title: Bay of Plenty

text: In the 2018 census, ethnicities were 73.6% European/Pākehā, 29.1% Māori, 3.5% Pacific peoples, 7.2% Asian, and 1.8% other ethnicities. People may identify with more than one ethnicity.


title: Bay of Plenty

text: Only 18.6% of the regional population was born overseas, compared with 27.1% nationally. English is the most widely spoken language. Te Reo Māori is the most common minority language, spoken by 8.6% of the population, compared with 4.0% nationally.


title: Bay of Plenty

text: The Bay of Plenty has a temperate, maritime climate, with warm, humid summers and mild winters. It is one of the warmest regions in New Zealand, particularly along the coastline, and most areas experience at least 2,200 hours of sunshine per annum. Average daily maximum temperatures range from in winter and in summer. Typical minima vary from in winter and during summer. Rainfall occurs more frequently in winter than in summer, but tropical storms in summer and autumn can produce heavy rain with high winds. Central parts of the region can receive up to 2000 mm of rainfall annually, while the eastern and western areas can receive up to 4000 mm.


title: Bay of Plenty

text: The subnational gross domestic product (GDP) of Bay of Plenty was estimated at NZ$17.24 billion in the year to March 2019, 5.7% of New Zealand's national GDP. The subnational GDP per capita was estimated at $53,700 in the same period. In the year to March 2018, primary industries contributed $1.89 billion (11.6%) to the regional GDP, goods-producing industries contributed $3.24 billion (20.0%), service industries contributed $9.72 billion (59.8%), and taxes and duties contributed $1.39 billion (8.6%).


title: Bay of Plenty

text: Agriculture, natural resources and tourism are the major industries. Most (96 per cent) of the region is defined as 'rural', with 22% of land usage representing farm land and 38% representing nature reserve land. The most common agricultural land uses are horticulture, dairy, grazing and sheep farming. The region has over 11,500 hectares of horticultural land, predominantly producing kiwifruit and avocadoes. The region also has an abundance of coastal, forestry and geothermal resources. Forestry emerged as a vital industry in the 1950s, with radiata pine being planted during the early 20th century. Forestry is commercially planted and managed, mostly using planted foreign tree species, and timber is sent to the Port of Tauranga for export. Geothermal activity is a source of tourism, and geothermal energy is emerging as a major regional source of electricity. Tourism is the other notable industry, accounting for 15% of the region's GDP from March 2000 to 2004.


title: Bay of Plenty

text: Overall economic growth in the Bay of Plenty averaged 2.1% between March 2000 and 2004, compared with the national rate of 3.5%, although per capita real GDP growth in the five years to March 2003 matched the national growth rate at an averaged 2.3%. In the 2013 Census, the median annual income was $26,200, below the national median of $28,500. Further, 39.3% of people aged 15 years or older earned an annual income of less than $20,000, compared with 38.2% of people nationally. Unemployment was at 9.0% of people 15 years or older, compared with 7.1% nationally.


title: Bay of Plenty

text: The Bay of Plenty is a popular holiday destination due to the warm and sunny summer climate and public beaches. The Bay of Plenty received over 645,000 tourists in 2003, equivalent to one in three visitors to New Zealand coming to the region. Rotorua is a popular destination for international visitors, in particular the surrounding geothermal areas and Māori cultural centres. Tauranga is a popular domestic tourism destination, and also becoming popular internationally. Whale watching has become a popular attraction as the number of whales such as blue whales and humpback whales migrating into bay waters began to recover.


title: Bay of Plenty

text: The Bay of Plenty has of rail network and of roads. The main rail line in the region is the East Coast Main Trunk Railway, which extends from Hamilton in the Waikato region to Kawerau via Tauranga, with the Murupara Branch Railway extending the Kawerau terminus to Murupara, and the Mount Maunganui Branch connecting the Mount Maunganui terminus with the East Coast Main Trunk. Rail networks in the region are used exclusively for freight. The hub of regional economic activity is the Port of Tauranga, with well-established rail and road connections to other parts of the region. Three commercial airports also operate in the Bay of Plenty: Tauranga Airport, Rotorua Airport and Whakatane Airport.


title: Bay of Plenty

text: Car travel remains the dominant form of transport in the region. In 2002, the number of vehicles owned in the region was 189,000, with an average of 1.51 vehicles per household. Public transport bus services exist only in Tauranga and Rotorua. Significant growth in the Western Bay of Plenty District has seen increased strain on road infrastructure, particularly with increasing traffic congestion in Tauranga. Due to this growth, a new highway network is being planned and constructed in Tauranga to join with its current network spanning on the western side of the city. The NZ Transport Agency, in conjunction with Environment Bay of Plenty, Tauranga City and the Western Bay of Plenty District Councils, is planning to build an Eastern Motorway bypassing Te Puke, a Western Motorway bypassing Ōmokoroa and a smaller Southern Motorway.


title: Bay of Plenty

text: The Bay of Plenty is represented in several domestic sporting competitions. The Bay of Plenty Rugby Union oversees the Bay of Plenty Steamers, who play in the Mitre10 Cup. The Steamers are also a feeder club for the Chiefs who play in the Super Rugby competition. The Waikato/Bay of Plenty Magic compete in the ANZ Championship in netball, having previously played in the National Bank Cup. Bay of Plenty also makes up a part of the Northern Districts cricket region and the Midlands hockey region.


title: Princess Elena of Romania

text: Princess Elena of Romania (born 15 November 1950<ref name="casamajestatiisale.ro/"></ref>) is the second eldest daughter of King Michael I and Queen Anne of Romania.


title: Princess Elena of Romania

text: Elena would have been first in the line of succession to the former Romanian throne and headship of the House of Romania has her elder sister Margareta passed away without issue in the future.


title: Princess Elena of Romania

text: Elena was born on 15 November 1950 at Clinique de Montchoisi in Lausanne, Switzerland as the second daughter of King Michael I and Queen Anne. She was baptised in the Orthodox faith; her godmothers were her paternal grandmother Helen, Queen Mother of Romania (who was also her namesake) and also Queen Mary of the United Kingdom.


title: Princess Elena of Romania

text: Elena spent her childhood at her family homes in Lausanne, Switzerland, and in the United Kingdom at Ayot House, St Lawrence, Hertfordshire; during holidays she and her sisters spent time with their grandmother, Helen, Queen Mother in Florence, Italy at Villa Sparta and in Denmark with Princess Margaret and Prince René. She and her sisters were told "fascinating tales of a homeland they couldn't visit" by their father.


title: Princess Elena of Romania

text: Elena received her primary education in Switzerland and her secondary at Effingham House in Little Common, Bexhill-on-Sea, East Sussex; she was fond of sports during her school years, playing on goal defence in the netball team.


title: Princess Elena of Romania

text: In the mid 1970s Elena taught handicapped children for a short period of time in London and after her leave she began a two-year course in art restoration; following the end of her course she worked in an art restoration firm in London.


title: Princess Elena of Romania

text: In the 1980s Elena along with her first husband Robin Medforth-Mills started a project to train 45 handicapped Ethiopian refugees in printing, bookbinding and leatherwork. In 1982 Elena founded an International school in Gezira, Sudan.


title: Princess Elena of Romania

text: In 1990 along with Elena’s first husband, the then-Lord Mayor of Newcastle, Terry Cooney, and Harry Charrington was a founder-member of the North-East Relief Fund for Romania, which helped victims of the Ceausescu regime.


title: Princess Elena of Romania

text: On 26 June 2011, Elena and her second husband Alexander Nixon visited the Queen Elizabeth Sixth Form College in Darlington, County Durham, England to present awards to students who went to Romania for voluntary work and helping to build and repair housing in Brașov, a project based around the Roma community.


title: Princess Elena of Romania

text: On 3 October 2011, Elena attended the 100th commemorative anniversary of the historic Western travels of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá in London, as a great granddaughter of Queen Marie who had converted to the Baháʼí Faith, Elena spoke of how her great grandmother's Baháʼí legacy has inspired her to help those of need.


title: Princess Elena of Romania

text: On 25 April 2012, for the Diamond Jubilee festivities of Queen Elizabeth II, Elena and her second husband inaugurated Royal teas: the UK's only Royal Tea room in Stanhope, County Durham. Following the inauguration, on 19 May Elena along with King Michael I, Crown Princess Margareta, her brother-in-law Prince Radu, her husband Alexander Nixon and her son Prince Nicholas attended a Military parade at Windsor Great Park and a Garden party at Windsor Castle hosted by Prince Andrew, Duke of York and Prince Edward, Earl of Wessex.


title: Princess Elena of Romania

text: Elena also annually attends the Guildhall banquet of the Guild of Freemen of the City of London and the delegation of the Two Sicilian Sacred Military Constantinian Order of Saint George in London.


title: Princess Elena of Romania

text: After 50 years of exile of the Romanian royal family from Romania, in 1990 Elena's sisters Crown Princess Margareta and Princess Sophie visited Romania for the first time following the Romanian Revolution and overthrow of the Communist dictator Nicolae Ceaușescu in December 1989, she along with the royal family were involved to help the Romanians.


title: Princess Elena of Romania

text: Elena's first official appearance in Romania was on 19 April 1992 on Easter Day along with former King Michael I, his wife Anne, her first husband Robin Medforth-Mills, and her son Nicholas, where they were met with hundreds of thousands of supporters; Elena and her son Nicholas famously waved the Royal Flag from a balcony in Revolution Square. She came again on Christmas Day of 1997 when the entire royal family entered Romania for the first time after 50 years of exile.


title: Princess Elena of Romania

text: Since her first visit Elena occasionally visited Romania for family gatherings and for occasions such as: the 60th birthday celebration of Crown Princess Margareta and the 90th birthday celebrations of King Michael I. However, since 2013 Elena has increased her activities in Romania by attending investiture ceremonies, presenting awards, book launches and Christmas gatherings.


title: Princess Elena of Romania

text: Elena was present at the Lying in State of King Michael I in December 2017 and Queen Anne in August 2016 (held firstly at Peles Castle, and then in the Throne Room of the Royal Palace in both cases), at their public funerals in Bucharest and at their burials in Curtea de Argeș.


title: Princess Elena of Romania

text: Elena currently spends her time between Britain with her second husband Alexander and her daughter Elisabeta-Karina at her estate in Easington, County Durham and in Romania at Elisabeta Palace.


title: Princess Elena of Romania

text: On 20 July 1983, Elena married Robin Medforth-Mills (1942–2002) in a civil ceremony at Durham, England. On 24 September 1983, they married in a royal ceremony at a Greek Orthodox church in Lausanne, Switzerland. The wedding party included King Michael I, his cousin former King Constantine II of Greece and his wife Queen Anne-Marie, who all served as "Koumbaros"; bridesmaids included her youngest sister Princess Maria, her second cousins Princess Alexia of Greece and Denmark and Princess Mafalda of Savoy; and also Fabiola Fruchaud. Elena and Robin had two children.


title: Princess Elena of Romania

text: Elena was remarried on 14 August 1998 in a civil ceremony at Peterlee to Alexander Philips Nixon McAteer (born 22 October 1964). The marriage was private and was attended by the Romanian royal family, the groom's mother, and close friends. The groom was given the style "His Excellency Domnul" Alexander McAteer. Alexander changed his surname to Nixon. He is a Knight of the Sacred Military Constantinian Order of Saint George, and holds a number of Romanian decorations. He has consistently refused to take any royal title.


title: Princess Elena of Romania

text: Elena and Alexander married religiously at the Coronation Cathedral, Alba Iulia, on 11 September 2013, privately.


title: Love Between Fairy and Devil (TV series)

text: Love Between Fairy and Devil () is a 2022 Chinese television series based on the novel of the same name written by Jiu Lu Fei Xiang. Directed by Yi Zheng and Qian Jingwu, it stars Yu Shuxin and Dylan Wang in leading roles, also featuring Xu Haiqiao, Guo Xiaoting, and Zhang Linghe in prominent supporting roles. The series aired on iQIYI from August 7 to September 22, 2022.


text: ""A man's fate can be affected by any small thing. One step false make a great difference. A man's life is doomed. Everything is circulation of karma. The Karma will never be depleted." Si Ming, senior Master of Arbiter Hall" "


text: The fearsome Lord Devil, Dong Fang Qing Cang (Dylan Wang) once wrought utter chaos in the realm of gods, defeating entire clans and vanquishing all of his foes at the head of his fearsome demon army. One of the young women from the defeated army is reborn as a fairy named Xiao Lan Hua (Yu Shuxin) many thousands of years later. Lord Devil has long since been cursed and imprisoned in a magical tower – and has remained there for thousands of years.


text: But when, due to a mishap, Xiao Lan Hua unwittingly sets him free, he thinks he is able to escape. He believes that all he needs to do is sacrifice Xiao Lan Hua and he will be free to unleash chaos again and conquer the known world. There is a twist, however. In the process of setting him free, some bizarre magic appears to have taken place – and the two have “swapped” bodies. Suddenly, the fearsome Lord Devil is trapped inside the body of a puny female fair. And Xiao Lan Hua finds herself in possession of superhuman strength! If anyone learns of what has happened, he assures her, they will both be done for. But as they search for a way to undo the spell, love begins to cast its own magic spell!


text: The series aired every Saturday, Sunday and Monday with two episodes each, and VIP members could have early access to two more.


text: "Love Between Fairy and Devil" is adapted from the novel of the same name by Jiu Lu Feixiang. The script development of the show lasted more than 800 days, the preparatory period was more than 400 days, and the cast and crew reached more than 600. There are over 5,000 pieces of clothing and over 3,000 pieces of accessories. There are more than 20,000 pieces of art props, and it also uniquely integrates China's intangible cultural heritage into the creation of Xianxia theme. 5 major Chinese intangible cultural heritage art joined the creation, 32 kinds of intangible cultural heritage traditional crafts were presented, and 27 intangible cultural heritage craftsmen personally guided them, which is reflected in all aspects of Fuhua Dao. The producer of the show, Wang Yixu, said that the theme of the show is "love and peace".


text: The series spent 3 years in script development, and confirmed its cast on December 18, 2020. Filming commenced on February 14, 2021 and wrapped up on June 11, 2021.


text: "Love Between Fairy and Devil" has caused a lot of discussion with its good reputation after it was broadcast. After the finale was broadcast, the popularity continued unabated. It was officially announced that "Love Between Fairy and Devil" will launch two extra episodes to benefit fans of the drama, and the news immediately aroused heated discussions among netizens.


title: Chucklefish

text: Chucklefish Limited is a British video game developer and publisher based in London. Founded in 2011 by Finn Brice, the company specialises in retro-styled games. Chucklefish is best known for developing "Starbound" and "Wargroove", as well as publishing "Risk of Rain" and formerly "Stardew Valley".


title: Chucklefish

text: In 2019, Chucklefish were accused of exploiting around a dozen voluntary contributors during the development of "Starbound", sometimes logging hundreds of hours with no compensation. Many of them were teenagers at the time and stated that they felt their inexperience was exploited by the company's director, Finn Brice. In a statement, Chucklefish said that contributors were under no obligation to create content or put in any particular number of hours.


title: Royal Academy of Arts

text: The Royal Academy of Arts (RA) is an art institution based in Burlington House on Piccadilly in London. Founded in 1768, it has a unique position as an independent, privately funded institution led by eminent artists and architects. Its purpose is to promote the creation, enjoyment and appreciation of the visual arts through exhibitions, education and debate.


title: Royal Academy of Arts

text: The origin of the Royal Academy of Arts lies in an attempt in 1755 by members of the Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures and Commerce, principally the sculptor Henry Cheere, to found an autonomous academy of arts. Prior to this a number of artists were members of the Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures and Commerce, including Cheere and William Hogarth, or were involved in small-scale private art academies, such as the St Martin's Lane Academy. Although Cheere's attempt failed, the eventual charter, called an 'Instrument', used to establish the Royal Academy of Arts over a decade later was almost identical to that drawn up by Cheere in 1755.


title: Royal Academy of Arts

text: The success of St Martin's Lane Academy led to the formation of the Society of Artists of Great Britain and the Free Society of Artists. Sir William Chambers, a prominent architect and head of the British government's architects' department, the Office of Works, used his connections with King George III to gain royal patronage and financial support for the Academy. The Royal Academy of Arts was founded through a personal act of King George III on 10 December 1768 with a mission "to establish a school or academy of design for the use of students in the arts" with an annual exhibition.


title: Royal Academy of Arts

text: The painter Joshua Reynolds was made its first president, and Francis Milner Newton was elected the first secretary, a post he held for two decades until his resignation in 1788.


title: Royal Academy of Arts

text: The instrument of foundation, signed by George III on 10 December 1768, named 34 founder members and allowed for a total membership of 40. The founder members were Reynolds, John Baker, George Barret, Francesco Bartolozzi, Giovanni Battista Cipriani, Augustino Carlini, Charles Catton, Mason Chamberlin, William Chambers, Francis Cotes, George Dance, Nathaniel Dance, Thomas Gainsborough, John Gwynn, Francis Hayman, Nathaniel Hone the Elder, Angelica Kauffman, Jeremiah Meyer, George Michael Moser, Mary Moser, Francis Milner Newton, Edward Penny, John Inigo Richards, Paul Sandby, Thomas Sandby, Dominic Serres, Peter Toms, William Tyler, Samuel Wale, Benjamin West, Richard Wilson, Joseph Wilton, Richard Yeo, Francesco Zuccarelli. William Hoare and Johann Zoffany were added to this list by the King in 1769.


title: Royal Academy of Arts

text: The Royal Academy was initially housed in cramped quarters in Pall Mall, although in 1771 it was given temporary accommodation for its library and schools in Old Somerset House, then a royal palace. In 1780 it was installed in purpose-built apartments in the first completed wing of New Somerset House, located in the Strand and designed by Chambers, the Academy's first treasurer. The Academy moved in 1837 to Trafalgar Square, where it occupied the east wing of the recently completed National Gallery (designed by another Academician, William Wilkins). These premises soon proved too small to house both institutions. In 1868, 100 years after the Academy's foundation, it moved to Burlington House, Piccadilly, where it remains.


title: Royal Academy of Arts

text: The first Royal Academy exhibition of contemporary art, open to all artists, opened on 25 April 1769 and ran until 27 May 1769. 136 works of art were shown and this exhibition, now known as the Royal Academy Summer Exhibition, has been staged annually without interruption to the present day. Following the cessation of a similar annual exhibition at the British Institution, the Academy expanded its exhibition programme to include a temporary annual loan exhibition of Old Masters in 1870.


title: Royal Academy of Arts

text: Britain's first public lectures on art were staged by the Royal Academy, as another way to fulfil its mission. Led by Reynolds, the first president, the first program included a lecture by Dr. William Hunter.


title: Royal Academy of Arts

text: In 2018, the Academy's 250th anniversary, the results of a major refurbishment were unveiled. The project began on 1 January 2008 with the appointment of David Chipperfield Architects. Heritage Lottery Fund support was secured in 2012. On 19 October 2016 the RA's Burlington Gardens site was closed to the public and renovations commenced. Refurbishment work included the restoration of 150 sash windows, glazing upgrades to 52 windows and the installation of two large roof lights. The "New RA" was opened to the public on 19 May 2018. The £56 million development includes new galleries, a lecture theatre, a public project space for students and a bridge linking the Burlington House and Burlington Gardens sites. As part of the process 10,000 works from the RA's collection were digitised and made available online.


title: Royal Academy of Arts

text: The Royal Academy receives funding from neither the State nor the Crown, and operates as a charity. The RA's home in Burlington House is owned by the UK government and provided to the Academy on a peppercorn rent leasehold of 999 years.


title: Royal Academy of Arts

text: One of its principal sources of revenue is hosting a programme of temporary loan exhibitions. These are comparable to those at the National Gallery, the Tate Gallery and leading art galleries outside the United Kingdom. In 2004 the highlights of the Academy's permanent collection went on display in the newly restored reception rooms of the original section of Burlington House, which are now known as the John Madejski Fine Rooms.


title: Royal Academy of Arts

text: Under the direction of former exhibitions secretary Sir Norman Rosenthal, the Academy has hosted ambitious exhibitions of contemporary art. In its 1997 "Sensation," it displayed the collection of work by Young British Artists owned by Charles Saatchi. The show was controversial for its display of Marcus Harvey's portrait of Myra Hindley, a convicted murderer. The painting was vandalised while on display.


title: Royal Academy of Arts

text: In 2004, the Academy attracted media attention for a series of financial scandals and reports of a feud between Rosenthal and other senior staff. These problems resulted in the cancellation of what were expected to have been profitable exhibitions. In 2006, it attracted the press by erroneously placing only the support for a sculpture on display, and then justifying it being kept on display.


title: Royal Academy of Arts

text: The Academy also hosts an annual Royal Academy Summer Exhibition of new art, which is a well-known event on the London social calendar. Tracey Emin exhibited in the 2005 show. In March 2007 Emin accepted the Academy's invitation to become a Royal Academician, commenting in her weekly newspaper column that, "It doesn't mean that I have become more conformist; it means that the Royal Academy has become more open, which is healthy and brilliant."


title: Royal Academy of Arts

text: In 1977, Sir Hugh Casson founded the Friends of the Royal Academy, a charity designed to provide financial support for the institution.


title: Royal Academy of Arts

text: Pin Drop Studio hosts live events where well-known authors, actors and thinkers read a short story chosen as a response to the main exhibition programme. The literary evenings are hosted by Pin Drop Studio founder Simon Oldfield. Guests have included Graham Swift, Sebastian Faulks, Lionel Shriver, William Boyd, Will Self, Dame Eileen Atkins, Dame Siân Phillips, Lisa Dawn and Ben Okri.


title: Royal Academy of Arts

text: The RA and Pin Drop Short Story Award is an open submission writing prize, held annually along similar principles of the Royal Academy Summer Exhibition. The award ceremony features a live reading of the winning story in its entirety by a special guest. Past winning stories have been read by Stephen Fry, Dame Penelope Wilton, Juliet Stevenson and Gwendoline Christie.


title: Royal Academy of Arts

text: On 10 December 2019, Rebecca Salter was elected the first female President of the Royal Academy on the retirement of Sir Christopher Le Brun.


title: Royal Academy of Arts

text: In September 2007, Sir Charles Saumarez Smith became Secretary and Chief Executive of the Royal Academy, a newly created post. Saumarez Smith stepped down from the role at the end of 2018, and it was announced that Axel Rüger, director of the Van Gogh Museum in Amsterdam, would fill the position from June 2019.


title: Royal Academy of Arts

text: The Royal Academy Schools form the oldest art school in Britain, and have been an integral part of the Royal Academy of Arts since its foundation in 1768. A key principle of the RA Schools is that their three-year post graduate programme is free of charge to every applicant offered a place.


title: Royal Academy of Arts

text: The Royal Academy Schools was the first institution to provide professional training for artists in Britain. The Schools' programme of formal training was modelled on that of the French Académie de peinture et de sculpture, founded by Louis XIV in 1648. It was shaped by the precepts laid down by Sir Joshua Reynolds. In his fifteen "Discourses" delivered to pupils in the Schools between 1769 and 1790, Reynolds stressed the importance of copying the Old Masters, and of drawing from casts after the Antique and from the life model. He argued that such a training would form artists capable of creating works of high moral and artistic worth. Professorial chairs were founded in Chemistry, Anatomy, Ancient History and Ancient Literature, the latter two being held initially by Samuel Johnson and Oliver Goldsmith.


title: Royal Academy of Arts

text: In 1769, the first year of operation, the Schools enrolled 77 students. By 1830 over 1,500 students had enrolled in the Schools, giving an average intake of 25 students each year. They included men such as John Flaxman, J. M. W. Turner, John Soane, Thomas Rowlandson, William Blake, Thomas Lawrence, Decimus Burton, John Constable, George Hayter, David Wilkie, William Etty, Edwin Landseer, and Charles Lucy in 1838. The first woman to enrol as a student of the Schools was Laura Herford in 1860. Charles Sims was expelled from the Schools in 1895. The Royal Academy made Sir Francis Newbolt the first Honorary Professor of Law in 1928.


title: Royal Academy of Arts

text: In 2011 Tracey Emin was appointed Professor of Drawing, and Fiona Rae was appointed Professor of Painting – the first women professors to be appointed in the history of the Academy. Emin was succeeded by Michael Landy, and then David Remfry in 2016 while Rae was succeeded by Chantal Joffe in January 2016.


title: Royal Academy of Arts

text: The first president of the Royal Academy, Sir Joshua Reynolds, gave his noted self-portrait, beginning the Royal Academy collection. This was followed by gifts from other founding members, such as Gainsborough and Benjamin West. Subsequently, each elected Member was required to donate an artwork (known as a "Diploma Work") typical of his or her artistic output, and this practice continues today. Additional donations and purchases have resulted in a collection of approximately a thousand paintings and a thousand sculptures, which show the development of a British School of art. The Academy's collection of works on paper includes significant holdings of drawings and sketchbooks by artists working in Britain from the mid-18th century onwards, including George Romney, Lord Leighton and Dame Laura Knight.


title: Royal Academy of Arts

text: The photographic collection consists of photographs of Academicians, landscapes, architecture and works of art. Holdings include early portraits by William Lake Price dating from the 1850s, portraits by David Wilkie Wynfield and Eadweard Muybridge's "Animal Locomotion" (1872–85).


title: Royal Academy of Arts

text: Among the paintings decorating the walls and ceilings of the building are those of Benjamin West and Angelica Kauffman, in the entrance hall (Hutchison 1968, p. 153), moved from the previous building at Somerset House. In the centre is West's roundel "The Graces Unveiling Nature", c. 1779, surrounded by panels depicting the elements, Fire, Water, Air and Earth. At each end are mounted two of Kauffman's circular paintings, "Composition" at the west end, and "Painting or Colour" and "Genius or Invention" at the east end.


title: Royal Academy of Arts

text: The most prized possession of the Academy's collection is Michelangelo's "Taddei Tondo", left to the Academy by Sir George Beaumont. The Tondo is usually on display in the Collection Gallery, which opened in May 2018. Carved in Florence in 1504–06, it is the only marble by Michelangelo in the United Kingdom and represents the Virgin Mary and child with the infant St John the Baptist.


title: Royal Academy of Arts

text: In the entrance portico are two war memorials. One is in memory of the students of the Royal Academy Schools who fell in World War I and the second commemorates the 2,003 men of the Artists Rifles who gave their lives in that war with a further plaque to those who died in World War II.


title: Royal Academy of Arts

text: Membership of the Royal Academy is composed of up to 80 practising artists, each elected by ballot of the General Assembly of the Royal Academy, and known individually as Royal Academicians (RA). The Royal Academy is governed by these Royal Academicians. The 1768 Instrument of Foundation allowed total membership of the Royal Academy to be 40 artists. Originally engravers were completely excluded from the academy, but at the beginning of 1769 the category of Associate-Engraver was created. Their number was limited to six, and unlike other associates, they could not be promoted to full academicians. In 1853 membership of the Academy was increased to 42, and opened to engravers. In 1922, 154 years after the founding of the Royal Academy, Annie Swynnerton became the first woman Associate of the Royal Academy.


title: Mariamman

text: Mariamman, often abbreviated to Amman, is a Hindu goddess of rain, predominantly venerated in the rural areas of South India. Her festivals are held during the late summer/early autumn season of Ādi throughout Tamil Nadu and the Deccan region, the largest being the "Ādi Thiruviḻa". Her worship mainly focuses on bringing rains and curing diseases like cholera, smallpox, and chicken pox. Mariamman is worshipped in accordance with local traditions such as "Pidari" or the "Gramadevatai." She is considered as a guardian deity (kaval deivam) by many South Indian village-dwellers.


title: Mariamman

text: Mariamman's worship originated in the traditions of Dravidian folk religion, the faith practised by the inhabitants of the south before its syncretism with Vedic Hinduism. She is the main Tamil mother goddess, predominantly venerated in the rural areas of South India. Mariamman has since been associated with Hindu goddesses like Parvati, Kali, Durga, Rukmini, Sita, Draupadi, as well as with her northern Indian counterpart Shitala, her eastern Indian counterpart, Olai Chandi, and her western Indian counterpart of Mogal mata.


title: Mariamman

text: The word Mari (pronunciation: /mɒri/) has the Sangam Tamil origin meaning "Rain", and the Dravidian root term Amman means "Mother". She was worshipped by the ancient Tamils as the bringer of rain and thus also the bringer of prosperity, since the abundance of their crops was dependent largely upon adequate rainfall. The cult of the mother goddess is treated as an indication of a society which venerated femininity. The temples of the Sangam days, mainly of Madurai, seem to have had priestesses to the deity, which also appear predominantly as goddesses. In Sangam literature, there is an elaborate description of the rites performed by the Kurava priestess in the shrine Palamutircholai.


title: Mariamman

text: Mariamman is usually pictured as a beautiful young woman with a red-hued face, wearing a red dress. Sometimes she is portrayed with many arms—representing her many powers—but in most representations she has only two or four.


title: Mariamman

text: Mariamman is generally portrayed in the sitting or standing position, often holding a trident (trisula) in one hand and a bowl (kapala) in the other. One of her hands may display a mudra, usually the abhaya mudra, to ward off fear. She may be represented with two demeanours—one displaying her pleasant nature, and the other her terrifying aspect, with fangs and a wild mane of hair.


title: Mariamman

text: The origin of the goddess Mariamman in terms of a consistent and coherent legend has not been standardised, but several myths of the mother goddess exist in several regional traditions that are spread orally throughout South India.


title: Mariamman

text: According to a regional Hindu legend, there was once a beautiful woman named Nagavalli, wife to a rishi named Piruhu. When the rishi was away, the Trimurti, the deities of Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva, visited her, seeking to decide for themselves if she was truly as beautiful and virtuous as she was supposed to be. Nagavalli, not recognising them, and resenting their intrusion, turned them into children with her powers. The deities were infuriated and cursed her, causing her face to become disfigured with smallpox. When Piruhu returned, he drove her away, informing her that she would be born on earth, causing her affliction to human beings as well.


title: Mariamman

text: According to the Vanniyar community, an agrarian class, Draupadi, the common wife of the Pandavas, is said to be an incarnation of the goddess Shakti. Draupadi, despite being Shakti, lived like a normal woman, suppressing her supernatural powers. While they were in exile, when the Pandavas were asleep at night, she would travel to the villages of Vanniyar in the form of a fierce looking Goddess. Vanniyars would offer her prayers and barley, which pleased her. In time, she would be called Mariamman (the mother of rain and curing diseases), and became popular in the Vanniyar villages.


title: Mariamman

text: According to the narrative of the higher varnas, there was once a pariah boy who impersonated a Brahmin suitor in order to marry a Brahmin girl. This lie is discovered by the girl when she discerns the jargon and non-vegetarian habits of her in-laws. In order to ritually purify herself from the pollution of being married to a low-born pariah, the girl self-immolates. This Brahmin girl is deified and named as Mariamman, and becomes the goddess of the pariahs.


title: Mariamman

text: In northern India, Shitala is worshipped in a similar way, predominantly by the Rajput/Kshatriya community. Shitala has a legend and plays a similar role in protecting villages from diseases.


title: Mariamman

text: Mariamman cures all so-called "heat-based" diseases like pox and rashes. During the summer months in South India (March to June), people walk miles carrying pots of water mixed with turmeric and neem leaves to ward off illnesses like the measles and chicken pox. In this way the goddess Mariamman is very similar to the North Indian goddess Shitaladevi.


title: Mariamman

text: Devotees also pray to Mariamman for familial welfare such as fertility, healthy progeny or a good spouse. The most favoured offering is "pongal", a mix of rice and green gram, cooked mostly in the temple complex, or shrine itself, in terracotta pots using firewood.


title: Mariamman

text: Some festivals in honour of the goddess Mariamman involve night-time processions of devotees carrying oil lamps. Mariamman is the family deity for many in the Thanjavur district of Tamil Nadu. It is a custom initially to worship the family deity on occasions such as weddings. The worship of a 'family deity' (kuladevata), considered most important in any Hindu festival, continues down the generations, providing a clue to the family's origin, since the family deities are usually located within the vicinity of the village to which the family originally belonged.


title: Mariamman

text: The worshipping methods are often accompanied by various kinds of folk dancing. Offerings such as pongal and koozh that are cooked using earthen pots are also made during the festive season. Rituals such as fire walking and mouth or nose piercing are also practised.


title: Mariamman

text: At the Samayapuram Mariamman Temple in Samayapuram, the Hindu system of worship is still seen today for the worship of Mariyamman, which involves a ten-day festival organized by temple authorities during the second week in April. Some continue to use an old village custom of worship by offering chickens and goats to the deity, though the animals are no longer sacrificed but sold after being offered. The main worship of the goddess occurs on the road a mile or two from the temple. A hurried walk and dance carry hundreds of thousands of worshippers along the road to the temple. Many in the crowd have fasted, shaved their heads, and wear bright yellow clothes which are sacred to the goddess. Women and children may carry a pot on their heads decorated with the goddess's favourite leaves, of the margosa tree. Young men and women, carrying similar pots, are followed by drummers and dance more wildly. Larger men and women carry pots of charcoal fire. Some put themselves through a special tribulation of having one of the sacred weapons, dagger, trident, or spear, inserted through their cheeks or tongues. Through this worship each individual achieves self-realization and awareness of others through samsara and moksha. In this self-realization a bonding with the goddess occurs, which is the underlining reason for the worship.


title: Mariamman

text: Mulaikottu is a village festival celebrated in southern Tamil Nadu, particularly in villages of Madurai, Sivagangai, Dindugul, Ramanathapuram, Thoothukudi and Thirunelveli districts. By doing so they believe that they can get her blessing and sufficient rain for better cultivation. This festival is generally celebrated in between Any Tamil month of panguni to Purattasi. The festival lasts for 11 days. (Sunday of first week to Wednesday of second week)


title: Mariamman

text: On the auspicious beginning of the village festival, a village meeting will be convened to sort out the best suitable date for the celebration of Mulaikottu. Before fixing any date, the "pradhan" and secretary of the village gather some information from the villagers regarding any marriage or anyone suffering from chicken pox etc. If anyone is affected by chicken pox, any sudden death occurred or someone's marriage is taking place, under these circumstances the date of mulaikottu will be either postponed or cancelled according to the public opinion at the meeting. The celebration begins with collection of nine different types of grain seeds from every house, called "thandal" in Tamil. The Thandal will held in Sunday of Valarpirai. The following Tuesday is the second day of thandal called "Pari parapputhal". Next Tuesday, the main function is held on the day called "mulaikottu". On the next day of thandal, the temple committee distribute the grains to every house for setting up of pari.


title: Mariamman

text: The pari is a clay pot with a wide mouth and narrow base with a hole in the bottom. This utensil is specially made for this purpose and sold at the market. The villagers visit the market and purchase number of paris as they wanted to setup in their home.


title: Mariamman

text: The first step to set them up is to clean paris and their home the second day of thandal. People used to collect goat dung and some hay. The hay is used to block the hole of the pari. A layer of goat dung is spread over the hay and watered to make the dung wet. This is the procedure of setting up up of pari.


title: Mariamman

text: As a next step to this, the received nine type of grains from the temple committee, is smoothly spread over the goat dung on the pari. Following this, a pooja will be arranged for praying the goddess to make the pari a successful one. Every house may have more than two paries. These paries taken into a dark and isolated room in their house. For the next seven days they have to grow the seedlings into a plant. Usage of loudspeaker and crackers are completely banned during this period. During evening, all villagers assemble in front of the Mariamman temple and sing folk songs known as "mari pattu" and dance folk dances such as "mulaikottu" ( similar to kummi), Amman oyil. It is followed everyday from thandal Sunday (First day) to next Sunday (eighth day). The ninth day called "thangal", means camping. On this day the temple is closed and folk poojas and dances are prohibited. The Amman karagam is made in village water body and the person who fasts in those 10 days is called "Ammadi" (The person who depicted as Amman). The amandi takes the karagam and gave to temple. All "paris" are brought into the Amman temple from the houses on the tenth day of thandal. The paris remain in the Amman temple for one night and on the next day (the last day, eleventh day, Wednesday), and after a pooja, the paries will be issued back to their respective member. The Ammadi again takes karagam and the "mulaiparis" are also taken from the temple. Finally, the amman Karagam and mulaiparis are submerged into the village pond. It is also celebrated in Madurai amman temple on the Tamil month of Aadi.


title: Mariamman

text: Most temples to Mariamman are simple village shrines, where both male and female priests perform sacred rituals. In many rural shrines, the goddess is represented by a granite stone with a sharp tip, like a spear head. This stone is often adorned with garlands made of limes and with red flowers. These shrines often have an anthill that could be the resting place of a cobra. Milk and eggs are offered to propitiate the snake.


title: Mariamman

text: Some temples have attained sufficient popularity for Brahmins to officiate at them. For example, the Samayapuram Mariamman near the shore of river Cauvery in the northern outskirts of Trichy, maintains a rich agamic tradition and all rituals are performed by Gurukkals.


title: Mariamman

text: The temple has very special paintings of murals in Kaavi art, an art form which was popular in the coastal Konkan region of Karnataka. In this art form, now extinct, the top plastered layer of the mural was first dyed with a red pigment, which when removed revealed a lower white layer of plaster over which the murals were created It is said that the first Marikamba Devi idol was crafted in kortagere.


title: Mariamman

text: The Sirsi Marikamba jaatre (chariot procession) of the deity is held every alternate year in the month of March and taken through the town. It is attended by a very large number of devotees. It is said to be the most famous and biggest fair (jaatre) of the state of Karnataka. Devotees from all around the state participate in this enormous event indulging themselves in the procession. Amusements for children, circuses, variety of shops, dramas and plays and many such things are set up for the people. It depicts the story of the goddess killing mahishasura.


title: Mariamman

text: Punainallur, near Thanjavur (Tanjore), is the location of another famous Mariamman temple. Legend says that Mariamman appeared to the King Venkoji Maharaja Chatrapati (1676–1688) of Tanjore in his dreams and told him she was in a forest of Punna trees three miles distant from Tanjore. The King rushed to the spot and recovered an idol from the jungle. On the king's orders a temple was constructed there, the idol installed, and the place was called Punnainallur. Hence the deity of this temple is known as Punnainallur Mariamman. Mud replicas of different parts of the human body are placed in the temple as offerings by devotees pleading for cure. It is said that the daughter of Tulaja Raja (1729–35) of Tanjore, who lost her eyesight due to illness, regained it after worshipping at this temple. Shri Sadasiva Brahmendra is said to have made the Moola Murthy of the Goddess Maariamman from the mud from the ant-hill where snakes had resided.


title: Mariamman

text: Salem Kottai Sri Periya Mariamman temple which is located in the heart of the city, the Aadi festival celebrated for 22 days.


title: Mariamman

text: The Erode Mariamman temple festival is a grand one in Tamil Nadu. The worship of three Mariamman goddesses named Small, Medium and Large Mariamman (residing at three separate localities within the city) is combined in a festival every April. It features the thiruvilla, along with all the other devotions to God, and ends at the Cauvery river with the purificatory immersion of the kambam (effigy of Mariamman's husband) in the flowing waters of the river.


title: Mariamman

text: The Karur Mariamman temple festival, which is celebrated at the end of May each year, is another notable festival held in honour of the goddess in Tamil Nadu.


title: Mariamman

text: Other important temples of Mariamman in Tamil Nadu are in the towns of Veerapandi, Theni, Anbil (near Trichy), Narthamalai, Thiruverkadu, Salem, Virudhunagar and Sivakasi, Vellore. In Chennai (Madras), a famous Mariamman temple is the Putthu Mariamman: the eponymous Putthu (ant-hill) being located across the road from the temple on the opposite side of the Velachery Main Road.


title: Mariamman

text: In 2012, the singer Harini composed a song about the Samayapuram Mariamman deity which was featured on the album "Om Nava Sakthi Jaya Jaya Sakthi". The song narrates the power of Shakti as Samayapuram Amman and equates the Peruvalai River with Punya Theertham, as do the people in that area.


title: Mariamman

text: Madurai is home to the Theppakulam sri Mariamman Temple, a noted focus of devotion, primarily to the goddess but also to the Maruthuvachi (= doctor/midwife). Periyachi Amman (or Pechi Amman), who was deified for her skill and heroism. The temple possesses a large theppakulam. Here the Panguni festival is the main event of the religious calendar. The devotees of The goddess Mariamman observe the "poo choridhal" flower festival, and in the month of Aadi many women honour her with fasting and prayer.


title: Mariamman

text: Another famous Mariamman temple is situated in the state of Karnataka, in the town of Kaup, seven kilometres from the famous temple town of Udipi.


title: Mariamman

text: There is also a famous and highly regarded Mariamman temple in Urwa, a residential area of the city of Mangalore, where through the power of the goddess many miracles have been reported to occur. The temple is known familiarly as Urwa Marigudi.


title: Mariamman

text: There are many Mariamman temples outside India, in Mauritius, Sri Lanka (Mari Mata Temple Rattan Tallow Akbar Road Saddar Karachi Pakistan, in Karachi 5 Mari Mata Temples, Rattan Tallow Temple Soyam Parghat Temple. In Karachi five temples of Mari Mata). Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand, Fiji, Fiji Maha Shakti Mata Temple Nadi and Suva, Guyana, Vietnam, Trinidad and Tobago, Germany and South Africa, the product of efforts of the Tamil diaspora. Some notable temples include the Sri Mariamman temple in Singapore, Sri Mariamman temple in Bangkok, a Mariamman temple in Pretoria, South Africa, as well as one in Sri Mariamman Temple, Medan, Sri Mariamman Temple Karachi Pakistan, (Marathi Peoples Calling=Mari Aayi)(Shri Mari Mata Temple Rattan Tallow Akbar Road Saddar Karachi Pakistan.) Indonesia.


title: Mariamman

text: There are also many Mariamman temple in every state of Malaysia. Some notable temples include the Queen Street Sri MahaMariamman Temple, Penang in George Town, Sri Sithala Maha Mariamman Temple, Pekan Getah Tapah, Lorong Kulit Sri Muthu Mariamman Temple in George Town, Sri Rudra Verra Muthu MahaMariamman Temple in Air Itam, Sri Maha Mariamman Devasthanam in Arau, Sri Maha Mariamman Devasthanam in Alor Setar, Sri Maha Mariamman Temple in Sungai Petani, Sri Maha Mariamman Temple in Ipoh, Sri Nagamuthu Mariamman Temple in Taiping, Sri Maha Mariamman Temple in Gopeng, Sri MahaMariamman Temple, Kuala Lumpur, Sri Maha Mariamman Temple in Klang, Sri Maha Mariamman Temple in Chukai, Sri Maha Mariamman Temple in Port Dickson, Sri Maha Mariamman Temple in Kuantan, Sri Veera Sundara Muthu Mariamman in Kulim, Raja Mariamman Temple in Johor Bahru, Sri Maha Muthu Mariamman Temple in Tumpat, Sri Maha Mariamman Temple in Kuching, Sri Maha Mariamman Temple in Sibu, and Sri Muthu Mariamman Temple, Kampung Chetti, Melaka.


title: Mariamman

text: Among the Malbars of the French island Réunion, a syncretism of Catholicism and Hinduism has developed.


title: Pachaikili Muthucharam

text: Pachaikili Muthucharam () is a 2007 Indian Tamil-language action thriller film directed by Gautham Vasudev Menon. It is based on the 2005 British-American thriller film "Derailed". The film stars Sarathkumar and Jyothika, while Andrea Jeremiah and Milind Soman played important supporting roles. The film's score and soundtrack were composed by Harris Jayaraj. The soundtrack was released on 20 January 2007 to positive reviews. The film was released on 13 February 2007. The movie was dubbed in Telugu as "Drohi". It was remade in Sinhala language as "Dakina Dakina Mal".


title: Pachaikili Muthucharam

text: Venkatesh, a medical representative, is happily married to Kalyani, and they both have a son named Nanda. They all have a perfect life. That is, until Nanda falls sick, and things between Venkat and Kalyani cool down a bit. Kalyani begins to spend more time with Nanda and starts to ignore Venkat involuntarily. Venkat, feeling a bit lonely and neglected, walks in and out of his monotonous life without complaining much. He tries to understand his wife's feelings.


title: Pachaikili Muthucharam

text: One morning while riding the train to work, Venkat notices Geetha and spends a few extra seconds admiring her. The following day again, he happens to stand next to her, and Geetha opens up the conversation with Venkat. Both married with kids, they feel that they have a lot of common things between them and start a friendship together. At first, it is platonic, and they meet only in the train, but they slowly start meeting at restaurants and coffee shops. Geetha begins to get a little physically close to Venkat, and she suggests that they both spend a day together watching movies or doing something alone. Venkat agrees, and they take a taxi and drive to Mayajaal on East Coast Road.


title: Pachaikili Muthucharam

text: However, at the last minute, Geetha changes her mind and directs the taxi driver to go to a resort along the same road. Venkat books a room on Geetha's insistence. A knock on the door prompts Venkat to open the door. A goon barges in, beats him up, robs the couple, and ties Venkat up before raping Geetha. Venkat is grief-stricken, and he and Geetha both part ways. The goon, who calls himself Lawrence, starts calling Venkat and Geetha to harass them for money. Venkat takes the full financial responsibility and starts paying off money that he had been saving for Nanda's medical expenses. With no choice left, Venkat confesses to Kalyani. Angry and disappointed, she leaves him, but she returns a few days later and forgives him.


title: Pachaikili Muthucharam

text: One day, Venkat finds Geetha and Lawrence laughing down the street. He follows them and realizes that he has been conned and that this is their daily business. When the gang is pulling the same trick on another person, he beats Lawrence, barges into a hotel, and explains it to the new guy. A fight occurs where Lawrence is killed, and Venkat assumes that Geetha is killed too. Venkat relocates with his family for a while, and then Geetha kidnaps Venkat's family. Finally, Venkat kills Geetha, and the family lives happily ever after.


title: Pachaikili Muthucharam

text: It was previously titled as "Vilai Uyirendraalum" (Even If the Price Is Life Itself), "Parundhu" (Eagle) and "Silandhi" (Spider). Gautham Menon described the title "Pachaikili Muthucharam" (translated as "a parrot with a string of pearls") as a metaphor to the film's content, saying, "What will happen to a string of pearls if a parrot gets it? The pearls might scatter away." Earlier for the lead female protagonist role several actresses was considered with Tabu, Kamalinee Mukherjee and Shobana as the frontrunners. Finally, the latter was chosen to play the role whom Gautham described as the "finest actor in the country". However, Shobana was replaced by a newcomer Andrea Jeremiah, who previously collaborated with Gautham Menon in "Vettaiyaadu Vilaiyaadu" as a playback singer. Sarath Kumar's character was originally slated for Kamal Haasan, Madhavan and Cheran.


title: Pachaikili Muthucharam

text: The satellite rights of the film were sold to Kalaignar. The censors cleared the film with an "A" certificate for its theme with no visual cuts but a few dialogue muting. Those who saw the film are raving about its bold and daring content and say that it looks like a Hollywood thriller.


title: Pachaikili Muthucharam

text: The film was below average at the box office, especially because it was a typical A center movie. It performed badly at B and C centers due to its storyline. In regard to the average run, Menon went on to claim that Sarath Kumar was "wrong for the film" and that he tweaked the story to fit his image; he also claimed that his father's ailing health and consequent death a week before the release had left him mentally affected.


title: Iron Chef: Quest for an Iron Legend

text: Iron Chef: Quest for an Iron Legend is an American cooking show reboot of "Iron Chef" and "Iron Chef America". Alton Brown returns to co-host the show with Kristen Kish, and Mark Dacascos again serves as The Chairman. Contestants challenge the Iron Chefs in a cookoff with a secret ingredient, and in this series, the highest scoring challenger battles with all five Iron Chefs one more time in hopes of becoming an Iron Legend. The series debuted on Netflix on June 15, 2022, for its first season of eight episodes.


title: Iron Chef: Quest for an Iron Legend

text: Five new Iron Chefs have been introduced: Curtis Stone, Dominique Crenn, Marcus Samuelsson, Ming Tsai and Gabriela Cámara. Challenger chefs compete against the Iron Chefs to prepare a dish centered around a secret ingredient revealed by The Chairman. Hosts Alton Brown and Kristen Kish provide real-time commentary on how the competition proceeds. Each episode has three judges, Nilou Motamed, Andrew Zimmern, and a third guest judge. At the end of the season, the highest-scoring challenger returns to face off against all five Iron Chefs in hopes of becoming an Iron Legend and receiving a Golden Knife.


title: Iron Chef: Quest for an Iron Legend

text: In January 2022, Netflix announced that it would reboot the "Iron Chef" franchise with a new iteration subtitled "Quest for an Iron Legend" for eight episodes, initially. The release date of June 15, 2022 was announced that May with Alton Brown returning to co-host the show with Kristen Kish and Mark Dacascos reprising as The Chairman.


title: Iron Chef: Quest for an Iron Legend

text: Tsai, Samuelsson, Crenn, and Stone were previously challengers on "Iron Chef America", with Tsai, Samuelsson, and Crenn having also competed on "The Next Iron Chef". Past Iron Chefs Masaharu Morimoto and Wolfgang Puck appear as guest judges during the first season. Morimoto was the third Iron Chef Japanese on the original "Iron Chef" and was one of the Iron Chefs on "Iron Chef America", while Wolfgang Puck served as one of the Iron Chefs for the "Iron Chef America: Battle of the Masters" pilot miniseries before retiring.


title: Iron Chef: Quest for an Iron Legend

text: On the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, 57% of 7 critics' reviews are positive, with an average rating of 5.8/10. Jim Vorel at Paste enjoyed the show appreciating the preserved balance of "patently absurd" and "undeniably impressive" from previous iterations. However, Wenlei Ma disagreed in her review for news.com.au feeling it lacked the weirdness of the original "Iron Chef" and was too polished, later calling it "soulless" and "not worthy of the "Iron Chef" name."


title: Caddo

text: The Caddo people comprise the Caddo Nation of Oklahoma, a federally recognized tribe headquartered in Binger, Oklahoma. They speak the Caddo language.


title: Caddo

text: The Caddo Confederacy was a network of Indigenous peoples of the Southeastern Woodlands, who historically inhabited much of what is now East Texas, west Louisiana, southwestern Arkansas, and southeastern Oklahoma. Prior to European contact, they were the Caddoan Mississippian culture, who constructed huge earthwork mounds at several sites in this territory, flourishing about 800 to 1400 CE. In the early 19th century, Caddo people were forced to a reservation in Texas. In 1859, they were removed to Indian Territory.


title: Caddo

text: The Caddo Nation of Oklahoma was previously known as the Caddo Tribe of Oklahoma. The tribal constitution provides for election of an eight-person council, with a chairperson.


title: Caddo

text: Some 6,000 people are enrolled in the nation, with 3,044 living within the state of Oklahoma. Individuals are required to document at least 1/16 Caddo ancestry in order to enroll as citizens.


title: Caddo

text: In July 2016, Tamara M. Francis was re-elected as the Chairman of the Caddo Nation. Chairman Tamara Francis is the daughter of the first elected female chairman, Mary Pat Francis. She was the fourth elected female leader of the Caddo Nation.


title: Caddo

text: The tribe has several programs to invigorate Caddo culture. It sponsors a summer culture camp for children. The Hasinai Society and Caddo Culture Club both teach and perform Caddo songs and dances to keep the culture alive and pass it on to the next generations. The Kiwat Hasinay Foundation is dedicated to preserving and increasing use of the Caddo language.


title: Caddo

text: The Caddo are thought to be an extension of Woodland period peoples, the Fourche Maline and Mossy Grove cultures, whose members were living in the area of Arkansas, Louisiana, Oklahoma, and Texas areas between 200 BCE and 800 CE. The Wichita and Pawnee are also related to the Caddo, as both tribes have historically spoken Caddoan languages.


title: Caddo

text: By 800 CE, this society had begun to coalesce into the Caddoan Mississippian culture. Some villages began to gain prominence as ritual centers. Leaders directed the construction of major earthworks known as platform mounds, which served as temple mounds and platforms for residences of the elite. The flat-topped mounds were arranged around leveled, large, open plazas, which were usually kept swept clean and were often used for ceremonial occasions. As complex religious and social ideas developed, some people and family lineages gained prominence over others.


title: Caddo

text: By 1000 CE, a society that is defined by archaeologists as "Caddoan" had emerged. By 1200, the many villages, hamlets, and farmsteads established throughout the Caddo world had developed extensive maize agriculture, producing a surplus that allowed for greater density of settlement. In these villages, artisans and craftsmen developed specialties. The artistic skills and earthwork mound-building of the Caddoan Mississippians flourished during the 12th and 13th centuries.


title: Caddo

text: The Spiro Mounds, near the Arkansas River in present-day southeastern Oklahoma, were some of the most elaborate mounds in the United States. They were made by Mississippian ancestors of the historic Caddo and Wichita tribes, in what is considered the westernmost area of the Mississippian culture. The Caddo were farmers and enjoyed good growing conditions most of the time. The Piney Woods, the geographic area where they lived, was affected by the Great Drought from 1276 to 1299 CE, which covered an area extending to present-day California and disrupted many Native American cultures.


title: Caddo

text: Archeological evidence has confirmed that the cultural continuity is unbroken from prehistory to the present among these peoples. The Caddoan Mississippian people were the direct ancestors of the historic Caddo people and related Caddo-language speakers, such as the Pawnee and Wichita, who encountered the first Europeans, as well as of the modern Caddo Nation of Oklahoma.


title: Caddo

text: The Caddo creation story, as told in their oral history, says the tribe emerged from a cave, called "Chahkanina" or "the place of crying," located at the confluence of the Red River of the South and Mississippi River (in northern present-day Louisiana). Their leader, named Moon, instructed the people not to look back. An old Caddo man carried a drum, a pipe, and fire, all of which have continued to be important religious items to the people. His wife carried corn and pumpkin seeds. As people and accompanying animals emerged, the wolf looked back. The exit from the underground closed to the remaining people and animals.


title: Caddo

text: The Caddo peoples moved west along the Red River, which they called "Bah'hatteno" in Caddo. A Caddo woman, Zacado, instructed the tribe in hunting, fishing, building dwellings, and making clothing. Caddo religion focuses on "Kadhi háyuh", translating to "Lord Above" or "Lord of the Sky." In early times, the people were led by priests, including a head priest, the "xinesi", who could commune with spirits residing near Caddo temples. A cycle of ceremonies developed around important periods of seasonal corn cultivation. Tobacco was also cultivated, and was and is used ceremonially. Early priests drank a purifying sacrament drink made of wild olive leaves.


title: Caddo

text: Centuries before extensive European contact, some of the Caddo territory was invaded by migrating Dhegihan-speaking peoples: the Osage, Ponca, Omaha, and Kaw. They moved west beginning about 1200 CE after years of warfare with the Haudenosaunee nations in the Ohio River area of present-day Kentucky. The powerful Iroquois took control of hunting grounds in the area.


title: Caddo

text: The Osage in particular fought the Caddo, pushed them out of some former territory, and became dominant in the region of present-day Missouri, Arkansas, and eastern Kansas. These tribes had become settled in their new territory west of the Mississippi prior to mid-18th-century European contact.


title: Caddo

text: Most of the Caddo historically lived in the Piney Woods ecoregion of the United States, divided among the state regions of East Texas, southern Arkansas, western Louisiana, and southeastern Oklahoma. This region extends up to the foothills of the Ozarks. The Piney Woods are a dense forest of deciduous and pinophyta flora covering rolling hills, steep river valleys, and intermittent wetlands called "bayous". Caddo people primarily settled near the Caddo River.


title: Caddo

text: When they first encountered Europeans and Africans, the Caddo tribes organized themselves in three confederacies: the Natchitoches, Hasinai, and Kadohadacho. They were loosely affiliated with other neighboring tribes including the Yowani Choctaw. The Natchitoches lived in now northern Louisiana, the Haisinai lived in East Texas, and the Kadohadacho lived near the border of Texas, Oklahoma, and Arkansas.


title: Caddo

text: The Caddo people had a diet based on cultivated crops, particularly maize (corn), but also sunflower, pumpkins, and squash. These foods held cultural significance, as did wild turkeys. They hunted and gathered wild plants, as well.


title: Caddo

text: The Caddo Native Americans had a culture that consisted of the hunting and gathering dynamic. The men hunted year round, while the young and healthy women were responsible for the gathering of fruits, seeds, and vegetables for the tribe. Elderly women planted and cultivated the seeds for the season's crop. Gathered items included corn, sunflowers, beans, melons, tobacco, and squash during the warm seasons. Acorns and roots were gathered and processed to provide food other than meat in the cold seasons when crops did not grow.


title: Caddo

text: The men used handcrafted bows and arrows to hunt animals such as wild turkey, quail, rabbits, bears, and bison during winter months. Most tools and items were made by women. They made wooden mortars, as well as pots and other utensils out of clay. These wood and clay tools were carved and molded to help with daily jobs like cooking the meals for the tribe. These tools were viewed with such reverence that men and women were buried with the items that they had made.


title: Caddo

text: The Caddo also decorated their bodies. Men favored body modifications and ornamentation such as the painting of skin, jewelry, ear piercing, and hair decorations, like braids, adorned with bird feathers or animal fur. While the women of the tribe wore some jewelry and styled their hair similarly to men, most used the art of tattooing to decorate their bodies. Such tattoos covered most of the body, including the face.


title: Caddo

text: The Caddo first encountered Europeans and Africans in 1541 when the Spanish Hernando de Soto Expedition came through their lands. De Soto's force had a violent clash with one band of Caddo Indians, the Tula people, near present-day Caddo Gap, Arkansas. This historic event has been marked by the modern town with a monument.


title: Caddo

text: French explorers in the early 18th century encountered the Natchitoche in northern Louisiana. They were followed by fur traders from French outposts along the Gulf Coast. Later Catholic missionaries from France and Spain also traveled among the people. The Europeans carried infections such as smallpox and measles, because these were endemic in their societies. As the Caddo peoples had no acquired immunity to such new diseases, they suffered epidemics with high fatalities that decimated the tribal populations. Influenza and malaria were additional new diseases that caused many deaths among the Caddo.


title: Caddo

text: French traders built their trading posts and associated forts near Caddo villages. These were already important hubs in the Great Plains trading network well before the 18th and 19th centuries. These stations attracted more French and other European settlers. Among such settlements are the present-day communities of Elysian Fields and Nacogdoches, Texas, and Natchitoches, Louisiana. In the latter two towns, early explorers and settlers kept the original Caddo names of the villages.


title: Caddo

text: Having given way over years before the power of the former Ohio Valley tribes, the later Caddo negotiated for peace with the waves of Spanish, French, and finally Anglo-American settlers. After the 1803 Louisiana Purchase, by which the United States took over the former French colonial territory west of the Mississippi River, the US government sought to ally with the Caddo peoples. During the War of 1812, American generals such as William Henry Harrison, William Clark, and Andrew Jackson crushed pro-British uprisings among other Southeast Indians, in particular the Creek, also known as Muscogee. Tensions within their tribe resulted in near civil war among the Creek.


title: Caddo

text: Due to the Caddo's neutrality and their importance as a source of information for the Louisiana Territory government, the US forces left them alone. But following Congressional passage of the Indian Removal Act of 1830 under President Andrew Jackson, the federal government embarked on a program of removal of tribes from the Southeast in order to enable European-American settlement. Land-hungry migrants pressed from the east.


title: Caddo

text: In 1835 the Kadohadacho, the northernmost Caddo confederacy, signed a treaty with the US to relocate to independent Mexico (which then included present-day Texas). The area for their reservation in East Texas had been lightly settled by Mexican colonists, but there was rapidly increasing immigration of European Americans here. In 1836, the Anglo-Americans declared independence from Mexico and established the Republic of Texas, an independent nation. The name "Texas" is derived from the "Hasinai" word "táysha", through the Spanish "Tejas", meaning "friend".


title: Caddo

text: On December 29, 1845, the US admitted Texas as a state. At that time, the US federal government forced the Hasinai and the Kadohadacho, as well as remnants of allied Delaware (Lenape) and Yowani to relocate onto the Brazos Reservation. White settlers increased pressure for the Brazos Reservation Indians to move north to Indian Territory. White Texans violently attacked a Caddo encampment just off the reservation on December 26, 1858. Captain Peter Garland from Erath County led this vigilante group. Choctaw Tom led the Caddo. Married to a Hasinai woman, Tom was killed in this fight, along with 27 Caddo. In 1859, many of the Caddo were relocated to Indian Territory north of Texas (which became as state of Oklahoma in 1907). After the Civil War, the Caddo were concentrated on a reservation located between the Washita and Canadian rivers in Indian Territory.


title: Caddo

text: In the late 19th century, the Caddo adopted the Ghost Dance religion, which was widespread among American Indian nations in the West. John Wilson, a Caddo/Delaware medicine man who spoke only Caddo, was an influential Ghost Dance leader. Practitioners believed that the dance would help them return to their traditional ways and to stop European-American intrusions into their land and culture. In 1880, Wilson became a peyote roadman. The tribe had known the Half Moon peyote ceremony, but Wilson introduced the Big Moon ceremony to them. The Caddo Nation remains very active in the Native American Church today.


title: Caddo

text: Congress passed the Dawes Act to promote assimilation of tribes in Indian Territory and to extinguish Indian land claims to enable admission of the territory as a state. It authorized the break up and distribution of tribal communal landholdings into 160-acre allotments for individual households in order for them to establish subsistence family farms along the European-American model. Any tribal lands remaining after such allotments were to be declared "surplus" and sold, including to non-Native Americans. At the same time, tribal governments were to be ended, and Native Americans were to be accepted as US citizens, subject to state and federal laws. Numerous European Americans had already settled outside the tribal territories.


title: Caddo

text: The Caddo vigorously opposed allotment. Whitebread, a Caddo leader, said, "because of their peaceful lives and friendship to the white man, and through their ignorance were not consulted, and have been ignored and stuck away in a corner and allowed to exist by sufferance." Tribal governments were dismantled at this time, and Native Americans were expected to act as state and US citizens. After some period, the adverse effects of these changes were recognized. The Caddo and other Native American peoples suffered greatly from the disruption of their traditional cultures, and lost much of their lands in the decades after allotment.


title: Caddo

text: Under the federal Indian Reorganization Act of 1934 and the Oklahoma Indian Welfare Act of 1936, the Caddo restored their tribal government. They adopted a written constitution and a process of electing officials. They organized in 1938 as the 'Caddo Indian Tribe of Oklahoma.' They ratified their constitution on 17 January 1938. In 1976, they drafted a new constitution, which continues elected representative government.


title: Caddo

text: During the 20th century, Caddo leaders such as Melford Williams, Harry Guy, Hubert Halfmoon, and Vernon Hunter have helped shape the tribe. In the early 1980s Mary Pat Francis was the first of four women to be elected as tribal chair. Her daughter, Tamara Michele Francis, was elected in 2015, following a time of high divisions. She was re-elected in 2016.


title: Caddo

text: In a special election on June 29, 2002, the tribe adopted six amendments to the constitution. Tribal enrollment is open to individuals with a documented minimum of 1/16 degree Caddo blood quantum.


title: Caddo

text: Sometimes, severe disagreements have developed among factions of the tribe that have not been resolved in elections. In August 2013, a group led by Philip Smith attempted to recall Brenda Shemayme Edwards, the chairman of the Tribal Council. This faction conducted a new election, but the victor stepped down, and Edwards refused to leave office. In October 2013, Smith and his supporters broke into the Caddo Nation headquarters. They chained the front doors from the inside and blocked the entrance to the administration building. The opposition called the Bureau of Indian Affairs Police.


title: Caddo

text: Operation of the tribe was split between two factions. The Court of Indian Offenses, which had been overseeing issues for a year because of the internal conflict, in October 2014 ordered a new election for all positions.


title: Caddo

text: In the January 2015 elections, all the top tribal positions were won by women: Tamara Michele Francis as chair, Carol D. Ross as vice chair, Jennifer Reeder as secretary, and Wildena G. Moffer as treasurer.


title: Caddo

text: In July 2016, Tamara M. Francis was re-elected as the Chairman of the Caddo Nation. The Council consists of Chairman Francis, Vice Chairman Carol D. Ross, Acting Secretary Philip Martin, Treasurer Marilyn McDonald, Oklahoma City Representative Jennifer Wilson, Binger Representative Marilyn Threlkeld, Fort Cobb Representative Maureen Owings.


title: Caddo

text: Chairman Francis is the daughter of the first elected female chairman, Mary Pat Francis (who was elected in the 1980s). Tamara Francis is the fourth elected female leader of the Caddo Nation.


title: History of the Teller–Ulam design

text: This article chronicles the history and origins of the Teller–Ulam design, the technical concept behind modern thermonuclear weapons, also known as hydrogen bombs. The design, the details of which are military secrets known to only a handful of major nations, is believed to be used in virtually all modern nuclear weapons that make up the arsenals of the major nuclear powers.


title: History of the Teller–Ulam design

text: The idea of using the energy from a fission device to begin a fusion reaction was first proposed by the Italian physicist Enrico Fermi to his colleague Edward Teller in the fall of 1941 during what would soon become the Manhattan Project, the World War II effort by the United States and United Kingdom to develop the first nuclear weapons. Teller soon was a participant at Robert Oppenheimer's 1942 summer conference on the development of a fission bomb held at the University of California, Berkeley, where he guided discussion towards the idea of creating his "Super" bomb, which would hypothetically be many times more powerful than the yet-undeveloped fission weapon. Teller assumed creating the fission bomb would be nothing more than an engineering problem, and that the "Super" provided a much more interesting theoretical challenge.


title: History of the Teller–Ulam design

text: For the remainder of the war the effort was focused on first developing fission weapons. Nevertheless, Teller continued to pursue the "Super", to the point of neglecting work assigned to him for the fission weapon at the secret Los Alamos lab where he worked. (Much of the work Teller declined to do was given instead to Klaus Fuchs, who was later discovered to be a spy for the Soviet Union.) Teller was given some resources with which to study the "Super", and contacted his friend Maria Göppert-Mayer to help with laborious calculations relating to opacity. The "Super", however, proved elusive, and the calculations were incredibly difficult to perform, especially since there was no existing way to run small-scale tests of the principles involved (in comparison, the properties of fission could be more easily probed with cyclotrons, newly created nuclear reactors, and various other tests).


title: History of the Teller–Ulam design

text: Even though they had witnessed the Trinity test, after the atomic bombings of Japan scientists at Los Alamos were surprised by how devastating the effects of the weapon had been. Many of the scientists rebelled against the notion of creating a weapon thousands of times more powerful than the first atomic bombs. For the scientists the question was in part technical — the weapon design was still quite uncertain and unworkable — and in part moral: such a weapon, they argued, could only be used against large civilian populations, and could thus only be used as a weapon of genocide. Many scientists, such as Teller's colleague Hans Bethe (who had discovered stellar nucleosynthesis, the nuclear fusion that takes place in stars), urged that the United States should not develop such weapons and set an example towards the Soviet Union. Promoters of the weapon, including Teller and Berkeley physicists Ernest Lawrence and Luis Alvarez, argued that such a development was inevitable, and to deny such protection to the people of the United States — especially when the Soviet Union was likely to create such a weapon itself — was itself an immoral and unwise act. Still others, such as Oppenheimer, simply thought that the existing stockpile of fissile material was better spent in attempting to develop a large arsenal of tactical atomic weapons rather than potentially squandered on the development of a few massive "Supers".


title: History of the Teller–Ulam design

text: In any case, work slowed greatly at Los Alamos, as some 5,500 of the 7,100 scientists and related staff who had been there at the conclusion of the war left to go back to their previous positions at universities and laboratories. A conference was held at Los Alamos in 1946 to examine the feasibility of building a Super; it concluded that it was feasible, but there were a number of dissenters to that conclusion.


title: History of the Teller–Ulam design

text: When the Soviet Union exploded their own atomic bomb (dubbed "Joe 1" by the US) in August 1949, it caught Western analysts off guard, and over the next several months there was an intense debate within the US government, military, and scientific communities on whether to proceed with the far-more-powerful Super. On January 31, 1950, US President Harry S. Truman ordered a program to develop a hydrogen bomb.


title: History of the Teller–Ulam design

text: Many scientists returned to Los Alamos to work on the "Super" program, but the initial attempts still seemed highly unworkable. In the "classical Super," it was thought that the "heat" alone from the fission bomb would be used to ignite the fusion material, but that proved to be impossible. For a while, many scientists thought (and many hoped) that the weapon itself would be impossible to construct.


title: History of the Teller–Ulam design

text: The exact history of the Teller–Ulam breakthrough is not completely known, partly because of numerous conflicting personal accounts and also by the continued classification of documents that would reveal which was closer to the truth. Previous models of the "Super" had apparently placed the fusion fuel either surrounding the fission "trigger" (in a spherical formation) or at the heart of it (similar to a "boosted" weapon) in the hopes that the closer the fuel was to the fission explosion, the higher the chance it would ignite the fusion fuel by the sheer force of the heat generated.


title: History of the Teller–Ulam design

text: In 1951, after still many years of fruitless labor on the "Super", a breakthrough idea from the Polish émigré mathematician Stanislaw Ulam was seized upon by Teller and developed into the first workable design for a megaton-range hydrogen bomb. This concept, now called "staged implosion" was first proposed in a classified scientific paper, "On Heterocatalytic Detonations I. Hydrodynamic Lenses and Radiation Mirrors" by Teller and Ulam on March 9, 1951. The exact amount of contribution provided respectively from Ulam and Teller to what became known as the "Teller–Ulam design" is not definitively known in the public domain—the degree of credit assigned to Teller by his contemporaries is almost exactly commensurate with how well they thought of Teller in general. In an interview with "Scientific American" from 1999, Teller told the reporter:


title: History of the Teller–Ulam design

text: I contributed; Ulam did not. I'm sorry I had to answer it in this abrupt way. Ulam was rightly dissatisfied with an old approach. He came to me with a part of an idea which I already had worked out and difficulty getting people to listen to. He was willing to sign a paper. When it then came to defending that paper and really putting work into it, he refused. He said, "I don't believe in it."


title: History of the Teller–Ulam design

text: The issue is controversial. Bethe in his “Memorandum on the History of the Thermonuclear Program” (1952) cited Teller as the discoverer of an “entirely new approach to thermonuclear reactions”, which “was a matter of inspiration” and was “therefore, unpredictable” and “largely accidental.” At the Oppenheimer hearing, in 1954, Bethe spoke of Teller's “stroke of genius” in the invention of the H-bomb. And finally in 1997 Bethe stated that “the crucial invention was made in 1951, by Teller.”


title: History of the Teller–Ulam design

text: Other scientists (antagonistic to Teller, such as J. Carson Mark) have claimed that Teller would have never gotten any closer without the idea of Ulam. The nuclear weapons designer Ted Taylor was clear about assigning credit for the basic staging and compression ideas to Ulam, while giving Teller the credit for recognizing the critical role of radiation as opposed to hydrodynamic pressure.


title: History of the Teller–Ulam design

text: Teller became known in the press as the "father of the hydrogen bomb", a title which he did not seek to discourage. Many of Teller's colleagues were irritated that he seemed to enjoy taking full credit for something he had only a part in, and in response, with encouragement from Enrico Fermi, Teller authored an article titled "The Work of Many People," which appeared in "Science" magazine in February 1955, emphasizing that he was not alone in the weapon's development (he would later write in his memoirs that he had told a "white lie" in the 1955 article, and would imply that he should receive full credit for the weapon's invention). Hans Bethe, who also participated in the hydrogen bomb project, once drolly said, "For the sake of history, I think it is more precise to say that Ulam is the father, because he provided the seed, and Teller is the mother, because he remained with the child. As for me, I guess I am the midwife."


title: History of the Teller–Ulam design

text: The Teller–Ulam breakthrough—the details of which are still classified—was apparently the separation of the fission and fusion components of the weapons, and to use the radiation produced by the fission bomb to first compress the fusion fuel before igniting it. Some sources have suggested that Ulam initially proposed compressing the "secondary" through the shock waves generated by the primary and that it was Teller who then realized that the radiation from the primary would be able to accomplish the task (hence "radiation implosion"). However, compression alone would not have been enough and the other crucial idea, staging the bomb by separating the primary and secondary, seems to have been exclusively contributed by Ulam. The elegance of the design impressed many scientists, to the point that some who previously wondered if it were feasible suddenly believed it was inevitable and that it would be created by both the US and the Soviet Union. Even Oppenheimer, who was originally opposed to the project, called the idea "technically sweet." The "George" shot of Operation Greenhouse in 1951 tested the basic concept for the first time on a very small scale (and the next shot in the series, "Item," was the first boosted fission weapon), raising expectations to a near certainty that the concept would work.


title: History of the Teller–Ulam design

text: On November 1, 1952, the Teller–Ulam configuration was tested in the "Ivy Mike" shot at an island in the Enewetak atoll, with a yield of (over 450 times more powerful than the bomb dropped on Nagasaki during World War II). The device, dubbed the "Sausage", used an extra-large fission bomb as a "trigger" and liquid deuterium, kept in its liquid state by of cryogenic equipment, as its fusion fuel, and it had a mass of around altogether. An initial press blackout was attempted, but it was soon announced that the US had detonated a megaton-range hydrogen bomb.


title: History of the Teller–Ulam design

text: The elaborate refrigeration plant necessary to keep its fusion fuel in a liquid state meant that the "Ivy Mike" device was too heavy and too complex to be of practical use. The first "deployable" Teller–Ulam weapon in the US would not be developed until 1954, when the liquid deuterium fuel of the "Ivy Mike" device would be replaced with a dry fuel of lithium deuteride and tested in the "Castle Bravo" shot (the device was codenamed the "Shrimp"). The dry lithium mixture performed much better than had been expected, and the "Castle Bravo" device that was detonated in 1954 had a yield two-and-a-half times greater than had been expected (at , it was also the most powerful bomb ever detonated by the United States). Because much of the yield came from the final fission stage of its tamper, it generated much nuclear fallout, which caused one of the worst nuclear accidents in US history after unforeseen weather patterns blew it over populated areas of the atoll and Japanese fishermen on board the "Daigo Fukuryu Maru".


title: History of the Teller–Ulam design

text: After an initial period focused on making multi-megaton hydrogen bombs, efforts in the United States shifted towards developing miniaturized Teller–Ulam weapons which could outfit Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles and Submarine Launched Ballistic Missiles. The last major design breakthrough in this respect was accomplished by the mid-1970s, when versions of the Teller–Ulam design were created which could fit on the end of a small MIRVed missile.


title: History of the Teller–Ulam design

text: In the Soviet Union, the scientists working on their own hydrogen bomb project also ran into difficulties in developing a megaton-range fusion weapon. Because Klaus Fuchs had only been at Los Alamos at a very early stage of the hydrogen bomb design (before the Teller–Ulam configuration had been completed), none of his espionage information was of much use, and the Soviet physicists working on the project had to develop their weapon independently.


title: History of the Teller–Ulam design

text: The first Soviet fusion design, developed by Andrei Sakharov and Vitaly Ginzburg in 1949 (before the Soviets had a working fission bomb), was dubbed the "Sloika", after a Russian layered puff pastry, and was not of the Teller–Ulam configuration, but rather used alternating layers of fissile material and lithium deuteride fusion fuel spiked with tritium (this was later dubbed Sakharov's "First Idea"). Though nuclear fusion was technically achieved, it did not have the scaling property of a "staged" weapon, and their first "hydrogen bomb" test, "Joe 4" is no longer considered to be a "true" hydrogen bomb, and is rather considered a hybrid fission/fusion device more similar to a large boosted fission weapon than a Teller–Ulam weapon (though using an order of magnitude more fusion fuel than a boosted weapon). Detonated in 1953 with a yield equivalent to (only from fusion), the "Sloika" device did, however, have the advantage of being a weapon which could actually be delivered to a military target, unlike the "Ivy Mike" device, though it was never widely deployed. Teller had proposed a similar design as early as 1946, dubbed the "Alarm Clock" (meant to "wake up" research into the "Super"), though it was calculated to be ultimately not worth the effort and no prototype was ever developed or tested.


title: History of the Teller–Ulam design

text: Attempts to use a "Sloika" design to achieve megaton-range results proved unfeasible in the Soviet Union as it had in the calculations done in the US, but its value as a practical weapon since it was 20 times more powerful than their first fission bomb, should not be underestimated. The Soviet physicists calculated that at best the design might yield a single megaton of energy if it was pushed to its limits. After the US tested the "Ivy Mike" device in 1952, proving that a multimegaton bomb could be created, the Soviets searched for an additional design and continued to work on improving the "Sloika" (the "First Idea"). The "Second Idea", as Sakharov referred to it in his memoirs, was a previous proposal by Ginzburg in November 1948 to use lithium deuteride in the bomb, which would, by the bombardment by neutrons, produce tritium. In late 1953, physicist Viktor Davidenko achieved the first breakthrough, that of keeping the "primary" and the "secondary" parts of the bombs in separate pieces ("staging"). The next breakthrough was discovered and developed by Sakharov and Yakov Zeldovich, that of using the X-rays from the fission bomb to compress the "secondary" before fusion ("radiation implosion"), in the spring of 1954. Sakharov's "Third Idea", as the Teller–Ulam design was known in the Soviet Union, was tested in the shot "RDS-37" in November 1955 with a yield of .


title: History of the Teller–Ulam design

text: If the Soviets had been able to analyze the fallout data from either the "Ivy Mike" or "Castle Bravo" tests, they could have been able to discern that the fission "primary" was being kept separate from the fusion "secondary", a key part of the Teller–Ulam device, and perhaps that the fusion fuel had been subjected to high amounts of compression before detonation.(De Geer 1991) One of the key Soviet bomb designers, Yuli Khariton, later said:


title: History of the Teller–Ulam design

text: At that time, Soviet research was not organized on a sufficiently high level, and useful results were not obtained, although radiochemical analyses of samples of fallout could have provided some useful information about the materials used to produce the explosion. The relationship between certain short-lived isotopes formed in the course of thermonuclear reactions could have made it possible to judge the degree of compression of the thermonuclear fuel, but knowing the degree of compression would not have allowed Soviet scientists to conclude exactly how the exploded device had been made, and it would not have revealed its design.


title: History of the Teller–Ulam design

text: Sakharov stated in his memoirs that though he and Davidenko had fallout dust in cardboard boxes several days after the "Mike" test with the hope of analyzing it for information, a chemist at Arzamas-16 (the Soviet weapons laboratory) had mistakenly poured the concentrate down the drain before it could be analyzed. Only in the fall of 1952 did the Soviet Union set up an organized system for monitoring fallout data. Nonetheless, the "memoirs" also say that the yield from one of the American tests, which became an international incident involving Japan, told Sakharov that the US design was much better than theirs, and he decided that they must have exploded a separate fission bomb and somehow used its energy to compress the lithium deuteride. But how, he asked himself, can an explosion to one side be used to compress the ball of fusion fuel within of symmetry? Then it hit him! Focus the X-rays!


title: History of the Teller–Ulam design

text: The Soviets demonstrated the power of the "staging" concept in October 1961 when they detonated the massive and unwieldy "Tsar Bomba", a hydrogen bomb which derived almost of its energy from fusion rather than fission—its uranium tamper was replaced with one of lead shortly before firing, in an effort to prevent excessive nuclear fallout. Had it been fired in its "full" form, it would have yielded at around . The weapon was technically deployable (it was tested by dropping it from a specially modified bomber), but militarily impractical, and was developed and tested primarily as a show of Soviet strength. It is the largest nuclear weapon developed and tested by any country.


title: History of the Teller–Ulam design

text: The details of the development of the Teller–Ulam design in other countries are less well known. In any event, the United Kingdom initially had difficulty in its development of it and failed in its first attempt in May 1957 (its "Grapple I" test failed to ignite as planned, but much of its energy came from fusion in its secondary). However, it succeeded in its second attempt in its November 1957 "Grapple X" test, which yielded 1.8 Mt. The British development of the Teller–Ulam design was apparently independent, but it was allowed to share in some US fallout data which may have been useful. After the successful detonation of a megaton-range device and thus its practical understanding of the Teller–Ulam design "secret," the United States agreed to exchange some of its nuclear designs with the United Kingdom, which led to the 1958 US-UK Mutual Defence Agreement.


title: History of the Teller–Ulam design

text: The People's Republic of China detonated its first device using a Teller–Ulam design June 1967 ("Test No. 6"), a mere 32 months after detonating its first fission weapon (the shortest fission-to-fusion development yet known), with a yield of 3.3 Mt. Little is known about the Chinese thermonuclear program.


title: History of the Teller–Ulam design

text: Very little is known about the French development of the Teller–Ulam design beyond the fact that it detonated a 2.6 Mt device in the "Canopus" test in August 1968.


title: History of the Teller–Ulam design

text: On 11 May 1998, India announced that it has detonated a hydrogen bomb in its Operation Shakti tests ("Shakti I", specifically). Some non-Indian analysts, using seismographic readings, have suggested that it might not be the case by pointing at the low yield of the test, which they say is close to 30 kilotons (as opposed to 45 kilotons announced by India).


title: History of the Teller–Ulam design

text: However, some non-Indian experts agree with India. Dr. Harold M. Agnew, former director of the Los Alamos National Laboratory, said that India's assertion of having detonated a staged thermonuclear bomb was believable. The British seismologist Roger Clarke argued that seismic magnitudes suggested a combined yield of up to 60 kilotonnes, consistent with the Indian announced total yield of 56 kilotonnes. Professor Jack Evernden, a US seismologist, has always maintained that for correct estimation of yields, one should "account properly for geological and seismological differences between test sites." His estimation of the yields of the Indian tests concur with those of India.


title: History of the Teller–Ulam design

text: Indian scientists have argued that some international estimations of the yields of India's nuclear tests are unscientific.


title: History of the Teller–Ulam design

text: India says that the yield of its tests were deliberately kept low to avoid civilian damage and that it can build staged thermonuclear weapons of various yields up to around 200 kilotons on the basis of those tests. Another cited reason for the low yields was that radioactivity released from yields significantly more than 45 kilotons might not have been contained fully.


title: History of the Teller–Ulam design

text: Even low-yield tests can have a bearing on thermonuclear capability, as they can provide information on the behavior of "primaries" without the full ignition of "secondaries".


title: History of the Teller–Ulam design

text: North Korea claimed to have tested its miniaturised thermonuclear bomb on January 6, 2016. North Korea's first three nuclear tests (2006, 2009 and 2013) had a relatively low yield and do not appear to have been of a thermonuclear weapon design. In 2013, the South Korean Defense Ministry had speculated that North Korea might be trying to develop a "hydrogen bomb" and such a device might be North Korea's next weapons test. In January 2016, North Korea claimed to have successfully tested a hydrogen bomb, but only a magnitude 5.1 seismic event was detected at the time of the test, a similar magnitude to the 2013 test of a 6–9 kt atomic bomb. Those seismic recordings have scientists worldwide doubting North Korea's claim that a hydrogen bomb was tested and suggest it was a non-fusion nuclear test. On September 9, 2016, North Korea conducted their fifth nuclear test which yielded between 10 and 30 kilotons.


title: History of the Teller–Ulam design

text: On September 3, 2017, North Korea conducted a sixth nuclear test just a few hours after photographs of North Korean leader Kim Jong-un inspecting a device resembling a thermonuclear weapon warhead were released. Initial estimates in first few days were between 70 and 160 kilotons and were raised over a week later to range of 250 to over 300 kilotons. Jane's Information Group estimated, based mainly on visual analysis of propaganda pictures, that the bomb might weigh between 250 and 360 kilograms (~550 – 790 lbs.).