, San Fulgencio, Dolores, Catral, Crevillent, Aspe, Montforte del Cid and Alicante. The most remarkable landform is Vinalopó River.


title: Elche

text: According to the Spanish Statistical Institute, there are 20 localities in the municipality besides the main town. The main town had a population of 190,821 in 2019 The number of people living in the other localities came up to 41,821 in the same year. Algoda was home to 2,650 people, Algorós has a population of 638, Altabix was inhabited by 2,829 people, El Altet was home to 5,750 people Atsavares was home to 1,328 people, Asprella had a population of 403, Las Bayas was home to 2,975 people, Carrús was inhabited by 1,300 people, Daimés had a population of 1,190, El Derramador was home to 419 people, La Foia was inhabited by 2,804 people, Jubalcoi had a population of 1,215, El Pla de Sant Jose was home to 2,411 people, Maitino was inhabited by 890 people, La Marina had a population of 2,008, La Perleta was home to 1,376 people, Puçol was inhabited by 900 people, Torrellano had a population of 7,480, Vallverda was home to 1,767 people and Los Arenales del Sol was inhabited by 2,019 people.


title: Elche

text: The local government also acknowledges Matola, which is part of Algoda according to the Spanish Stadistical Institute; Penya de les Àguiles, which is part of El Pla de Sant Josep according to the same institution, and Santa Anna, which is not recognised by the Stadistical Institute.


title: Elche

text: 10.497% inhabitants are foreigners – 3.267% come from other countries of Europe, 3.369% are African, 2.46% are American, 1.139% are Asian and 15 people from Oceania and stateless people reside in the municipality. The table below shows the population trend of 20th and 21st centuries by the beginning of their decades.


title: Elche

text: The economy of Elche is based, in large part, on the footwear industry, with over 1,000 shoe factories, being one of the most important footwear centres in Spain and the rest of Europe with brands like Pura Lopez, Kelme or . There are other economic activities in Elche: agriculture (dates, olives, cereals and pomegranates), although it has lost importance in recent years; rubber industry; trade, which employs 20% of the workforce; and tourism.


title: Elche

text: Elche has a conference centre (called "Ciutat d'Elx"), an international airport ("Aeropuerto de Alicante") a public University, Universidad Miguel Hernández, and a private University, Universidad CEU Cardenal Herrera.


title: Elche

text: Elche has a hot semi-arid climate (Köppen climate classification: "BSh") close to a desert climate ("BWh") with mild, dry winters and hot, dry summers. The city enjoys between 2,900 and 3,000 hours of sunshine per year and the rainfall is scarce year-round.


title: Elche

text: Elche's annual average temperature is above . The hottest temperature ever recorded was on 12 July 2021 while the coldest temperature ever recorded was on 12 February 1956.


title: Elche

text: The Mystery Play of Elx (better known as "Misteri d'Elx", in Valencian) is a sacral-lyrical medieval drama, dated from the 15th century, which was declared a Masterpiece of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity by UNESCO in 2002. It is played every year in mid August, in the context of the local holidays dedicated to the Assumption of Virgin Mary. Also as a part of this celebration, on the 13th of August is the date of a celebration in Elche called Nit de l'Albà (Night of the Dawn) in which a citywide night-long show of fireworks takes place.


title: Elche

text: The Alicante–Elche Airport, the fifth-busiest in Spain is located in the municipality of Elche, around east from the city centre. The Autopista AP-7 serves the outskirts of the city, and the railway linking Alicante and Murcia del Carmen runs through a tunnel underneath the city, with two underground stations; Elche-Parque () and Elche-Carrús (). These are served by line C–1 of the Cercanías Murcia/Alicante commuter rail service, along with Media Distancia trains between Valencia Nord station and Murcia.


title: Elche

text: The Madrid–Levante high-speed rail network was extended to reach a new station named Elche-Matola in 2021, branching off from the line to Alicante near Monforte del Cid. The new AVE station contains parking space for 500 cars and 50 motorcycles.


title: Elche

text: The Elche Grand Theater is a theatrical space constructed at the beginning of the 20th Century, created by the architect Alfonso Garín. It was opened in 1920 with the name Kursaal Theater. The interior of the room is in a horseshoe shape, where an orchestra section in front of the stage and two amphitheaters with box seats on the sides can be found. At the beginning of the 90s, the building was acquired by the local government, becoming municipal property. After a reform, the theater was reopened on May 16, 1996, by Queen Sofía. The theater is found in the historical area of the city, very close to the Glorieta. The Grand Theater houses all types of theatrical, dance, and musical performances.


title: Elche

text: Opened on November 7, 2008, in the installations of the old Elche Slaughterhouse - constructed in the decade of 1940 - is a 5000 m space oriented to the young public. The complex is divided into four pavilions: in the first one there is a theatrical space with more than 150 chairs, allocated for housing theatrical, resonant, and visual art shows; the second pavilion, called The Nave, is home to the multipurpose room where plastic art exhibitions, as well as open essays and special representations of performance, theater and music, are celebrated; in the third, rehearsal rooms that are available for rent, loan or assignment for the sound arts can be found; the fourth pavilion is the most spacious of the four, and houses the different studios that the center has as well as a small room of temporary exhibitions called Sala Lanart. In addition to the pavilions, the center has - since 2009 - a terrace in which performances and projections can be carried out outside.


title: Elche

text: The room is located in the remodeled installations of the old fruit and vegetable market from the Altabix neighborhood constructed between 1941 and 1942. It was opened on April 12, 2008, and is a place where dance, theater, and music shows intended for young audiences are carried out, as well as school graduations and other events that can take place in it. In the time of elections, it is used as an electoral college.


title: Elche

text: The Alejandro Ramos Folqués Archaeological and History Museum of Elche has been turned into an archaeological cultural model at a regional level of great importance. Situated in the interior of the Altamira Palace - in the Elche historical center and very close to Saint María basilica - it was opened on May 18, 2006, with a grand exhibition about Iberic culture, among where the Lady of Elche was found - one of the most significant pieces of Iberic art, transferred temporarily by the National Archaeological Museum for six months (from May 18 to November 1 in 2006).


title: Elche

text: Like a permanent exhibition, the museum offers a general overview of the distinct stages that have been taking place in the city, such as the Neolithic, the Copper Age, the Bronze Age, the Iberian stage, the process of Romanization, the Visigothic era, and the Islamic settlement (current site of the city) until the present.


title: Elche

text: The archaeological remains come from, among others, the Alcudia site, Elche Park (situated in one of the gardens in the city and which has provided important sculptural remains) and El Arenero de Monforte del Cid.


title: Elche

text: The Festa Museum, about the Mystery of Elche, originated with the intention of showing La Festa to the visitors that come to the city throughout the year. The museum is made of two rooms: the first is where scenic tradition that involves the Mystery is collected, which can be posters, sketches, crowns, costumes, guitars...and the other is a more dynamic room, where new technologies are used, combining many visual images like typical smells and sounds from La Festa. Part of the museum is located in what was Saint Sebastian's Shrine, which is also closely linked to Assumptionist drama and was restored for the purpose of creating the museum.


title: Elche

text: The Palm Grove Museum, found in a traditional house of the Garden of Saint Placidus (Huerto de San Plácido), close to the Garden of Healing (Huerto del Cura). The museum is dedicated to recognizing the municipal relationship with the palm groves. It shows the origins, history, culture of the palm grove, as well as the uses and its evolution. In the rooms, an overview of the history of the Palm Grove is shown through videos, panels, demonstrative elements and sounds, which continues with a visit to its own garden outside.


title: Elche

text: The Traditional Culture Center Pusol School Museum was created in the year 1969 as an activity linked to the Pedagogical Project “The School and its Fear,” which developed the study of the purposes and traditions of the Field of Elche (Campo de Elche). In the museum, unique collections are housed that show distinct ethnological aspects (agriculture, business, industry, folklore, traditions, etc.) available for scientific studies at all levels. In 2009, it was included by UNESCO in the Register of Good Safeguarding Practices for Intangible Cultural Heritage.


title: Automotive design

text: Automotive design is the process of developing the appearance (and to some extent the ergonomics) of motor vehicles - including automobiles, motorcycles, trucks, buses, coaches, and vans.


title: Automotive design

text: The functional design and development of a modern motor vehicle is typically done by a large team from many different disciplines also included within automotive engineering, however, design roles are not associated with requirements for professional- or chartered-engineer qualifications. Automotive design in this context focuses primarily on developing the visual appearance or aesthetics of vehicles, while also becoming involved in the creation of product concepts. Automotive design as a professional vocation


title: Automotive design

text: is practiced by designers who may have an art background and a degree in industrial design or in transportation design. For the terminology used in the field, see the glossary of automotive design.


title: Automotive design

text: The task of the design team is usually split into three main aspects: exterior design, interior design, and color and trim design. Graphic design is also an aspect of automotive design; this is generally shared amongst the design team as the lead designer sees fit. The design focuses not only on the isolated outer shape of automobile parts, but concentrates on the combination of form and function, starting from the vehicle package.


title: Automotive design

text: The aesthetic value will need to correspond to ergonomic functionality and utility features as well. In particular, vehicular electronic components and parts will give more challenges to automotive designers who are required to update on the latest information and knowledge associated with emerging vehicular gadgetry, particularly dashtop mobile devices, like GPS navigation, satellite radio, HD radio, mobile TV, MP3 players, video playback, and smartphone interfaces. Though not all the new vehicular gadgets are to be designated as factory standard items, some of them may be integral to determining the future course of any specific vehicular models.


title: Automotive design

text: The design team(s) responsible for the exterior of the vehicle develops the proportions, shape, and surface details of the vehicle. Exterior design is first done by a series of manual sketches and digital drawings. Progressively, drawings that are more detailed are executed and approved by appropriate layers of management, followed by digital rendering to images. Consumer feedback is generally sought at this point to help iteratively refine vehicle concepts according to the targeted market and will continue throughout the rest of the design refinement process. After more progressive refinement, industrial plasticine and or digital models are developed from and along with the drawings and images. The data from these models are then used to create quarter-scale and finally full-sized mock-ups of the final design. With three- and five-axis CNC milling machines, the clay model is first designed in a computer program and then "carved" using the machine and large amounts of clay. Even in times of photorealistic 3D (three dimensional) software and virtual models on power walls, the clay model is still the most important tool for a final evaluation of the exterior design of a vehicle and, therefore, is used throughout the industry.


title: Automotive design

text: The designer responsible for the vehicles' interior develops the proportions, shape, placement, and surfaces for the instrument panel, seats, door trim panels, headliner, pillar trims, etc. Here the emphasis is on ergonomics and the comfort of the passengers. The procedure here is the same as with exterior design (sketch, digital model, and clay model).


title: Automotive design

text: The color and trim (or color and materials) designer is responsible for the research, design, and development of all interior and exterior colors and materials used on a vehicle. These include paints, plastics, fabric designs, leather, grains, carpet, headliner, wood trim, and so on. Color, contrast, texture, and pattern must be carefully combined to give the vehicle a unique interior environment experience. Designers work closely with the exterior and interior designers.


title: Automotive design

text: Designers draw inspiration from other design disciplines such as: industrial design, fashion, home furnishing, architecture, and sometimes product design. Specific research is done into global trends to design for projects two to three model years in the future. Trend boards are created from this research in order to keep track of design influences as they relate to the automotive industry. The designer then uses this information to develop themes and concepts that are then further refined and tested on the vehicle models.


title: Automotive design

text: The design team also develops graphics for items, such as badges, decals, dials, switches, kick or tread strips, or liveries.


title: Automotive design

text: The sketches and rendering are transformed into 3D digital surface modeling and rendering for real-time evaluation with Math data in initial stages. During the development process succeeding phases will require the 3D model fully developed to meet the aesthetic requirements of a designer and well as all engineering and manufacturing requirements. The fully developed CAS digital model will be re-developed for manufacturing meeting the Class-A surface standards that involve both technical as well as aesthetics. This data will be further developed by a Product Engineering team. These modelers usually have a background in industrial design or sometimes tooling engineering in the case of some Class-A modelers. Autodesk Alias and ICEM Surf are the two most widely used software tools for Class-A development.


title: Automotive design

text: Several manufacturers have slightly varied development cycles for designing an automobile, but in practice, these are the following:


title: Automotive design

text: The design process occurs concurrently with other product engineers who will be engineering the styling data for meeting performance, manufacturing, and safety regulations. From mid-phase, back and forth interactions between the designers and product engineers culminate into a finished product be manufacturing ready.


title: Automotive design

text: Apart from this the engineering team parallelly works in the following areas. Product Engineering (Body In White Sheetmetal Design and Plastic engineering), NVH Development team, Prototype development, Powertrain engineering, Physical Vehicle validation, Tool and Die development, and Manufacturing process design.


title: Automotive design

text: The design team for a specific model consists of a chief designer and an exterior as well as an interior designer. In some cases, all three roles are done by one designer. Several junior designers are involved in the development process as well who make specific contributions all overseen by the chief designer. Apart from this, the color and trim designer works closely with other designers. The clay model team and digital model team work closely with the styling team all located within the studio. Apart from this, there would be studio heads, studio managers, and prototype engineers who would work across all teams in the studio. The total team size for developing a full car usually ranges from 25 to 40 members and the development time lasts for more than 24 months until signed-off for tooling and production. Thereafter a smaller team would be working until vehicle launch.


title: Automotive design

text: In the United States, automotive design reached a turning point in the 1920s when the American national automobile market began reaching saturation. To maintain unit sales, General Motors head Alfred P. Sloan Jr. suggested annual model-year design changes to convince car owners that they needed to buy a new replacement each year, an idea borrowed from the bicycle industry (though Sloan usually gets the credit or blame). Critics called his strategy planned obsolescence. Sloan preferred the term "dynamic obsolescence". This strategy had far-reaching effects on the auto business, the field of product design, and eventually the American economy.


title: Automotive design

text: The smaller automakers could not maintain the pace and expense of yearly re-styling. Henry Ford did not like the model-year change because he clung to an engineer's notions of simplicity, economics of scale, and design integrity. GM surpassed Ford's sales in 1931 and became the dominant company in the industry thereafter. The frequent design changes also made it necessary to use a body-on-frame rather than the lighter but less adaptable monocoque design used by most European automakers.


title: Automotive design

text: Some U.S. designers include Gordon Buehrig, who was responsible for the Auburn 851, as well as the Cord 810 and 812 (hence also the Hupmobile Skylark and the Graham Hollywood).


title: Automotive design

text: In the 1930s, Chrysler's innovations with aerodynamics helped launch the Chrysler Airflow in 1934, which was revolutionary and radical compared to the contemporary vehicles. However, inadequate consumer acceptance of the advanced appearance of the cars forced a re-design of succeeding models of the Airflow. This marketing experience made the entire industry take note of the high risks involved in incorporating major design advancements into their production cars.


title: Automotive design

text: A major influence on American auto styling and marketing was Harley Earl, who brought the tailfin and other aeronautical design references to auto design starting with the rear fenders of the 1948 Cadillac. Another notable designer was Chrysler group's designer Virgil Exner, who developed the Forward look design in the mid-1950s. Exner is also credited with using wind tunnel testing to justify incorporating tailfins, thus moving the company away from boxy-looking cars into more aerodynamic and futuristic designs. Raymond Loewy was responsible for a number of Studebaker vehicles, such as the Starlight (including the bullet-nose).


title: Automotive design

text: Starting in the 1960s, Dick Teague, who spent most of his career with American Motors Corporation (AMC), originated the concept of using interchangeable body panels so as to create a wide array of different vehicles using the same stampings, starting with the AMC Cavalier. Teague was responsible for unique automotive designs such as the two-seat AMC AMX muscle car, the subcompact Gremlin, the Pacer, and Matador coupe, as well as the original and market segment-creating, Jeep Cherokee (introduced in 1983, and built to 2001 in the U.S. and through 2005 in China).


title: Automotive design

text: Additionally during the 1960s, Ford's first-generation Ford Mustang and Thunderbird marked another era leading into new market segments from Detroit. The Ford Mustang achieved record sales in its first year of production and established the pony car segment.


title: Automotive design

text: Personal injury litigation has had an effect on the design and appearance of the car in the 20th century.


title: Automotive design

text: Until World War I, most of the automakers were concerned with mechanical reliability rather than its external appearance. Later, luxury and aesthetics became a demand and also an effective marketing tool. Designs from each nation with its own strong cultural identity reflected in their exterior and interior designs. World War II slowed the progress, but after the early-1950s, Italian designers set the trend and remained the driving force until the early part of the 1980s.


title: Automotive design

text: In France notable designs came from Bugatti and Avions Voisin. Of the mass-selling cars Citroën, launched their vehicles with innovative designs and engineering and mostly aided by the styling of Flaminio Bertoni as evident from Citroën DS. After World War II, with the disappearance of the coach building industry, French automakers (except Citroën) followed British and other popular trends until they gained financial stability. During the 1980s, manufacturers like Renault cultivated their own strong design identities with designers like Patrick Le Quément. Peugeot, which was dependent on Pininfarina since the early post-war period, later established its own brand identity from the 1980s onwards. Its other company, Citroën, still retains its distinctive French innovations for its designs.


title: Automotive design

text: Great Britain was Europe's leading manufacturer of automobiles until the late-1960s. During that era, there were more British-based automakers than in the rest of Europe combined. The British automobile industry catered to all segments ranging from compact, budget, sports, utility, and luxury-type cars. Car design in Britain was markedly different from other European designs largely because British designers were not influenced by other European art or design movements, as well as the British clay modelers, used a different sweep set.


title: Automotive design

text: British cars until World War II were sold in most of the British colonies. Innovations in vehicle packaging and chassis engineering combined with global familiarity with British designs meant vehicles were acceptable to public tastes at that time. British skilled resources like panel beaters, die machinists, and clay modelers were also available also partly due to their involvement with the motorsport industry.


title: Automotive design

text: Still, during the 1960s, British manufacturers sought professional help from the Italians, such as Giovanni Michelotti, Ercole Spada, and Pininfarina. Notable British contributions to automobile designs were Morris Mini by Alec Issigonis, several Jaguar Cars by Sir William Lyons and Malcolm Sayer, Aston Martin DB Series, and several cars from Triumph and MG. Ford Europe based in Great Britain, is notable for the Ford Sierra line, a creation of Uwe Bahnsen, Robert Lutz, and Patrick le Quément. Other British designers were William Towns for Aston Martin cars and David Bache for Land Rover and Range Rover vehicles.


title: Automotive design

text: Germany is often considered the birthplace of industrial design with Bauhaus School of Design. However, the Nazi regime closed down the design school. Ferdinand Porsche and his family played a significant role in German design. Mercedes Benz passenger cars were also in the luxury segment and played more importance to aesthetics. After the 1980s, German design evolved into a distinctive Teutonic style often to complement their high engineered cars suited to Autobahns. The early German design clues of present-day owes some part to Italian designers like Giovanni Michelotti, Ercole Spada, Bruno Sacco, and Giorgetto Giugiaro. During the mid- and late-20th century one of the most influential coach builder/designer in Germany was Karmann.


title: Automotive design

text: German designs started gaining popularity after the 1980s, notable after the formation of Audi. Volkswagen, which was dependent on Marcello Gandini, Giorgetto Giugiaro, and Karmann, later formed the contemporary design language along with Audi. BMW entered the automobile design with sporty-looking everyday sedans using Giovanni Michelotti. These models were later enhanced by Ercole Spada into the 1980s, and Klaus Luthe until the mid-1990s. The American-born designer Chris Bangle was hired by BMW in the late-1990s to re-define the brand. Bangle incorporated new single press technology for compound curves to add controversial styling elements to his designs.


title: Automotive design

text: The Porsche family contribution was instrumental in the evolution of Porsche cars, while the Italian designer Bruno Sacco helped create various Mercedes Models from the 1960s to the 1990s.


title: Automotive design

text: In Italy, companies like Fiat and Alfa Romeo played a major role in car design. Many coachbuilders were dependent on these two major manufacturers. Italian manufacturers had a large presence in motorsports leading to several sport car manufacturers like Ferrari, Lancia, Lamborghini, Maserati, etc. During the late-1950s, Italian automobile designs gained global popularity coinciding with the modern fashion and architecture at that time around the world. Various design and technical schools in Turin turned out designers on a large scale. By the late-1960s, almost all Italian coachbuilders transformed into design studios catering to automakers around the world. The trend continued in the 1990s when the Japanese and Korean manufacturers sourced designs from these styling studios. One example is Pininfarina.


title: Automotive design

text: Italian designers whose designs services were sought globally are Giovanni Michelotti, Ercole Spada, Bruno Sacco, Marcello Gandini, Giorgetto Giugiaro, and Walter de Silva.


title: Automotive design

text: Sweden had Volvo and Saab as domestic automakers, and the nation's northern location required that cars needed to withstand Nordic climate conditions. The Scandinavian design elements are known for their minimalism and simplicity. One of the early original Scandinavian designs was the Saab 92001 by Sixten Sason and Gunnar Ljungström.


title: Automotive design

text: Prior to World War II and until the early-1990s, Czechoslovakia had strong presence in the automotive industry with manufacturers like Skoda, Jawa, Tatra, CZ, Praga, and Zetor. Czech automobiles were generally known for their originality in mechanical simplicity and designs were remarkably Bohemian as evident from Tatra cars and Jawa motorcycles. During the Communist regime, the design started falling back and ultimately the domestic automakers ended up as subsidiaries of EU-based companies.


title: Citrus taxonomy

text: Citrus taxonomy refers to the botanical classification of the species, varieties, cultivars, and graft hybrids within the genus "Citrus" and related genera, found in cultivation and in the wild.


title: Citrus taxonomy

text: Citrus taxonomy is complex and controversial. Cultivated citrus are derived from various citrus species found in the wild. Some are only selections of the original wild types, many others are hybrids between two or more original species, and some are backcrossed hybrids between a hybrid and one of the hybrid's parent species. Citrus plants hybridize easily between species with completely different morphologies, and similar-looking citrus fruits may have quite different ancestries. Some differ only in disease resistance. Conversely, different-looking varieties may be nearly genetically identical, and differ only by a bud mutation.


title: Citrus taxonomy

text: Detailed genomic analysis of wild and domesticated citrus cultivars has suggested that the progenitor of modern citrus species expanded out of the Himalayan foothills in a rapid radiation that has produced at least 11 wild species in South and East Asia and Australia, with more than a half-dozen additional candidates for which either insufficient characterization prevents definitive species designation, or there is a lack of consensus for their placement within the "Citrus" genus rather than sister genera. Most commercial cultivars are the product of hybridization among these wild species, with most coming from crosses involving citrons, mandarins and pomelos. Many different phylogenies for the non-hybrid citrus have been proposed, and the phylogeny based on their nuclear genome does not match that derived from their chloroplast DNA, probably a consequence of the rapid initial divergence. Taxonomic terminology is not yet settled.


title: Citrus taxonomy

text: Most hybrids express different ancestral traits when planted from seeds (F2 hybrids) and can continue a stable lineage only through vegetative propagation. Some hybrids do reproduce true to type via nucellar seeds in a process called apomixis. As such, many hybrid species represent the clonal progeny of a single original F1 cross, though others combine fruit with similar characteristics that have arisen from distinct crosses.


title: Citrus taxonomy

text: All of the wild 'pure' citrus species trace to a common ancestor that lived in the Himalayan foothills, where a late-Miocene citrus fossil, "Citrus linczangensis", has been found. At that time, a lessening of the monsoons and resultant drier climate in the region allowed the citrus ancestor to expand across south and east Asia in a rapid genetic radiation. After the plant crossed the Wallace line a second radiation took place in the early Pliocene (about 4 million years ago) to give rise to the Australian species. Most modern cultivars are actually hybrids derived from a small number of 'pure' original species. Though hundreds of species names have been assigned, a recent genomic study by Wu, "et al." identified just ten ancestral species of citrus among more than a hundred cultivars studied. Of these ten, seven were native to Asia: pomelo ("Citrus maxima"), the 'pure' mandarins ("C. reticulata" – most mandarin cultivars were hybrids of this species with pomelo), citrons ("C. medica"), micranthas ("C. micrantha"), the Ichang papeda ("C. cavaleriei"), the mangshanyegan ("C. mangshanensis"), and the oval (Nagami) kumquat ("Fortunella margarita" or "C. japonica" var. "margarita"). Three from Australia were identified: the desert lime ("C. glauca"), round lime ("C. australis") and the finger lime ("C. australasica"). Many other cultivars previously identified as species were found to be closely related variants (subspecies or varieties) or hybrids of these species, though not all cultivars were evaluated. Subsequent studies have added two additional species to this list of pure species: a mandarin native to the Ryukyu Islands designated "C. ryukyuensis", and a rare wild species from Southeast Asia, the mountain citron. A number of further species originally placed in other genera have recently been subsumed into "Citrus" as a result of phylogenetic analysis, but these have yet to be characterized on a phylogenomic level to confirm their status as unique pure species.


title: Citrus taxonomy

text: Artificial interbreeding seems possible among all citrus plants, though there are certain limitations to natural interbreeding due to plant physiology and differences in natural breeding seasons. This ability to cross-pollinate extends to some related species that some classifications place in distinct genera. The ability of citrus hybrids to self-pollinate and to reproduce sexually also helps create new varieties, as does spontaneous mutation and genome duplication. The three most predominant ancestral citrus taxa are citron ("C. medica"), pomelo ("C. maxima"), and mandarin ("C. reticulata"). These taxa interbreed freely, despite being quite genetically distinct, having arisen through allopatric speciation, with citrons evolving in northern Indochina, pomelos in the Malay Archipelago, and mandarins in Vietnam, southern China, and Japan. The hybrids of these taxa include familiar citrus fruits like oranges, grapefruit, lemons, and some limes and tangerines. These three have also been hybridized with other citrus taxa, for example, the Key lime arose from a citron crossing with a micrantha. In many cases, the varieties are propagated asexually, and lose their characteristic traits if bred. Some of the hybrids have in turn interbred with one another hybrid or with the original taxa, making the citrus family tree a complicated network.


title: Citrus taxonomy

text: Kumquats do not naturally interbreed with core taxa due to different flowering times, but hybrids (such as the calamansi) exist. Australian limes are native to Australia and Papua New Guinea, so they did not naturally interbreed with the core taxa, but they have been crossbred with mandarins and calamansis by modern breeders. Humans have deliberately bred new citrus fruits by propagating seedlings of spontaneous crosses (e.g. clementines), creating or selecting mutations of hybrids, (e.g. Meyer lemon), and crossing different varieties (e.g. 'Australian Sunrise', a finger lime and calamansi cross).


title: Citrus taxonomy

text: Initially, many citrus types were identified and named by individual taxonomists, resulting in a large number of identified species: 870 by a 1969 count. Some order was brought to citrus taxonomy by two unified classification schemes, those of Chōzaburō Tanaka and Walter Tennyson Swingle, that can be viewed as extreme alternative visions of the genus.


title: Citrus taxonomy

text: Swingle's system divided the Citrinae subtribe into three groups, the 'primitive citrus' distant relatives, the closer 'near citrus' including citrus-related genera like "Atalantia", and the "true citrus", for the species that had historically been placed in "Citrus" but many of which he elevated to separate genera: "Poncirus" (trifoliate orange), "Fortunella" (kumquat), "Eremocitrus" (desert limes), "Microcitrus" (finger and round limes), as well as an additional genus, "Clymenia", formerly thought to be a citrus hybrid. His "Citrus" he likewise subdivided into two subgenera: citrons, pomelos, mandarins, oranges, grapefruits and lemons were placed in subgenus "Eucitrus" (later called simply subgenus "Citrus"), while the hardy but slow-growing trees with relatively unpalatable fruit he placed in subgenus "Papeda". His genus "Citrus" consisted of just 16 species, dividing them further into varieties, and lastly cultivars or hybrids. The Swingle system is generally followed globally today with much modification; there are still large differences in nomenclature between countries and individual scientists.


title: Citrus taxonomy

text: The 'Tanaka system' (1954) instead provides a separate species name for each cultivar, regardless of whether it is pure or a hybrid of two or more species or varieties, and resulted in 159 identified species. It thus represents an example of taxonomic "splitting", and in assigning separate species names to horticultural variants does not conform to the standard species concept. Tanaka also divided into subgenera, but different than in Swingle's system, introducing "Archicitrus" (which he subdivided into five sections, Papeda, Limonellus, Aruntium, Citrophorum and Cephalocitrus) and "Metacitrus" (divided into Osmocitrus, Acrumen and Pseudofortunella). This system is commonly used in Tanaka's native Japan. A 1969 analysis by Hodgson intended to harmonize the two schemes accepted 36 species.


title: Citrus taxonomy

text: These initial attempts at "Citrus" systematization all predated the recognition, which began to gain traction in the mid-1970s, that the majority of cultivars represent hybrids of just three species, citron, mandarin and pomelo. Phylogenetic analysis confirms this hybrid origin of most citrus cultivars, indicating a small number of founder species. While the subgenera suggested by Tanaka proved similar to the phylogenetic divisions of pure founder species, Swingle's subgenera were polyphyletic, and hence do not represent valid taxonomy. His novel genera also fail to withstand phylogenetic analysis. Swingle had elevated kumquats into a separate genus "Fortunella", while two genera were suggested by him for the Australian limes, "Microcitrus" and "Eremocitrus". However, genomic analysis shows these groups nested within the phylogenetic tree of "Citrus". Since their placement in distinct genera would make "Citrus" a paraphyletic grouping, it has been suggested that all of these are correctly members of the genus "Citrus". Similarly, genomic analysis has suggested that other genera previously split off from "Citrus" likewise belong within this expanded phylogenetic concept of the genus "Citrus", including "Clymenia", "Oxanthera" (false oranges, moved out of "Citrus" to a different branch of the tribe Citreae and given a new genus by Swingle) and more controversially "Poncirus", which is the earliest branching of Swingle's genera, and a genus not previously recognized as a close citrus relative, "Feroniella". There remains a lack of consensus as to which wild plants and hybrids merit distinct species status, a phenomenon exacerbated by the prior failure to correctly identify the genetically pure citrus strains and distinguish them from hybrids.


title: Citrus taxonomy

text: In 2020, a new taxonomic system was proposed by Ollitrault, Curk and Krueger, with the goal of harmonizing traditional naming systems with the new genomic data that have both allowed the pure ancestral species to be distinguished from hybrids, and enabled the ancestry of those hybrids to be identified among the ancestral species. In their system, each ancestral species has a binomial name, while a unique species name is reserved for each combination of ancestral species, independent of the specific order of crossing or proportional representation of the ancestral species in a given hybrid.


title: Citrus taxonomy

text: Individual hybrids of each type are then distinguished by a variety name. Thus hybrids that are crosses between mandarin ("C. reticulata") and pomelo ("C. maxima") would all be "C." × "aurantium", with specific crosses including: "C." × "aurantium" var. "sinensis" for the sweet orange, "C." × "aurantium" var. "paradisi" for grapefruit, and "C." × "aurantium" var. "clementina" for the clementine. Likewise, hybrids combining mandarins and citrons would all be varieties of "C." × "limonia", those of pomelo and citron, "C." x "lumia", while tri-species hybrids of citrons, pomelos and mandarins would be "C." × "limon", and a tetra-species cross involving these three species along with "C. micrantha" would be "C." × "latifolia".


title: Citrus taxonomy

text: This naming system focused on the four species ancestral to most commercial hybrids, and did not include similar species designations for more exotic hybrids involving other citrus species, such as the Ichang papeda, kumquat, or trifoliate orange. Likewise, Ollitrault, Curk and Krueger accepted that the whole-genome characterization necessary to unambiguously assign a hybrid species name under their system is not available for many varieties.


title: Citrus taxonomy

text: Most commercial varieties are descended from one or more of the 'core species', citrons, mandarins, and pomelos, which share in common a complex floral anatomy that gives rise to more complex fruit. These core species, and to a lesser extent other citrus, have given rise to a wide variety of hybrids for which the naming is inconsistent. The same common names may be given to different species, citrus hybrids or mutations. For example, citrus with green fruit tend to be called 'limes' independent of their origin: Australian limes, musk limes, Key limes, kaffir limes, Rangpur limes, sweet limes and wild limes are all genetically distinct. Fruit with similar ancestry may be quite different in name and traits (e.g. grapefruit, common oranges, and ponkans, all pomelo-mandarin hybrids). Many traditional citrus groups, such as true sweet oranges and lemons, seem to be bud sports, clonal families of cultivars that have arisen from distinct spontaneous mutations of a single hybrid ancestor. Novel varieties, and in particular seedless or reduced-seed varieties, have also been generated from these unique hybrid ancestral lines using gamma irradiation of budwood to induce mutations.


title: Citrus taxonomy

text: Mandarin oranges (tangerines, satsumas – "Citrus reticulata") are one of the basic species, but the name mandarin is also used more generally for all small, easily peeled citrus, including a large range of hybrids. Swingle saw three species of mandarin, while Tanaka identified five groups with a total of 36 species. Webber (1948) divided them into four groups, king, satsuma, mandarin, and tangerine, and Hodgson (1967) saw in them four species. Genomic analysis suggests just one mainland-Asian species, "Citrus reticulata".


title: Citrus taxonomy

text: In an observation originally made in a study of their hybrid progeny, a subspecies-level division has been characterized in this mainland-Asian species. Wang, "et al.", found that domesticated mandarins fell into two genetic clusters that linked to different branches of the tree of wild mandarins, had different deduced population histories and had distinct patterns of pomelo introgression, suggesting that they derive from separate domestication events. Wu, "et al.", would later extend this observation, similarly detecting two divergent subspecies within the wild populations that gave rise to Wang's northern and southern domesticate classes, which they described as 'common mandarins' and "mangshanyeju" (Mangshan wild mandarins). It was specifically in the latter that a genetic mutation caused by the insertion of a transposable element adjacent to the "CitRKD1" gene led to the ability of these mandarins to reproduce asexually through apomixis, a characteristic passed down to the subspecies' hybrid descendants such as hybrid mandarins, oranges, lemons and grapefruit.


title: Citrus taxonomy

text: A distinct class of mandarins are native to the Japanese and neighboring islands. Initial characterization of one of these, the Tachibana orange (Tanaka's "Citrus tachibana"), native to Taiwan, the Ryukyu Islands and southern Japan, classified it as a subspecies nesting within the wild mandarins of the East-Asian mainland. However, a directed study of these island cultivars revealed the existence of a second mandarin true-species that diverged from the mainland species between 2.2 and 2.8 million years ago, following the geographical isolation of the islands through rising sea levels. Unlike the mainland species, this Ryukyu mandarin, named "C. ryukyuensis", reproduces sexually. The previously-characterized island cultivars, including the Tachibana, proved to be either natural F1 hybrids between this native Ryukyu mandarin and mainland mandarin species that had recolonized the islands after a period of isolation, or else later agricultural hybrids with introduced Asian cultivars.


title: Citrus taxonomy

text: All characterized commercial varieties called mandarins are actually inter-species hybrids. Wu, "et al.", divided mandarins into three types, based on their degree of hybridization. In addition to genetically pure mandarins, a second type are the result of hybridization with pomelos followed by subsequent backcrossing with mandarins to retain only a few pomelo traits. The third type arose more recently from the crossing of these hybrids again with pomelos or sweet oranges (which are themselves crosses of hybrid mandarins and pomelos). This produces mandarins with more, longer stretches of pomelo DNA. Some commercial mandarins are hybrids with lemons, while several were found to have a significant contribution (35–65%) from papedas.


title: Citrus taxonomy

text: 'Mangshan wild mandarin' is a name used for all of the similar-looking wild mandarin-like fruit of the Mangshan area, but has been found to include two genetically-distinct groups, one representing pure, wild "true" mandarins (the "mangshanyeju" subspecies of "C. reticulata"), and the other the genetically-distinct and only distantly-related species, the "mangshanyegan" ("C. mangshanensis"), akin to another local fruit known as the "yuanju", and found to be the most distant branch of all the citrus.


title: Citrus taxonomy

text: In a limited genomic analysis, "Feroniella" was surprisingly found to cluster with "C. reticulata" deep within "Citrus", leading botanist David Mabberley to propose that the sole member of this genus, "F. lucida", be moved to the genus "Citrus" and rechristened "C. lucida". Though this has received a degree of acceptence, two modern phylogenetic studies obtained results in conflict with Mabberley's, and retained "Feronioella" as a distinct genus closely related to "Luminia", with which Swingle had placed "Feroniella" in a grouping referred to as 'wood apples'.


title: Citrus taxonomy

text: The pomelo ("Citrus maxima"), a second of the core species from which most citrus hybrids have derived, is native to southeast Asia. Among the hybrids deriving from mandarin/pomelo crosses, there is a direct correlation between the proportion of pomelo DNA in the hybrid and fruit size, while the more palatable mandarins are those that have received specific genes from pomelos that alter their acidity. Some of the more common pomelos are genetically pure, while a number have a single small region of introgressed mandarin DNA on one chromosome, the result of a cross followed by extensive backcrossing with pomelo.


title: Citrus taxonomy

text: Varieties of true (non-hybrid) citron ("Citrus medica") have distinctly different forms. The citron usually propagates by cleistogamy, a self-pollination within an unopened flower, and this results in the lowest levels of heterozygosity among the citrus species. Because of this, it will generally serve as the male parent of any hybrid progeny. Many citron varieties were proven to be non-hybrids despite their rather dramatic morphological differences; however, the florentine citron is probably of hybrid origin. Genetic analysis of citrons has shown that they divide into three groups. One cluster consists of wild citrons that originated in China and produce non-fingered fruit with pulp and seeds. A second cluster, also native to China, consist of the fingered citrons, most of which are seedless and must be propagated artificially. The third cluster represents the Mediterranean citrons, thought to have originally been introduced there from India.


title: Citrus taxonomy

text: Some fingered citron varieties are used in buddhist offerings, and some more common varieties are used as the etrog in the Jewish harvest festival of Sukkot. There is also a specific variety of citron called etrog. The Mountain citron is a complex citrus hybrid that only includes trace amounts of true citron.


title: Citrus taxonomy

text: Swingle coined the "Citrus" subgenus "Papeda" to separate its members from the more edible citrus that also differ from other citrus in having stamens that grow separately, not united at their base. He included in this group the kaffir lime ("Citrus hystrix"), as well as its likely taxonomic synonym the micrantha ("Citrus micrantha"), Ichang papeda ("Citrus cavaleriei"). Since the latter two species locate to different branches of the citrus phylogenetic tree, the group would be polyphyletic and not a valid division. Both the micrantha and the Ichang papeda have also given rise to hybrids with other citrus. Sometimes included among the papedas was the mountain citron, not affiliated with the true citrons, and subsequently found to be a pure species most closely related to kumquats.


title: Citrus taxonomy

text: Kumquats were originally classified by Carl Peter Thunberg as "Citrus japonica" in his 1784 book "Flora Japonica". In 1915, Swingle reclassified them in a separate genus, "Fortunella", named in honor of Robert Fortune. He divided the kumquats into two subgenera, the "Protocitrus", containing the primitive Hong Kong kumquat ("F. hindsii"), and "Eufortunella", comprising the round ("F. japonica"), oval kumquat ("F. margarita") and Meiwa kumquats ("F. crassifolia"), to which Tanaka added two others, the Malayan kumquat (which he christened "F. swinglei" but more commonly called "F. polyandra") and the Jiangsu kumquat ("F. obovata"), and Huang added another, "F. bawangica". Since the kumquat is a cold-hardy species, there are many hybrids between common citrus members and the kumquat. Swingle coined a separate hybrid genus for these, which he called "× Citrofortunella".


title: Citrus taxonomy

text: Subsequent study of the many commercial citrus lineages revealed such complexity that the genera could not be separated, and genomic analysis rooted "Fortunella" within the polyphyletic tree of "Citrus". As a result there is growing acceptance for the restoration of kumquats to "Citrus", though the assignment of individual species among the kumquats remains controversial due in part to insufficient genomic data on the variants. "The Flora of China" unites all kumquats as the single species, "Citrus japonica". Based on chromosomal analysis, Yasuda, et al., identified Jiangsu and Malayan kumquats as hybrids and see the remainder of the "Eufortunella" subgenus as a single species, while retaining a distinct species designation for the Hong Kong kumquat.


title: Citrus taxonomy

text: Australian and New Guinean citrus species had been viewed as belonging to separate genera by Swingle, who placed in "Microcitrus" all but the desert lime, which he assigned to "Eremocitrus". However, genomic analysis shows that though they form a distinct clade from other citrus, this is nested within the citrus phylogenetic tree, most closely related to kumquats, suggesting that all these species should be included in the genus "Citrus". Wu, "et al.", found that several of the finger lime cultivars were actually hybrids with round lime, and concluded there were just three species among those tested, desert lime ("C. glauca"), round lime ("C. australis") and the finger lime ("C. australasica"), though their analysis did not include other types previously identified as distinct species. In more limited genomic analysis, the New Guinea wild lime, "Clymenia" and "Oxanthera" (false orange) all cluster with the Australian limes as members of "Citrus". The outback lime is a desert lime agriculturally selected for more commercial traits, while some commercial varieties of the Australian lime are hybrids with mandarins, lemons, and/or sweet oranges. "Clymenia", will hybridize with kumquats and some limes.


title: Citrus taxonomy

text: The trifoliate orange is a cold-hardy plant distinguishable by its compound leaves with three leaflets and its deciduous nature, but is close enough to the genus "Citrus" to be used as a rootstock. Swingle moved the trifoliate orange from "Citrus" to its own genus, "Poncirus", but Mabberley and Zhang reunited the genera Swingle had separated back into "Citrus". Early phylogenetic analysis nested "Poncirus" within the citrus, consistent with a single genus, but the genomic sequencing of Wu, "et al.", placed it outside the cluster representing "Citrus", and the authors retained a separate genus "Poncirus". Ollitrault, Curk and Krueger indicate that the majority of data are consistent with the enlarged "Citrus" that includes the trifoliate orange, though they recognize that many botanists still follow Swingle. A further complication to the placement of "Poncirus" is the conflicting phylogenetic data: its nuclear genome places "Poncirus" as an outgroup to other citrus, while its chloroplast DNA (cpDNA) nests within a "Citrus" subclade. This led Talon, "et al." to conclude that the trifoliate orange likely is either the progeny of an ancient hybridization between a core citrus and an unidentified more distant relative, or at some time in its history acquired an introgressed cpDNA genome from another species.


title: Citrus taxonomy

text: A second trifoliate orange, "Poncirus polyandra", was discovered in Yunnan (China) in the 1980s. Zhang and Mabberley later concluded this was likely a hybrid between the trifoliate orange and some other "Citrus". However, recent genomic analysis of "P. polyandra" showed low heterozygosity, the opposite of what one would expect for a hybrid. Were "Poncirus" subsumed into "Citrus", "C. polyandra" would be unavailable, so "C. polytrifolia" has been suggested as a replacement species name for this Yunnan trifoliate orange.


title: Citrus taxonomy

text: Citrus hybrids include many varieties and species that have been selected by plant breeders. This is done not only for the useful characteristics of the fruit, but also for plant size and growth characteristics such as cold-tolerance. Some citrus hybrids occurred naturally, and others have been deliberately created, either by cross pollination and selection among the progeny, or (rarely, and only recently) as somatic hybrids. The aim of plant breeding of hybrids is to use two or more different citrus varieties or species, in order to get traits intermediate between those of the parents, or to transfer individual desirable traits of one parent into the other. In some cases, particularly with the natural hybrids, it has been viewed as hybrid speciation and the new plants have been viewed as different species from any of their parents. In older taxonomic systems, citrus hybrids have often been given unique hybrid names, marked with a multiplication sign after the word "Citrus" (or abbreviation "C."); for example, the Key lime is "Citrus" × "aurantifolia", and also are referred to by joining the names of the crossed species or hybrids that produced them, as with sunquat – "C. limon" × "japonica". Styling a hybrid as such a cross between two species can present challenges. In some cases the parental species that gave rise to a hybrid have yet to be determined, while genotyping reveals some hybrids to descend from three or more ancestral species. In the Ollitrault system, a hybrid will be given a species name corresponding to the ancestral species contributions to it, as well as a distinctive variety name.


title: Citrus taxonomy

text: Hybrid taxonomy is inconsistent. There is disagreement over whether to assign species names to hybrids, and even modern hybrids of known parentage are sold under general common names that give little information about their ancestry, or even imply technically incorrect identity. This can be a problem for those who cannot eat some citrus varieties. Drug interactions with chemicals found in some citrus, including grapefruit and Seville oranges, make the ancestry of citrus fruit of interest: many commonly sold citrus varieties are grapefruit hybrids or pomelo-descended grapefruit relatives. One medical review has advised patients on medication to avoid all citrus juice, although some citrus fruits contain none of the problematic furanocoumarins. Citrus allergies can also be specific to only some fruit or some parts of some fruit.


title: Citrus taxonomy

text: The most common citrus hybrids that are sometimes treated as a species by themselves, especially in folk taxonomy, are:


title: Citrus taxonomy

text: All of these hybrids have in turn been bred back with their parent stocks or with other pure or hybrid citrus to form a broad array of fruits. Naming of these is inconsistent, with some bearing a variant of the name of one of the parents or simply another citrus with superficially-similar fruit, a distinct name, or a portmanteau of ancestral species. The Ponderosa lemon ("Citrus limon" × "medica") and Florentine citron ("Citrus" × "limonimedica") are both true lemon/citron hybrids, the Bergamot orange is a sweet orange/lemon hybrid and the Oroblanco is a grapefruit/pomelo mix, while tangelos are tangerine (mandarin)/pomelo or mandarin/grapefruit hybrids, orangelos result from grapefruit backcrossed with sweet orange, and a sweet orange backcrossed with a tangerine gives the tangor. One lumia, a member of the sweet lemons, is the product of crossing a lemon with a pomelo/citron hybrid, though another lumia variety, the Pomme d'Adam, is a micrantha/citron cross, like the Key lime. The most common and commercially popular 'limes', the Persian limes, are Key lime/lemon hybrids that combine the genetic lineages of four ancestral citrus species: mandarin, pomelo, citron and micrantha.


title: Citrus taxonomy

text: While most other citrus are diploid, many of the Key lime hybrid progeny have unusual chromosome numbers. For example, the Persian lime is triploid, deriving from a diploid Key lime gamete and a haploid lemon ovule. A second group of Key lime hybrids, including the Tanepao lime and Madagascar lemon, are also triploid but instead seem to have arisen from a backcross of a diploid Key lime ovule with a citron haploid gamete. The "Giant Key lime" owes its increased size to a spontaneous duplication of the entire diploid Key lime genome to produce a tetraploid.


title: Citrus taxonomy

text: Historically, hybrids with similar characteristics have been placed together in a number of hybrid species, yet relatively recent genomic analysis has revealed some hybrids assigned to the same species to be of quite distinct ancestry. No alternative system of grouping fruit in hybrid species has been adopted.


title: Citrus taxonomy

text: While most citrus hybrids derive from the three core species, hybrids have also been derived from the micrantha, Ichang papeda, kumquat, Australian limes, and trifoliate orange. The best known hybrid from micrantha is the Key lime (or Mexican lime), derived from the breeding of a male citron and a female micrantha. Several citrus varieties are Ichang papeda/mandarin crosses (for which Swingle coined the term ichandarin), including Sudachi and Yuzu (which also includes smaller contributions from pomelo and kumquat). Other more exotic citrus have likewise proved hybrids that include papeda. For example, the Indian wild orange, once suggested as a possible ancestor of today's cultivated citrus fruits, yielded conflicting phylogenetic placements in more limited genetic analysis, but study of nuclear markers and chloroplast DNA showed it to be of maternal citron lineage, with further genetic contributions from mandarin and papeda.


title: Citrus taxonomy

text: A large group of commercial hybrids involve the kumquat, "Fortunella" in the Swingle system. "Citrofortunella" was coined as a genus containing intergeneric hybrids between members of the "Citrus" and the "Fortunella", and is named after its parent genera. Such hybrids often combine the cold hardiness of the kumquat with some edibility properties of the other "Citrus" species. As members of a hybrid genus, these crosses were marked with the multiplication sign before the genus name, for example × "Citrofortunella microcarpa". With the return of kumquats to within "Citrus", "Citrofortunella" are no longer viewed as being intergeneric hybrids and thus likewise belong in "Citrus", while "Citrofortunella" as a distinct genus name would no longer be valid. Examples of the "Citrofortunella" include the calamansi, limequat, and yuzuquat, crossing kumquat with tangerine, Key lime, and yuzu respectively.


title: Citrus taxonomy

text: As with kumquats, the trifoliate orange does not naturally interbreed with core taxa due to different flowering times, but hybrids have been produced artificially between "Poncirus" and members of the genus "Citrus". Genomic analysis of several such hybrids showed all to have involved "P. trifoliata" and not "P. polyandra". In the Swingle system the name coined for these intra-generic crosses, represented as a hybrid genus, is "× "Citroncirus"". The group includes the citrange, a hybrid between the trifoliate and sweet oranges, and the citrumelo, a hybrid of trifoliate orange and 'Duncan' grapefruit. As with Citrofortunella, were "Poncirus" subsumed into "Citrus", these hybrids would no longer be intergeneric, and would likewise fall within "Citrus", rendering "Citroncirus" invalid.


title: Citrus taxonomy

text: Due to the sterility of many of the genetic hybrids as well as disease- or temperature-sensitivity of some "Citrus" trees, domesticated citrus cultivars are usually propagated via grafting to the rootstock of other, often hardier though less palatable citrus or close relatives. As a result, graft hybrids, also called graft-chimaeras, can occur in "Citrus". After grafting, the cells from the scion and rootstock are not somatically fused, but rather the cells of the two intermix at the graft site, and can produce shoots from the same tree that bear different fruit. For example, the 'Faris' lemon, has some branches with purple immature leaves and flowers with a purple blush that give rise to sour fruit, while other branches produce genetically distinct sweet lemons coming from white flowers, with leaves that are never purple. Graft hybrids can also give rise to an intermixed shoot that bears fruit with a combination of the characteristics of the two contributing species due to the presence of cells from both in that fruit. In an extreme example, on separate branches Bizzaria produces fruit identical to each of the two contributing species, but also fruit that appears to be half one species and half the other, unmixed. In taxonomy, graft hybrids are distinguished from genetic hybrids by designating the two contributing species with a plus sign between the individual names ("Citrus medica" + "C. aurantium").


title: Walt Disney World Monorail System

text: The Walt Disney World Monorail System is a public transit monorail system in operation at the Walt Disney World Resort in Bay Lake, Florida, near Orlando. The Walt Disney World Resort currently operates twelve Mark VI monorail trains on three lines of service. The monorail system opened in 1971 with two routes (Magic Kingdom: Resort and Express) and with Mark IV monorail trains. It was expanded to three lines (Magic Kingdom: Resort and Express, plus Epcot) in 1982, and the rolling stock was updated to Mark VI trains in 1989.


title: Walt Disney World Monorail System

text: , the system is one of the most heavily used monorail systems in the world, with over 150,000 daily riders. It is surpassed by the Tokyo Monorail in Tokyo, Japan, which has over 300,000 daily riders; and by the monorail system run by Chongqing Rail Transit in Chongqing, China, which has over 900,000 daily riders on Line 2 and Line 3 combined. The Walt Disney World system nevertheless remains one of the most famous and well-known monorails in the world, along with the Disneyland Monorail System at Disneyland in Anaheim, CA.


title: Walt Disney World Monorail System

text: The Walt Disney World Monorail spans , with around 50 million Disney guests traveling on the monorail each year. The system opened with the rest of the Walt Disney World Resort on October 1, 1971. It initially featured four stations: the Transportation and Ticket Center, Disney's Polynesian Resort, the Magic Kingdom and Disney's Contemporary Resort. The Epcot line and station were added during that park's construction, opening on October 1, 1982. The most recent addition was the Grand Floridian station, which was opened in 1988 along with the resort hotel. Since then, no further additions have been made, and no expansions are planned due to prohibitive construction costs, though a legal easement for monorail construction through Disney's Saratoga Springs Resort & Spa dating back to 1970 still exists.


title: Walt Disney World Monorail System

text: A spur track at Magic Kingdom station connects the Express and Resort lines to the maintenance shop. Another spur connects the Epcot and Express lines and is located northeast of the Transportation and Ticket Center.


title: Walt Disney World Monorail System

text: The monorail beams, which are made of concrete with a special polystyrene core to lighten their weight, came by train from the state of Washington.