title: Chris Petersen

text: In Petersen's first season in 2014, Washington went 8–6 and lost in the Cactus Bowl to Oklahoma State. During the season, Petersen became the quickest active FBS coach to reach 100 wins, achieving the mark in just 117 games as a head coach.


title: Chris Petersen

text: In 2015, a young Huskies team finished 7–6, including an upset at USC against Sarkisian. Washington defeated Southern Miss in the Heart of Dallas Bowl. Petersen signed a two-year contract extension near the end of the 2015 season.


title: Chris Petersen

text: The 2016 Huskies had one of the best seasons in Washington history, winning the Pac-12 championship and earning a berth to the program's first-ever College Football Playoff. In the Pac-12 Championship, No. 4 Washington defeated No. 9 Colorado 41–10 at Levi's Stadium. On December 31, 2016, Alabama beat Washington 24–7 in the Peach Bowl, ending the Huskies' season. After the season, Petersen's contract was extended through 2023 with an average salary of $4.875 million per year. This new contract made Petersen the highest paid coach in the Pac-12 at the time.


title: Chris Petersen

text: Washington posted back-to-back 10-win seasons for the first time since 1990–91 after going 10–3 in 2017. The Huskies played in a New Year's Six bowl, losing to Penn State in the Fiesta Bowl.


title: Chris Petersen

text: Petersen led the Huskies to another Pac-12 title in 2018. UW defeated Utah 10–3 in the title game to clinch a berth in the Rose Bowl against Ohio State. During the season, Washington beat No. 7 Washington State in the Apple Cup, marking the Huskies' sixth straight rivalry win over the Cougars under Petersen.


title: Chris Petersen

text: After losing numerous key starters to the NFL Draft, the 2019 Huskies regressed from previous seasons, finishing the regular season 7–5. Petersen and the Huskies did win their seventh straight Apple Cup in 2019, beating Washington State, 31–13. On December 2, Petersen announced he would step down as Washington's head coach at the end of the season and assume a leadership advisory role with the athletics program. In his final game as coach, Washington beat his former team, Boise State, in the


title: Chris Petersen

text: Petersen and his wife, Barbara, have two sons, Jack and Sam. His father, Ron Petersen, a Seattle native who grew up watching University of Washington football games on television as a boy, still lives in Yuba City.


title: Noldor

text: In the works of J. R. R. Tolkien, the Noldor (also spelled Ñoldor, meaning "those with knowledge" in his constructed language Quenya) were a kindred of Elves who migrated west to the blessed realm of Valinor from the continent of Middle-earth, splitting from other groups of Elves as they went. They then settled in the coastal region of Eldamar. The Dark Lord Morgoth murdered their first leader, Finwë. The majority of the Noldor, led by Finwë's eldest son Fëanor, then returned to Beleriand in the northwest of Middle-earth. This made them the only group to return and then play a major role in Middle-earth's history; much of "The Silmarillion" is about their actions. They were the second clan of the Elves in both order and size, the other clans being the Vanyar and the Teleri.


title: Noldor

text: Among Elves, the Noldor showed the greatest talents for intellectual pursuits, technical skills and physical strength, yet were prone to unchecked ambition and pride in their ability to create. Scholars such as Tom Shippey have commented that these attributes led to their decline and fall, especially through Fëanor who created and coveted the magical jewels, the Silmarils. Others including Dimitra Fimi have linked the Noldor to the mythical Irish warriors and sorcerers, the Tuatha Dé Danann.


title: Noldor

text: "Noldor" meant those who have great knowledge and understanding. The Noldor were called "Golodhrim" or "Gódhellim" in Sindarin, and "Goldui" by another kindred of Elves, the Teleri of Tol Eressëa. The singular form of the Quenya noun is "Noldo" and the adjective is "Noldorin", which is also the name of their dialect of Quenya.


title: Noldor

text: In early drafts of his legendarium, Tolkien used the name "Gnomes" for the group later called the Noldor, and their language, the Noldorin dialect of Sindarin, was called "Gnomish" or "Noldorin".


title: Noldor

text: The Noldor were counted among the Calaquendi ("Elves of the Light") or High Elves, as they had seen the light of the Two Trees of Valinor. The most distinctive aspect of Noldorin culture was their fondness for craftwork and skill of their workmanship, which ranged from lapidary to embroidery to the craft of language. Among the Elven kindreds, the Noldor were the most beloved by the Vala Aulë, who originally taught them craftsmanship. As a result of their renown as the most skilled of all peoples in lore, warfare and crafts, the Noldor were sometimes called the "Deep Elves". Following their return to Middle-earth during the First Age, the Noldor built great cities within their realms in the land of Beleriand, such as Nargothrond and Gondolin.


title: Noldor

text: The Noldor spoke Quenya in Valinor; in Middle-earth they also spoke Sindarin. Among the wisest of the Noldor was Rúmil, creator of the first writing system, Sarati, and author of many books of lore. Fëanor, son of Finwë and Míriel, was the greatest of their craftsmen, "mightiest in skill of word and of hand", and creator of the Silmarils. Fëanor also devised the Tengwar script.


title: Noldor

text: Tolkien gave some Noldorin leaders like Finwë and Fingolfin their own heraldic devices, carefully distinguishing their ranks by the number of points touching the rim.


title: Noldor

text: The Noldor were the proudest of the Elves, as they vaunted in particular their ability to create: by the words of the Sindar, "they needed room to quarrel in". Equally, this caused in them an arrogance that plagued their history and caused them great suffering.


title: Noldor

text: The Noldor were tall and physically strong. Their hair colour was usually a very dark shade of brown; Tolkien hesitated over whether their hair might be black. Red and even white ("silver") hair occasionally existed among some individuals. Their eyes were usually grey or dark, with the inner light of Valinor reflected in their eyes; the Sindarin term "Lachend" means "flame-eyed".


title: Noldor

text: "The Silmarillion" tells the history of the Noldor. The Elves were placed, asleep, in Cuiviénen on Middle-earth by the creator, Ilúvatar. According to Elven-lore, the Noldor as a clan was founded by Tata, the second Elf to awaken, his spouse Tatië and their 54 companions. The fate of Tata and Tatië is not recorded; it was Finwë who led the Noldor to Valinor, where he became their King, and their chief dwelling-place was the city of Tirion upon Túna. In Valinor "great became their knowledge and their skill; yet even greater was their thirst for more knowledge, and in many things they soon surpassed their teachers. They were changeful in speech, for they had great love of words, and sought ever to find names more fit for all things they knew or imagined."


title: Noldor

text: The Noldor drew the ire of the rogue Vala Melkor, who envied their prosperity and, most of all, the Silmarils crafted by Fëanor. So he went often among them, offering advice, and the Noldor listened, being eager for knowledge. But Melkor sowed lies, and in the end the peace in Tirion was poisoned. Fëanor, having assaulted his half-brother Fingolfin and thus broken the laws of the Valar, was banished to his fortress Formenos, and with him went Finwë his father. Fingolfin remained as the ruler of the Noldor of Tirion.


title: Noldor

text: With the aid of the spider spirit Ungoliant, Melkor destroyed the Two Trees of Valinor, slew Finwë, stole the Silmarils and departed from Aman. Driven by vengeance, Fëanor rebelled against the Valar and roused the Noldor to leave Valinor, follow Melkor to Middle-earth and wage war against him for the recovery of the Silmarils. Though the greater part of the Noldor still held Fingolfin as the rightful leader, they followed Fëanor out of kinship and to avenge Finwë. Fëanor and his sons swore an oath of vengeance against Melkor, whom Fëanor renamed Morgoth, or anyone who came into possession of a Silmaril.


title: Noldor

text: In the port city of Alqualondë, the Noldor hosts led by Fëanor demanded that the Falmari, those of the Teleri who had come to Valinor, let them use their ships. When the Teleri refused, Fëanor's forces took the ships by force, committing the first Kinslaying. A messenger from the Valar came later and delivered the Prophecy of the North, pronouncing the Doom of Mandos on the Noldor for the Kinslaying, and warning that a grim fate awaited them should they proceed with their rebellion. Some of the Noldor who had had no hand in the Kinslaying, including Finarfin son of Finwë and Indis, returned to Valinor, and the Valar forgave them. The majority of the Noldor, some blameless for the Kinslaying, remained determined to leave Valinor for Middle-earth. Among them were Finarfin's children, Finrod and Galadriel, who chose to follow Fingolfin instead of Fëanor and his sons.


title: Noldor

text: The Noldor crossed the sea to Middle-earth in the stolen ships, leaving Fingolfin and his people behind. Upon his arrival in Middle-earth, Fëanor had the ships burned. When the Noldor led by Fingolfin discovered their betrayal, they went farther north and crossed the sea at the Grinding Ice or the Helcaraxë. Suffering substantial losses along the way, this greatly added to the animosity they had for Fëanor and his sons. The deaths of the Two Trees and the departure of the Noldor out of the Undying Lands marked the end of the Years of the Trees, and the beginning of the Years of the Sun, when the Valar created the Moon and the Sun out of Telperion's last flower and Laurelin's last fruit. Fëanor's company was soon attacked by Morgoth in an event known as the Battle under Stars or "Dagor-nuin-Giliath". Fëanor himself was mortally wounded by several Balrogs, who had issued forth from Morgoth's fortress of Angband and captured his eldest son Maedhros.


title: Noldor

text: Fingon, the eldest son of Fingolfin, saved Maedhros (his half-cousin) from captivity, which settled the rift between their houses for a time. Maedhros was due to succeed Fëanor, but he regretted his part in the Kinslaying as well as the abandonment of Fingolfin and left the leadership of the Noldor in Middle-earth to his uncle Fingolfin, who became High King of the Noldor. Maedhros's brothers dissented and began to refer to themselves as "the Dispossessed", paying little deference to Fingolfin or his successors, and were still determined to fulfill the oath they swore to recover the Silmarils on behalf of their father.


title: Noldor

text: In Beleriand, in the north-west of Middle-earth, the Noldor made alliances with the Sindar and later with Men of the Three Houses of the Edain. Fingolfin reigned long in the land of Hithlum, and his younger son Turgon built the hidden city of Gondolin. The Sons of Fëanor ruled the lands in Eastern Beleriand, while Finrod Finarfin's son was the King of Nargothrond and his brothers Angrod and Aegnor held Dorthonion. Fingolfin's reign was marked by warfare against Morgoth and in the year 60 of the First Age after their victory in the battle of Dagor Aglareb the Noldor started the Siege of Angband, the great fortress of Morgoth. In the year 455 the Siege was broken by Morgoth in the Dagor Bragollach, or Battle of Sudden Flame, in which the north-eastern Elvish realms were conquered, with the exception of Maedhros' fortress at Himring. Fingolfin in despair rode to Angband and challenged Morgoth to single combat, dealing the Dark Lord seven wounds before perishing. Fingolfin was succeeded by his eldest son Fingon the Valiant, who became the second High King of the Noldor in Beleriand.


title: Noldor

text: In the year 472, Maedhros organised an attack on Morgoth, which led to the Nírnaeth Arnoediad, the Battle of Unnumbered Tears. The Noldor and their allies were utterly defeated when they were betrayed by the Easterlings and surrounded by Morgoth's forces. Fingon was killed by Gothmog the Lord of Balrogs, and was succeeded by his brother Turgon. Morgoth scattered the remaining forces led by the Sons of Fëanor, and in 495 Nargothrond too was conquered. Turgon had withdrawn to Gondolin which had been kept hidden from both Morgoth and other Elves; his realm was betrayed to Morgoth by his nephew Maeglin in 510. Turgon died during the Fall of Gondolin, though his daughter Idril led many of his people to escape and find their way south. Gil-galad, son of Fingon, succeeded Turgon and became the fourth and last High King of the Noldor in Middle-earth.


title: Noldor

text: Between the years 545 and 583 the War of Wrath was fought between Morgoth and the host of the Valar. As the result of the cataclysmic destruction from the war, Beleriand sank into the sea, except for a part of Ossiriand later known as Lindon, and a few isles. The defeat of Morgoth marked the end of the First Age and the start of the Second, and most of the Noldor returned to Aman, though some like Galadriel or Celebrimbor, grandson of Fëanor, refused the pardon of the Valar and remained in Middle-earth.


title: Noldor

text: Gil-galad founded a new kingdom at Lindon and ruled throughout the Second Age, longer than any of the High Kings before him. After Sauron re-emerged and manipulated Celebrimbor and the smiths of Eregion to forge the Rings of Power, he fortified Mordor and began the long war with the remaining Elves of Middle-earth. His forces attacked Eregion, destroying it, but were repelled in Rivendell and Lindon. With the aid of the Númenóreans, the Noldor managed to defeat him for a time.


title: Noldor

text: In the year 3319 of the Second Age, Númenor fell due to King Ar-Pharazôn's rebellion against the Valar, manipulated in part by Sauron, though Elendil escaped to the mainland with his sons Anárion and Isildur, who established the realms of Arnor and Gondor. Gil-galad set out for Mordor in the Last Alliance of Elves and Men with Elendil's forces and defeated Sauron in the Siege of Barad-dûr, though Gil-galad himself perished with no successors as High King of the Noldor. Among the lineal descendants of Finwë in Middle-earth, only Galadriel and some Half-elven remained.


title: Noldor

text: In the Third Age, the Noldor in Middle-earth dwindled, and at the end of the Third Age the remaining Noldorin communities departed to Valinor. In "The Fellowship of the Ring" Frodo met a band of Elves led by Gildor Inglorion from the House of Finrod who were travelling to the Grey Havens.


title: Noldor

text: The Sons of Fëanor were (in the order of their birth) Maedhros, Maglor, Celegorm, Curufin, Caranthir, Amras, and Amrod.


title: Noldor

text: The Tolkien scholar Tom Shippey comments that the family tree of the House of Finwë is "essential", as Tolkien allocates character by ancestry; thus, Fëanor was pure Noldor, and so excellent as a craftsman, but his half-brothers Fingolfin and Finarfin had Vanyar blood from their mother, Indis. They were accordingly less skilful as craftsmen, but superior "in restraint and generosity".


title: Noldor

text: Scholars including Dimitra Fimi, Anne Kinniburgh, and John Garth have connected the Noldor with the Irish Tuatha Dé Danaan as a possible influence. The parallels are both thematic and direct. In Irish mythology, the Tuatha Dé Danaan invade Ireland as a tall pale fair-haired race of immortal warriors and sorcerers. They have godlike attributes but human social organisation. They enter Ireland with what Kinniburgh calls a "historical trajectory", entering in triumph, living with a high status, and leaving diminished, just as the Noldor do in Middle-earth. They are semi-divine as Sons of Danu, just as the Noldor are counted among the first of the sentient races, the Children of Ilúvatar. Their immortality keeps them from disease and the frailty of age, but not from death in battle, an exact parallel with the Noldor. Nuada Airgetlám, the Tuatha Dé Danaan's first high king, is killed by Balor of the Evil Eye; Fëanor is killed by Gothmog, Lord of Balrogs. Celebrimbor's name means "Silver Hand" in Sindarin, the same meaning as Nuada's epithet Airgetlám in Irish Gaelic. Celebrimbor's making of powerful but dangerous rings, too, has been linked with the finding of a curse on a ring at the temple of Nodens, a Roman god whom Tolkien in his work as a philologist identified with Nuada.


title: Noldor

text: The Tolkien scholar Leslie A. Donovan notes that Tolkien's concept of exile, as principally exemplified by the Noldor, derives in part from Anglo-Saxon culture, in which he was an expert.


title: Noldor

text: The medievalist Elizabeth Solopova makes a connection between Middle English and Tolkien's description of Finwë's first wife Míriel as the most skilful of the Noldor at weaving and needlework; Solopova notes that Tolkien had proposed an etymology for the Middle English term "burde", meaning lady or damsel, linking it to Old English "borde", embroidery, and that he had given examples from both Old English and Old Norse where women were called weavers or embroiderers.


title: Noldor

text: Shippey writes that Tolkien was himself fascinated with artefacts and their "sub-creation". He comments that in "The Hobbit", "The Lord of the Rings", and "The Silmarillion", Tolkien consistently chooses to write about the "restless desire to make things". This is not quite, he notes, the same as the Christian sin of avarice or possessiveness. This made sense in the case of the Noldor, as for consistency their besetting sin ought not to be the same as Adam and Eve's, which was pride. In Valinor, Shippey writes, the equivalent of the Fall "came when conscious creatures became 'more interested in their own creations than in God's'", with Fëanor's forging of the Silmarils. He adds that the smith-Vala Aulë is not only the patron of all craftsmen but the Vala most like Melkor, the first Dark Lord. The kinds of craftsmanship he encouraged among the Noldor was not only of physical things, but "'those that make not, but seek only for the understanding of what is' — the philologists, one might say", writes Shippey, including Tolkien's profession along with the Noldor's skill with letters and poetry.


title: Noldor

text: The Tolkien scholar Bradford Lee Eden states that in "The Silmarillion", Tolkien focused on the Noldor as their history was "filled with the doom and fate so typical of medieval literature that determines the entire history of Middle-earth from the First Age to the time of "The Lord of the Rings"." He notes that in many "parallel stories and tales" the fates of Elves and Men are tightly interwoven, leading inexorably to the decline and fading of the Elves and the rise of Men as the dominant race in the modern Earth. The Tolkien scholar Matthew Dickerson writes that the theft of the Silmarils by Morgoth leads Fëanor and his sons into swearing their dreadful oath and leading the Noldor out of Valinor back to Middle-earth. This is, he comments, at once a free choice and a self-imposed exile.


title: Noldor

text: "Nightfall in Middle-Earth", a 1998 studio album by the German power metal band Blind Guardian, contained multiple references to the Noldor and the events they experience within the narrative of "The Silmarillion". For example, "Face the Truth" has Fingolfin tell how he crossed the icy Helcaraxë, while in "Noldor (Dead Winter Reigns)" he regrets having left Valinor; "Battle of Sudden Flame" recalls the battle of Dagor Bragollach, which marked the turning point of the Noldor's war against Morgoth in the Dark Lord's favour; "The Dark Elf" recounts the birth of Maeglin, the son of Fingolfin's daughter Aredhel and Eöl the titular Dark Elf; "Nom the Wise" is an elegy by Beren to his friend Finrod Felagund. The Tolkien scholar Bradford Lee Eden writes that "although one can assume that Tolkien was not a headbanger", he finds that in the opinion of his students, the "driving energy" of the power metal sound is appropriate for the stories: "The music conveys rage and despair, which fits lyrics such as 'The doom of the Noldor drew near/ The words of a banished king, “I swear revenge!”'" Eden adds that this facilitates discussion of Tolkien's Christian view of the fall of man.


title: White Tower (Tower of London)

text: The White Tower is a central tower, the old keep, at the Tower of London. It was built by William the Conqueror during the early 1080s, and subsequently extended. The White Tower was the castle's strongest point militarily, provided accommodation for the king and his representatives, and housed a chapel. Henry III ordered the tower whitewashed in 1240. Today the Tower of London is a museum and visitor attraction. The White Tower now houses the Royal Armouries collections.


title: White Tower (Tower of London)

text: The castle which later became known as the Tower of London was begun by William the Conqueror in 1066 and was built as a timber fortification enclosed by a palisade. In the next decade work began on the White Tower, the great stone keep that still dominates the castle today. The precise date of the White Tower's foundation is unknown, and it is also uncertain how long the construction took. It is traditionally held that construction began in 1078. This is because the "Textus Roffensis" records that Gundulf, Bishop of Rochester, oversaw the building work under instruction from William the Conqueror. Dendrochronological evidence suggests construction of the White Tower began in 1075–1079. The archaeology of the standing building suggests there was a pause in construction between 1080 and 1090–1093, although it is unknown why. Gundulf did more than just oversee work and was a skilled architect. Rochester's castle and cathedral were rebuilt under his auspices. As the main castle in England's capital, the Tower of London was an important royal building. The keep built by Gundulf bears testament to this as it was one of the largest in Christendom.


title: White Tower (Tower of London)

text: The White Tower was multi-purpose. It was the castle's strongest point militarily yet provided accommodation fit for the king and his representatives. In Norman architecture the keep was a symbol of a lord's power. The White Tower was probably complete by 1100 at the latest, at which point it was used to imprison Ranulf Flambard, Bishop of Durham. It was probably during Henry II's reign (1154–1189) that a fore-building was added to the south side of the tower to provide extra defences to the entrance, but it has not survived. Henry III's relations with his barons were uneasy, and in the 1220s and 1230s he enhanced the castle's defences and domestic buildings. Though the work he started may not have been finished within his lifetime, he extended the castle to the north and east, building a new stone wall to enclose the castle. A brattice (a timber gallery) was added to the top of the White Tower, projecting beyond its walls to better defend the base of the tower. Henry also undertook maintenance of the White Tower and it was during his reign that the tradition of whitewashing the building began. In March 1240 the Keeper of the Works at the Tower of London was ordered: "to have the Great Tower whitened both inside and out". Later that year the king wrote to the Keeper, commanding that the White Tower's lead guttering should be extended with the effect that "the wall of the tower ... newly whitened, may be in no danger of perishing or falling outwards through the trickling of the rain". Henry did not explain his order to whitewash the keep but may have been influenced by contemporary fashion in Europe to paint prestigious buildings white. He also added decoration to the chapel in the keep, adding stained glass, statues, and paintings.


title: White Tower (Tower of London)

text: Activity at the castle in the early 14th century declined relative to previous periods. Though the Tower of London was still occasionally used as a residence, by the 1320s the chapel in the White Tower was used to store records. This marked the beginning of the castle's diminishing role as a royal residence. The records were briefly removed from the White Tower in 1360 to accommodate the captive French king, John II. It may have been during the reign of Edward III (1327–1377) that a building abutting the south side of the White Tower was created. Built as storage, it may have been part of Edward's building programme at the Tower of London which saw its role as a military store come to the fore. The structure no longer survives, but is recorded on plans from 1597 and 1717.


title: White Tower (Tower of London)

text: Richard II was imprisoned at the Tower of London and abdicated there in 1399; according to tradition, the event took place in the White Tower. In the 1490s a new floor was added to the White Tower, creating extra storage. Architecturally virtually no trace remains of the White Tower's forebuilding, although it appears in a manuscript drawing depicting the imprisonment of Charles, Duke of Orléans and was recorded in a plan of 1597. It was demolished in 1674. On 17 June that year, during the course of the demolition, bones belonging to two children were discovered beneath the stairs in the forebuilding. It was assumed that they belonged to the Princes in the Tower. The remains were re-interred in Westminster Abbey. The story of the Princes in the Tower is one of the most infamous stories related to the castle. After the death of Edward IV his 12-year-old son was declared king as Edward V, but never crowned. Richard Duke of Gloucester was named Lord Protector while the prince was too young to rule. Edward was confined to the Tower of London along with his younger brother, Richard of Shrewsbury. The Duke of Gloucester was then proclaimed King Richard III in July 1483. The princes had last been seen in public in June 1483; the most likely reason for their disappearance is that they were murdered late in the summer of 1483.


title: White Tower (Tower of London)

text: By the Tudor period, the science of fortification had changed to deal with powerful cannons. The new designs, with low angled bastions, were not emulated at the Tower of London. All the same, some adaptations to use cannons were made; the changes included adding a timber platform to the top of the White Tower for cannon emplacements. The weight of the guns damaged the roof so that it had to be reinforced. The one documented use of these cannon was during Wyatt's rebellion in 1554 and they were ineffective. The Office of Ordnance and Office of Armoury were headquartered at the Tower of London until the 17th century. Their presence influenced activity at the castle and led to it becoming the country's most important military store. In the 1560s two armouries were created in the White Tower and by the reign of Elizabeth I (1558–1603) most of the gunpowder at the Tower was stored in the White Tower. By the last quarter of the 16th century the castle was a tourist attraction with visitors allowed inside despite its use by the Offices of Ordnance and Armoury. Its role in providing storage directly impacted on the White Tower's structure and posts were added to support the floors. In 1636 a hole was knocked through the White Tower's north wall to ease the movement of provisions. In 1639–1640 the White Tower's external appearance was changed, with much of its facing material replaced.


title: White Tower (Tower of London)

text: In 1640 Charles I ordered that the Tower of London should be prepared for conflict. Platforms for cannons were built and 21 were installed on top of the White Tower with three additional mortars. Despite the new defences the Parliamentarians captured the Tower of London without the cannon being used. In January 1642, Charles I attempted to arrest five Members of Parliament. When this failed he fled the city, and Parliament retaliated by removing Sir John Byron, the Lieutenant of the Tower. The Trained Bands had switched sides, and now supported Parliament; together with the London citizenry, they blockaded the Tower. With permission from the King, Byron relinquished control of the Tower. Parliament replaced Byron with a man of their own choosing, Sir John Conyers. By the time the English Civil War broke out in November 1642, the Tower of London was already in Parliament's control. By 1657 the entire building apart from the chapel was being used to store gunpowder. Storing both gunpowder and government records in the White Tower was not ideal, and there were repeated suggestions in 1620, 1718, and 1832 to move the gunpowder to a new location, although the proposals were unsuccessful.


title: White Tower (Tower of London)

text: By 1661 plans had been proposed to clear an area around the White Tower to safeguard the dangerous material inside. Nothing was done until after the Great Fire of London in 1666. During the fire, it was feared the flames might reach the castle, specifically the White Tower, highlighting the need for safety measures. In the following years, a protective wall was built around the White Tower. In the 1670s buildings that had accumulated around the White Tower to provide storage for the Offices of Ordnance and Armoury were pulled down. After this, repairs were carried out on the face of the White Tower. A staircase was also added on the south face, allowing direct access to the records in the chapel.


title: White Tower (Tower of London)

text: While the Tower of London had been open to visitors for centuries, it was not until the early 19th century that alterations were made explicitly for visitors. In 1825 a building, the New Horse Armoury, to contain effigies of England's kings was constructed against the south of the White Tower. The Gothic revival design of the structure – one of the first purpose-built museums in England – was widely reviled. By the end of the century, the effigies and Queen Elizabeth's Armoury were distributed in displays in the White Tower. In the mid-19th century, under the encouragement of Prince Albert, Anthony Salvin undertook a programme of restoration at the castle. In 1858 the White Tower's roof was reinforced with iron girders. On 26 January 1885 a bomb in the White Tower damaged some of the displays.


title: White Tower (Tower of London)

text: The roofs of the White Tower and its turrets were repaired in the 1960s and 1970s. Accumulated dirt was washed from the exterior and the floors inside were replaced. Also in this period, a staircase was added against the south face of the keep, reopening access through the original entrance. In 1974, there was a bomb explosion in the Mortar Room in the White Tower, leaving one person dead and 35 injured. No one claimed responsibility for the blast, but the police investigated suspicions that the IRA was behind it. In 1988, the Tower of London as a whole was added to the UNESCO list of World Heritage Sites, in recognition of its global importance and to help conserve and protect the site. The Tower of London is in the care of Historic Royal Palaces, a charity, and between 2008 and 2011 a £2 million conservation programme was undertaken at the White Tower. Repairs were carried out and the keep was cleaned, removing pollution that was causing damage to the structure. The White Tower is a Grade I listed building, and recognised as an internationally important structure. The Royal Armouries still have displays at the White Tower.


title: White Tower (Tower of London)

text: The White Tower is a keep (also known as a donjon), which was often the strongest structure in a medieval castle and contained lodgings suitable for the lord—in this case, the king or his representative. According to military historian Allen Brown, "The great tower [White Tower] was also, by virtue of its strength, majesty and lordly accommodation, the donjon "par excellence"". One of the largest keeps in the Christian world, the White Tower has been described as "the most complete eleventh-century palace in Europe". The influences on the White Tower's design are unclear. Magnates in northern France had been building stone keeps since the mid-9th century so the general design was well-established. More specifically the keep of Château d'Ivry-la-Bataille, built around 1000, may have been a particularly prominent influence as it included a semi-circular projection in one corner. Allen Brown and P. Curnow suggested that the design may have been based on the now vanished 10th-century keep of Château de Rouen, which belonged to the Dukes of Normandy.


title: White Tower (Tower of London)

text: At the western corners are square towers, while to the north-east a round tower houses a spiral staircase. At the south-east corner is a larger semi-circular projection which accommodates the apse of the chapel. Excluding its projecting corner towers, the keep measures at the base, and rises to a height of and is high at the southern battlements where the ground is lower. The structure was originally three storeys high, comprising a basement floor, an entrance level, and an upper floor. The entrance, as is usual in Norman keeps, was above ground (in this case on the south face) and accessed via a wooden staircase which could be removed in the event of an attack. The forebuilding added in the 12th century no longer survives. As the building was intended to be a comfortable residence as well as a stronghold, latrines were built into the walls, and four fireplaces provided warmth.


title: White Tower (Tower of London)

text: The main building material is Kentish rag-stone, though some local mudstone was also used. Although little of it survives, Caen stone was imported from northern France to provide details in the Tower's facing, much of it replaced by Portland stone in the 17th and 18th centuries under the direction of architect Inigo Jones. As most of the Tower's windows were enlarged in the 18th century, only two original – albeit restored – examples remain, in the south wall at gallery level. The White Tower was terraced into the side of a mound, so the northern side of the basement is partially below ground level.


title: White Tower (Tower of London)

text: The purpose of each room is interpreted based primarily on its design. As a result, there can be some ambiguity in what individual chambers were used for. Each floor was divided into three chambers, the largest in the west, a smaller room in the north-east, and the chapel taking up the entrance and upper floors of the south-east. As was typical of most keeps, the bottom floor was an undercroft used for storage. One of the rooms contained a well. Although the layout has remained the same since the tower's construction, the interior of the basement dates mostly from the 18th century when the floor was lowered and the pre-existing timber vaults were replaced with brick counterparts. The basement is lit through small slits. The sole access to the floor was via the north-east staircase turret.


title: White Tower (Tower of London)

text: The entrance floor was probably intended for the use of the Constable of the Tower and other important officials. The south entrance was blocked during the 17th century, and not reopened until 1973. Those heading to the upper floor had to pass through a smaller chamber to the east, also connected to the entrance floor. The crypt of St John's Chapel occupied the south-east corner and was accessible only from the eastern chamber. There is a recess in the north wall of the crypt; according to Geoffrey Parnell, Keeper of the Tower History at the Royal Armouries, "the windowless form and restricted access, suggest that it was designed as a strong-room for safekeeping of royal treasures and important documents".


title: White Tower (Tower of London)

text: The north floor contained a grand hall in the west and a residential chamber in the eastboth originally open to the roof and surrounded by a gallery built into the walland St John's Chapel in the south-east. The top floor was added in the 15th century, along with the present roof. The absence of domestic amenities such as fireplaces suggest it was intended for use as storage rather than accommodation. In the 17th century lead cisterns were installed on top of the White Tower.


title: White Tower (Tower of London)

text: The White Tower has contained at least two armouries, historically. The Horse Armoury, located on the tower's north side and long and wide, was built in 1825. From its northeast corner, a wooden staircase ornamented with two carvings titled "Gin" and "Beer" ascended to Queen Elizabeth's Armoury. Gin and Beer represent the two most important alcoholic beverages of their time. They are believed to have originally been placed in the great hall at Palace of Placentia in Greenwich.


title: White Tower (Tower of London)

text: Whalesbourne was a notorious Tudor dungeon in the White Tower, a central keep in the Tower of London. It was described by Robert Hutchinson as ""where sunlight never penetrated, perhaps part of the Coldharbour gate that once stood at the south-eastern corner of the White Tower, where rats supposedly tore flesh...from the arms and legs of prisoners during sleep.""


title: White Tower (Tower of London)

text: The semi-circular projection in the south-east corner to accommodate St John's Chapel is almost unparalleled in castle architecture. The only other keep in England with a similar projection is that of Colchester Castle, the largest in England. St John's Chapel was not part of the White Tower's original design, as the apsidal projection was built after the basement walls. Due to changes in function and design since the tower's construction, except for the chapel little is left of the original interior. The chapel's current bare and unadorned appearance is reminiscent of how it would have been in the Norman period. In the 13th century, during Henry III's reign, the chapel was decorated with such ornamentation as a gold-painted cross, and stained glass windows that depicted the Virgin Mary and Holy Trinity.


title: White Tower (Tower of London)

text: The White Tower is a special place because it was built by William the Conqueror in 1078 as a fortress to protect the City of London and the royal palace at Westminster. It later became a royal residence and then a prison and is now one of the most popular tourist attractions in the United Kingdom. The White Tower was built on the site of an earlier fortification known as the motte and bailey of the Tower of London. The motte was an artificial mound, and the bailey was a courtyard surrounded by a wooden palisade. The White Tower was constructed of stone with several floors, with living quarters and a chapel on the upper floors. The fortress also had a moat and a drawbridge.


title: White Tower (Tower of London)

text: The White Tower was used as a royal residence by several medieval kings, including Henry III, who lived there for a time with his wife, Eleanor of Provence. Edward I also resided in the Tower, and it was here that his son, Edward II, was born. During the 14th century, the Tower became primarily used as a prison, and it was here that some of the most famous prisoners in British history were held, including Anne Boleyn, Guy Fawkes, and the Princes in the Tower. Execution processes were also conducted in the building, such as Guy Fawkes's hanging and Anne Boylen's beheading. The Tower of London is one of the most popular tourist attractions in the United Kingdom, with over three million visitors yearly. The White Tower is the centrepiece of the Tower complex, and visitors can explore the rooms and chambers where some of the most famous prisoners in British history were held. Since the 17th century, the structure has acted as a store for Crown Jewels with several other personal and valuable properties, including jewellery from the royal family.


title: White Tower (Tower of London)

text: The Tower of London is one of the most famous landmarks in the world, and the White Tower is the most iconic part of the castle. The tower is a symbol of London's history and culture. The White Tower is a reminder of the city's past. It was built during a time when London was a very different place. The tower is a reminder of the city's strength and ability to withstand change. The tower also reminds us of the city's ability to evolve and adapt.


title: Anjelika Washington

text: Anjelika Washington (born May 15, 1998) is an American actress known for her work as Fareeda in the Netflix movie "Tall Girl" and Beth Chapel / Doctor Mid-Nite in the DC Universe series "Stargirl".


title: Anjelika Washington

text: Washington received considerable acclaim for her role as Fareeda in the Netflix movie "Tall Girl". Washington also appeared as Gloria in the ATTN online show "Girls Room".


title: Neapolitan chord

text: In Classical music theory, a Neapolitan chord (or simply a "Neapolitan") is a major chord built on the lowered (flatted) second (supertonic) scale degree. In Schenkerian analysis, it is known as a Phrygian II, since in minor scales the chord is built on the notes of the corresponding Phrygian mode.


title: Neapolitan chord

text: Although it is sometimes indicated by an "N" rather than a "II", some analysts prefer the latter because it indicates the relation of this chord to the supertonic. The Neapolitan chord does not fall into the categories of mixture or tonicization. Moreover, even Schenkerians like Carl Schachter do not consider this chord as a sign for a shift to the Phrygian mode. Therefore, like the augmented sixth chords it should be assigned to a separate category of chromatic alteration.


title: Neapolitan chord

text: In European Classical music, the Neapolitan most commonly occurs in first inversion so that it is notated either as II or N and normally referred to as a Neapolitan sixth chord. In C major or C minor, for example, a Neapolitan sixth chord in first inversion contains an interval of a minor sixth between F and D.


title: Neapolitan chord

text: The Neapolitan sixth chord is an idiom specific to classical music. Other music traditions often feature II harmonies (ex. D major chord in the keys of C major or C minor), but usually in root position. These are sometimes referred to as "Neapolitan" chords, but these rarely follow the classical voice-leading and chord functions described below. For examples and discussion, see Tritone substitution, or the section "In popular music" below.


title: Neapolitan chord

text: Especially in its most common occurrence (as a triad in first inversion), the chord is known as the "Neapolitan sixth":


title: Neapolitan chord

text: In tonal harmony, the function of the Neapolitan chord is to prepare the dominant, substituting for the IV or ii (particularly ii) chord. For example, it often precedes an authentic cadence, where it functions as a subdominant (IV). In such circumstances, the Neapolitan sixth is a chromatic alteration of the subdominant, and it has an immediately recognizable and poignant sound.


title: Neapolitan chord

text: For example, in C major, the IV (subdominant) triad in root position contains the notes F, A, and C. By lowering the A by a semitone to A and raising the C to D, the Neapolitan sixth chord F–A–D is formed.


title: Neapolitan chord

text: In C minor, the resemblance between the subdominant (F–A–C) and the Neapolitan (F–A–D) is even stronger since only one note differs by a half-step. (The Neapolitan is also only a half-step away from the diminished supertonic triad in minor in first inversion, F–A–D, and thus lies chromatically between the two primary subdominant function chords.)


title: Neapolitan chord

text: The Neapolitan sixth chord is particularly common in minor keys. As a simple alteration of the subdominant triad (iv) of the minor mode, it provides contrast as a major chord compared to the minor subdominant or the diminished supertonic triad.


title: Neapolitan chord

text: A common use of the Neapolitan chord is in tonicizations and modulations to different keys. It is the most common means of modulating down a semitone, which is usually done by using the I chord in a major key as a Neapolitan chord (or a flatted major supertonic chord in the new key, a semitone below the original).


title: Neapolitan chord

text: Occasionally, a minor seventh or augmented sixth is added to the Neapolitan chord, which turns it into a potential secondary dominant that can allow tonicization or modulation to the V/IV key area relative to the primary tonic. Whether the added note were notated as a minor seventh or augmented sixth largely depends on how the chord resolves. For example, in C major or C minor, the Neapolitan chord with an augmented sixth (B added to D major chord) very likely resolves in C major or minor, or possibly into some other closely related key such as F minor.


title: Neapolitan chord

text: However, if the extra note is considered an added seventh (C), this is the best notation if the music is to lead into G major or minor. If the composer chose to lead into F major or minor, very likely the Neapolitan chord would be notated enharmonically based on C (for example: C–E–G–B), although composers vary in their practice on such enharmonic niceties.


title: Neapolitan chord

text: Another such use of the Neapolitan is along with the German augmented sixth chord, which can serve as a pivot chord to tonicize the Neapolitan as a tonic (). In C major/minor, the German augmented sixth chord is an enharmonic A chord, which could lead as a secondary dominant to D, the Neapolitan key area. As the dominant to II, the A chord can then be respelled as a German augmented sixth, resolving back to the home key of C major/minor.


title: Neapolitan chord

text: Sometimes one encounters a minor triad on the Neapolitan second degree rather than the major: for example, a D minor chord in the key of C major or C minor. Sometimes this is enharmonically respelled as occurring on the sharpened tonic, i.e. a C minor chord in C major or C minor. This has the same function as the major Neapolitan but is more expressive.


title: Neapolitan chord

text: Because of its close relationship to the subdominant, the Neapolitan sixth resolves to the dominant using similar voice-leading. In the present example of a C major/minor tonic, the D generally moves down by two steps to the leading tone B (creating the expressive melodic interval of a diminished third, one of the few places this interval is accepted in traditional voice-leading), while the F in the bass moves up by step to the dominant root G. The fifth of the chord (A) usually resolves down a semitone to G as well. In four-part harmony, the bass note F is generally doubled, and this doubled F either resolves down to D or remains as the seventh F of the G-major dominant seventh chord. In summary, the conventional resolution is for all upper voices to move down against a rising bass.


title: Neapolitan chord

text: Care must be taken to avoid consecutive fifths when moving from the Neapolitan to the cadential. The simplest solution is to avoid placing the fifth of the chord in the soprano voice. If the root or (doubled) third is in the soprano voice, all upper parts simply resolve down by step while the bass rises. According to some theorists, however, such an unusual consecutive fifth (with both parts descending a semitone) is allowable in chromatic harmony, so long as it does not involve the bass voice. (The same allowance is often made more explicitly for the German augmented sixth, except in that case it may involve the bass – or "must", if the chord is in its usual root position.)


title: Neapolitan chord

text: The II chord is sometimes used in root position (in which case there may be even more concessions regarding consecutive fifths, similar to those just discussed). The use of a root position Neapolitan chord may be appealing to composers who wish for the chord to resolve outwards to the dominant in first inversion; the flatted supertonic moves to the leading tone (in C major, D to B) and the flatted submediant may move down to the dominant or up to the leading tone (A to either G or B).


title: Neapolitan chord

text: In very rare cases, the chord occurs in second inversion; for example, in Handel's "Messiah", in the aria "Rejoice greatly". This occurs in measure 61, where the Bb in the bass with an Eb major chord above it is a second-inversion Neapolitan chord within the D-minor key of the aria's B section.


title: Neapolitan chord

text: From the early 17th century onwards, composers became aware of the expressive power of the Neapolitan chord, especially to convey moments of intense feeling.


title: Neapolitan chord

text: In his oratorio "Jephte", Giacomo Carissimi portrays the grief-stricken tears ("lachrimate") of Jephtha’s daughter and her companions at the prospect of her brutal fate. According to Richard Taruskin, "The daughter's lament... makes especially affective use of the ‘Phrygian’ lowered second degree at cadences, producing what would later be called the Neapolitan (or ‘Neapolitan sixth) harmony." (B in the key of A minor).


title: Neapolitan chord

text: In his opera "King Arthur", Henry Purcell features the chord (D in the key of C minor) among a range of "daring chromatic harmonies" and "strange sliding semitones" to evoke the sensation of intense cold in Act 3 Scene 2, when the spirit of Winter, the awe-inspiring "Cold Genius" is aroused from its slumbers.


title: Neapolitan chord

text: In contrast to Purcell, the opening movement of "Summer" from Vivaldi’s "The Four Seasons", "a four-note descent transformed by Neapolitan-sixth harmony" enhances the sensation of weariness and languor under the hot sun (A in the key of G minor). As the sonnet accompanying the music puts it:


title: Neapolitan chord

text: Paul Everett describes the above passage as "a set of disarmingly 'slow' gestures, metrically dislocated, that must represent the lethargy of the anxious man as much as the oppressive heat of an airless day."


title: Neapolitan chord

text: In J.S. Bach’s "St Matthew Passion", No. 19, the episode conveying Christ's agony in the garden of Gethsemane, the Neapolitan chord (G in the key of F minor) is used on the word "Plagen" (torments) in the chorale harmonization sung by the chorus:


title: Neapolitan chord

text: According to John Eliot Gardiner, "The answering soft-voiced chorus... imbues [the music] with a mysterious quality, almost as though a muted drama is taking place at a distance from the main action – Christ's ‘Agony in the Garden’ and his acceptance of his role as Saviour."


title: Neapolitan chord

text: The Neapolitan chord was a favourite idiom among composers in the Classical period. In his Piano Sonata in C minor, "a masterpiece of tragic power," Haydn uses the chord (D in the key of C minor) as he brings the opening statement of his first subject to a close: Haydn makes more extended use of this chord in the finale of the sonata to powerful and dramatic effect:


title: Neapolitan chord

text: Ludwig van Beethoven used the Neapolitan chord frequently in some of his best-known works, including the opening of his "Moonlight Sonata", Op. 27 No. 2:


title: Neapolitan chord

text: Wilfrid Mellers sees the apparent tranquillity of these bars as "deceptive, since in bar 3 the bass's F sharp is harmonized not as a subdominant but, with the quaver triplet's D flattened as a first inversion of the Neapolitan chord of D major. The implied progression from D natural to the cadential B sharp delivers a small stab to the nervous system."


title: Neapolitan chord

text: Beethoven’s "Appassionata" Sonata, Op. 57 uses the Neapolitan chord on a broader harmonic canvas. Both the first and last movements of the sonata open with a phrase repeated a semitone higher (G in the key of F minor).


title: Neapolitan chord

text: Other examples of Beethoven's use of the chord occur in the opening bars of String Quartet op. 59 No.2, String Quartet op. 95, and the third movement of the "Hammerklavier" Sonata.


title: Neapolitan chord

text: A powerful example from Schubert comes in his single movement Quartett-Satz (1820). The opening "has a dramatic intensity... which is all the more powerful because it begins quietly." The passage culminates in a Neapolitan chord (D in the key of C minor): According to Roger Scruton, "It is as though a spirit had arisen out of the turbulent clouds and suddenly burst forth into the light – the clouds formed from the key of C minor, the spirit itself, released at last, being in the negation of C minor, namely D flat major." Scruton sees the "semitone conflict" that recurs in different keys as the movement progresses as a unifying feature that has "penetrated the whole structure of the piece."


title: Neapolitan chord

text: In the fourth scene of Richard Wagner’s opera "Das Rheingold", the earth Goddess Erda prophesies the impending doom of the Gods. Wagner's orchestration here juxtaposes two significant dramatic leitmotifs, the one ascending to represent Erda and the other, "a descending variant of Erda's motive played over a chord of the Neapolitan sixth" with the intention of conveying their ultimate downfall to ominous and chilling effect. (D in the key of C minor):


title: Neapolitan chord

text: In rock and pop music, II chords often occur in root position and with non-classical voice-leading. Examples include:


title: Intel vPro

text: Intel vPro technology is an umbrella marketing term used by Intel for a large collection of computer hardware technologies, including VT-x, VT-d, Trusted Execution Technology (TXT), and Intel Active Management Technology (AMT). When the vPro brand was launched (circa 2007), it was identified primarily with AMT, thus some journalists still consider AMT to be the essence of vPro.


title: Intel vPro

text: Intel vPro is a brand name for a set of PC hardware features. PCs that support vPro have a vPro-enabled processor, a vPro-enabled chipset, and a vPro-enabled BIOS as their main elements.


title: Intel vPro

text: Intel AMT is the set of management and security features built into vPro PCs that makes it easier for a sys-admin to monitor, maintain, secure, and service PCs. Intel AMT (the management technology) is sometimes mistaken for being the same as Intel vPro (the PC "platform"), because AMT is one of the most visible technologies of an Intel vPro-based PC.


title: Intel vPro

text: Hardware-based management has been available in the past, but it has been limited to auto-configuration (of computers that request it) using DHCP or BOOTP for dynamic IP address allocation and disk-less workstations, as well as wake-on-LAN for remotely powering on systems.


title: Intel vPro

text: Starting with vPro with AMT 6.0, PCs with i5 or i7 processors and embedded Intel graphics, now contains an Intel proprietary embedded VNC server. You can connect out-of-band using dedicated VNC-compatible viewer technology, and have full KVM (keyboard, video, mouse) capability throughout the power cycle—including uninterrupted control of the desktop when an operating system loads. Clients such as VNC Viewer Plus from RealVNC also provide additional functionality that might make it easier to perform (and watch) certain Intel AMT operations, such as powering the computer off and on, configuring the BIOS, and mounting a remote image (IDER).


title: Intel vPro

text: Not all i5 & i7 Processors with vPro may support KVM capability. This depends on the OEM's BIOS settings as well as if a discrete graphics card is present. Only Intel integrated HD graphics support KVM ability.


title: Intel vPro

text: Intel vPro supports encrypted wired and wireless LAN wireless communication for all remote management features for PCs inside the corporate firewall. Intel vPro supports encrypted communication for some remote management features for wired and wireless LAN PCs outside the corporate firewall.


title: Intel vPro

text: Laptops with vPro include a gigabit network connection and support IEEE 802.11 a/g/n wireless protocols.


title: Intel vPro

text: For wireless laptops on battery power, communication with AMT features can occur when the system is awake and connected to the corporate network. This communication is available if the OS is down or management agents are missing.


title: Intel vPro

text: AMT out-of-band communication and some AMT features are available for wireless or wired laptops connected to the corporate network over a host OS-based virtual private network (VPN) when laptops are awake and working properly.


title: Intel vPro

text: A wireless connection operates at two levels: the wireless network interface (WLAN) and the interface driver executing on the platform host. The network interface manages the RF communications connection.


title: Intel vPro

text: If the user turns off the wireless transmitter/receiver using either a hardware or software switch, Intel AMT cannot use the wireless interface under any conditions until the user turns on the wireless transmitter/receiver.


title: Intel vPro

text: Intel AMT Release 2.5/2.6 can send and receive management traffic via the WLAN only when the platform is in the S0 power state (the computer is on and running). It does not receive wireless traffic when the host is asleep or off. If the power state permits it, Intel AMT Release 2.5/2.6 can continue to send and receive out-of-band traffic when the platform is in an Sx state, but only via a wired LAN connection, if one exists.


title: Intel vPro

text: Release 4.0 and later releases support wireless out-of-band manageability in Sx states, depending on the power setting and other configuration parameters.


title: Intel vPro

text: When a wireless connection is established on a host platform, it is based on a wireless profile that sets up names, passwords and other security elements used to authenticate the platform to the wireless Access Point. The user or the IT organization defines one or more profiles using a tool such as Intel PROSet/Wireless Software. In release 2.5/6, Intel AMT must have a corresponding wireless profile to receive out-of-band traffic over the same wireless link. The network interface API allows defining one or more wireless profiles using the same parameters as the Intel PROSet/Wireless Software. See Wireless Profile Parameters. On power-up of the host, Intel AMT communicates with the wireless LAN driver on the host. When the driver and Intel AMT find matching profiles, the driver routes traffic addressed to the Intel AMT device for manageability processing. With certain limitations, Intel AMT Release 4.0/1 can send and receive out-of-band traffic without an Intel AMT configured wireless profile, as long as the host driver is active and the platform is inside the enterprise.


title: Intel vPro

text: In release 4.2, and on release 6.0 wireless platforms, the WLAN is enabled by default both before and after configuration. That means that it is possible to configure Intel AMT over the WLAN, as long as the host WLAN driver has an active connection. Intel AMT synchronizes to the active host profile. It assumes that a configuration server configures a wireless profile that Intel AMT uses in power states other than S0.


title: Intel vPro

text: When there is a problem with the wireless driver and the host is still powered up (in an S0 power state only), Intel AMT can continue to receive out-of-band manageability traffic directly from the wireless network interface.


title: Intel vPro

text: For Intel AMT to work with a wireless LAN, it must share IP addresses with the host. This requires the presence of a DHCP server to allocate IP addresses and Intel AMT must be configured to use DHCP.


title: Intel vPro

text: vPro PCs version 4.0 or higher support security for mobile communications by establishing a secure tunnel for encrypted AMT communication with the managed service provider when roaming (operating on an open, wired LAN outside the corporate firewall). Secure communication with AMT can be established if the laptop is powered down or the OS is disabled. The AMT encrypted communication tunnel is designed to allow sys-admins to access a laptop or desktop PC at satellite offices where there is no on-site proxy server or management server appliance.


title: Intel vPro

text: Secure communications outside the corporate firewall depend on adding a new element—a management presence server (Intel calls this a "vPro-enabled gateway")—to the network infrastructure. This requires integration with network switch manufacturers, firewall vendors, and vendors who design management consoles to create infrastructure that supports encrypted roaming communication. So although encrypted roaming communication is enabled as a feature in vPro PCs version 4.0 and higher, the feature will not be fully usable until the infrastructure is in place and functional.


title: Intel vPro

text: vPro security technologies and methodologies are designed into the PC's chipset and other system hardware. During deployment of vPro PCs, security credentials, keys, and other critical information are stored in protected memory (not on the hard disk drive), and erased when no longer needed.


title: Intel vPro

text: According to Intel, it is possible to disable AMT through the BIOS settings, however, there is apparently no way for most users to detect outside access to their PC via the vPro hardware-based technology. Moreover, Sandy Bridge and future chips will have, "...the ability to remotely kill and restore a lost or stolen PC via 3G ... if that laptop has a 3G connection"


title: Intel vPro

text: Many vPro features, including AMT, are implemented in the Intel Management Engine (ME), a distinct processor in the chipset running MINIX 3, which has been found to have numerous security vulnerabilities. Unlike for AMT, there is generally no official, documented way to disable the Management Engine (ME); it is always on unless it is not enabled at all by the OEM.


title: Intel vPro

text: Intel vPro supports industry-standard methodologies and protocols, as well as other vendors' security features:


title: Intel vPro

text: "Intel Boot Guard" is a processor feature that prevents the computer from running firmware (UEFI) images not released by the system manufacturer (OEM or ODM). When turned on, the processors verifies a digital signature contained in the firmware image before executing it, using the public key of the keypair, the OEM/ODM public key is fused into the system's Platform Controller Hub (PCH) by the system manufacturer (not by Intel). As a result, Intel Boot Guard, when activated, makes it impossible for end users to install replacement firmware (such as Coreboot) or modded BIOS.


title: Intel vPro

text: Intel vPro uses several industry-standard security technologies and methodologies to secure the remote vPro communication channel. These technologies and methodologies also improve security for accessing the PC's critical system data, BIOS settings, Intel AMT management features, and other sensitive features or data; and protect security credentials and other critical information during deployment (setup and configuration of Intel AMT) and vPro use.


title: Intel vPro

text: The first release of Intel vPro was built with an Intel Core 2 Duo processor. The current versions of Intel vPro are built into systems with 10 nm Intel 10th Generation Core i5 & i7 processors.


title: Intel vPro

text: PCs with Intel vPro require specific chipsets. Intel vPro releases are usually identified by their AMT version.


title: Intel vPro

text: Note that AMT release 2.5 for wired/wireless laptops and AMT release 3.0 for desktop PCs are concurrent releases.


title: Intel vPro

text: There are numerous Intel brands. However, the key differences between vPro (an umbrella marketing term), AMT (a technology under the vPro brand), Intel Core i5 and Intel Core i7 (a branding of a package of technologies), and Core i5 and Core i7 (a processor) are as follows:


title: Intel vPro

text: The Core i7, the first model of the i series was launched in 2008, and the less-powerful i5 and i3 models were introduced in 2009 and 2010, respectively. The microarchitecture of the Core i series was code-named Nehalem, and the second generation of the line was code-named Sandy Bridge.


title: Intel vPro

text: Intel Centrino 2 was a branding of a package of technologies that included Wi-Fi and, originally, the Intel Core 2 Duo. The Intel Centrino 2 brand was applied to mobile PCs, such as laptops and other small devices. Core 2 and Centrino 2 have evolved to use Intel's latest 45-nm manufacturing processes, have multi-core processing, and are designed for multithreading.


title: Intel vPro

text: Intel vPro is a brand name for a set of Intel technology features that can be built into the hardware of the laptop or desktop PC. The set of technologies are targeted at businesses, not consumers. A PC with the vPro brand often includes Intel AMT, Intel Virtualization Technology (Intel VT), Intel Trusted Execution Technology (Intel TXT), a gigabit network connection, and so on. There may be a PC with a Core 2 processor, without vPro features built in. However, vPro features require a PC with at least a Core 2 processor. The technologies of current versions of vPro are built into PCs with some versions of Core 2 Duo or Core 2 Quad processors (45 nm), and more recently with some versions of Core i5 and Core i7 processors.


title: Intel vPro

text: Intel AMT is part of the Intel Management Engine that is built into PCs with the Intel vPro brand. Intel AMT is a set of remote management and security hardware features that let a sys-admin with AMT security privileges access system information and perform specific remote operations on the PC. These operations include remote power up/down (via wake on LAN), remote / redirected boot (via integrated device electronics redirect, or IDE-R), console redirection (via serial over LAN), and other remote management and security features.


title: Gaia (spacecraft)

text: Gaia is a space observatory of the European Space Agency (ESA), launched in 2013 and expected to operate until 2025. The spacecraft is designed for astrometry: measuring the positions, distances and motions of stars with unprecedented precision. The mission aims to construct by far the largest and most precise 3D space catalog ever made, totalling approximately 1 billion astronomical objects, mainly stars, but also planets, comets, asteroids and quasars, among others.


title: Gaia (spacecraft)

text: To study the precise position and motion of its target objects, the spacecraft monitored each of them about 70 times over the five years of the nominal mission (2014–2019), and continues to do so during its extension. The spacecraft has enough micro-propulsion fuel to operate until about November 2024. As its detectors are not degrading as fast as initially expected, the mission could therefore be extended. "Gaia" targets objects brighter than magnitude 20 in a broad photometric band that covers the extended visual range between near-UV and near infrared; such objects represent approximately 1% of the Milky Way population. Additionally, "Gaia" is expected to detect thousands to tens of thousands of Jupiter-sized exoplanets beyond the Solar System by using the astrometry method, 500,000 quasars outside this galaxy and tens of thousands of known and new asteroids and comets within the Solar System.


title: Gaia (spacecraft)

text: The "Gaia" mission will create a precise three-dimensional map of astronomical objects throughout the Milky Way and map their motions, which encode the origin and subsequent evolution of the Milky Way. The spectrophotometric measurements will provide the detailed physical properties of all stars observed, characterizing their luminosity, effective temperature, gravity and elemental composition. This massive stellar census will provide the basic observational data to analyze a wide range of important questions related to the origin, structure and evolutionary history of the Milky Way galaxy.


title: Gaia (spacecraft)

text: The successor to the "Hipparcos" mission (operational 1989–1993), "Gaia" is part of ESA's Horizon 2000+ long-term scientific program. "Gaia" was launched on 19 December 2013 by Arianespace using a Soyuz ST-B/Fregat-MT rocket flying from Kourou in French Guiana. The spacecraft currently operates in a Lissajous orbit around the Sun–Earth L Lagrangian point.


title: Gaia (spacecraft)

text: The "Gaia" space telescope has its roots in ESA's "Hipparcos" mission (1989–1993). Its mission was proposed in October 1993 by Lennart Lindegren (Lund Observatory, Lund University, Sweden) and Michael Perryman (ESA) in response to a call for proposals for ESA's Horizon Plus long-term scientific programme. It was adopted by ESA's Science Programme Committee as cornerstone mission number 6 on 13 October 2000, and the B2 phase of the project was authorised on 9 February 2006, with EADS Astrium taking responsibility for the hardware. The name "Gaia" was originally derived as an acronym for Global Astrometric Interferometer for Astrophysics. This reflected the optical technique of interferometry that was originally planned for use on the spacecraft. While the working method evolved during studies and the acronym is no longer applicable, the name "Gaia" remained to provide continuity with the project.


title: Gaia (spacecraft)

text: The total cost of the mission is around €740 million (~ $1 billion), including the manufacture, launch and ground operations. "Gaia" was completed two years behind schedule and 16% above its initial budget, mostly due to the difficulties encountered in polishing "Gaia" ten silicon carbide mirrors and assembling and testing the focal plane camera system.


title: Gaia (spacecraft)

text: "Gaia" was launched by Arianespace, using a Soyuz ST-B rocket with a Fregat-MT upper stage, from the "Ensemble de Lancement Soyouz" at Kourou in French Guiana on 19 December 2013 at 09:12 UTC (06:12 local time). The satellite separated from the rocket's upper stage 43 minutes after launch at 09:54 UTC. The craft headed towards the Sun–Earth Lagrange point L2 located approximately 1.5 million kilometres from Earth, arriving there 8 January 2014. The L2 point provides the spacecraft with a very stable gravitational and thermal environment. There it uses a Lissajous orbit that avoids blockage of the Sun by the Earth, which would limit the amount of solar energy the satellite could produce through its solar panels, as well as disturb the spacecraft's thermal equilibrium. After launch, a 10-metre-diameter sunshade was deployed. The sunshade always faces the Sun, thus keeping all telescope components cool and powering "Gaia" using solar panels on its surface.


title: Gaia (spacecraft)

text: In order to maintain the fine pointing to focus on stars many light years away, the only moving parts are actuators to align the mirrors and the valves to fire the thrusters. It has no reaction wheels or gyroscopes. The spacecraft subsystems are mounted on a rigid silicon carbide frame, which provides a stable structure that will not expand or contract due to temperature. Attitude control is provided by small cold gas thrusters that can output 1.5 micrograms of nitrogen per second.


title: Gaia (spacecraft)

text: The telemetric link with the satellite is about 3 Mbit/s on average, while the total content of the focal plane represents several Gbit/s. Therefore, only a few dozen pixels around each object can be downlinked.


title: Gaia (spacecraft)

text: Similar to its predecessor "Hipparcos", but with a precision one hundred times better, "Gaia" consists of two telescopes providing two observing directions with a fixed, wide angle of 106.5° between them. The spacecraft rotates continuously around an axis perpendicular to the two telescopes' lines of sight. The spin axis in turn has a slight precession across the sky, while maintaining the same angle to the Sun. By precisely measuring the relative positions of objects from both observing directions, a rigid system of reference is obtained.


title: Gaia (spacecraft)

text: Each celestial object was observed on average about 70 times during the five years of the nominal mission, which has been extended to approximately ten years and will thus obtain twice as many observations. These measurements will help determine the astrometric parameters of stars: two corresponding to the angular position of a given star on the sky, two for the derivatives of the star's position over time (motion) and lastly, the star's parallax from which distance can be calculated. The radial velocity of the brighter stars is measured by an integrated spectrometer observing the Doppler effect. Because of the physical constraints imposed by the Soyuz spacecraft, "Gaia" focal arrays could not be equipped with optimal radiation shielding, and ESA expected their performance to suffer somewhat toward the end of the initial five-year mission. Ground tests of the CCDs while they were subjected to radiation provided reassurance that the primary mission's objectives can be met.


title: Gaia (spacecraft)

text: The expected accuracies of the final catalogue data have been calculated following in-orbit testing, taking into account the issues of stray light, degradation of the optics, and the basic angle instability. The best accuracies for parallax, position and proper motion are obtained for the brighter observed stars, apparent magnitudes 3–12. The standard deviation for these stars is expected to be 6.7 micro-arcseconds or better. For fainter stars, error levels increase, reaching 26.6 micro-arcseconds error in the parallax for 15th-magnitude stars, and several hundred micro-arcseconds for 20th-magnitude stars. For comparison, the best parallax error levels from the new Hipparcos reduction are no better than 100 micro-arcseconds, with typical levels several times larger.


title: Gaia (spacecraft)

text: The overall data volume that was retrieved from the spacecraft during the nominal five-year mission at a compressed data rate of 1 Mbit/s is approximately 60 TB, amounting to about 200 TB of usable uncompressed data on the ground, stored in an InterSystems Caché database. The responsibility of the data processing, partly funded by ESA, is entrusted to a European consortium, the Data Processing and Analysis Consortium (DPAC), which was selected after its proposal to the ESA Announcement of Opportunity released in November 2006. DPAC's funding is provided by the participating countries and has been secured until the production of "Gaia" final catalogue.


title: Gaia (spacecraft)

text: "Gaia" sends back data for about eight hours every day at about 5 Mbit/s. ESA's three 35-metre-diameter radio dishes of the ESTRACK network in Cebreros, Spain, Malargüe, Argentina and New Norcia, Australia, receive the data.


title: Gaia (spacecraft)

text: In October 2013 ESA had to postpone "Gaia" original launch date, due to a precautionary replacement of two of "Gaia" transponders. These are used to generate timing signals for the downlink of science data. A problem with an identical transponder on a satellite already in orbit motivated their replacement and reverification once incorporated into "Gaia". The rescheduled launch window was from 17 December 2013 to 5 January 2014, with "Gaia" slated for launch on 19 December.


title: Gaia (spacecraft)

text: About three weeks after launch, on 8 January 2014, it reached its designated orbit around the Sun-Earth L2 Lagrange point (SEL2), about 1.5 million kilometers from Earth.


title: Gaia (spacecraft)

text: In 2015, the Pan-STARRS observatory discovered an object orbiting the Earth, which the Minor Planet Center catalogued as object . It was soon found to be an accidental rediscovery of the Gaia spacecraft and the designation was promptly retracted.


title: Gaia (spacecraft)

text: Shortly after launch, ESA revealed that "Gaia" was suffering from a stray light problem. The problem was initially thought to be due to ice deposits causing some of the light diffracted around the edges of the sunshield and entering the telescope apertures to be reflected towards the focal plane. The actual source of the stray light was later identified as the fibers of the sunshield, protruding beyond the edges of the shield. This results in a "degradation in science performance [which] will be relatively modest and mostly restricted to the faintest of "Gaia" one billion stars." Mitigation schemes are being implemented to improve performance. The degradation is more severe for the RVS spectrograph than for the astrometry measurements, because it spreads the light of the star onto a much larger number of detector pixels which each collect scattered light.


title: Gaia (spacecraft)

text: This kind of problem has some historical background. In 1985 on STS-51-F, the Space Shuttle Spacelab-2 mission, another astronomical mission hampered by stray debris was the Infrared Telescope (IRT), in which a piece of mylar insulation broke loose and floated into the line-of-sight of the telescope causing corrupted data. The testing of stray-light and baffles is a noted part of space imaging instruments.


title: Gaia (spacecraft)

text: The testing and calibration phase, which started while "Gaia" was en route to SEL2 point, continued until the end of July 2014, three months behind schedule due to unforeseen issues with stray light entering the detector. After the six-month commissioning period, the satellite started its nominal five-year period of scientific operations on 25 July 2014 using a special scanning mode that intensively scanned the region near the ecliptic poles; on 21 August 2014 "Gaia" began using its normal scanning mode which provides more uniform coverage.


title: Gaia (spacecraft)

text: Although it was originally planned to limit "Gaia"s observations to stars fainter than magnitude 5.7, tests carried out during the commissioning phase indicated that "Gaia" could autonomously identify stars as bright as magnitude 3. When "Gaia" entered regular scientific operations in July 2014, it was configured to routinely process stars in the magnitude range 3 – 20. Beyond that limit, special procedures are used to download raw scanning data for the remaining 230 stars brighter than magnitude 3; methods to reduce and analyse these data are being developed; and it is expected that there will be "complete sky coverage at the bright end" with standard errors of "a few dozen μas".


title: Gaia (spacecraft)

text: In 2018 the "Gaia" mission was extended to 2020. In 2020 the "Gaia" mission was further extended through 2022, with an additional "indicative extension" extending through 2025. The limiting factor to further mission extensions is the supply of nitrogen for the cold gas thrusters of the micro-propulsion system, which is expected to last until November 2024. The amount of dinitrogen tetroxide (NTO) and monomethylhydrazine (MMH) for the chemical propulsion subsystem on board might be enough to stabilize the spacecraft at L2 for several decades. Without the cold gas the space craft can no longer be pointed on a microarcsecond scale.


title: Gaia (spacecraft)

text: On 12 September 2014, "Gaia" discovered its first supernova in another galaxy. On 3 July 2015, a map of the Milky Way by star density was released, based on data from the spacecraft. As of August 2016, "more than 50 billion focal plane transits, 110 billion photometric observations and 9.4 billion spectroscopic observations have been successfully processed."


title: Gaia (spacecraft)

text: Several Gaia catalogues are released over the years each time with increasing amounts of information and better astrometry; the early releases also miss some stars, especially fainter stars located in dense star fields and members of close binary pairs. The first data release, Gaia DR1, based on only 14 months of observation was on 14 September 2016 and is described in "Astronomy and Astrophysics". The data release includes "positions and ... magnitudes for 1.1 billion stars using only "Gaia" data; positions, parallaxes and proper motions for more than 2 million stars" based on a combination of "Gaia" and Tycho-2 data for those objects in both catalogues; "light curves and characteristics for about 3,000 variable stars; and positions and magnitudes for more than 2000 ... extragalactic sources used to define the celestial reference frame". Data from this DR1 release can be accessed at the "Gaia" archive, as well as through astronomical data centers such as CDS.


title: Gaia (spacecraft)

text: The second data release (DR2), which occurred on 25 April 2018, is based on 22 months of observations made between 25 July 2014 and 23 May 2016. It includes positions, parallaxes and proper motions for about 1.3 billion stars and positions of an additional 300 million stars in the magnitude range g = 3–20, red and blue photometric data for about 1.1 billion stars and single colour photometry for an additional 400 million stars, and median radial velocities for about 7 million stars between magnitude 4 and 13. It also contains data for over 14,000 selected Solar System objects. The coordinates in DR2 use the second "Gaia" celestial reference frame ("Gaia"–CRF2), which is based on observations of 492,006 sources believed to be quasars and has been described as "the first full-fledged optical realisation of the ICRS ... built only on extragalactic sources." Comparison of the positions of 2,843 sources common to "Gaia"–CRF2 and a preliminary version of the ICRF3 shows a global agreement of 20 to 30 μas, although individual sources may differ by several mas. Since the data processing procedure links individual Gaia observations with particular sources on the sky, in some cases the association of observations with sources will be different in the second data release. Consequently, DR2 uses different source identification numbers than DR1. A number of issues have been identified with the DR2 data, including small systematic errors in astrometry and significant contamination of radial velocity values in crowded star fields, which may affect some one percent of the radial velocity values. Ongoing work should resolve these issues in future releases. A guide for researchers using Gaia DR2, which collected "all information, tips and tricks, pitfalls, caveats and recommendations relevant to" DR2, was prepared by the Gaia Helpdesk in December 2019.


title: Gaia (spacecraft)

text: Due to uncertainties in the data pipeline, the third data release, based on 34 months of observations, has been split into two parts so that data that was ready first, was released first. The first part, EDR3 ("Early Data Release 3"), consisting of improved positions, parallaxes and proper motions, was released on 3 December 2020. The coordinates in EDR3 use a new version of the "Gaia" celestial reference frame ("Gaia"–CRF3), based on observations of 1,614,173 extragalactic sources, 2,269 of which were common to radio sources in the third revision of the International Celestial Reference Frame (ICRF3). Included is the Gaia Catalogue of Nearby Stars (GCNS), containing 331,312 stars within (nominally) .


title: Gaia (spacecraft)

text: DR3, on 13 June 2022, includes the EDR3 data plus Solar System data; variability information; results for non-single stars, for quasars, and for extended objects; astrophysical parameters; and a special data set, the Gaia Andromeda Photometric Survey (GAPS), providing a photometric time series for about 1 million sources located in a 5.5-degree radius field centered on the Andromeda galaxy. The release dates of EDR3 and DR3 were delayed by the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on the Gaia Data Processing and Analysis Consortium.


title: Gaia (spacecraft)

text: The full data release for the five-year nominal mission, DR4, will include full astrometric, photometric and radial-velocity catalogues, variable-star and non-single-star solutions, source classifications plus multiple astrophysical parameters for stars, unresolved binaries, galaxies and quasars, an exo-planet list and epoch and transit data for all sources. Additional release(s) will take place depending on mission extensions. Most measurements in DR4 are expected to be 1.7 times more precise than DR2; proper motions will be 4.5 times more precise.


title: Gaia (spacecraft)

text: The last catalogue DR5, assuming an additional two-year extension until late-2024, will use and publish the full ten years of data. It will be 1.4 times more precise than DR4, while proper motions will be 2.8 times more precise than DR4. It will be published not earlier than three years after the end of the mission. All data of all catalogues will be available in an online data base that is free to use.


title: Gaia (spacecraft)

text: An outreach application, "Gaia Sky", has been developed to explore the galaxy in three dimensions using "Gaia" data.


title: Gaia (spacecraft)

text: In July 2017 the Gaia-ESO Survey reported using the data to find double-, triple-, and quadruple- stars. Using advanced techniques they identified 342 binary candidates, 11 triple candidates, and 1 quadruple candidate. Nine of these had been identified by other means, thus confirming that the technique can correctly identify multiple star systems. The possible quadruple star system is HD 74438, which was, in a paper published in 2022, identified as a possible progenitor of a sub-Chandrasekhar Type Ia supernovae.


title: Gaia (spacecraft)

text: In November 2017, scientists led by Davide Massari of the Kapteyn Astronomical Institute, University of Groningen, Netherlands released a paper describing the characterization of proper motion (3D) within the Sculptor dwarf galaxy, and of that galaxy's trajectory through space and with respect to the Milky Way, using data from "Gaia" and the Hubble Space Telescope. Massari said, "With the precision achieved we can measure the yearly motion of a star on the sky which corresponds to less than the size of a pinhead on the Moon as seen from Earth." The data showed that Sculptor orbits the Milky Way in a highly elliptical orbit; it is currently near its closest approach at a distance of about , but the orbit can take it out to around distant.


title: Gaia (spacecraft)

text: In October 2018, Leiden University astronomers were able to determine the orbits of 20 hypervelocity stars from the DR2 dataset. Expecting to find a single star exiting the Milky Way, they instead found seven. More surprisingly, the team found that 13 hypervelocity stars were instead approaching the Milky Way, possibly originating from as-of-yet unknown extragalactic sources. Alternatively, they could be halo stars to this galaxy, and further spectroscopic studies will help determine which scenario is more likely. Independent measurements have demonstrated that the greatest "Gaia" radial velocity among the hypervelocity stars is contaminated by light from nearby bright stars in a crowded field and cast doubt on the high "Gaia" radial velocities of other hypervelocity stars.


title: Gaia (spacecraft)

text: In late October 2018, the galactic population Gaia-Enceladus, the remains of a major merger with the defunct Enceladus dwarf, was discovered. This system is associated with at least 13 globular clusters, and the creation of the Thick Disk of the Milky Way. It represents a significant merger about 10 billion years ago in the Milky Way Galaxy.


title: Gaia (spacecraft)

text: In November 2018, the galaxy Antlia 2 was discovered. It is similar in size to the Large Magellanic Cloud, despite being 10,000 times fainter. Antlia 2 has the lowest surface brightness of any galaxy discovered.


title: Gaia (spacecraft)

text: In December 2019 the star cluster Price-Whelan 1 was discovered. The cluster belongs to the Magellanic Clouds and is located in the leading arm of these Dwarf Galaxies. The discovery suggests that the stream of gas extending from the Magellanic Clouds to the Milky Way is about half as far from the Milky Way as previously thought.


title: Gaia (spacecraft)

text: In November 2020, Gaia measured the acceleration of the solar system towards the galactic center as 0.23 nanometers/s.


title: Gaia (spacecraft)

text: In March 2021, the European Space Agency announced that "Gaia" had identified a transiting exoplanet for the first time. The planet was discovered orbiting solar-type star Gaia EDR3 3026325426682637824. Following its initial discovery, the PEPSI spectrograph from the Large Binocular Telescope (LBT) in Arizona was used to confirm the discovery and categorise it as a Jovian planet, a gas planet composed of hydrogen and helium gas. In May 2022, the confirmation of this exoplanet, designated Gaia-1b, was formally published, along with a second planet, Gaia-2b.


title: Gaia (spacecraft)

text: Based on its data, Gaia's Hertzsprung-Russell diagram (HR diagram) is one of the most accurate ones ever produced of the Milky Way Galaxy.


title: Gaia (spacecraft)

text: GaiaNIR (Gaia Near Infra-Red) is a proposed successor of Gaia in the near-infrared. The mission could enlarge the current catalog with sources that are only visible in the near-infrared and at the same time improve the star parallax and proper motion accuracy by revisiting the sources of the Gaia catalog. One of the main challenges in building GaiaNIR is the low technology readiness level of near-infrared time delay and integration detectors. In a 2017 ESA report two alternative concepts using conventional near-infrared detectors and de-spin mirrors were proposed but even without the development of NIR TDI detectors the technological challenge will likely increase the cost over an ESA M-class mission and might need shared cost with other space agencies. One possible partnership with US institutions was proposed.


title: Cockade

text: A cockade is a knot of ribbons, or other circular- or oval-shaped symbol of distinctive colours which is usually worn on a hat or cap.


title: Cockade

text: In the 18th and 19th centuries, coloured cockades were used in Europe to show the allegiance of their wearers to some political faction, or to show their rank or to indicate a servant's livery. Because individual armies might wear a variety of differing regimental uniforms, cockades were used as an effective and economical means of national identification.


title: Cockade

text: A cockade was pinned on the side of a man's tricorne or cocked hat, or on his lapel. Women could also wear it on their hat or in their hair.


title: Cockade

text: In pre-revolutionary France, the cockade of the Bourbon dynasty was all white. In the Kingdom of Great Britain supporters of a Jacobite restoration wore white cockades, while the recently established Hanoverian monarchy used a black cockade. The Hanoverians also accorded the right to all German nobility to wear the black cockade in the United Kingdom.


title: Cockade

text: During the 1780 Gordon Riots in London, the blue cockade became a symbol of anti-government feelings and was worn by most of the rioters.


title: Cockade

text: During the American Revolution, the Continental Army initially wore cockades of various colors as an "ad hoc" form of rank insignia, as General George Washington wrote:


title: Cockade

text: Before long however, the Continental Army reverted to wearing the black cockade they inherited from the British. Later, when France became an ally of the United States, the Continental Army pinned the white cockade of the French "Ancien Régime" onto their old black cockade; the French reciprocally pinned the black cockade onto their white cockade, as a mark of the French-American alliance. The black-and-white cockade thus became known as the "Union Cockade".


title: Cockade

text: In the Storming of the Bastille, Camille Desmoulins initially encouraged the revolutionary crowd to wear green. This colour was later rejected as it was associated with the Count of Artois. Instead, revolutionaries would wear cockades with the traditional colours of the arms of Paris: red and blue. Later, the Bourbon white was added to this cockade, thus producing the original cockade of France. Later, distinctive colours and styles of cockade would indicate the wearer's faction; although the meanings of the various styles were not entirely consistent, and they varied somewhat by region and period.


title: Cockade

text: From the 15th century, various European monarchy realms used cockades to denote the nationalities of their militaries. Their origin reverts to the distinctive colored band or ribbon worn by late medieval armies or jousting knights on their arms or headgear to distinguish friend from foe in the field of battle. Ribbon-style cockades were worn later upon helmets and brimmed hats or tricornes and bicornes just as the French did, and also on cocked hats and shakoes. Coloured metal cockades were worn at the right side of helmets; while small button-type cockades were worn at the front of kepis and peaked caps. In addition to the significance of these symbols in denoting loyalty to a particular monarch, the coloured cockade served to provide a common and economical field sign at a time when the colours of uniform coats might vary widely between regiments in a single army.


title: Cockade

text: During the Napoleonic wars, the armies of France and Russia, had the imperial French cockade or the larger cockade of St. George pinned on the front of their shakos.


title: Cockade

text: The Second German Empire (1870–1918) used two cockades on each army headgear: one (black-white-red) for the empire; the other for one of the monarchies the empire was composed of, which had used their own colors long before. The only exceptions were the Kingdoms of Bavaria and Württemberg, having preserved the right to keep their own armed forces which were not integrated in the Imperial Army. Their only cockades were either white-blue-white (Bavaria) or black-red-black (Württemberg).


title: Cockade

text: The Weimar Republic (1919–1933) removed these, as they might promote separatism which would lead to the dissolution of the German nation-state into regional countries again.


title: Cockade

text: When the Nazis came to power, they rejected the democratic German colours of "black-red-gold" used by the Weimar Republic. Nazis reintroduced the imperial colours (in German: "die kaiserlichen Farben" or "Reichsfarben") of black on the outside, white next, and a red center. The Nazi government used "black-white-red" on all army caps. These colours represented the biggest and the smallest countries of the Reich: large Prussia (black and white) and the tiny Hanseatic League city states of Hamburg, Bremen and Lübeck (white and red).


title: Cockade

text: France began the first Air Service in 1909 and soon picked the traditional French cockade as the first national emblem, now usually termed a roundel, on military aircraft. During World War I, other countries adopted national cockades and used these coloured emblems as roundels on their military aircraft. These designs often bear an additional central device or emblem to further identify national aircraft, those from the French navy bearing a black anchor within the French cockade.


title: Cockade

text: Hungarian revolutionaries wore cockades during the Hungarian revolution of 1848 and during the 1956 revolution. Because of this, Hungarians traditionally wear cockades on 15 March.


title: Cockade

text: Echoing their use when Americans rebelled against Britain, cockades – usually made with blue ribbons and worn on clothing or hats – were widespread tokens of Southern support for secession preceding the American Civil War of 1861–1865.


title: Cockade

text: The German Empire had, besides the national cockade, also cockades for several of its states, seen in the following table:


title: Flotsam, jetsam, lagan and derelict

text: In maritime law, flotsam," jetsam," lagan"," and derelict are specific kinds of shipwreck. The words have specific nautical meanings, with legal consequences in the law of admiralty and marine salvage. A shipwreck is defined as the remains of a ship that has been wrecked—a destroyed ship at sea, whether it has sunk or is floating on the surface of the water.


title: Flotsam, jetsam, lagan and derelict

text: A wreck is categorized as property belonging to no apparent owner that either sinks to the seabed or floats on the surface of the water, whether it be intentionally cast overboard or as the result of an accident. The term encompasses the hull of the vessel and its fixtures as well as any other form of object on board, such as cargo and stores, and personal effects of the crew and passengers. This also encompasses the narrower definition of salvage, that is, property that has been recovered from a wreckage, or the recovery of the ship itself.


title: Flotsam, jetsam, lagan and derelict

text: There are a number of factors that contribute to the formation of a shipwreck, which can be divided into physical and cultural processes. A site can be affected by physical processes, that is, naturally occurring processes, such as the corrosion caused by salinity and ocean currents, or the growth of native and foreign marine organisms. It can also be affected by cultural processes, that is, by human interactions, such as adding or removing materials from the site of the wreck. Any archaeological activity, such as excavation, may also be considered invasive and tampering.


title: Flotsam, jetsam, lagan and derelict

text: In maritime law, different meanings are attributed to the terms, based on jurisdiction as well as context. For example, a distinction is made between goods that wash ashore and those that are for some reason not salvageable and/or lost at sea.


title: Flotsam, jetsam, lagan and derelict

text: Ownership of a wreck is a highly controversial issue, as there are no clear lines within which it is defined. It may be acquired through various means that range from succession to confiscation. There is also a distinction to be made between the ownership of the hull itself and the cargo it contains, as the hull may be abandoned intentionally, whereas the cargo may be out of necessity (in the case of an emergency or the need to shed weight from the vessel). In these parameters, abandonment of the ship by its passengers constitutes a loss of possession, but to abandon the claim on the title itself, intention to relinquish it is required. This affects wrecks by limiting that which is considered "abandoned". Generally, a ship is defined as "abandoned" if there is no hope of recovery, known legally as "sine spe recuperandi" (which is the Latin phrase for "without hope of recovery"), and this fact must be clearly proven by the salvaging party. It must also occur on navigable waters.