title: Phil Fish

text: Fish began to work with Toronto-based indie developer Shawn McGrath on McGrath's idea for a puzzle game that showed 2D views of a 3D space. Fish provided the project's art until the partnership crumbled due to creative differences: Fish wanted their product to be more of a platform game. Fish continued to work on the game in his spare time, and incorporated the idea of voxels (3D pixels), where a 2D pixel could be seen from four sides. The game would become "Fez" and the game's design, lore, and art derived from this game mechanic. Fish searched for a programmer on DeviantArt and Renaud Bédard, the first person to apply, became the game's programmer. "Fez" was first announced in July 2007 and was nominated for two awards at the 2008 Game Developers Conference Independent Games Festival. Fish's employer, Artificial Mind and Movement, would not let him take leave from work to attend, so Fish quit. He marked this January 2008 moment as "when I became indie". The game received widespread attention upon its showing at the festival, leading Fish to open Polytron Corporation as a startup company with a government loan.


title: Phil Fish

text: Polytron later ran out of money and was on the verge of folding when the company's Québécois neighbor, developer-producer Trapdoor, offered to help Polytron without transferring its intellectual property rights. According to Fish, the partnership saved "Fez". The game was delayed several times over the next few years for which it received some notoriety.


title: Phil Fish

text: In late 2009, Polytron presented an iPhone game called "Power Pill" at Pecha Kucha Montreal. The game features a panacean pill that travels through human bodies as its playable protagonist, and it uses the iPhone's multi-touch screen. "GameSetWatch" Eric Caoili compared it to "Soul Bubbles" and "Irritating Stick". The game was developed with Alec Holowka of Infinite Ammo, and a level editor was expected to be included. While working on "Fez", Fish revived a game project called "SuperHyperCube", which was based on Wiimote motion capture input and stereoscopic navigation. Fish felt the game would work better with the new Kinect motion tracking. The adapted game was a finalist at Indiecade 2011.


title: Phil Fish

text: Fish and "Fez" were featured prominently in the 2012 documentary "", through which Fish received celebrity unusual for game developers. The film chronicles the stories of several indie developers at various stages of their games' development cycles, and Fish is shown preparing for "Fez" booth at PAX East in March 2011. The film presents Fish amidst a legal dispute with a former business partner that jeopardizes the game's release. The ex-partner, Jason DeGroot (a musician who contributed to the game), is portrayed negatively and is not shown on-screen. The film also tracks Fish's personal and emotional investment in the game. "Eurogamer" wrote that the scene where Fish resolves to kill himself if he does not release his game is "the film's most startling moment". "Rock, Paper, Shotgun" wrote that Fish is portrayed as melodramatic, existential, theatrical, and neurotic in contrast with the other developers shown in the film, which would exacerbate his outspoken public perception. "Game Informer" called Fish the film's "most memorable developer".


title: Phil Fish

text: Near the end of development, Fish felt "burnt out" and that his personal health had suffered. "Fez" was released on April 13, 2012, and sold 200,000 copies in its yearlong exclusivity to the Xbox Live Arcade platform. Video game review aggregator Metacritic described its reception as "generally favorable" and that of the 2013 PC version as "universal acclaim". While in development, "Fez" had won the 2012 GDC Independent Games Festival's Seamus McNally Grand Prize, the 2011 Indiecade Best in Show and Best Story/World Design, and the 2008 GDC Independent Games Festival's Excellence in Visual Art. "Eurogamer" awarded "Fez" a perfect score and named the "perfect, wordless sci-fi parable" their 2012 Game of the Year. The game sold one million copies by the end of 2013 and Fish announced eventual ports for most video game platforms. "The New York Times" Chris Suellentrop likened Fish to "a Quentin Tarantino of 8-bit gaming".


title: Phil Fish

text: A "Fez" sequel was announced as "one more thing" at end of the Horizon indie game press conference during the June 2013 Electronic Entertainment Expo. A Twitter argument between Fish and "GameTrailers" journalist Marcus Beer a month later culminated in the project's cancellation and Fish's announced exit from the industry. In an episode of his show "Invisible Walls", Beer had criticized Fish's recent response to questions about Microsoft's Xbox One self-publishing policy change. On Twitter, Fish condemned the industry for its negativity before his final tweet announced the cancellation and his leave. The news came as a surprise to the rest of Polytron, which has not commented on upcoming projects other than ports since the sequel's cancellation. Polygon listed Fish in their top 50 newsmakers of 2013 for the social power of his "caustic use of Twitter".


title: Phil Fish

text: In June 2014, Fish announced Polytron Partnersa new effort by Polytron to fund and support potential indie game efforts, like a publisher. For their first game, Polytron would work with Finji to provide the daily operations capacity for an "interactive musical landscape anthology" game named "Panoramical". Fish was an early target of Gamergate; his personal and company records were hacked and released publicly in August 2014. Fish responded by announcing that the company and "Fez" property were for sale.


title: Phil Fish

text: After twice announcing his leave from the video game industry, Fish remained connected with Kokoromi. Together they finished SuperHyperCube in late 2016 as one of the first PlayStation VR games. He also designed the boot-up animations for the Analogue Super Nt console in 2017.


title: 1st United States Congress

text: The 1st United States Congress, comprising the United States Senate and the United States House of Representatives, met from March 4, 1789, to March 4, 1791, during the first two years of George Washington's presidency, first at Federal Hall in New York City and later at Congress Hall in Philadelphia. With the initial meeting of the First Congress, the United States federal government officially began operations under the new (and current) frame of government established by the 1787 Constitution. The apportionment of seats in the House of Representatives was based on the provisions of of the Constitution. Both chambers had a Pro-Administration majority. Twelve articles of amendment to the Constitution were passed by this Congress and sent to the states for ratification; the ten ratified as additions to the Constitution on December 15, 1791, are collectively known as the Bill of Rights, with an additional amendment ratified more than two centuries later to become the Twenty-seventh Amendment to the United States Constitution.


title: 1st United States Congress

text: There were no political parties in this Congress. Members are informally grouped into factions of similar interest, based on an analysis of their voting record.


title: 1st United States Congress

text: During this congress, two Senate seats were added for North Carolina and Rhode Island when each ratified the Constitution.


title: 1st United States Congress

text: During this congress, five House seats were added for North Carolina and one House seat was added for Rhode Island when they ratified the Constitution.


title: 1st United States Congress

text: This list is arranged by chamber, then by state. Senators are listed by class, and representatives are listed by district.


title: 1st United States Congress

text: Senators were elected by the state legislatures every two years, with one-third beginning new six-year terms with each Congress. Preceding the names in the list below are Senate class numbers, which indicate the cycle of their election. In this Congress, all senators were newly elected, and Class 1 meant their term ended with this Congress, requiring re-election in 1790; Class 2 meant their term ended with the next Congress, requiring re-election in 1792; and Class 3 meant their term lasted through the next two Congresses, requiring re-election in 1794.


title: 1st United States Congress

text: New York, North Carolina, and Rhode Island, were the last states to ratify the U.S. Constitution, and because of their late ratification, were unable to send full representation at the beginning of this Congress. Six Senators and nine Representatives were subsequently seated from these states during the sessions as noted.


title: 1st United States Congress

text: There was 1 resignation, 1 death, 1 replacement of a temporary appointee, and 6 new seats. The Anti-Administration Senators picked up 1 new seat and the Pro-Administration Senators picked up 5 new seats.


title: 1st United States Congress

text: There was 2 resignations, 1 death, and 6 new seats. Anti-Administration members picked up 3 seats and Pro-Administration members picked up 2 seats.


title: Dil Toh Baccha Hai Ji

text: Dil Toh Baccha Hai Ji () is a 2011 Indian Hindi-language romantic comedy film directed by Madhur Bhandarkar, starring Ajay Devgn, Emraan Hashmi and Omi Vaidya in the lead roles with Shazahn Padamsee, Shruti Haasan, Rituparna Sengupta, Tisca Chopra and Shraddha Das in supporting roles. It is produced by Madhur Bhandarkar and Kumar Mangat under the banner of Bhandarkar Entertainment and Wide Frame Films. The film was released on 28 January 2011.


title: Dil Toh Baccha Hai Ji

text: "Dil Toh Baccha Hai Ji" revolves around the story of three men. Naren Ahuja (Ajay Devgn) works as a bank manager and is seeking divorce from his wife, Madhvi (Rituparna Sengupta); Abhay Suri (Emraan Hashmi) is a playboy and gym trainer; and Milind Kelkar (Omi Vaidya) works in a matrimonial company and is in search for true love. Naren leaves his house and starts living in his parents' house. Abhay and Milind are thrown out of their rented apartments and end up as paying guests for Naren. Naren has a crush on June Pinto (Shazahn Padamsee), who works as an intern in his bank. Milind starts loving a radio jockey, Gungun Sarkar (Shraddha Das). Abhay falls for Anushka Narang (Tisca Chopra), a former Ms. India, who married a multi-millionaire and is interested in young men.


title: Dil Toh Baccha Hai Ji

text: Naren and June start enjoying each other's company. Milind tries to impress Gungun, which annoys her, but she uses Milind for her own reasons. Abhay gets full attention from Anushka and they start having an affair. The three love stories blossom until Nikki Narang (Shruti Haasan), the stepdaughter of Anushka, enters the story. Abhay falls for Nikki and starts ignoring Anushka. He breaks up with Anushka and starts going out with Nikki. June's grandma invites Naren for dinner, and Gungun eventually falls in love with Milind. The next day, everything changes. Milind gets angry after getting a letter from Gungun that she's going to Chennai for a movie, Nikki dumps Abhay therefore admitting that she was just using him for sex and he's not her type and June's grandma invites Naren to get his opinion on June marrying Chris Pascal, her boyfriend. At the airport, the three friends decide to go to Goa for a vacation and vow never to fall for girls any more. However, at the same airport they find three new girls. The story is the "love" defined in practical terms with satire.


title: Dil Toh Baccha Hai Ji

text: The film received an A (Adults only) rating by the Central Board of Film Certification after Bhandarkar refused to cut several scenes he felt were integral to the film.


title: Dil Toh Baccha Hai Ji

text: The film received positive response from critics upon release. At the box office, it grossed Rs. 282.5 million in three weeks. The Indian theatrical rights were pre-sold at a reasonable price of 130 million. It collected around $250,000 in the first weekend from all overseas circuits.


title: Dil Toh Baccha Hai Ji

text: The songs of the film are composed by Pritam. Lyrics are penned by Neelesh Misra, Kumaar, Sanjay Chhel and Sayeed Quadri.


title: Ozzie Albies

text: Ozhaino Jurdy Jiandro "Ozzie" Albies (born January 7, 1997) is a Curaçaoan professional baseball second baseman for the Atlanta Braves of Major League Baseball (MLB). Albies signed with the Braves organization in 2013, and made his MLB debut with the team in 2017. During his first full season, Albies was named to the 2018 Major League Baseball All-Star Game. He won the National League Silver Slugger Award for second basemen twice, in 2019 and 2021. In 2021 he won the Heart & Hustle Award.


title: Ozzie Albies

text: Albies was born in Willemstad, Curaçao, to parents Osgarry and Judari. His father died in 2013 of a heart attack, aged 40. Albies has a younger brother, Zhhihir, and sister, Jeanalyn.


title: Ozzie Albies

text: Albies started playing baseball at the age of six, and began switch hitting in 2013. Discovered by the Curaçao-based scout Dargello Lodowica, Albies was signed by the Atlanta Braves for $350,000 as an international free agent on July 2, 2013. Influencing his decision to sign was the Braves' connection to Andruw Jones and Andrelton Simmons, both, like Albies, natives of Curaçao. He made his professional debut in 2014 with the Gulf Coast Braves and joined the Danville Braves in July. In 57 games, Albies hit .364/.446/.444 with a home run. After the season, he was ranked among the top 100 prospects in baseball by Keith Law, and fifth-best in Braves farm system by "Baseball America".


title: Ozzie Albies

text: Albies began the 2015 season with the Rome Braves. In July, he was named to the All Star Futures Game. He was the only Braves prospect to appear in the game that year, as well as the youngest player on the field. Albies went 1-2 in the game, which the World Team lost to the U.S. 10–1. He fractured his right thumb during the first week of August and missed the remainder of the season. In 98 games, Albies hit .310/.368/.404, stole 29 bases, and committed 17 errors. MLB.com placed him third on the list of top Braves prospects at the end of 2015, and 30th overall throughout the minors.


title: Ozzie Albies

text: Albies was invited to spring training in 2016, and opened the season with the Double A Mississippi Braves. After 22 appearances with Mississippi, he hit .369/.442/.512 and was promoted to the Triple A Gwinnett Braves on April 30. In two months with Gwinnett, Albies hit .248/.307/.351. On June 30, he returned to Mississippi, playing second base alongside shortstop Dansby Swanson. Upon Swanson's promotion to the major leagues, Albies remained in Mississippi, having hit for a .292 batting average and a .778 OPS between the Double A and Triple A levels. Mississippi made the Southern League playoffs, but Albies injured his right elbow in the first postseason game and sat out the remainder of the season.


title: Ozzie Albies

text: Albies was again invited to spring training at the start of the 2017 season. He was called up later that year on August 1, and made his major league debut against the Los Angeles Dodgers. On August 3, 2017, against the Dodgers, Albies hit his first career home run for his first Major League hit.


title: Ozzie Albies

text: Albies was part of the Braves' Opening Day starting lineup to open the 2018 season. On June 12, 2018, Albies hit a grand slam against the New York Mets en route to an 8–2 win. Albies became the youngest player ever to have two grand slams. On June 25, 2018, Albies hit his first career walk-off home run against the Cincinnati Reds. On July 8, 2018, while owning a .281 batting average with 18 home runs and 50 RBIs, Albies was named an All-Star via the player vote in his first full year in the major leagues. On July 11, against the Toronto Blue Jays, he had his first career multi-home run game.


title: Ozzie Albies

text: In 2018, he batted .261/.305/.452 with 24 home runs and 72 RBIs. On defense, he committed 10 errors, fourth-most of all NL second basemen.


title: Ozzie Albies

text: On April 11, 2019, Albies signed a seven-year, $35 million extension to remain with the Braves. The deal includes options for the 2026 and 2027 seasons. Both years are worth $7 million with a $4 million buyout.


title: Ozzie Albies

text: In 2019, he batted .295/.352/.500 with 102 runs, 24 home runs, 86 RBIs, and 112 strikeouts. Albies and teammates Ronald Acuña Jr. and Freddie Freeman won the 2019 National League Silver Slugger Awards for second base, outfield, and first base, respectively. On defense, in 2019 he had the best fielding percentage of all major league second basemen (.994).


title: Ozzie Albies

text: In the 2020 COVID-19 pandemic-shortened season, he batted .271/.306/.466 with six home runs and 19 RBIs.


title: Ozzie Albies

text: On June 3, 2021, Albies recorded his 500th career hit, an RBI double off of Washington Nationals reliever Sam Clay. Albies was selected as a reserve for the 2021 All-Star Game. When Albies hit his twenty-fifth home run of the season on September 4, the 2021 Atlanta Braves became the second team in Major League Baseball history to have its starting infielders hit twenty-five home runs each. On September 22, Albies recorded his thirtieth home run and one hundredth RBI of the season, marking the first time in his career that he reached either milestone. He became the first second baseman in Braves franchise history to have hit thirty home runs and driven in one hundred runs in the same season. While playing the Philadelphia Phillies on September 29, Albies scored his 100th run of the season.


title: Ozzie Albies

text: In the 2021 season, he batted .259/.310/.488 in 629 at bats (2nd in the NL), with 103 runs (4th), 40 doubles (3rd), 7 triples (3rd), 30 home runs, 106 RBIs (3rd), and 128 strikeouts. He swung at a higher percentage of pitches in the strike zone than any other major leaguer, at 83.4%. On defense, he led all second basemen with 389 assists and committed 8 errors, fourth-most of all NL second basemen. The Braves finished with an 88–73 record, clinching the NL East, and eventually won the 2021 World Series, giving the Braves their first title since 1995. Following the 2021 season, Albies won a second Silver Slugger Award, as well as the Heart and Hustle Award.


title: Ozzie Albies

text: Albies fractured his left foot in a game against the Washington Nationals on June 13, 2022. He was subsequently placed on the 60-day injured list and underwent a surgical procedure, performed by Robert Anderson. Albies returned to the active roster on September 16. The next day, Albies fractured his right pinky while sliding into second base.


title: Ronnie Schell

text: Ronald Ralph Schell (born December 23, 1931) is an American actor and stand-up comedian. He appeared on the May 28, 1959, episode of the TV quiz "You Bet Your Life", hosted by Groucho Marx. Schell demonstrated a comic barrage of beatnik jive talk. As a stand-up comedian, he first developed his act at the hungry i nightclub in San Francisco, California. Schell is probably best known for his 1960s television role as Duke Slater in "Gomer Pyle, U.S.M.C."


title: Ronnie Schell

text: Schell was born in Richmond, California, on December 23, 1931. Upon graduation from high school, he served four years in the United States Air Force, where he became an airman first class.


title: Ronnie Schell

text: In his role as Duke Slater on "Gomer Pyle, U.S.M.C.", Schell's character was cast for three seasons as a Marine private and best friend of Gomer Pyle. Schell left for a season to star as a disc jockey in his own sitcom, "Good Morning World". He then returned to "Gomer Pyle, U.S.M.C." as a corporal for its fifth and final season. Schell played Duke Slater as an urban, streetwise character, compared to Pyle's rural, bucolic character, as portrayed by Jim Nabors. Returning as a corporal, Slater acted more as a mediator between Pyle and Sgt. Carter, portrayed by Frank Sutton, than as a buddy to Pyle.


title: Ronnie Schell

text: Schell lent his voice to "Jason" on the animated series "Battle of the Planets" and co-starred as "Mr. Brown" on "The Mouseketeers at Walt Disney World".


title: Ronnie Schell

text: His other television guest credits include "The Andy Griffith Show", "The Patty Duke Show", "Phil of the Future", "Yes, Dear", "The Wayans Bros.", "Step by Step", "Coach", "The Golden Girls", "227", "Saved by the Bell", "Empty Nest", "Mr. Belvedere", "Santa Barbara", "Trapper John, M.D.", "Too Close for Comfort", "The Brian Keith Show", "The New Temperatures Rising Show", "The Love Boat", "Love, American Style", "Alice", "Mork & Mindy", "One Day at a Time", "Charlie's Angels", "The Dukes of Hazzard", "Sanford and Son", "Emergency!", "Happy Days", "Adam-12", "The New Dick Van Dyke Show", "That Girl", "Black Sheep Squadron", and "Jessie".


title: Ronnie Schell

text: Schell's gradual ascendency into the public's attention earned him the title "America's Slowest Rising Comedian".


title: Ronnie Schell

text: Schell also acted in a few Pacific Southwest Airlines (PSA) commercials such as "Smile Inspection" and "PSA Gives You A Lift Pageant". At the end of a Jerry Lewis PSA jingle, a voice said "That was Jerry Lewis for PSA, and this is Ronnie Schell. What did I do wrong?" Schell was the voice for the hockey puck-shaped character on the Peter Puck cartoons, which aired during televised National Hockey League games in the 1970s. From the mid to late 1980s, Schell appeared in numerous television commercials for Shakey's Pizza.


title: Ronnie Schell

text: In 2007, Schell was part of a touring cabaret show titled, "5 Star Revue" with Gary Collins, Mary Ann Mobley, Ruta Lee, and Steve Rossi. He starred in the 2009 off-Broadway production of "Don't Leave it All to Your Children!", a comedic and musical revue dedicated to aging baby boomers.


title: Do You Hear the People Sing?

text: "Do You Hear the People Sing?" ("", literally "To the Will of the People", in the original French version) is one of the principal and most recognisable songs from the 1980 musical "Les Misérables". It is sung twice in the stage musical.


title: Do You Hear the People Sing?

text: The song, composed by Claude-Michel Schönberg (music), Alain Boublil and Jean-Marc Natel (original French lyrics), and Herbert Kretzmer (English lyrics) is first sung in Act I by Enjolras and the other students at the ABC Cafe as they prepare themselves to launch a rebellion in the streets of Paris during the funeral procession of General Jean Maximilien Lamarque. The song is sung again in the finale as the final song of the musical. This second version, which immediately follows a number by Jean Valjean and others, is sung by the entire cast with revised lyrics, and becomes progressively louder with each stanza.


title: Do You Hear the People Sing?

text: The song is a revolutionary call for people to overcome adversity. The "barricades" referred to in the song are erected by the rebel students in the streets of Paris in the musical's second act. They are to draw the National Guard into combat and ignite a civilian uprising to overthrow the government, but their rebellion eventually fails.


title: Do You Hear the People Sing?

text: There are unofficial adaptations of "Do You Hear the People Sing?" in Cantonese and Taiwanese, intended as actual protest songs; better known versions include "Asking Who That Hasn't Spoken Out" (), written in Cantonese for Occupy Central with Love and Peace, and "Lí Kám Ū Thiann-tio̍h Lán Ê Kua" (你敢有聽着咱的歌) in Taiwanese Hokkien.


title: Do You Hear the People Sing?

text: The song can be heard in protests in Hong Kong as recently as September 2019, when students sang this song over the national anthem during a secondary school's opening assembly. The song was initially removed on music platforms including QQ Music in mainland China because of its widespread usage in anti-extradition bill protests, while its English version was later removed from those platforms.


title: Do You Hear the People Sing?

text: Aside from the aforementioned Cantonese and Taiwanese Hokkien adaptations, "The Telegraph" said that the song "has long chimed with people protesting around the world", adding that it was heard at the 2011 Wisconsin protests, the 2013 protests in Turkey, and a protest against the opening of a McDonald's restaurant in Australia in 2013. It has also been used by anti-TTIP protesters who have interrupted TTIP congresses as flashmobs singing the song.


title: Do You Hear the People Sing?

text: The song was also used in support of the Maidan protests in 2014 by the group Ukraine 2020, who released a music video for the song on YouTube.


title: Do You Hear the People Sing?

text: In 2016, the song was used as a protest song in South Korea's nationwide Park Geun-hye resignation movement.


title: Do You Hear the People Sing?

text: In 2017, the song was translated into Filipino by theater artists Vincent de Jesus, Rody Vera, and Joel Saracho, and has been performed at rallies to protest the killing of activists and drug suspects under Philippine President Rodrigo Duterte, and again following the 2022 Philippine presidential election.


title: Do You Hear the People Sing?

text: In September 2020, a number of MSLU students in Minsk, Belarus, were detained after performing the song in the lobby of their educational institution. The students were protesting after president Alexander Lukashenko's disputed re-election.


title: Do You Hear the People Sing?

text: In April 2022, the song was used as a protest song in 2022 Sri Lankan protests against the government of president Gotabaya Rajapaksa.


title: Do You Hear the People Sing?

text: In April 2022, a clip of the 2012 film version of the song circulated on Twitter in protest of the lockdown during the 2022 Shanghai COVID-19 outbreak. The clip was ultimately blocked by the Chinese government to stop further protest.


title: Do You Hear the People Sing?

text: On 16 September 2016, during his presidential campaign, Donald Trump used the song in a rally in Miami under the parody title "Les Déplorables", a response to Hillary Clinton's controversial "basket of deplorables" label.


title: Do You Hear the People Sing?

text: On 15 November 2022, it was among the songs played before Trump announced his 2024 presidential campaign.


title: Dil Se Dil Tak

text: Dil Se Dil Tak ( From heart to heart) is an Indian Hindi-language love triangle show that was loosely based on the 2001 Bollywood film "Chori Chori Chupke Chupke". The series aired on Colors TV from 30 January 2017 to 1 June 2018 and starred Sidharth Shukla, Rashami Desai, Jasmin Bhasin, Rohan Gandotra and Mohammed Iqbal Khan.


title: Dil Se Dil Tak

text: Parth Bhanushali, the heir to the conservative and affluent Bhanushali family based in Vadodara, falls in love with and marries their Bengali employee Shorvori Bhattacharya at the cost of being disowned by his family.


title: Dil Se Dil Tak

text: Shorvori is pregnant and Parth's family accepts her. An unfortunate accident results in Shorvori's miscarriage, rendering her infertile. She and Parth hide the miscarriage from his family. Teni, a carefree Gujarati wanting settlement in the US, is chosen by Parth and Shorvori as a surrogate in return for sending her to the US. She gets pregnant with the couple's child via IVF. Shorvori introduces Teni as her cousin to the family. They start to live together. Teni slowly falls in love with Parth and ends up confessing it to him. They are in turmoil after the revelations regarding Teni's pregnancy as Parth accepts the baby to be his. The family eventually accepts the surrogacy situation. Due to a misunderstanding, Shorvori ends her relationship with Parth thinking that he has an extramarital affair with Teni and is cheating on her. Teni discovers that Shorvori has a fatal brain tumour and pretended to leave Parth to help him deal with her impending death. Shorvori sends divorce papers. Parth is suspicious of her behaviour. Shorvori meets with an accident and is presumed dead. Parth struggles to cope with the pain of losing her. Teni convinces him to move on. Due to a misunderstanding, Parth accuses Teni of murdering Shorvori. Teni goes into premature labour and delivers a girl named Ipshita. With Teni's life in danger, Parth donates blood to save her life. In return, she fulfils his demand that she leave the house. Eventually, Parth realises that Teni did not kill Shorvori. He develops a love for Teni. When she plans to leave for the US, Parth confesses his love and she accepts his proposal. Shorvori is actually alive and was in a coma. Shorvori arrives to reclaim Parth on his wedding day but leaves, seeing him with Teni. The two reach Nainital to find Shorvori. In Nainital, she starts working as a music teacher. Parth believes he was imagining Shorvori and consummates his marriage with Teni. However, they come across Shorvori. All of them arrive home. Teni tries to leave the family. However, the three of them decide to live together. Misunderstandings arise between Shorvori and Teni who is about to leave but falls down and loses her memory. Shorvori understands that Parth loves Teni more than her and blesses him. Suspecting Bhanushalis wanting to sell her off, Teni runs away from their home.


title: Dil Se Dil Tak

text: Shorvori is dead. Teni has been missing. The family sees Teni's traits in Ipshita. Teni leads a happy life in Delhi and is a sales manager, who is about to marry Iqbal. Circumstances lead to Parth and Teni meeting each other. Confused, Teni moves back to Baroda to find out about her past. Bhanushalis tell Teni everything, and she regains her memory as well as feelings for Parth. Teni decides to marry Iqbal who calls off the wedding. He gives them his blessings as he just wants Teni to be happy. As Iqbal leaves, Parth and Teni finally reunite living happily with Ipshita and their family.


title: Dil Se Dil Tak

text: The Series is produced by Shashi Sumeet Productions of Shashi Mittal and Sumeet Hukamchand Mittal. The series was initially titled "Sangharsh". Later, Its title was changed to "Dil Se Dil Tak".


title: Dil Se Dil Tak

text: Earlier, Mishal Raheja was finalised to play the lead role in the series which was tentatively titled 'Sangharsh'. He was being considered for playing Salman Khan's character from the film Chori Chori Chupke Chupke on whose storyline this show is based upon. Then, there were also rumours that Shashank Vyas will play the lead, but he took up Jaana Na Dil Se Door, whom he has signed a year before. In September 2016, he was replaced by Sidharth Shukla to play the lead role.At about the same time, Jasmin Bhasin (last seen in Tashan-e-Ishq) was finalised for the role played by Preity Zinta in Chori Chori Chupke Chupke. There were rumours that Chhavi Pandey would be romancing Mishal Raheja in the Series and would play the role of Rani Mukherjee from the film Chori Chori Chupke Chupke. There were also rumours that Ragini Nandwani would play the Female Lead in the show but she declined it. Sanjeeda Sheikh Tina Dutta, Sukirti Kandpal, Kritika Kamra, Aishwarya Sakhuja and Shraddha Arya were the actresses with whom the Production was also in talks to play the role of Rani Mukherjee from the film Chori Chori Chupke Chupke on whose storyline this show is based upon. Finally, in late September, Rashami Desai was chosen for the role from a group of talented actresses, like Chhavi Pandey, Sukirti Kandpal, Tina Dutta, Aishwarya Sakhuja, Kritika Kamra, Sanjeeda Sheikh and Shraddha Arya, who were short-listed for the role. Later, the Show's title was changed to "Dil Se Dil Tak". Thus, Finally, Rashami Desai, Sidharth Shukla and Jasmin Bhasin were finalised to play the Lead Roles in "Dil Se Dil Tak". In March 2017, Manish Raisinghan auditioned for the role played by Sidharth Shukla in the Show but later Sidharth Shukla decided not to walk out of the Show. After a few months, Rashami Desai's Character was shown to have been killed in a car accident when she decided to walk out of the Show. Later, in December 2017, Sidharth Shukla finally left the show and was replaced by Rohan Gandotra. In January 2018, Rashami Desai made a comeback in the Series but finally left the Series in March 2018 when her character was shown to have died in the show. Mohammed Iqbal Khan has most recently entered the Series to play the Lead Role along with Rohan and Jasmin. It then starred Rohan Gandotra, Jasmin Bhasin and Mohammed Iqbal Khan in the Lead Role.


title: Dil Se Dil Tak

text: "Dil Se Dil Tak" premiered on 30 January 2017 and aired Monday to Friday replacing "Bigg Boss 10". The series was last time aired on Colors TV on 1 June 2018. The series was again aired on Colors TV because of the popular demand and due to the deadly COVID-19 all show's shooting was stopped and the formerly popular and demanded shows were reaired.


title: Dil Se Dil Tak

text: The series gained early popularity because of Sidharth Shukla and Rashami Desai's onscreen chemistry. The series' target rating points (TRPs) declined after the actors left the show, and the series ended on 1 June 2018. The series was replaced by the Colors TV drama "Silsila Badalte Rishton Ka" from 4 June 2018.


title: Egyptian vulture

text: The Egyptian vulture (Neophron percnopterus), also called the white scavenger vulture or pharaoh's chicken, is a small Old World vulture and the only member of the genus "Neophron". It is widely distributed from the Iberian Peninsula and North Africa to India. The contrasting underwing pattern and wedge-shaped tail make it distinctive in flight as it soars in thermals during the warmer parts of the day. Egyptian vultures feed mainly on carrion but are opportunistic and will prey on small mammals, birds, and reptiles. They also feed on the eggs of other birds, breaking larger ones by tossing a large pebble onto them.


title: Egyptian vulture

text: The use of tools is rare in birds and apart from the use of a pebble as a hammer, Egyptian vultures also use twigs to roll up wool for use in their nest. Egyptian vultures that breed in the temperate regions migrate south in winter while tropical populations are relatively sedentary. Populations of this species declined in the 20th century and some island populations are endangered by hunting, accidental poisoning, and collision with power lines.


title: Egyptian vulture

text: The Egyptian vulture was first formally described by the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus in 1758 in the tenth edition of his "Systema Naturae" under the binomial name "Vultur percnopterus". The current genus "Neophron" contains only a single species. A few prehistoric species from the Neogene period in North America placed in the genus "Neophrontops" (the name meaning "looks like "Neophron"") are believed to have been very similar to these vultures in lifestyle, but the genetic relationships are unclear. The genus "Neophron" is considered to represent the oldest branch within the evolutionary tree of vultures. Along with its nearest evolutionary relative, the lammergeier ("Gypaetus barbatus"), they are sometimes placed in a separate subfamily, the Gypaetinae.


title: Egyptian vulture

text: There are three widely recognised subspecies of the Egyptian vulture, although there is considerable gradation due to movement and intermixing of the populations. The nominate subspecies, "N. p. percnopterus", has the largest range, occurring in southern Europe, northern Africa, the Middle East, Central Asia, and north-western India. Populations breeding in the temperate zone migrate south during winter. It has a dark grey bill.


title: Egyptian vulture

text: The Indian subcontinent is the range of subspecies "N. p. ginginianus", the smallest of the three subspecies, which is identifiable by a pale yellow bill. The subspecies name is derived from Gingee in southern India where the French explorer Pierre Sonnerat described it as Le Vautour de Gingi and it was given a Latin name by John Latham in his "Index Ornithologicus" (1790).


title: Egyptian vulture

text: A small population that is found only in the eastern Canary Islands was found to be genetically distinct and identified as a new subspecies, "N. p. majorensis" in 2002. Known locally as the "guirre" they are genetically more distant from "N. p. percnopterus", significantly greater even than "N. p. ginginianus" is from "N. p. percnopterus". Unlike neighbouring populations in Africa and southern Europe, it is non-migratory and consistently larger in size. The subspecies name "majorensis" is derived from "Majorata", the ancient name for the island of Fuerteventura. The island was named by Spanish conquerors in the 15th century after the "Majos", the main native Guanche tribe there. One study in 2010 suggested that the species established on the island about 2,500 years ago when the island was first colonized by humans.


title: Egyptian vulture

text: Nikolai Zarudny and Härms described a subspecies, "rubripersonatus", from Baluchistan in 1902. This was described as having a deeper reddish orange skin on the head and a yellow-tipped dark bill. This has rarely been considered a valid subspecies but the intermediate pattern of bill colouration suggests intermixing of subspecies.


title: Egyptian vulture

text: The genus name is derived from Greek mythology. Timandra was the mother of Neophron. Aegypius was a friend of Neophron and about the same age. It upset Neophron to know that his mother Timandra was having a love affair with Aegypius. Seeking revenge, Neophron made advances towards Aegypius' mother, Bulis. Neophron succeeded and enticed Bulis into entering the dark chamber where his mother and Aegypius were to meet soon. Neophron then distracted his mother, tricking Aegypius into entering the chamber and sleeping with his own mother Bulis. When Bulis discovered the deception she gouged out the eyes of her son Aegypius before killing herself. Aegypius prayed for revenge and Zeus, on hearing the prayer, changed Aegypius and Neophron into vultures. "Percnopterus" is derived from Greek for "black wings": "περκνός" ("perknos", meaning "blue-black") and πτερόν ("pteron", meaning wing).


title: Egyptian vulture

text: The adult's plumage is white, with black flight feathers in the wings. Wild birds usually appear soiled with a rusty or brown shade to the white plumage, derived from mud or iron-rich soil. Captive specimens without access to soil have clean white plumage. It has been suggested as a case of cosmetic colouration. The bill is slender and long, and the tip of the upper mandible is hooked. The nostril is an elongated horizontal slit. The neck feathers are long and form a hackle. The wings are pointed, with the third primary being the longest; the tail is wedge shaped. The legs are pink in adults and grey in juveniles. The claws are long and straight, and the third and fourth toes are slightly webbed at the base.


title: Egyptian vulture

text: The bill is black in the nominate subspecies but pale or yellowish in adults of the smaller Indian "ginginianus". Rasmussen and Anderton (2005) suggest that this variation may need further study, particularly due to the intermediate black-tipped bill described in "rubripersonatus". The facial skin is yellow and unfeathered down to the throat. The sexes are indistinguishable in plumage but breeding males have a deeper orange facial skin colour than females. Females average slightly larger and are about 10–15% heavier than males. Young birds are blackish or chocolate brown with black and white patches. The adult plumage is attained only after about five years.


title: Egyptian vulture

text: The adult Egyptian vulture measures from the point of the beak to the extremity of the tail feathers. In the smaller "N. p. ginginianus" males are about long while females are long. The wingspan is about 2.7 times the body length. Birds from Spain weigh about while birds of the Canary Island subspecies "majorensis", representing a case of island gigantism, are heavier with an average weight of . The Egyptian vulture is one of the smallest true Old World vulture, the only smaller species appears to be the marginally lighter palm-nut vulture (which may be an outlier from other vultures). Additionally, the hooded vulture is only scarcely larger than the Egyptian species.


title: Egyptian vulture

text: Egyptian vultures are widely distributed across the Old World with their breeding range from southern Europe to northern Africa east to western and southern Asia. They are rare vagrants in Sri Lanka. They occur mainly on the dry plains and lower hills. In the Himalayas, they go up to about in summer. In Armenia, breeding pairs have been found up to 2,300 meters a.s.l.


title: Egyptian vulture

text: Most Egyptian vultures in the subtropical zone of Europe migrate south to Africa in winter. Vagrants may occur as far south as in South Africa although they bred in the Transkei region prior to 1923. They nest mainly on rocky cliffs, sometimes adopting ledges on tall buildings in cities and on large trees. Like many other large soaring migrants, they avoid making long crossings over water. Italian birds cross over through Sicily and into Tunisia making short sea crossings by passing through the islands of Marettimo and Pantelleria with rare stops on the island country of Malta. Those that migrate through the Iberian Peninsula cross into Africa over the Strait of Gibraltar while others cross further east through the Levant. In summer, some African birds fly further north into Europe and vagrants have been recorded in England, Ireland, and southern Sweden.


title: Egyptian vulture

text: Migrating birds can sometimes cover in a single day until they reach the southern edge of the Sahara, from their summer home. Young birds that have not reached breeding age may overwinter in the grassland and semi-desert regions of the Sahel.


title: Egyptian vulture

text: The Egyptian vulture is usually seen singly or in pairs, soaring in thermals along with other scavengers and birds of prey, or perched on the ground or atop a building. On the ground, they walk with a waddling gait. They feed on a range of food, including mammal faeces (including those of humans), insects in dung, carrion, vegetable matter, and sometimes small animals. When it joins other vulture species at a dead animal, it tends to stay on the periphery and waits until the larger species leave. Pairs may also scrounge for food from other vultures, particularly griffons. Recently fledged young will sometimes fly to other nests, competing with young vultures for food, stealing or even soliciting food from the (unrelated) adults bringing food. Wild rabbits ("Oryctolagus cuniculus") form a significant part of the diet of Spanish vultures. In the Iberian Peninsula, landfills are an important food source, with the vultures more likely to occupy territories close to landfill sites. Studies suggest that they feed on ungulate faeces to obtain carotenoid pigments responsible for their bright yellow and orange facial skin. The ability to assimilate carotenoid pigments may serve as a reliable signal of fitness.


title: Egyptian vulture

text: Egyptian vultures are mostly silent but make high-pitched mewing or hissing notes at the nest and screeching noises when squabbling at a carcass. Young birds have been heard making a hissing croak in flight. They also hiss or growl when threatened or angry.


title: Egyptian vulture

text: Egyptian vultures roost communally on large trees, buildings or on cliffs. Roost sites are usually chosen close to a dump site or other suitable foraging area. In Spain and Morocco, summer roosts are formed mainly by immature birds. The favourite roost trees tended to be large dead pines. The number of adults at the roost increases towards June. It is thought that breeding adults may be able to forage more efficiently by joining the roost and following others to the best feeding areas. Breeding birds that failed to raise young may also join the non-breeding birds at the roost during June. Allopreening has been observed in Canarian Egyptian vultures between mated pairs of individuals as well as pairs of unrelated and same-sex individuals, particularly females.


title: Egyptian vulture

text: The breeding season is in spring. During the beginning of the breeding season, courting pairs soar high together and one or both may make steep spiralling or swooping dives. The birds are monogamous and pair bonds may be maintained for more than one breeding season and the same nest sites may be reused each year. The nest is an untidy platform of twigs lined with rags and placed on a cliff ledge, building, or the fork of a large tree. Old nest platforms of eagles may also be taken over. Nests placed on the ground are rare but have been recorded in subspecies "N. p. ginginianus" and "N. p. majorensis".


title: Egyptian vulture

text: Extra-pair copulation with neighbouring birds has been recorded and may be a reason for adult males to stay close to the female before and during the egg laying period. Females may sometimes associate with two males and all three help in raising the brood. The typical clutch consists of two eggs which are incubated in turns by both parents. The eggs are brick red with the broad end covered more densely with blotches of red, brown, and black. The parents begin incubating soon after the first egg is laid leading to asynchronous hatching. The first egg hatches after about 42 days. The second chick may hatch three to five days later and a longer delay increases the likelihood that it will die of starvation. In cliffs where the nests are located close to each other, young birds have been known to clamber over to neighbouring nests to obtain food. In the Spanish population, young fledge and leave the nest after 90 to 110 days. Fledged birds continue to remain dependent on their parents for at least a month. Once the birds begin to forage on their own, they move away from their parents' territory; young birds have been found nearly 500 km away from their nest site. One-year-old European birds migrate to Africa and stay there for at least one year. A vulture that fledged in France stayed in Africa for three years before migrating north in spring. After migrating back to their breeding areas, young birds move widely in search of good feeding territories and mates. The full adult plumage is attained in the fourth or fifth year. Egyptian vultures have been known to live for up to 37 years in captivity and at least 21 years in the wild. The probability of survival in the wild varies with age, increasing till the age of 2 and then falling at the age of 5. Older birds have an annual survival probability varying from 0.75 for non-breeders to 0.83 for breeding birds.


title: Egyptian vulture

text: The nominate population, especially in Africa, is known for its use of stones as tools. When a large egg, such as that of an ostrich or bustard, is located, the bird walks up to it with a large pebble held in its bill and tosses the pebble by swinging the neck down over the egg. The operation is repeated until the egg cracks from the blows. They prefer using rounded pebbles to jagged rocks. This behaviour, although believed to have been first reported by Jane Goodall in 1966, was actually already known to Africans and was first reported by J. G. Wood in 1877. However, this has only been reported in Africa and has not been recorded in "N. p. ginginianus". Tests with both hand-reared and wild birds suggest that the behaviour is innate, not learnt by observing other birds, and elicited once they associate eggs with food and have access to pebbles. Their ability to deal with ostrich eggs is utilized by brown-necked ravens which form groups that wait for the eggs to be broken before collectively mobbing the vultures and engaging in kleptoparasitism. Another case of tool-use described from Bulgaria involves the use of a twig as a tool to roll up and gather strands of wool to use for lining the nest.


title: Egyptian vulture

text: Healthy adults do not have many predators, but human activities pose many threats. Collisions with power lines, hunting, intentional poisoning, lead accumulation from ingesting gunshot in carcasses, and pesticide accumulation take a toll on populations. Young birds at the nest are sometimes taken by golden eagles, eagle owls, and red foxes. Only rarely do adult birds attempt to drive away predators. Young birds that fall off of cliff ledges may be preyed on by mammalian predators such as jackals, foxes and wolves. Like all birds they serve as hosts for ectoparasitic birdlice including "Aegypoecus perspicuus" as well as organisms that live within them such as mycoplasmas.


title: Egyptian vulture

text: Egyptian vulture populations have declined in most parts of its range. In Europe and most of the Middle East, populations in 2001 were half of those from 1980. In India, the decline has been rapid with a 35% decrease each year since 1999. In 1967–70, the area around Delhi was estimated to have 12,000–15,000 of these vultures, with an average density of about 5 pairs per 10 km. The exact cause of the decline is not known, but has been linked with the use of the NSAID Diclofenac, which has been known to cause death in "Gyps" vultures.


title: Egyptian vulture

text: In Italy, the number of breeding pairs declined from 30 in 1970 to 9 in the 1990s. Nearly all breeding failures were due to human activities. In Spain, which holds about 50% of the European population suggested causes of decline include poisoning by accumulation of lead, pesticides (especially due to large-scale use in the control of "Schistocerca gregaria" locust swarms), and electrocution. Windfarms may also pose a threat. Poorly designed power transmission lines in east Africa electrocute many wintering vultures. A shortage of carrion resulting from new rules for disposal of dead animals following the outbreak of Bovine Spongiform Encephalitis in parts of Europe during 2000 may have also had an effect on some populations. In Armenia direct persecution for trophy and for local illegal trade of animals as pets has been recorded.


title: Egyptian vulture

text: The population of Egyptian vultures in the Canary Islands has been isolated from those in Europe and Africa for a significant period of time leading to genetic differentiation. The vulture population there declined by 30% in the ten years between 1987 and 1998. The Canarian Egyptian vulture was historically common, occurring on the islands of La Gomera, Tenerife, Gran Canaria, Fuerteventura, and Lanzarote. It is now restricted to Fuerteventura and Lanzarote, the two easternmost islands. The total population in 2000 was estimated at about 130 individuals, including 25–30 breeding pairs. Island birds also appear to accumulate significant amounts of lead from scavenging on hunted animal carcasses. The long-term effect of this poison at a sub-lethal level is not known, though it is known to alter the mineralization of their bones. In order to provide safe and uncontaminated food for nesting birds, attempts have been made to create "vulture restaurants" where carcasses are made available. However, these interventions may also encourage other opportunist predators and scavengers to concentrate at the site and pose a threat to vultures nesting in the vicinity.


title: Egyptian vulture

text: The Bible makes a reference to the Egyptian vulture under the Hebrew name of "rachamah"/"racham" which has been translated into English as "gier-eagle".


title: Egyptian vulture

text: In Ancient Egypt, the vulture hieroglyph was the uniliteral sign used for the glottal sound (/ɑː/). The bird was held sacred to Isis and Mut in ancient Egyptian religion. The use of the vulture as a symbol of royalty in Egyptian culture and their protection by Pharaonic law made the species common on the streets of Egypt and gave rise to the name "pharaoh's chicken". The habit of coprophagy in Egyptian vultures gives them the Spanish names of "churretero" and "moñiguero", which mean "dung-eater". British sportsmen in colonial India considered them to be among the ugliest birds, and their habit of feeding on faeces was particularly despised. In British India they were known as "shawks" a contraction of shit-hawk. A southern Indian temple at Thirukalukundram near Chengalpattu was famed for a pair of birds that reputedly visited the temple for "centuries". These birds were ceremonially fed by the temple priests and arrived before noon to feed on offerings made from rice, wheat, ghee, and sugar. Although normally punctual, the failure of the birds to turn up was attributed to the presence of "sinners" among the onlookers. Legend has it the vultures (or "eagles") represented eight sages who were punished by Shiva, with two of them leaving in each of a series of epochs.


title: Intention

text: Intentions are mental states in which the agent commits themselves to a course of action. Having the plan to visit the zoo tomorrow is an example of an intention. The action plan is the "content" of the intention while the commitment is the "attitude" towards this content. Other mental states can have action plans as their content, as when one admires a plan, but differ from intentions since they do not involve a practical commitment to realizing this plan. Successful intentions bring about the intended course of action while unsuccessful intentions fail to do so. Intentions, like many other mental states, have intentionality: they represent possible states of affairs.


title: Intention

text: Theories of intention try to capture the characteristic features of intentions. The "belief-desire theory" is the traditionally dominant approach. According to a simple version of it, having an intention is nothing but having a desire to perform a certain action and a belief that one will perform this action. Belief-desire theories are frequently criticized based on the fact that neither beliefs nor desires involve a practical commitment to performing an action, which is often illustrated in various counterexamples. The "evaluation theory" tries to overcome this problem by explaining intentions in terms of unconditional evaluations. That is to say that intentions do not just present the intended course of action as "good in some respect", as is the case for desires, but as "good all things considered". This approach has problems in explaining cases of akrasia, i.e. that agents do not always intend what they see as the best course of action. A closely related theory identifies intentions not with unconditional evaluations but with "predominant desires". It states that intending to do something consists in desiring it the most. Opponents of this approach have articulated various counterexamples with the goal of showing that intentions do not always coincide with the agent's strongest desire. A different approach to the theories mentioned so far is due to Elizabeth Anscombe and denies the distinction between intentions and actions. On her view, to intend a goal is already a form of acting towards this goal and therefore not a distinct mental state. This account struggles to explain cases in which intentions and actions seem to come apart, as when the agent is not currently doing anything towards realizing their plan or in the case of failed actions. The "self-referentiality theory" suggests that intentions are self-referential, i.e. that they do not just represent the intended course of action but also represent themselves as the cause of the action. But the claim that this happens on the level of the content of the intention has been contested.


title: Intention

text: The term "intention" refers to a group of related phenomena. For this reason, theorists often distinguish various types of intentions in order to avoid misunderstandings. The most-discussed distinction is that between "prospective" and "immediate intentions". Prospective intentions, also known as "prior intentions", involve plans for the future. They can be subdivided according to how far they plan ahead: "proximal intentions" involve plans for what one wants to do straightaway whereas "distal intentions" are concerned with a more remote future. Immediate intentions, on the other hand, are intentions that guide the agent while they are performing the action in question. They are also called "intentions-in-action" or "act-related" intentions. The term "intention" usually refers to anticipated means or ends that motivate the agent. But in some cases, it can refer to anticipated side-effects that are neither means nor ends to the agent. In this case, the term ""oblique intention"" is sometimes used. Intentions are rationally evaluable: they are either "rational" or "irrational". "Conscious intentions" are the paradigmatic form of intention: in them, the agent is aware of their goals. But it has been suggested that actions can also be guided by "unconscious intentions" of which the agent is not aware.


title: Intention

text: The "formation of intentions" is sometimes preceded by the deliberation of promising alternative courses of action and may happen in decisions, in which the agent chooses between these alternatives. Intentions are responsible for initiating, sustaining, and terminating actions and are frequently used to explain why people engage in a certain behavior. Understanding the behavior of others in terms of intentions already happens in early childhood. Important in this context is the role of gestures, pointing, attention, and eye movement to understand the intentions of others and to form shared intentions. In the philosophy of action, a central question is whether it is true for all intentional actions that they are caused or accompanied by intentions. The "theory of reasoned action" aims to predict behavior based on how pre-existing attitudes and subjective norms determine behavioral intentions. In ethics, the "intention principle" states that whether an action is morally permissible sometimes depends on the agent's intention for performing this action.


title: Intention

text: Intentions are mental states that involve action plans to which the agent has committed themselves. As action plans, they can guide behavior. The action plan constitutes the content of the intention while the commitment is the agent's attitude towards this content. The term "intention" can be used both for prospective intentions, which are not yet executed, and for the intentions guiding the behavior as it happens, so-called immediate intentions, as discussed below. Intending to study tomorrow is an example of prospective intentions while trying to win a game by scoring a three-point field goal involves an act-related intention.


title: Intention

text: Folk psychology explains human behavior on the basis of mental states, including beliefs, desires, and intentions. This explanation is based on the idea that desires motivate behavior and beliefs direct the behavior towards the desired goal. This can be understood in terms of causal chains, i.e. that desires cause intentions, intentions cause actions, and actions cause the realization of the desired outcome.


title: Intention

text: Intentions, like various other mental states, can be understood as consisting of two components: a content and an attitude towards this content. On this view, the content of an intention is the action plan in question and the attitude involves a commitment to executing this action. Intentions may share the same content with other mental states, like beliefs and desires. But the different mental states are distinguished from each other concerning their attitudes. Admiring the idea of helping the poor, for example, is different from intending to help the poor, even though both states share the same plan as their content. One difference between desires and intentions is that intentions impose more restrictions on their contents. This includes that intentions are directed at possible courses of action, i.e. that they involve something the agent can do or at least thinks they can do. Desires, on the other hand, do not involve this form of restriction. In this sense, it is possible to desire sunny weather for tomorrow but not to intend sunny weather for tomorrow.


title: Intention

text: A central aspect of intentions concerning the attitude towards their content is that the agent has committed themselves to the plan in question. This is different from merely wanting to do something and thinking that doing it would be good. It is sometimes argued that this commitment consists in an all-out judgment that the intended course of action is good. On this view, intentions evaluate their intended course of action as good all things considered. This aspect stands in contrast to desires, which evaluate their object merely as good in some sense but leave it open whether it is bad in another sense. Someone who is still deliberating whether to perform a certain action, for example, has not yet committed themselves to performing it and therefore lacks the corresponding intention. It has been argued that this form of commitment or being-settled-on is unique to intentions and is not found in other mental states like beliefs or desires. In this sense, intentions may be based on or accompanied by beliefs and desires but are not reducible to them.


title: Intention

text: Another important aspect of intentions is that they have conditions of satisfaction, like beliefs and desires. This means that intentions are either successful or unsuccessful. An intention that produces the intended action is a successful intention. But if the produced behavior falls short of its goal, the intention is unsuccessful. The content of the intention determines its conditions of satisfaction. Success is usually not fully up to the agent since various factors outside the agent's control and awareness may influence the success of the attempted action.


title: Intention

text: The meaning of the term "intention" is different from the term "intentionality" even though the two are closely related. Intentionality is the more general term: it refers to the power of minds to represent or to stand for things, properties, and states of affairs. Intentions are one form of intentionality since their contents represent possible courses of action. But there are other forms of intentionality, like simple beliefs or perceptions, that do not involve intentions. The adjective "intentional" is ambiguous since it can refer either to intentions or to intentionality.


title: Intention

text: Theories of intention try to capture the characteristic features of intentions. Some accounts focus more either on prospective or on immediate intentions while others aim at providing a unified account of these different types of intention.


title: Intention

text: The traditionally dominant approach reduces intentions to beliefs and action-desires. An action-desire is a desire to perform an action. On this view, to intend to do sport tomorrow is to have a desire to do sport tomorrow together with a belief that one will do sport tomorrow. Some accounts also hold that this belief is based on the desire: one believes that one will do it because one desires to do it. A similar definition sees intentions as "self-fulfilling expectations that are motivated by a desire for their fulfillment and that represent themselves as such". An important virtue of this approach is its simplicity and its explanatory power. It also manages to account for the fact that there seems to be a close relationship between what one believes, what one desires, and what one intends. But various arguments against this reduction have been presented in the contemporary literature. These often take the form of counterexamples, in which there is both a corresponding belief and a desire without an intention or an intention without one of these components. This is sometimes explained in relation to the idea that intentions involve a form of commitment to or settledness on the intended course of action by the agent. But this aspect is not present in beliefs and desires by themselves. For example, when considering whether to respond to an insult through retaliation, the agent may have both a desire to do so and a belief that they will end up doing this, based on how they acted in the past. But the agent may still lack the corresponding intention since they are not fully decided. It is also possible to have an intention to do something without believing that one actually will do it, for example, because the agent had similar intentions earlier and also failed to act on them back then or because the agent is unsure whether they will succeed. But it has been argued that a weaker relation between intentions and beliefs may be true, e.g. that intentions involve a belief that there is a chance of achieving what one intends.


title: Intention

text: Another objection focuses on the normative difference between beliefs and intentions. This is relevant for cases where the agent fails to act according to the intended course of action, for example, due to having a weak will. This type of failure is different from the mere epistemic error of incorrectly predicting one's own behavior. But various belief-desire theories are unable to explain this normative difference. Other arguments focus on the dissimilarities between these states. For example, one can desire impossible things but one cannot intend to do what one thinks is impossible. And whereas beliefs can be true or false, this does not apply to intentions.


title: Intention

text: Another prominent approach, due to Donald Davidson, sees intentions as evaluative attitudes. On his view, desires are conditional evaluative attitudes while intentions are unconditional evaluative attitudes. This means that desires see their object as positive in a certain respect while intentions see their object as positive overall or all things considered. So the agent may have a desire to go to the gym because it is healthy whereas their intention to go to the gym is based on the evaluation that it is good all things considered. This theory is closely related to the belief-desire theory explained above since it also includes the idea that beliefs are involved in intentions. Here the belief in question is not a belief that one will do the action but a belief that the action in question is a means towards the positively evaluated end.


title: Intention

text: This theory has been criticized based on the idea that there is a difference between evaluating a course of action and committing oneself to a course of action. This difference is important for explaining cases of akrasia, i.e. that people do not always do what they believe would be best to do. An example of akrasia is an author who believes it would be best to work on his new book but ends up watching TV instead, despite his unconditional evaluative attitude in favor of working. In this sense, intentions cannot be unconditional evaluative attitudes since it is possible to intend to do one alternative while having an unconditional evaluative attitude towards another alternative.


title: Intention

text: Another theory focuses exclusively on the relation between intention and desire. It states that intending to do something consists in desiring it the most. The claim that intentions are accompanied by desires is generally accepted. But there are various arguments against the claim that intentions are nothing but desires. They often focus on cases where people intend to do something different from their predominant desire. For example, the agent may intend to go to the gym even though they have a much stronger desire to go to the pub instead. This may be the case because the agent thinks that going to the gym is better even though this is not in tune with their desires. Another counterexample comes from cases where the agent has not yet formed an intention even though one desire is predominant. A closely related theory understands intentions as dispositions to act and desires as dispositions to form intentions, i.e. as higher-order dispositions to act.


title: Intention

text: Most theories of intention see intentions as mental states that are closely related to actions but may occur without the corresponding action in question. Elizabeth Anscombe and her followers provide an alternative account that denies the distinction between intentions and actions. On this view, to intend a goal is already a form of acting towards this goal and therefore not a distinct mental state. This means that when one intends to visit the zoo next Thursday, one is already on the way to doing so. An important strength of this account is that it gives a unified explanation of intentions: it does not need to distinguish between prospective and immediate intentions since all intentions are immediate intentions.


title: Intention

text: An obvious counterargument to this position is that, in the example of the zoo above, one is not currently "doing" anything towards realizing this plan. Defenders have rejected this argument by trying to elucidate how even minimal preparatory steps may already be seen as part of the action. Such steps may include, for example, not making any other plans that may interfere with the plan in question, like planning a different appointment at the same time at a different location. Another objection is based on the observation that not all intentions are successful, i.e. that one can intend to do something but fail to do it. For example, one may intend to follow the shortest route home but take a wrong turn and thereby fail to perform the corresponding action. In such cases, it may be argued that the intention was present whereas the action was absent, i.e. the agent intended to take the shortest route but did not take the shortest route. The possibility of the two coming apart would suggest that they are not identical.


title: Intention

text: The self-referentiality theory asserts that one central feature of intentions is that they are self-referential. This means that the intentions do not just represent the intended course of action but also represent themselves as the cause of the action. On this view, the intention to go to the gym represents itself as the cause of going to the gym. One important motivation for accepting a self-referentiality theory is to explain a certain type of case: a case in which the behavior is just like it was intended, but the intention either did not cause the behavior at all or did not cause it in the right way. For example, the agent intends to shoot an intruder, is then startled by a moving shadow, which causes their finger to twitch, thereby shooting the intruder. It is often claimed that in such cases, the behavior in question does not constitute an intentional action, i.e. that the agent did not shoot the intruder intentionally, despite intending to shoot the intruder and shooting the intruder. This paradox can be solved through self-referentiality theories. The behavior in question is not an intentional action because the intention was not properly realized: it was part of the intention to cause the behavior, which did not happen in the right way. It is usually accepted that intentions have to cause the corresponding behavior in the right way for intentional actions to arise. But the claim that this happens on the level of the content of the intention, i.e. that the intention represents itself as causing the behavior, is often contested. Instead, it has been argued that the content of intentions consists only of the corresponding action plan without representing the intention itself and its causal relation to the execution of this plan.


title: Intention

text: Some difficulties in understanding intentions are due to various ambiguities and inconsistencies in how the term is used in ordinary language. For this reason, theorists often distinguish various types of intentions in order to avoid misunderstandings and to clearly specify what is being researched.


title: Intention

text: An important difference among intentions is that between prospective and immediate intentions. Prospective intentions, also called "prior intentions", are forward-looking: they are plans held by the agent to perform some kind of action in the future. They are different from merely desiring to perform this action since the agent has committed themselves to following them when the time comes. In this sense, it is sometimes held that desires evaluate their object only concerning one specific aspect while the commitments in intentions are based on an all-out evaluation. On this view, the intended course of action is not just evaluated as "good in one way" but "good all things considered". In some cases, the intention may point very far into the future, as when a teenager decides they want to become president one day. In other cases, the formation of the prospective intention only slightly precedes the action, as when the agent intends to scratch their back and does so right away. The commitment to the course of action is reversible. So if the agent encounters good reasons later on for not going through with it, the intention may be dropped or reformulated. In this sense, having a prospective intention to perform a specific action does not ensure that this action will actually be performed later on.


title: Intention

text: Immediate intentions, also known as "intentions-in-action" or "act-related" intentions, are intentions that guide the agent while they are performing the action in question. They are closely related to the sense of agency. The agent's commitment to the course of action in question consists in their active execution of the plan. But not all forms of human behavior are intentional. Raising one's hand may happen intentionally or unintentionally, for example, when a student wants to signal to the teacher that they have a question in contrast to an involuntary bodily reflex. It is often held that a central aspect of immediate intentions is that the agent knows what they are doing and why they are doing it. This means that the action is accompanied by a certain form of knowledge that is absent in mere purposive behavior. This aspect is sometimes used to contrast the behavior of humans and animals. There is no general agreement that all intentional actions are accompanied by this type of knowledge. One reason to doubt this is that even for intentional actions, the agent is not always able to articulate what they are doing and why they are doing it. Some defenders try to explain this by holding that the corresponding knowledge is there, even if it is not conscious.


title: Intention

text: Prospective intentions can be categorized by how far they plan ahead. "Proximal intentions" involve plans for what one wants to do straightaway whereas "distal intentions" plan further ahead. The same intention can be both proximal and distal if it is directed both at what to do right now and what to do later. For example, deciding to start watching a movie now in one sitting involves an intention that is both proximal and distal. This distinction is important since many courses of action are too complex to be represented at once in full detail. Instead, usually only proximal intentions involve detailed representations while distal intentions may leave their object vague until it becomes more relevant to the task at hand. But distal intentions still play an important role in guiding the formation of proximal intentions. A simple plan to buy batteries at the close-by electronics store, for example, involves many steps, like putting on shoes, opening one's door, closing and locking it, going to the traffic light, turning left, etc. These steps are not represented in full detail while the agent is putting on their shoes. Central to this process is the agent's ability to monitor the progress in relation to the proximal intention and to adjust the current behavior accordingly. In this way, intention has the capacity to coordinate the agent's behavior over time. While both proximal and distal intentions are relevant for one's sense of agency, it has been argued that distal intentions lead to a stronger sense of agency.


title: Intention

text: The intentional actions performed by agents usually carry a vast number of major or minor consequences with them. The agent is usually unaware of many of them. In relation to these consequences, the agent is "acting unintentionally". Other consequences are anticipated by the agent. Some are "motivational" in that they constitute the agent's reason for performing the action. A third type involves consequences of which the agent is aware but which play no important role for the agent's motivation. These are the objects of "oblique intentions": they involve side effects that the agent puts up with in order to realize their main intention. For example, Ted is unaware that smoking causes bladder cancer, but he is aware that it helps him to deal with stress and that it causes lung cancer. His reason for smoking is to deal with stress. Increasing his risk of lung cancer is a side effect he puts up with. So when smoking, Ted "unintentionally increases" his risk of bladder cancer, his "motivational intention" is to deal with stress whereas increasing his risk of lung cancer is "obliquely intended". Motivational intentions are the paradigmatic form of intentions and are the main focus of the academic literature on intentions.


title: Intention

text: These distinctions are relevant for morality and the law. Committing a crime unintentionally, for example, is usually seen as a less serious offense than committing the same crime intentionally. This is often referred to as negligence in contrast to having bad intentions. It is usually held that bad consequences intended obliquely carry more weight on a moral level than unintentional bad consequences. There is no consensus whether obliquely intended behavior constitutes an intentional action, e.g. whether it is correct to state that smokers aware of the dangers intentionally damage their health.


title: Intention

text: Intentions are rationally evaluable: they are either rational or irrational. In this sense, they stand in contrast to arational mental states, like urges or experiences of dizziness, which are outside the domain of rationality. Various criteria for the rationality of intentions have been proposed. Some hold that intentions are based on desires and beliefs and that, therefore, their rationality depends on these desires and beliefs. On this view, desires present certain goals, beliefs present the means needed to achieve these goals and intentions constitute commitments to realize the means towards these goals. In this sense, an intention that is based on irrational states is itself irrational. For example, the intention to heal oneself through the power of crystals is irrational if it is based on an irrational belief concerning the healing power of crystals. But irrationality can also arise if two intentions are not consistent with each other, i.e. if the agent intends both to perform one action and to perform another action while believing that these two actions are incompatible with each other. A closely related form of irrationality applies to the relation between means and ends. This so-called "principle of means-end coherence" holds that it is irrational to intend to perform one action without intending to perform another action while believing that this latter action is necessary to achieve the former action. For example, it would be irrational to intend to become healthy if the agent believes that exercising is necessary to become healthy but is unwilling to exercise. In such a case, it may still be rational for the agent to desire to become healthy, but intending it is not. This principle is expressed in the proverb "he who wills the end, wills the means". It has also been suggested that additional requirements of rationality concern the consistency between one's beliefs and one's intentions.


title: Intention

text: Of special importance to psychology and psychoanalysis is the difference between conscious and unconscious intentions. Unconscious intentions are often used to explain cases where an agent behaves a certain way without being aware of this. This is especially relevant if the behavior is clearly directed at a goal while the agent does not consciously intend to pursue this goal or is not even aware of having this goal. At first, unconscious intentions are usually ascribed to the agent by spectators and may only be avowed by the agent themselves retrospectively. But this form of explanation is not always conclusive, since, at least for some cases, other explanations are available as well. For example, some behavior may be explained as the execution of a blind habit, which may occur with neither consciousness nor intention.


title: Intention

text: Various prominent examples, due to Sigmund Freud, involve slips of the tongue, like declaring a meeting to be closed when one intends to open it. Freud sees such phenomena not as unintentional errors but ascribes to them a deeper meaning as expressions of unconscious wishes. As a window to the unconscious, interpreting the unconscious intentions behind such phenomena and raising the patient's awareness of them are important aspects of Freudian psychoanalysis. But there is no general agreement as to whether this type of behavior should be seen as "intentional behavior". Unconscious intentions are also sometimes used to explain apparently irrational behavior. In this sense, it has been claimed that excessive hand washing seen in some people with the obsessive-compulsive disorder may be motivated by an unconscious intention to wash away one's guilt, even though the person may cite very different reasons when asked.


title: Intention

text: Critics of the notion of "unconscious intentions" have raised doubts about the empirical evidence cited in favor of unconscious intentions, which is often based on interpretations resting on various controversial assumptions. Another line of argument is directed against the concept of "unconscious intention" itself. On this view, it is incoherent to talk of the mental states in question as unconscious intentions. The reason given for this is that intending something must be accompanied by some form of self-knowledge on the side of the agent about what is intended. This would not be possible if the mental state is unconscious.


title: Intention

text: Various other distinctions among types of intentions are found in the academic literature. Conditional intentions are intentions to do something just in case a certain condition obtains. Planning to return a book to a friend on the condition that she asks for it is an example of a conditional intention. Having the unconditional intention to return the book, on the other hand, involves planning to return it independent of the friend's behavior. Unconditional intentions are stronger in the sense that the agent is fully committed to the course of action without relying on the presence of a triggering condition.


title: Intention

text: Another distinction can be drawn between intentions that act as means to other intentions and intentions to do something for its own sake. This is closely related to the difference between intrinsic and instrumental desires. For example, an intention to go to the supermarket may be based on another intention: the intention to eat. Because of this dependence, the agent would not have formed the earlier intention if the latter intention had been absent. In normal cases, the instrumental intention disappears if the intention it is based on does not exist anymore. In the example above, the agent may drop the intention to go to the supermarket if their doctor recommends them to start fasting. But there are special cases in which the instrumental intention persists nonetheless, sometimes referred to as "motivational inertia".


title: Intention

text: Intentions can arise in different ways. The paradigmatic type of intention formation happens through practical reason in the form of decisions. In this case, various alternatives are considered by the agent, who then chooses the most favorable one. This choice results in a commitment to the chosen plan of action and thereby constitutes the formation of an intention. Often the choice itself is preceded by deliberation. Deliberation involves formulating promising courses of action and assessing their value by considering the reasons for and against them. An example of this type of intention formation is a student who is up all night thinking about whether to major in English and then finally decides to do so. But not all decisions are preceded by deliberation and not every act of deliberation results in a decision. Another type of intention formation happens without making any explicit decision. In such cases, the agent just finds themselves committed to the corresponding course of action without consciously deciding for it or against its alternatives. This is the case for many actions done out of habit. For example, habitually unlocking the office door in the morning is usually an intentional action that happens without a prior explicit decision to do so. It has been argued that decisions can be understood as a type of mental action that consists in resolving uncertainty about what to do. Decisions are usually seen as a momentary change from not having the intention to having it. This contrasts with deliberation, which normally refers to a drawn-out process. But these technical distinctions are not always reflected in how the terms are used in ordinary language.


title: Intention

text: Intentions have various psychological functions in the agent's mind. Some theorists of intentions even base their definition of intentions on the functions they execute. Intentions are responsible for initiating, sustaining, and terminating actions. In this sense, they are closely related to motivation. They also help guide the action itself and try to coordinate the agent's behavior over time. A similar function of intentions is to coordinate one's behavior with the behavior of other agents, either by forming intentions together or by reacting to the intentions others already have. This enables various complex forms of cooperation. Not every form of human behavior is guided by intentions. This concerns, for example, bodily reflexes like sneezing or other uncontrolled processes like digestion, which happen without following a previously devised mental plan. Intentions are intimately related to practical reason, i.e. to the reasons for which we act. These reasons are often explained in terms of beliefs and desires. For example, the agent's reason to cross a road may consist in their desire to reach the other side and their belief that this is achieved by crossing it. Because of this close connection to behavior, intentions are frequently used to explain why people engage in certain behavior. Such explanations are often teleological in the sense that they cited the intended goal as the reason for the behavior.


title: Intention

text: Developmental psychology is, among other things, concerned with how children learn to ascribe intentions to others. Understanding intention is thought to be pivotal in understanding social contexts in numerous ways. First, acquiring an understanding of intention is important for development in that it helps children conceptualize how people and animals differ from objects. Much of behavior is caused by intentions, and understanding intentions helps to interpret these behaviors. Second, intentions are integral to an understanding of morality. Children learn to assign praise or blame based on whether actions of others are intentional. Intention is also necessary to understand and predict the plans and future actions of others. Understanding the intentions and motives of others aids in the interpretation of communication, and the achievement of cooperative goals.


title: Intention

text: Psychological research suggests that understanding intentions of others may be a prerequisite for a higher-level understanding of other people's minds or theory of mind. Theory of mind research attempts to map how children come to understand the mind as a representational device for the world. This research has focused on the development of knowledge that others have beliefs, desires, and intentions that are different from one's own. A basic ability to comprehend other people's intentions based on their actions is critical to the development of theory of mind. Social, cognitive and developmental psychological research has focused on the question: How do young children develop the ability to understand other people's behaviors and intentions?


title: Intention

text: From an early age, typically-developing children parse human actions in terms of goals, rather than in terms of movements in space, or muscle movements. Meltzoff (1995) conducted a study in which 18-month-olds were shown an unsuccessful act. For instance, children watched an adult accidentally under or over shoot a target, or attempt to perform an action but their hand slipped. The aim of the study was to determine whether the children were able to interpret the intention of the adult, regardless of the actual action performed. Young children have a tendency to imitate other people's actions. The outcome measure was what the child chose to re-enact—the actual event (literal motions), or the adult's goal, which was not accomplished. The results of the study suggested that 18-month-olds are able to infer unseen goals and intentions of others based on their actions. Infants who saw unsuccessful attempts at a target act and infants who saw the target act imitated the act at a higher rate than infants who saw neither the act nor an attempt. Similar paradigms were conducted with children 9 months old and 15 months old. Nine-month-olds did not respond to the unsuccessful attempt demonstrations; however, 15-month-olds acted similarly to the 18-month-olds. This suggests that between 9 months and 15 months of age the ability to infer intentions in other people develops.


title: Intention

text: The development of understanding intention has also been studied in toddlers. As mentioned previously, an intentional action is based on the belief that the course of action will satisfy a desire. In that case, what was intended can be interpreted as a function of an understanding for what was desired. When outcomes are achieved without the action of the individual directed at the goal, intention is not attributed to the actor; rather, the event is considered an accident. Research by Astington and colleagues (1993) found that 3-year-olds are skilled at matching goals to outcomes to infer intention. If another individual's goals match an outcome, 3-year-olds are able to conclude that the action was done “on purpose.” Conversely, when goals do not match outcomes, the children labeled the individual's actions as accidental. Children may come to distinguish between desire and intention when they learn to view the mind as a medium for representations of the world. Astington argues that initially desire is undifferentiated from intention in that both function as a goal state. Children then develop a more mature command of understanding other's intentions when they are able to represent an action as caused by a prior intention that is separate from desire.


title: Intention

text: Thus, research suggests that by the age of fifteen months, humans are capable of understanding intentional acts in others. The ability to distinguish between intention and desire develops in early childhood. Gestures and object-directed actions have also been studied in connexion with the development of the understanding of intention. The development of the ability to use gestures and object-directed actions in social situations has been studied from numerous perspectives, including the embodiment perspective and the social-cognitive perspective.


title: Intention

text: Gestures are often recognized as a tool indicative of higher social reasoning. In order to engage in or understand a gesture, an individual has to recognize it as an indicator of an object or event separate from the self or the actor. It is thought that pointing, especially declarative pointing (i.e. pointing intended to direct and share intention rather than request an object), reveals the understanding of others as attentional and intentional agents (e.g. Liszkowski, Carpenter, & Tomasello, 2007). This understanding is indicated by object-directed reactions to pointing (rather than focusing on the hand). Pointing is also thought to denote perspective-taking ability and understanding of intention, as the individual must be able to understand that the actor is attending to the object and, perhaps most importantly, that the actor is attempting to communicate information regarding the referent. The development of pointing is thought to reach a critical stage at around 9 to 12 months in normally developing children (e.g. Leung & Rheingold, 1981; Moll & Tomasello, 2007; Schaffer, 2005). Liszkowski, Carpenter and colleagues (2004) found that human children begin to point at around one year of age and do so with a multiple motives, including sharing attention and interest. Earlier pointing may be different in nature and is thought to develop from a learned association between reaching and adult responsiveness to the child's desire for a referent object.


title: Intention

text: Thus, it seems pointing may be more complex than a straightforward indicator of social understanding. Early pointing may not indicate an understanding of intention; rather it may indicate an association between the gesture and interesting objects or events. However, an understanding of intention may develop as the child develops a theory of mind and begins to use pointing to convey meaning about referents in the world.


title: Intention

text: Research suggests that faces are pivotal in offering social cues necessary for children's cognitive, language, and social development. These cues may offer information on another's emotional state, focus of attention, and potential intentions (For a discussion see Mosconi, Mack, McCarthy, & Pelphrey, 2005). Intention may be ascribed to an individual based on where in space that individual is attending. Intention is understood not only through actions and the manipulation of objects, but by tracking eye movements. Research in this area is focused on how humans develop the understanding that eye gaze indicates that the observer may be psychologically connected to the referent.


title: Intention

text: Neuroimaging research suggests that biological motion is processed differently from other types of motion. Biological motion is processed as a category in which individuals are able to infer intention. An evolutionary perspective of this phenomenon is that humans survived on the basis of being able to predict the internal mental states and potential future actions of others. Research on biological motion has found cells in the primate superior temporal polysensory area (STP) that respond specifically to biological motion. In addition, there are brain regions, including the superior temporal sulcus, that respond to biological but not non-biological motion. These findings suggest that humans may have a biologically-based affinity for spotting and interpreting purposeful, biological motions.


title: Intention

text: In one experiment, 18-month-olds observed either a human or a mechanical arm attempting to perform actions, but failing to achieve a goal. The children imitated the action to complete the intended goal when the arm was human, but not when it was mechanical. This suggests that from a young age, humans are able to infer intention specifically as a biological mechanism between motions and goals.


title: Intention

text: Humans have a tendency to infer intention from motion, even in the absence of other distinguishing features (e.g. body shape, emotional expression). This was demonstrated in a study by Heider and Simmel; they had observers view videos of moving triangles, and found that participants tended to attribute intentions and even personality traits to the shapes based on their movements. The movement had to be animate, meaning self-propelled and non-linear.


title: Intention

text: Johansson devised a way to study biological motion without interference from other characteristics of humans such as body shape, or emotional expression. He attached dots of light to actors' joints and recorded the movements in a dark environment, so that only the dots of light were visible. The Johansson figures, as they came to be known, have been used to demonstrate that individuals attribute mental states, such as desires and intentions to movements, that are otherwise disconnected from context.


title: Intention

text: The simulation hypothesis holds that in order to understand intention in others, individuals must observe an action, and then infer the actor's intentions by estimating what their own actions and intentions might be in the situation. Individuals connect their own actions to internal mental states through the experience of sensory information when movements are carried out; this sensory information is stored and connected to one's own intentions. Since internal mental states, such as intention, cannot be understood directly through observing movements, it is hypothesized that these internal states are inferred based on one's own stored representations of those movements.


title: Intention

text: This theory is supported by research on mirror neurons, or neural regions, including the premotor cortex, and parietal cortex, that activate both when individuals are engaging in an action, and when they are observing the actions of others. This suggests individuals may be simulating the motor movements via internal representations of their own motor movements. Thus, research indicates that humans are hard-wired to notice biological motion, infer intention, and use previous mental representations to predict future actions of others.


title: Intention

text: Intentions are closely related to other mental states, like beliefs and desires. It is generally accepted that intentions involve some form of desire: the intended action is seen as good or desirable in some sense. This aspect makes it possible for intentions to motivate actions. Various ways have been suggested how intentions are related to beliefs. On the one hand, it seems impossible to intend to do something one beliefs to be impossible. Some accounts go even further and suggest that intentions involve the belief that one will perform the action in question.


title: Intention

text: Besides that, it has been suggested that beliefs are necessary for intentions to connect the behavior to the intended goal. On this view, intentions involve the belief that the intended behavior would cause the intended goal.