title: Knowledge representation and reasoning

text: As knowledge-based technology scaled up, the need for larger knowledge bases and for modular knowledge bases that could communicate and integrate with each other became apparent. This gave rise to the discipline of ontology engineering, designing and building large knowledge bases that could be used by multiple projects. One of the leading research projects in this area was the Cyc project. Cyc was an attempt to build a huge encyclopedic knowledge base that would contain not just expert knowledge but common-sense knowledge. In designing an artificial intelligence agent, it was soon realized that representing common-sense knowledge, knowledge that humans simply take for granted, was essential to make an AI that could interact with humans using natural language. Cyc was meant to address this problem. The language they defined was known as CycL.


title: Knowledge representation and reasoning

text: After CycL, a number of ontology languages have been developed. Most are declarative languages, and are either frame languages, or are based on first-order logic. Modularity—the ability to define boundaries around specific domains and problem spaces—is essential for these languages because as stated by Tom Gruber, "Every ontology is a treaty- a social agreement among people with common motive in sharing." There are always many competing and differing views that make any general-purpose ontology impossible. A general-purpose ontology would have to be applicable in any domain and different areas of knowledge need to be unified.


title: Knowledge representation and reasoning

text: There is a long history of work attempting to build ontologies for a variety of task domains, e.g., an ontology for liquids, the lumped element model widely used in representing electronic circuits (e.g.,), as well as ontologies for time, belief, and even programming itself. Each of these offers a way to see some part of the world.


title: Knowledge representation and reasoning

text: The lumped element model, for instance, suggests that we think of circuits in terms of components with connections between them, with signals flowing instantaneously along the connections. This is a useful view, but not the only possible one. A different ontology arises if we need to attend to the electrodynamics in the device: Here signals propagate at finite speed and an object (like a resistor) that was previously viewed as a single component with an I/O behavior may now have to be thought of as an extended medium through which an electromagnetic wave flows.


title: Knowledge representation and reasoning

text: Ontologies can of course be written down in a wide variety of languages and notations (e.g., logic, LISP, etc.); the essential information is not the form of that language but the content, i.e., the set of concepts offered as a way of thinking about the world. Simply put, the important part is notions like connections and components, not the choice between writing them as predicates or LISP constructs.


title: Knowledge representation and reasoning

text: The commitment made selecting one or another ontology can produce a sharply different view of the task at hand. Consider the difference that arises in selecting the lumped element view of a circuit rather than the electrodynamic view of the same device. As a second example, medical diagnosis viewed in terms of rules (e.g., MYCIN) looks substantially different from the same task viewed in terms of frames (e.g., INTERNIST). Where MYCIN sees the medical world as made up of empirical associations connecting symptom to disease, INTERNIST sees a set of prototypes, in particular prototypical diseases, to be matched against the case at hand.


title: Isaac Tigrett

text: Isaac Burton Tigrett (born November 28, 1948, Jackson, Tennessee) is an American businessman, best known as the co-founder of Hard Rock Café and House of Blues.


title: Isaac Tigrett

text: Isaac Tigrett belonged to a well-to-do business family and was raised in Jackson, Tennessee until the age of 15. He was a boarding student at McCallie School in Chattanooga, Tennessee, but was expelled. He then enrolled at Baylor School in Chattanooga, from where he graduated. He is an alumnus of Centre College, which later gave him an honorary degree (in 1997) for promoting African American culture and racial harmony.


title: Isaac Tigrett

text: On June 14, 1971 he and Peter Morton started the first Hard Rock Café (HRC) restaurant in London's fashionable Mayfair district. The restaurant combined rock music, memorabilia related to rock 'n' roll and American cuisine.


title: Isaac Tigrett

text: The cafe-music-museum concept became very popular and soon the restaurant opened units in different parts of the globe. HRC was the first theme restaurant chain in the world. Tigrett bought Morton out, and took on the original Cafe in London along with rights to the name in most of the world including the U.S. states East of the Mississippi; Morton had rights to the name in states West of the Mississippi and in Israel, Colombia and Australia. Eventually both sold their interests in HRC to the Rank Organisation.


title: Isaac Tigrett

text: In 1992, Tigrett started the House of Blues (HOB) with partner Dan Aykroyd. Harvard University was an initial investor in the business and a prototype was opened in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Soon after Disney and Andrew Filipowski invested in the venture. Differences of opinion between Tigrett and the other HOB board members over operations resulted in Tigrett leaving the venture in 1998.


title: Isaac Tigrett

text: In the late 1990s, Tigrett launched The Spirit Channel, an enterprise offering services related to spirituality and health through the Internet, traditional media and physical locations. The venture failed to take off. In 2004, Tigrett launched yet another new venture, the Bozo Project, focusing on the restaurant business.


title: Isaac Tigrett

text: Tigrett was influenced by his guru, Sathya Sai Baba. In the BBC documentary "The Secret Swami", Tigrett stated that he believed that there was truth to the rumors of Sai Baba's actions of pedophilia and sexual abuse towards some of his young male followers. He also stated that such behavior would not change his belief in Sai Baba.


title: Isaac Tigrett

text: In 1989, Tigrett married Maureen Cox Starkey, the ex-wife of Beatle drummer Ringo Starr. She died of leukemia in 1994. Their daughter, Augusta King Tigrett, was born January 4, 1987 in Dallas, Texas.


title: Fox sisters

text: The Fox sisters were three sisters from Rochester, New York who played an important role in the creation of Spiritualism: Leah (April 8, 1813 – November 1, 1890), Margaretta (also called Maggie), (October 7, 1833 – March 8, 1893) and Catherine Fox (also called Kate) (March 27, 1837 – July 2, 1892). The two younger sisters used "rappings" to convince their older sister and others that they were communicating with spirits. Their older sister then took charge of them and managed their careers for some time. They all enjoyed success as mediums for many years.


title: Fox sisters

text: In 1888, Margaretta confessed that their rappings had been a hoax and publicly demonstrated their method. Margaretta attempted to recant her confession the next year, but their reputation was ruined and in less than five years they were all dead, with Margaretta and Kate dying in abject poverty. Despite their confession, the Spiritualism movement continued to grow in popularity.


title: Fox sisters

text: In 1848, the two younger sisters – Catherine (Kate) (age 11) and Margaretta (Maggie) (age 14) – were living in a house in Hydesville, New York, with their parents John and Margaret, who were Methodists. Hydesville no longer exists but was a hamlet that was part of the township of Arcadia in Wayne County, New York, just outside Newark. The house had some reputation for being haunted, but it wasn't until late March that the family began to be frightened by unexplained sounds that at times sounded like knocking and at other times like the moving of furniture.


title: Fox sisters

text: During the night of March 31, Kate challenged the invisible noisemaker, presumed to be a "spirit", to repeat the snaps of her fingers. "It" did. "It" was asked to rap out the ages of the girls. "It" did. The neighbours were called in. Over the course of the next few days a code was developed where raps could signify yes or no in response to a question or be used to indicate a letter of the alphabet.


title: Fox sisters

text: The girls addressed the spirit as "Mr. Splitfoot" which is a nickname for the Devil. Later, the alleged "entity" creating the sounds claimed to be the spirit of a peddler named Charles B. Rosna, who had been murdered five years earlier and buried in the cellar. In his writings on the Fox sisters, Arthur Conan Doyle claimed the neighbors dug up the cellar and found a few pieces of bone. No missing person named Charles B. Rosna was ever identified.


title: Fox sisters

text: Kate and Margaretta were sent to nearby Rochester during the excitement – Kate to the house of her sister Leah (now the married Leah Fox Fish), and Margaretta to the home of her brother David – and the rappings followed them. Amy and Isaac Post, a radical Quaker couple and long-standing friends of the Fox family, invited the girls into their Rochester home. Immediately convinced of the genuineness of the phenomena, they helped to spread the word among their radical Quaker friends, who became the early core of Spiritualists. In this way appeared the association between Spiritualism and radical political causes, such as abolition, temperance, and equal rights for women.


title: Fox sisters

text: On 14 November 1849, the Fox sisters demonstrated their spiritualist rapping at the Corinthian Hall in Rochester. This was the first demonstration of spiritualism held before a paying public and inaugurated a long history of public events featured by spiritualist mediums and leaders in the United States and in other countries.


title: Fox sisters

text: The Fox girls became famous and their public séances in New York in 1850 attracted notable people including William Cullen Bryant, George Bancroft, James Fenimore Cooper, Nathaniel Parker Willis, Horace Greeley, Sojourner Truth and William Lloyd Garrison. They also attracted imitators; during the following few years, hundreds of people claimed the ability to communicate with spirits.


title: Fox sisters

text: Kate and Margaretta became well-known mediums, giving séances for hundreds of people. Many of these early séances were entirely frivolous, where sitters sought insight into "the state of railway stocks or the issue of love affairs," but the religious significance of communication with the deceased soon became apparent. Horace Greeley, the prominent publisher and politician, became a kind of protector for them, enabling their movement in higher social circles. But the lack of parental supervision was pernicious, as both of the young women began to drink wine.


title: Fox sisters

text: The cracking of joints was the theory scientists and skeptics most favored to explain the rappings, a theory dating back to 1850. The physician E. P. Longworthy investigated the sisters and noted how the knockings or raps always came from under their feet or when their dresses were in contact with the table. He concluded that Margaretta and Kate had produced the noises themselves.


title: Fox sisters

text: John W. Hurn who published articles in the "New-York Tribune" also came to a similar conclusion of fraud. The Reverend John M. Austin would later claim the noises could be made by cracking toe joints. The Reverend D. Potts demonstrated to an audience that the raps could be made by this method.


title: Fox sisters

text: In 1851, the Reverend C. Chauncey Burr wrote in the "New-York Tribune" that by cracking toe joints the sounds were so loud, they could be heard in a large hall. In the same year three investigators Austin Flint, Charles E. Lee and C.B. Coventry from the University at Buffalo examined the raps produced by the sisters and concluded they were produced by cracking their bone joints such as toes, knees, ankles or hips. From a control, they discovered the raps did not occur if the sisters were placed on a couch with cushions under their feet.


title: Fox sisters

text: In 1853, Charles Grafton Page of Washington, D.C., investigated the Fox sisters. As a patent examiner and patent advocate, Page had developed a keen eye for detecting fraudulent claims about science. He applied these skills in exposing some of the deceptions employed by the Fox sisters during two sessions which he attended. In his book "Psychomancy" (1853), Page observed that the rapping sounds came from underneath the girls' long dresses.


title: Fox sisters

text: When he asked if the spirits could produce a sound at a distance from their own bodies, one girl climbed into a wardrobe closet where her dress touched the wood, whence the sound transmitted into the wood plank — however, she was unable to control this sound sufficiently to produce spirit communications. Page devised contraptions that emulated the rapping sounds produced by the girls, which could be concealed under long clothing. He declaimed the girls' means of hiding from the bodily examination that would expose their fraud:


title: Fox sisters

text: In 1857, the "Boston Courier" set up a prize of $500 to any medium who could demonstrate a paranormal ability to their committee. The Fox sisters made an attempt and were investigated by a committee which included the magician John Wyman. The committee concluded the raps were produced by bone and feet movements and thus the Fox sisters failed the challenge.


title: Fox sisters

text: A report by the Seybert Commission in 1887 stated that after investigating various mediums including Margaret; the phenomena could have easily been produced by fraudulent methods. The report noted that the raps were heard close to Margaret and a séance sitter, Professor Furness had felt pulsations in her foot.


title: Fox sisters

text: Kate was one of mediums examined by William Crookes, the prominent physicist, between 1871 and 1874, who concluded the raps were genuine. However, Crookes was described as gullible and the mediums he investigated were caught using trickery.


title: Fox sisters

text: In 1904, remains were found in the cellar when a false wall fell down. The "Boston Journal" published a story about the discovery, claiming that it was the body of the supposed peddler, on November 22, 1904. However, the police at the time didn't open an investigation, as a physician who examined the bones found that it consisted of random bits of bones, including chicken bones, and concluded they had been placed there as a practical joke. A few years later, a "peddler tin box" was claimed to have been found in the cellar along with the remains, although there is no mention of the box in earlier accounts of the finding.


title: Fox sisters

text: The remains and the tin box are now in the Lily Dale Museum. Skeptical researcher Joe Nickell concluded after researching the box and the primary sources of the bones that they constituted further hoaxing. The bones were, at least in part, those of animals. There has been no confirmation that the peddler existed. The alleged false wall appears to be due to an expansion of the foundation, not concealment of a secret grave.


title: Fox sisters

text: Leah, on the death of her first husband, married a successful Wall Street banker. Margaretta met Elisha Kane, the Arctic explorer, in 1852. Kane was convinced that Margaretta and Kate were engaged in fraud, under the direction of their sister Leah, and he sought to break Margaretta from the group. Kane married Margaretta nonetheless, and she converted to the Roman Catholic faith. When Kane died in 1857, she returned to her activities as a medium. In 1876 she joined her sister Kate, who was living in England.


title: Fox sisters

text: Kate had traveled to England in 1871, the trip paid for by a wealthy New York banker, so that she would not be compelled to accept payment for her services as a medium. The trip was apparently considered missionary work, since Kate sat only for prominent persons, who would let their names be printed as witnesses to a séance. In 1872, Kate married H.D. Jencken, a London barrister, legal scholar, and enthusiastic Spiritualist. Jencken died in 1881, leaving Kate with two sons.


title: Fox sisters

text: Kate died at her home, at 609 Columbus Avenue in New York City, on July 3, 1892. Less than a year later, Margaretta, deep in alcoholism, was living on charity as the sole tenant of an old tenement house at 456 West 56th Street. She was taken to the home of Spiritualist Mrs. Emily B. Ruggles, 492 State Street in Brooklyn, where she died on March 8, 1893. All three sisters are interred in Brooklyn, New York: Margaretta and Catherine in Cypress Hills Cemetery, and Leah with the Fox family in Green-Wood Cemetery.


title: Fox sisters

text: In 1851, Mrs. Norman Culver, a relative of the Fox family, admitted in a signed statement that she had assisted them during their séances by touching them to indicate when the raps should be made. She also claimed that Kate and Margaretta revealed to her the method of producing the raps by snapping their toes and using their knees and ankles.


title: Fox sisters

text: Over the years, sisters Kate and Margaretta had developed serious drinking problems. Around 1888, they became embroiled in a quarrel with their sister Leah and other leading Spiritualists, who were concerned that Kate was drinking too much to care properly for her children. At the same time, Margaretta, contemplating a return to the Roman Catholic faith, became convinced that her powers were diabolical.


title: Fox sisters

text: Eager to harm Leah as much as possible, the two sisters traveled to New York City, where a reporter offered $1,500 if they would "expose" their methods and give him an exclusive on the story. Margaretta appeared publicly at the New York Academy of Music on October 21, 1888, with Kate present. Before an audience of 2,000, Margaret demonstrated how she could produce—at will—raps audible throughout the theater. Doctors from the audience came on stage to verify that the cracking of her toe joints was the source of the sound.


title: Fox sisters

text: Margaretta told her story of the origins of the mysterious "rappings" in a signed confession given to the press and published in "New York World", October 21, 1888. In it, she explained the Hydesville events.


title: Fox sisters

text: She expanded on her career as a medium after leaving the homestead to begin her Spiritualist travels with her older sister, Mrs. Underhill:


title: Fox sisters

text: Harry Houdini, the magician who devoted a large part of his life to debunking Spiritualist claims, provided this insight:


title: Fox sisters

text: Pressured by the Spiritualist movement and her own dire financial circumstances, Margaretta recanted her confession in writing in November 1889, about a year after her exhibition. She had attempted to return to Spiritualist performances, but never again attracted the attention or paying clientele of the sisters' earlier careers. Within a few years, both sisters died in poverty, shunned by former supporters.


title: Fox sisters

text: The Fox sisters have been widely cited in parapsychology and spiritualist literature. According to psychologists Leonard Zusne and Warren Jones, "many accounts of the Fox sisters leave out their confession of fraud and present the rappings as genuine manifestations of the spirit world." C. E. M. Hansel notes in 1989 that "remarkably, the Fox sisters are still discussed in the parapsychological literature without mention of their trickery."


title: House of Montcada

text: The House of Montcada (in Catalan; Moncada in Spanish and Italian) is an aristocratic and noble Spanish Catalan House with important ramifications in Sicily. Queen Elisenda of the Crown of Aragon was a member of the family.


title: House of Montcada

text: The House of Moncada was started by Guillem I de Muntanyola or de Vacarisses (b. ? - d. 1040). He was the son of Sunifred, the Vescomte de Girona (Viscount of Girona) who was granted the castle and lands of Montcada in Montcada i Reixac, Barcelona. Guillem I took the name Guillem I de Montcada in accordance with proper naming traditions upon being granted a landed title. Guillem I married Adelaida de Claramunt (b. 1000 - d. 1063). Their first child, Ramon I de Montcada, II Senyor del Castell de Montcada was appointed the office of Senescal of Barcelona and Catalonia. Their second son, Bernat I de Montcada became the Ardiaca (Archdeacon) of Barcelona. The third son, Renard de Montcada went on to become the Senyor del Castell (Lord of the Castle) of la Roca del Vallès and became the first head of the House of Sarroca or La Roca.


title: House of Montcada

text: One of Ramón I's grandchildren, Guillem Ramon I de Montcada (b. ? - d. 1173), known as the "Gran Senescal" or the "Dapifer" became one of the infamous Nou Barons de la Fama who were the most influential nobles in the court of the Count of Barcelona. He became the Senescal of Ramon Berenguer III of Barcelona, Ramon Berenguer IV of Barcelona, and of Alfonso I of Aragón. During the governance of Ramon Berenguer IV, he negotiated the count's marriage with Petronilla of Aragon, the daughter of Ramiro I. This power move was the masterstroke in uniting the Kingdom of Aragon and the County of Barcelona. Guillemo Ramon was also present during the military campaigns in Tortosa, and Fraga. He married his cousin, Beatriu de Montcada (another grandchild of Ramon I de Montcada and the couple had two children. The firstborn, Guillem de Montcada inherited the Viscounty of Béarn which passed in 1309 to the House of Foix-Castellbò. The second son, Ramon de Montcada el Vell became the fourth Senescal and began the line of the lords of Tortosa and later of Fraga. His own son, Ramon de Montcada el Jove died fighting at the Battle of Portopí along with James I of Aragon in the Conquest of Majorca. His second son, Guillem Ramon married Constança of Aragon, daughter of Peter II of Aragon and began a line that would hold lordship over Aitona. His cousin went on to further found a line of the family that moved to Sicily where they collaborated with the Sicilian Vespers.


title: House of Montcada

text: The House of Montcada would go on to extend their roots throughout the Principality of Catalonia, Spain and parts of Europe. They intermarried with the noble houses of Aragon, Cardona, Béarn, Ayerbe, Cervera, Luna, Anglesola, Cornell, Aitona, Albalat, Abarca, Queralt, Vilaragut, Urgell, Entença, Illa Jordà, Pinós, Lloria, Seròs, Vilamarxant, Ribelles, Lioro, Tolsà, Caltanissetta, Vallgornera, Ventimiglia, Fenollar, and Sarrià amongst others.


title: Moonlight

text: Moonlight consists of mostly sunlight (with little earthlight) reflected from the parts of the Moon's surface where the Sun's light strikes.


title: Moonlight

text: The intensity of moonlight varies greatly depending on the lunar phase, but even the full Moon typically provides only about 0.05–0.1 lux illumination. When a full Moon around perigee (a "supermoon") is viewed around upper culmination from the tropics, the illuminance can reach up to 0.32 lux. From Earth, the apparent magnitude of the full Moon is only about that of the Sun.


title: Moonlight

text: The color of moonlight, particularly around full moon, appears bluish to the human eye compared to other, brighter light sources due to the Purkinje effect. The blue or silver appearance of the light is an illusion.


title: Moonlight

text: The Moon's bond albedo is 0.12, meaning only 12% of incident sunlight is reflected from the lunar surface. Moonlight takes approximately 1.26 seconds to reach Earth's surface. Scattered in Earth's atmosphere, moonlight generally increases the brightness of the night sky, reducing contrast between dimmer stars and the background. For this reason, many astronomers usually avoid observing sessions around full moon.


title: Moonlight

text: In folklore, moonlight sometimes has a harmful influence. For example, sleeping in the light of a full Moon on certain nights was said to transform a person into a werewolf. The light of the Moon was thought to worsen the symptoms of lunatics, and to sleep in moonlight could make one blind, or mad. Nyctalopia (night blindness caused by a lack of vitamin A) was thought to be caused by sleeping in moonlight in the tropics.


title: Moonlight

text: "Moon blindness" is a name for equine recurrent uveitis. Moonlight is no longer thought of as the cause.


title: Moonlight

text: In the 16th century, moonmilk, a soft white limestone precipitate found in caves, was thought to be caused by the rays of the Moon.


title: Moonlight

text: In 2008 Katie Paterson produced an artwork titled "Light bulb to Simulate Moonlight". It consists of 289 lightbulbs coated to produce a similar spectrum to the light of the full Moon.


The 2018 United States Senate election in Montana was held on November 6, 2018, to elect a member of the United States Senate to represent the State of Montana, concurrently with other elections to the United States Senate, elections to the United States House of Representatives and various state and local elections.


title: 2018 United States Senate election in Montana

text: Although Montana went for Donald Trump by a margin of about 20 percent in 2016, incumbent Democratic Senator Jon Tester was reelected to a third term, defeating Republican State Auditor Matt Rosendale. Rosendale conceded on November 7, 2018. This was the first Senate election in which Tester received a majority of votes cast rather than a simple plurality.


text: In October 2018, Breckenridge told a reporter from the Associated Press that he opposed the use of dark money in politics. Breckenridge said that he realistically anticipated only receiving three or four percent of the vote in the general election, and that he endorsed Rosendale's efforts to stop the use of dark money in politics. The Associated Press interpreted Breckenridge's comments as a statement that Breckenridge was dropping out of the race and endorsing Rosendale. Breckenridge later stated that his use of the word "endorse" referred only to stopping the use of dark money in politics, and said he was still running for the Senate.


text: Kelly won the Green Party nomination, but a Montana district court judge ruled that he had insufficient signatures to get on the ballot.


title: Sadie Hawkins Day

text: Sadie Hawkins Day is an American folk event and pseudo-holiday originated by Al Capp's classic hillbilly comic strip "Li'l Abner" (1934–1978). This inspired real-world Sadie Hawkins events, the premise of which is that women ask men for a date or dancing. "Sadie Hawkins Day" was introduced in the comic strip on November 15, 1937; the storyline ran until the beginning of December. The storyline was revisited the following October/November, and inspired a fad on college campuses. By 1939, "Life" reported that 201 colleges in 188 cities held a Sadie Hawkins Day event.


title: Sadie Hawkins Day

text: In "Li'l Abner", Sadie Hawkins was the daughter of Hekzebiah Hawkins, one of Dogpatch's earliest settlers and the "homeliest gal in all them hills". She grew frantic waiting for suitors until she reached age 35 and was still a spinster, and her father was worried about her living at home for the rest of her life. In desperation, he called together all the unmarried men of Dogpatch and declared it "Sadie Hawkins Day". A foot race was decreed with Sadie pursuing the town's eligible bachelors. If Sadie caught a bachelor, he would be forced to marry her. She was specifically interested in a handsome boy named Adam who was already in a courtship with Theresa, whose father was the area's largest potato farmer. Unlike Sadie, Theresa had a number of courtship offers.


title: Sadie Hawkins Day

text: As the event became a tradition in the comic strip, Capp added more story elements. Each year, the Sadie Hawkins storyline begins with a prophecy by Old Man Mose, who gives Li'l Abner a cryptic clue about the end of the storyline, which always comes true in a roundabout, surprising way. The storyline sometimes also includes the Sadie Hawkins Eve Dance which is held on the previous evening, when the young women wear hob-nailed boots and stomp on their partners' feet, to make the bachelors run slower during the event.


title: Sadie Hawkins Day

text: Inspired by Capp's satiric race in which eligible women chase down terrified bachelors for the purposes of wedlock, the event reverses the cultural norms of men as the romantic pursuers. Arthur Berger says that the day "represents a fertility rite and awakens an awareness of the relationship between the American courtship and more "primitive" rites."


title: Sadie Hawkins Day

text: The date for Sadie Hawkins Day most commonly reported is November 13, two days before the first appearance in the comics. The date has on occasion been confused for February 29 (Leap Day), the date for Bachelor's Day according to the original Irish tradition of women being allowed to propose marriage.


title: Sadie Hawkins Day

text: Al Capp finally set the date for Sadie Hawkins Day as November 26, in his last Li'l Abner daily strip on November 5, 1977.


title: Civilian

text: Civilians under international humanitarian law are "persons who are not members of the armed forces" and they are not "combatants if they carry arms openly and respect the laws and customs of war". It is slightly different from a non-combatant, because some non-combatants are not civilians (for example, military chaplains who are attached to the belligerent party or military personnel who are serving with a neutral country). Civilians in the territories of a party to an armed conflict are entitled to certain privileges under the customary laws of war and international treaties such as the Fourth Geneva Convention. The privileges that they enjoy under international law depends on whether the conflict is an internal one (a civil war) or an international one.


title: Civilian

text: In some nations, uniformed members of civilian police or fire departments colloquially refer to members of the public as civilians.


title: Civilian

text: The word "civilian" goes back to the late 14th century and is from Old French "civilien". Civilian is believed to have been used to refer to non-combatants as early as 1829. The term "non-combatant" now refers to people in general who are not taking part of hostilities in time of war, rather than just civilians.


title: Civilian

text: The International Committee of the Red Cross 1958 Commentary on 1949 Geneva Convention IV Relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War states: "Every person in enemy hands must have some status under international law: he is either a prisoner of war and, as such, covered by the Third Convention, a civilian covered by the Fourth Convention, or again, a member of the medical personnel of the armed forces who is covered by the First Convention. There is no intermediate status; nobody in enemy hands can be outside the law. We feel that this is a satisfactory solution – not only satisfying to the mind, but also, and above all, satisfactory from the humanitarian point of view." The ICRC has expressed the opinion that "If civilians directly engage in hostilities, they are considered 'unlawful' or 'unprivileged' combatants or belligerents (the treaties of humanitarian law do not expressly contain these terms). They may be prosecuted under the domestic law of the detaining state for such action."


title: Civilian

text: The definition is negative and defines civilians as persons who do not belong to definite categories. The categories of persons mentioned in Article 4A(1), (2), (3) and (6) of the Third Convention and in Article 43 of the Protocol I are combatants. Therefore, the Commentary to the Protocol pointed that anyone who is not a member of the armed forces and does not take part of hostilities in time of war is a civilian. Civilians cannot take part in armed conflict. Civilians are given protection under the Geneva Conventions and Protocols thereto. Article 51 describes the protection that must be given to the civilian population and individual civilians.


title: Civilian

text: Chapter III of Protocol I regulates the targeting of civilian objects. Article 8(2)(b)(i) of the 1998 Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court also includes this in its list of war crimes: "Intentionally directing attacks against the civilian population as such or against individual civilians not taking part in hostilities". Not all states have ratified 1977 Protocol I or the 1998 Rome Statute, but it is an accepted principle of international humanitarian law that the direct targeting of civilians is a breach of the customary laws of war and is binding on all belligerents.


title: Civilian

text: The actual position of the civilian in modern war remains problematic. It is complicated by a number of phenomena, including:


title: Civilian

text: Starting in the 1980s, it was often claimed that 90 percent of the victims of modern wars were civilians. These claims, though widely believed, are not supported by detailed examination of the evidence, particularly that relating to wars (such as those in former Yugoslavia and in Afghanistan) that are central to the claims.


title: Civilian

text: In the opening years of the 21st century, despite the many problems associated with it, the legal category of the civilian has been the subject of considerable attention in public discourse, in the media and at the United Nations, and in justification of certain uses of armed force to protect endangered populations. It has "lost none of its political, legal and moral salience."


title: Civilian

text: Although it is often assumed that civilians are essentially passive onlookers of war, sometimes they have active roles in conflicts. These may be quasi-military, as when in November 1975 the Moroccan government organized the "green march" of civilians to cross the border into the former Spanish colony of Western Sahara to claim the territory for Morocco - all at the same time as Moroccan forces entered the territory clandestinely. In addition, and without necessarily calling into question their status as non-combatants, civilians sometimes take part in campaigns of nonviolent civil resistance as a means of opposing dictatorial rule or foreign occupation: sometimes such campaigns happen at the same time as armed conflicts or guerrilla insurrections, but they are usually distinct from them as regards both their organization and participation.


title: Civilian

text: Officials directly involved in the maiming of civilians are conducting offensive combat operations and do not qualify as civilians.


title: Civilian

text: International humanitarian law (IHL) codifies treaties and conventions, signed and enforced by participating states, which serve to protect civilians during intra and interstate conflict. Even for non-treaty participants, it is customary for international law to still apply. Additionally, IHL adheres to the principles of distinction, proportionality, and necessity; which apply to the protection of civilians in armed conflict. Although, despite the UN deploying military forces to protect civilians, it lacks formal policies or military manuals addressing exactly these efforts. The UN Security Council Report No 4: Protection of Civilians in Armed Conflict provides further evidence of the need for protection of civilians. Recognizing that large-scale civilian insecurity threatens international peace and stability, the UN aims to establish the means of protecting civilians and thereby work to ensure regional stability. Through the UN Security Council Report No 4, first published in 2008, the UN offers ways to support civilian protections in both intra and interstate conflict with a goal of encouraging regional states to police their own conflicts (such as the African Union policing African conflicts). Similarly, the UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan reminded UN Member states that they have common interests in protecting African civilians through a shared “commitments to human security, and its rationale of indivisibility of peace and security.”


title: Civilian

text: Through a series of resolutions (1265, 1296, 1502, 1674, & 1738) and presidential statements the UN Security Council “addresses:


title: Civilian

text: In response to presidential statements and previous subcommittee work, the UN Security Council held a meeting in January 2009, specifically to address the protection of civilians within the context of the IHL. While no specific outcome followed this meeting, it did lead to the production of a 10-year assessment of Council actions since the passing of resolution 1265 in 1999.


title: Civilian

text: In addition to the UN treaties, regional treaties have also been established, such as the African Union Constitutive Act Article 4(h) which also outlines the protection of civilians and “affords the Union a right to forcibly intervene in one of its member states in ‘grave circumstances’, namely war crimes, genocide and crimes against humanity.” This is proposed to indicate the African Union will no longer stand by to watch atrocities happen within the Union. As described by Said Djinnit (AU’s Commissioner for Peace and Security) in 2004, “Africans cannot [...] watch the tragedies developing in the continent and say it is the UN’s responsibility or somebody else’s responsibility. We have moved from the concept of non-interference to non-indifference. We cannot, as Africans, remain indifferent to the tragedy of our people” (IRIN News 2004). Although Article 4(h), while drafted, has not been activated, which raises the question of the AU's willingness to intervene in situations of “grave circumstance.”


title: Civilian

text: Regardless of the lead organization (UN, AU, other) “there is clearly a risk involved for international organizations that in assuming a complicated security role such as civilian protection, they may raise expectations among local populations that cannot be met, usually not even by large-scale peace operations with a comprehensive political component, supported by high force levels, overall professionalism, and the political stamina to stay present long-term. The disappointing outcomes, in Africa and elsewhere, have led some to criticize the way in which the decentralization policies have been implemented (MacFarlane and Weiss 1992; Berman 1998; Boulden 2003).”


title: Civilian

text: Most nations clearly distinguish military authorities from the civil administration via the national constitution; or else in statute law where no codified constitution exists. This usually serves to place control of military forces under the presiding civilian government. "Civilian" is frequently provided as a negative definition where anyone who is not a member of the military is (by default) a civilian. In keeping with IHL, this offers no intermediary status.


title: Civilian

text: In France and Italy, the National Gendarmerie and Carabinieri are military agencies permanently tasked to supporting domestic civilian law-enforcement, usually focussed on serious organised crime and counter-terrorism. Until 2008, the South African Commando System (a volunteer militia within the South African Army) assisted the Police Service in rural areas until they were replaced by specialised Police units. Section 201 of the South African constitution allows military forces to assist Police only with Presidential approval.


title: Civilian

text: The British military does not intervene in law enforcement matters other than by exceptional ministerial approval. During the 1980 Iranian Embassy Siege, the Metropolitan Police were able to request military support and the Prime Minister approved deployment of the SAS. Unarmed military personnel routinely deploy in support for natural disasters, bomb disposal, etc. under MACA. In 1969 the British Army was deployed to Northern Ireland under Operation Banner to support the local police in the wake of rioting. This deployment inflamed local tensions, with the Provisional IRA launching a guerilla campaign from 1970 to 1997, during which time controversial actions such as Operation Demetrius took place, as well as atrocities such as the Bloody Sunday massacre. Operation Banner ultimately lasted 37 years, formally ending in 2007 and becoming the British Armed Forces' longest continuous operation. The many problems faced (and arguably caused by) Operation Banner have been influential in policy-making and the reluctance to deploy military forces domestically in anything other than exceptional circumstances (usually relating to serious terrorist threats).


title: Civilian

text: By contrast, German law prohibits entirely the peacetime intervention of military forces within Germany in armed roles. Military personnel may only be deployed in unarmed roles such as disaster relief. This was found to be deeply restrictive during the 1972 Munich massacre when army snipers could not be deployed to assist Munich Police. GSG 9 was later formed within the Bundesgrenzschutz to provide an armed tactical capability within the civilian law enforcement structure.


title: Civilian

text: In the US, the 1878 Posse Comitatus Act forbids the use of the US Army for law enforcement purposes without the approval of Congress. A 2013 directive clarified that this included the Navy, Air Force and Marine Corp. In practice there are many nuances to this. The most notable being that the US Coast Guard operates under the U.S. Department of Homeland Security during peacetime but can be transferred to the U.S. Department of the Navy and rendered "military" during times of war. The US National Guard are organised at a State level and under mixed control. Under Title 32, State Governors may deploy National Guard personnel in support of civilian law enforcement - Posse Comitatus would only apply to personnel activated under Title 10 and operating under federal control.


title: Civilian

text: In colloquial usage, the term is sometimes used to distinguish non-military law enforcement officers and (in the US) firefighters from support staff or the general public. Regardless, such members are civilians - not military personnel - and are bound by municipal; civil and criminal law to the same extent as other members of the public.


title: Civilian

text: In the United Kingdom, Australia and New Zealand the term "civilian staff" can refer to police employees who are not warranted constables. In keeping with Peelian Principles, the term "member of the public" is preferred for general usage to avoid suggesting that Police are something other than civilian.


title: Civilian

text: In the U.S., "Civilian oversight" or "Citizen oversight" is used to distinguish external committees (typically monitoring police conduct on behalf of civil administrations and taxpayers) from the internal management structure.


title: Hampden–Sydney College

text: Hampden–Sydney College (H-SC) is a private liberal arts men's college in Hampden Sydney, Virginia. Founded in 1775, Hampden–Sydney is the oldest privately chartered college in the southern United States, the tenth-oldest college in the US, the last college founded before the American Declaration of Independence, and the oldest of only three four-year, all-male liberal arts colleges remaining in the United States (alongside Morehouse and Wabash). Hampden–Sydney College is listed on the National Register of Historic Places and the Virginia Landmarks Register. It is affiliated with the Presbyterian Church (USA). Among its alumni is President William Henry Harrison.


title: Hampden–Sydney College

text: The college's founder and first president, Samuel Stanhope Smith, was born in Pequea, Pennsylvania. He graduated as a valedictorian from the College of New Jersey (now, Princeton University) in 1769, and he went on to study theology and philosophy under John Witherspoon, whose daughter he married on June 28, 1775. In his mid-twenties, working as a missionary in Virginia, Smith persuaded the Hanover Presbytery to found a school east of the Blue Ridge, which he referred to in his advertisement of September 1, 1775 as "an Academy in Prince Edward...distinguished by the Name of HAMPDEN–SIDNEY". The school, not then named, was always intended to be a college-level institution; later in the same advertisement, Smith explicitly models its curriculum on that of the College of New Jersey (now Princeton University). "Academy" was a technical term used for college-level schools not run by the established church.


title: Hampden–Sydney College

text: As the college history indicates on its web site, "The first president, at the suggestion of Dr. John Witherspoon, the Scottish president of the College of New Jersey (now Princeton University), chose the name Hampden–Sydney to symbolize devotion to the principles of representative government and full civil and religious freedom which John Hampden (1594–1643) and Algernon Sydney (1622–1683) had outspokenly supported, and for which they had given their lives, in England's two great constitutional crises of the previous century. They were widely invoked as hero-martyrs by American colonial patriots, and their names immediately associated the College with the cause of independence championed by James Madison, Patrick Henry, and other less well-known but equally vigorous patriots who composed the College's first Board of Trustees."


title: Hampden–Sydney College

text: Classes at Hampden–Sydney began in temporary wooden structures on November 10, 1775, on the eve of American Independence, moving into its three-story brick building early in 1776. The college has been in continuous operation since that date, operating under the British, Confederate, and United States flags. In fact, classes have only been canceled Six times: for a Civil War skirmish on campus, for a hurricane that knocked a tree into a dormitory building, twice due to snowstorms,once for an outbreak of norovirus, and once for a horrible ice storm in 2021 leaving the campus without power. Since the college was founded before the proclamation of the Declaration of Independence on July 4, 1776, it was eligible for an official coat of arms and armorial bearings from the College of Arms of the Royal Household of the United Kingdom. Through gifts from the F. M. Kirby Foundation, Professor John Brinkley ('59), in whose honor the "achievement of arms" was given, liaised with Mr. John Brooke-Little, then the Richmond Herald, in designing the arms for the college. The Latin text of the "letters patent" conferring the arms is dated July 4, 1976; Mr. Brooke-Little—who with the Queen's special permission appeared in full herald's uniform—made the presentation on Yorktown Day, October 19, 1976, at the college.


title: Hampden–Sydney College

text: Despite the difficult and financially strapped first years resulting from the Revolutionary War, the college survived with sufficient viability to be granted a charter by the Virginia General Assembly in 1783—the oldest private charter in the South. Patrick Henry, then Governor of Virginia, encouraged the passage of the charter, and wrote into it an oath of allegiance to the new republic, required of all professors.


title: Hampden–Sydney College

text: The college was founded by alumni of Princeton University. Both Patrick Henry, who did not attend any college, and James Madison, a Princeton alumnus, were elected trustees in the founding period before classes began. Smith hired his brother, John Blair Smith, and two other recent Princeton graduates to teach. Samuel Stanhope Smith would later become president of Princeton University. John Blair Smith would become the second president of Hampden–Sydney and later the first president of Union College.


title: Hampden–Sydney College

text: Hampden–Sydney became a thriving college while located in southside Virginia, which led to expansion. In 1812, the Union Theological Seminary was founded at Hampden–Sydney College. The seminary was later moved to Richmond, Virginia and is currently the Union Presbyterian Seminary. In 1838, the medical department of Hampden–Sydney College was founded—the Medical College of Virginia, which is now the MCV Campus of Virginia Commonwealth University. Among the early nineteenth-century leaders were John Holt Rice, who founded the seminary, Jonathan P. Cushing, and Reverend James Marsh. In those years the intellectual culture at HSC spanned from leading southern, anti-slavery writers like Jesse Burton Harrison and Lucian Minor to leading proslavery writers, such as George A. Baxter and Landon Garland. During this time, the college constructed new buildings using Federal-style architecture with Georgian accents. This is the style of architecture still used on the campus.


title: Hampden–Sydney College

text: At the onset of the American Civil War, Hampden–Sydney students formed a company in the Virginia Militia. The Hampden–Sydney students did not see much action but rather were "captured, and...paroled by General George B. McClellan on the condition that they return to their studies".


title: Hampden–Sydney College

text: "Fame has come suddenly to Hampden-Sydney College," began a 1931 New York Times article titled, "Hampden-Sydney's High Scholastic Rank Achieved With Old-Fashioned Teaching." The article highlighted a study showing that of all U.S. colleges and universities, Hampden-Sydney had the highest percentage of living graduates listed in Who's Who.


title: Hampden–Sydney College

text: During World War II, Hampden–Sydney College was one of 131 colleges and universities nationally that took part in the V-12 Navy College Training Program which offered students a path to a commission.


title: Hampden–Sydney College

text: The college has hosted a wide array of noteworthy musicians. Bruce Springsteen, the Temptations, Ben E. King, The Platters, The Lettermen, Dionne Warwick, the Allman Brothers, Dave Matthews Band, Widespread Panic, Bruce Hornsby, Pretty Lights, and Government Mule were among the popular visitors to Hampden–Sydney throughout the latter half of the twentieth century.


title: Hampden–Sydney College

text: On May 11, 1964, Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy visited Hampden–Sydney College to speak with students, and U.S. Vice President George H. W. Bush gave the May 1985 commencement address.


title: Hampden–Sydney College

text: As of 2020 Hampden-Sydney had expanded its academic offerings to include more than 50 majors and minors, with recent additions including majors in engineering physics and biochemistry and molecular biology.


title: Hampden–Sydney College

text: In 2017 the college added a new student center and renovated an existing facility to create a state-of-the-art center for the arts. A center for entrepreneurship and innovation was also launched in 2017. In recent years the campus has also added a high ropes course featuring a vertical climbing wall, suspended ropes obstacles, and zip line.


title: Hampden–Sydney College

text: In 2018 the college's Wilson Center for Leadership in the Public Interest launched a four-year leadership development program, with 47 freshmen in the inaugural cohort. The center and program are named for the late Lieutenant General Samuel V. Wilson, a former Hampden-Sydney president who “combined the savvy of a spymaster with the grit of a hardened combat veteran,” according to a 2017 "New York Times" obituary.


title: Hampden–Sydney College

text: 2019 saw the launch of a new experiential learning program called Compass, which requires students to complete at least three experiential learning courses from options including internships, study abroad, research, service learning, and hands-on classroom experiences. A $6 million gift from Cindy and Rob Citrone (class of 1987) was dedicated to support the Compass program.


title: Hampden–Sydney College

text: In August 2020, the college completed a new 147-bed residential complex called the Grove. The lodge-like, apartment-style residence halls are linked by footpaths and a central courtyard. A neighboring community lodge overlooks Lake Chalgrove and features indoor and outdoor fireplaces and grilling space.


title: Hampden–Sydney College

text: Construction began in 2020 on a new, 73,000-square-foot science center. The state-of-the-art Pauley Science Center will be named for the late Stanley F. Pauley, whose $30 million gift in September 2019 made the project possible. The $40 million facility is expected to be completed in the spring of 2022.


title: Hampden–Sydney College

text: Under the influence of his mentor and father-in-law Witherspoon, Smith named the college for two English champions of liberty, John Hampden (1594–1643) and Algernon Sydney (1622–1683). Hampden lost his life in the battle of Chalgrove Field during the English Civil War. Sydney, who wrote "Discourses Concerning Government", was beheaded by order of Charles II following his (unproven) implication in a failed attempt to overthrow the king. These proponents of religious and civil liberties were much admired by the founders of the college, all of whom were active supporters of the cause of American independence.


title: Hampden–Sydney College

text: The following is a list of the Presidents of Hampden–Sydney College from its opening in 1775 until the present.


title: Hampden–Sydney College

text: Hampden–Sydney enrolls approximately 1,000 students from 30 states and several foreign countries and emphasizes a rigorous, traditional liberal arts curriculum.


title: Hampden–Sydney College

text: In addition to Wabash College and Morehouse College, Hampden–Sydney is one of only three remaining traditional all-male colleges in the United States and is noted as a highly regarded all-male institution of higher education in North America. The school's mission is to "form good men and good citizens in an atmosphere of sound learning". Hampden–Sydney has one of the strictest honor codes of any college or university. Upon entering as a student, each man pledges for life that he will not lie, cheat, steal, nor tolerate those who do. The pledge takes place during a ceremony in which the entering class sits in absolute silence while each man, when his name is called, comes forward and signs the pledge. This simply worded code of behavior applies to the students on and off campus. The Honor Code system is student-run, allowing for a trial by peers, adjudicated by a court of students. Students convicted of an honor offense face anywhere between 1 and 3 semesters of suspension or expulsion. A separate Code of Student Conduct covers "behavioral" infractions e.g. attempting to drink underage, and other offenses that do not rise to the level of an honor offense (which only arise if deception or theft is involved). Thus, in effect, a two-tier system of student discipline is maintained; the Code of Student Conduct (regarding policies on parking or drinking) is enforced by the Dean of Students' Office with the help of the Student Court while the Honor Code system (with more serious penalties for lying, cheating, or stealing) is maintained exclusively by the students themselves. Though grievous violation of the Code of Student Conduct may result in expulsion, it is rare that any student is expelled except by sentencing of the Honor Court.


title: Hampden–Sydney College

text: All Hampden–Sydney students must take two semesters of Western culture as part of a three-course Core Cultures sequence. In addition to the Western Culture courses, which introduce them to some of the great works and historical events from Greece and Rome through present times, students take at least one Global Cultures course, which compares hierarchical structures, cultural frameworks, and regional and global networks from the beginning of human history to the present. Western Culture has been described as "the bedrock of Hampden–Sydney's liberal arts program and one of the most important of its core academic requirements." The Core Cultures program draws on professors from all disciplines.


title: Hampden–Sydney College

text: The Rhetoric Program is based on a 1978 faculty resolution that states: "All Hampden-Sydney graduates will write and speak competently." Every student must prepare for and pass the Rhetoric Proficiency Exam, which consists of a three-hour essay that is graded for grammatical correctness and the coherence, quality, and style of the argument.


title: Hampden–Sydney College

text: While the program was formalized in 1978, the emphasis on rhetoric dates back to the college's founding. In a September 1775 advertisement in the "Virginia Gazette", founding president Samuel S. Smith wrote, “The system of Education will resemble that which is adopted in the College of New Jersey; save, that a more particular Attention shall be paid to the Cultivation of the English Language than is usually done in Places of public Education."


title: Hampden–Sydney College

text: The college expanded from its original small cluster of buildings on to a campus of over . Before 2006, the college owned . In February 2006, the college purchased which include a lake and Slate Hill Plantation, the historic location of the college's founding. The campus is host to numerous federal style buildings. Part of the campus has been listed on the National Register of Historic Places as a historic district.


title: Hampden–Sydney College

text: Given that it is older than the United States and one of just a handful of colleges for men, Hampden–Sydney College has a distinctive culture that values tradition. When they arrive on campus, freshmen are issued a copy of "To Manner Born, To Manners Bred: A Hip-pocket Guide to Etiquette for the Hampden–Sydney Man", which covers basic manners, how to greet and introduce people, how to navigate job interviews, how to respond to invitations, how to dress for various occasions (such as the difference between a black-tie and white-tie event), how to pair wine with food, etc. The college publishes the book as a useful tool for existing successfully in a variety of social settings. "To Manner Born" has been highlighted in the "New York Times" and on the CBS "Late Show" with Stephen Colbert, who attended Hampden-Sydney in the 1980s.


title: Hampden–Sydney College

text: Tailgating before football games is central to Hampden–Sydney's social culture each fall, and the college's tailgate scene has been featured in "Town & Country" and "Southern Living", which ranked Hampden-Sydney as one of the top-20 best tailgates in the south, alongside large schools like Ole Miss and Alabama.


title: Hampden–Sydney College

text: Many students are passionate outdoorsmen, and "Field & Stream" has called Hampden-Sydney a "hidden gem for outdoorsmen" in a list of "21 of the Best Colleges for Hunters and Anglers," where the college ranked #7.


title: Hampden–Sydney College

text: There are more than 50 clubs on campus, each of which is run by students. There are political clubs, sports clubs, religious clubs, a student-run radio station, a pep band, and multiple social fraternities. There are also volunteer groups such as Habitat for Humanity and Rotaract.


title: Hampden–Sydney College

text: The 100-year-old student newspaper, "The Hampden-Sydney Tiger", has produced many prominent journalists, including Jonathan Martin of the "New York Times", Chris Stirewalt of Fox News, Charles Hurt of the "Washington Times", Matthew Karnitschnig, the chief Europe correspondent for "Politico" and a Pulitzer Prize finalist, and Matthew Phillips of CNN, who was previously an editor for "Bloomberg Businessweek" and "Freakonomics".


title: Hampden–Sydney College

text: The college campus is home to a volunteer fire department, which provides fire suppression service and non-transport basic life support EMS to Prince Edward County and the college, as well as assisting the Farmville fire department at fires within the town limits. HSVFD, Company 2, is located on the south end of campus near the water tower and the physical plant. Contrary to popular belief, and despite its location and the fact that 90% of the membership comes from college faculty, staff, and students, the fire department is, in fact, not affiliated with the college.


title: Hampden–Sydney College

text: Union-Philanthropic Literary Society (UPLS) is the oldest student organization at Hampden–Sydney College. Established on September 22, 1789, UPLS is the nation's oldest literary and debating society still in existence today without interruption.


title: Hampden–Sydney College

text: For freshmen, rush begins in the first semester and pledging takes place in the spring. If a student chooses not to rush and/or pledge as a freshman, sophomores and juniors may pledge in the fall or spring. Roughly 47% of the student body is involved in Greek life. Beta Theta Pi used Atkinson Hall (built 1834) as a fraternity house when it came to campus in 1850 possibly making it one of the first fraternity houses in North America. However, the first fraternity house built on campus would be the Chi Phi fraternity (Epsilon Chapter) founded in 1867 at H-SC. Chi Psi is widely believed to have created the first fraternity house in 1845 at the University of Michigan.


title: Hampden–Sydney College

text: In addition to the social and professional fraternities listed above, Hampden–Sydney also has chapters of Phi Beta Kappa, the Academic Honor Society; Phi Alpha Theta, the national history honor society; Pi Sigma Alpha, the national political science honor Society; Omicron Delta Kappa, a national leadership honor society and Alpha Psi Omega, a national honors society for theatre arts.


title: Hampden–Sydney College

text: Hampden–Sydney athletic teams are the Tigers. The college is a member of the Division III level of the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA), primarily competing in the Old Dominion Athletic Conference (ODAC) since the 1976–77 academic year.


title: Hampden–Sydney College

text: Hampden–Sydney competes in ten intercollegiate varsity sports: Men's sports include baseball, basketball, cross country, football, golf, lacrosse, soccer, swimming & diving, tennis and distance track. The Tigers have rugby as a club sport.


title: Hampden–Sydney College

text: Hampden–Sydney's rivalry with Randolph–Macon College is one of the longest-running college rivalries in the United States. "The Game" is often referred to as the oldest small-school football rivalry in the South, with the first match up having been played in 1893. Athletic events involving the two schools are fiercely competitive, and the week prior to "The Game" between Hampden–Sydney and Randolph–Macon is known as "Beat Macon Week".Several Hampden–Sydney athletes have gone on to successful coaching careers, including Russell Turner, the head coach of the UC Irvine men's basketball team, and Ryan Odom, who led the #16 seed UMBC Retrievers to a historic upset over #1 seed University of Virginia in the 2018 NCAA men's basketball tournament. Ryan Silverfield, an alumnus and former student-assistant with the Hampden–Sydney football program, was named head football coach at the University of Memphis just before the 2019 Cotton Bowl Classic after previously serving as an assistant with the Detroit Lions and Minnesota Vikings.


title: LL parser

text: In computer science, an LL parser (Left-to-right, leftmost derivation) is a top-down parser for a restricted context-free language. It parses the input from Left to right, performing Leftmost derivation of the sentence.


title: LL parser

text: An LL parser is called an LL("k") parser if it uses "k" tokens of lookahead when parsing a sentence. A grammar is called an LL("k") grammar if an LL("k") parser can be constructed from it. A formal language is called an LL("k") language if it has an LL("k") grammar. The set of LL("k") languages is properly contained in that of LL("k"+1) languages, for each "k" ≥ 0. A corollary of this is that not all context-free languages can be recognized by an LL("k") parser.


title: LL parser

text: An LL parser is called LL-regular (LLR) if it parses an LL-regular language. The class of LLR grammars contains every LL(k) grammar for every k. For every LLR grammar there exists an LLR parser that parses the grammar in linear time.


title: LL parser

text: Two nomenclative outlier parser types are LL(*) and LL(finite). A parser is called LL(*)/LL(finite) if it uses the LL(*)/LL(finite) parsing strategy. LL(*) and LL(finite) parsers are functionally more closely resemblant to PEG parsers. An LL(finite) parser can parse an arbitrary LL(k) grammar optimally in the amount of lookahead and lookahead comparisons. The class of grammars parsable by the LL(*) strategy encompasses some context-sensitive languages due to the use of syntactic and semantic predicates and has not been identified. It has been suggested that LL(*) parsers are better thought of as TDPL parsers.


title: LL parser

text: Against the popular misconception, LL(*) parsers are not LLR in general, and are guaranteed by construction to perform worse on average (super-linear against linear time) and far worse in the worst-case (exponential against linear time).


title: LL parser

text: LL grammars, particularly LL(1) grammars, are of great practical interest, as parsers for these grammars are easy to construct, and many computer languages are designed to be LL(1) for this reason. LL parsers may be table-based, i.e. similar to LR parsers, but LL grammars can also be parsed by recursive descent parsers. According to Waite and Goos (1984), LL("k") grammars were introduced by Stearns and Lewis (1969).


title: LL parser

text: Generally, there are multiple possibilities when selecting a rule to expand the leftmost non-terminal. In step 2 of the previous example, the parser must choose whether to apply rule 2 or rule 3:


title: LL parser

text: To be efficient, the parser must be able to make this choice deterministically when possible, without backtracking. For some grammars, it can do this by peeking on the unread input (without reading). In our example, if the parser knows that the next unread symbol is formula_8 , the only correct rule that can be used is 2.


title: LL parser

text: Generally, an formula_9 parser can look ahead at formula_10 symbols. However, given a grammar, the problem of determining if there exists a formula_9 parser for some formula_10 that recognizes it is undecidable. For each formula_10, there is a language that cannot be recognized by an formula_9 parser, but can be by an formula_15.


title: LL parser

text: Let formula_1 be a context-free grammar and formula_17. We say that formula_1 is formula_9, if and only if for any two leftmost derivations:


title: LL parser

text: the following condition holds: the prefix of the string formula_22 of length formula_10 equals the prefix of the string formula_24 of length formula_10 implies formula_26.


title: LL parser

text: In this definition, formula_27 is the start symbol and formula_28 any non-terminal. The already derived input formula_29, and yet unread formula_22 and formula_31 are strings of terminals. The Greek letters formula_32, formula_33 and formula_34 represent any string of both terminals and non-terminals (possibly empty). The prefix length corresponds to the lookahead buffer size, and the definition says that this buffer is enough to distinguish between any two derivations of different words.


title: LL parser

text: The formula_9 parser is a deterministic pushdown automaton with the ability to peek on the next formula_10 input symbols without reading. This peek capability can be emulated by storing the lookahead buffer contents in the finite state space, since both buffer and input alphabet are finite in size. As a result, this does not make the automaton more powerful, but is a convenient abstraction.


title: LL parser

text: The parser stack initially contains the starting symbol above the EOI: formula_41. During operation, the parser repeatedly replaces the symbol formula_42 on top of the stack:


title: LL parser

text: If the last symbol to be removed from the stack is the EOI, the parsing is successful; the automaton accepts via an empty stack.


title: LL parser

text: The states and the transition function are not explicitly given; they are specified (generated) using a more convenient "parse table" instead. The table provides the following mapping:


title: LL parser

text: If the parser cannot perform a valid transition, the input is rejected (empty cells). To make the table more compact, only the non-terminal rows are commonly displayed, since the action is the same for terminals.


title: LL parser

text: An LL(1) parsing table for a grammar has a row for each of the non-terminals and a column for each terminal (including the special terminal, represented here as $, that is used to indicate the end of the input stream).


title: LL parser

text: Each cell of the table may point to at most one rule of the grammar (identified by its number). For example, in the parsing table for the above grammar, the cell for the non-terminal 'S' and terminal '(' points to the rule number 2:


title: LL parser

text: The algorithm to construct a parsing table is described in a later section, but first let's see how the parser uses the parsing table to process its input.


title: LL parser

text: In each step, the parser reads the next-available symbol from the input stream, and the top-most symbol from the stack. If the input symbol and the stack-top symbol match, the parser discards them both, leaving only the unmatched symbols in the input stream and on the stack.


title: LL parser

text: Thus, in its first step, the parser reads the input symbol '(' and the stack-top symbol 'S'. The parsing table instruction comes from the column headed by the input symbol '(' and the row headed by the stack-top symbol 'S'; this cell contains '2', which instructs the parser to apply rule (2). The parser has to rewrite 'S' to '( S + F )' on the stack by removing 'S' from stack and pushing ')', 'F', '+', 'S', '(' onto the stack, and this writes the rule number 2 to the output. The stack then becomes:


title: LL parser

text: In the second step, the parser removes the '(' from its input stream and from its stack, since they now match. The stack now becomes:


title: LL parser

text: Now the parser has an 'a' on its input stream and an 'S' as its stack top. The parsing table instructs it to apply rule (1) from the grammar and write the rule number 1 to the output stream. The stack becomes:


title: LL parser

text: The parser now has an 'a' on its input stream and an 'F' as its stack top. The parsing table instructs it to apply rule (3) from the grammar and write the rule number 3 to the output stream. The stack becomes:


title: LL parser

text: The parser now has an 'a' on the input stream and an 'a' at its stack top. Because they are the same, it removes it from the input stream and pops it from the top of the stack. The parser then has an '+' on the input stream and '+' is at the top of the stack meaning, like with 'a', it is popped from the stack and removed from the input stream. This results in:


title: LL parser

text: In the next three steps the parser will replace 'F' on the stack by 'a', write the rule number 3 to the output stream and remove the 'a' and ')' from both the stack and the input stream. The parser thus ends with '$' on both its stack and its input stream.


title: LL parser

text: In this case the parser will report that it has accepted the input string and write the following list of rule numbers to the output stream:


title: LL parser

text: As can be seen from the example, the parser performs three types of steps depending on whether the top of the stack is a nonterminal, a terminal or the special symbol $:


title: LL parser

text: These steps are repeated until the parser stops, and then it will have either completely parsed the input and written a leftmost derivation to the output stream or it will have reported an error.


title: LL parser

text: In order to fill the parsing table, we have to establish what grammar rule the parser should choose if it sees a nonterminal "A" on the top of its stack and a symbol "a" on its input stream.


title: LL parser

text: It is easy to see that such a rule should be of the form "A" → "w" and that the language corresponding to "w" should have at least one string starting with "a".


title: LL parser

text: For this purpose we define the "First-set" of "w", written here as Fi("w"), as the set of terminals that can be found at the start of some string in "w", plus ε if the empty string also belongs to "w".


title: LL parser

text: Given a grammar with the rules "A" → "w", …, "A" → "w", we can compute the Fi("w") and Fi("A") for every rule as follows:


title: LL parser

text: where, for sets of words U and V, the truncated product is defined by formula_56, and w:1 denotes the initial length-1 prefix of words w of length 2 or more, or w, itself, if w has length 0 or 1.


title: LL parser

text: So the parser should also use the rule "A" → "w" if ε is in Fi("w") and it sees on the input stream a symbol that could follow "A". Therefore, we also need the "Follow-set" of "A", written as Fo("A") here, which is defined as the set of terminals "a" such that there is a string of symbols "αAaβ" that can be derived from the start symbol. We use $ as a special terminal indicating end of input stream, and "S" as start symbol.


title: LL parser

text: If the table contains at most one rule in every one of its cells, then the parser will always know which rule it has to use and can therefore parse strings without backtracking.


title: LL parser

text: The construction for LL(1) parsers can be adapted to LL("k") for "k" > 1 with the following modifications:


title: LL parser

text: where an input is suffixed by k end-markers $, to fully account for the k lookahead context. This approach eliminates special cases for ε, and can be applied equally well in the LL(1) case.


title: LL parser

text: Until the mid-1990s, it was widely believed that LL("k") parsing (for "k" > 1) was impractical, since the parser table would have exponential size in "k" in the worst case. This perception changed gradually after the release of the Purdue Compiler Construction Tool Set around 1992, when it was demonstrated that many programming languages can be parsed efficiently by an LL("k") parser without triggering the worst-case behavior of the parser. Moreover, in certain cases LL parsing is feasible even with unlimited lookahead. By contrast, traditional parser generators like yacc use LALR(1) parser tables to construct a restricted LR parser with a fixed one-token lookahead.


title: LL parser

text: As described in the introduction, LL(1) parsers recognize languages that have LL(1) grammars, which are a special case of context-free grammars; LL(1) parsers cannot recognize all context-free languages. The LL(1) languages are a proper subset of the LR(1) languages, which in turn are a proper subset of all context-free languages. In order for a context-free grammar to be an LL(1) grammar, certain conflicts must not arise, which we describe in this section.


title: LL parser

text: Let "A" be a non-terminal. FIRST("A") is (defined to be) the set of terminals that can appear in the first position of any string derived from "A". FOLLOW("A") is the union over:


title: LL parser

text: FIRST("E") = {"b", ε} and FIRST("E" "a") = {"b", "a"}, so when the table is drawn, there is conflict under terminal "b" of production rule "S".


title: LL parser

text: The FIRST and FOLLOW set of a grammar rule overlap. With an empty string (ε) in the FIRST set, it is unknown which alternative to select.


title: LL parser

text: It can be shown that there does not exist any LL(k)-grammar accepting the language generated by this grammar.


title: Nathaniel Ayers

text: Nathaniel Anthony Ayers, Jr. (born January 31, 1951) is an American musician. He is the subject of numerous newspaper columns, a book, and a 2009 film adaptation based on the columns. A foundation bearing his name was started in 2008 with an aim to support artistically gifted people with mental illness.


title: Nathaniel Ayers

text: Ayers began playing the double bass during middle school. He attended the Juilliard School in New York as a double bassist, but had a mental breakdown during his second year and was institutionalized. Ayers was one of the few black students at Juilliard at that time.


title: Nathaniel Ayers

text: For some years he lived with his mother in Cleveland, Ohio, where he received electroconvulsive therapy for his illness to no avail. After his mother's death in 2000, he moved to Los Angeles, thinking that his father lived there. Homeless and debilitated with symptoms of schizophrenia, Ayers lived and played music on the streets.


title: Nathaniel Ayers

text: "Los Angeles Times" columnist Steve Lopez met Ayers at Pershing Square in 2005, and discovered his background at Juilliard. Lopez wrote several columns about his relationship with Ayers, and Nathaniel's slow transition out of homelessness. Lopez's subsequent book, "The Soloist: A Lost Dream, an Unlikely Friendship, and the Redemptive Power of Music", was based on his relationship with Ayers.


title: Nathaniel Ayers

text: The book has been adapted into a film and a play titled "The Soloist", released April 24, 2009 with Jamie Foxx and Robert Downey Jr. in the lead roles. In the film, Ayers is depicted as a cellist, rather than a bassist.


title: Nathaniel Ayers

text: Ayers and Lopez's relationship was also nationally highlighted in the March 22, 2009 episode of "60 Minutes" on CBS.


title: Nathaniel Ayers

text: Ayers's sister, Jennifer Ayers-Moore, is the chairwoman and founder of the Nathaniel Anthony Ayers Foundation. The foundation, launched in 2008, began with Jennifer's desire to help what she and Nathaniel hope will be thousands of people. An endowment will be set up to continue their ability to keep the public awareness about mental health at the forefront of the nation's consciousness. The NAAF will facilitate the appreciation of the contributions that artistic expression make to the advancement of wellness and treatment, collaborate with mental health and arts organizations to identify and exhibit the work of the artistically gifted, and to provide for grants to worthy nonprofit organizations that embody the mission of the foundation.


title: Menulog

text: Menulog Pty. Ltd. (branded as simply Menulog) is an Australian and New Zealand online food and beverage ordering app and delivery service platform, headquartered and founded in Sydney in 2006. It was bought in 2015 by UK-based Just Eat, which was subsequently folded into Dutch-based Just Eat Takeaway.com in 2020, following Just Eat's acquisition.


title: Menulog

text: The e-commerce company’s main competitors are United States-based Uber Eats and DoorDash. Menulog has over 30,000 restaurant partners across Australia and New Zealand and has its own couriers.


title: Menulog

text: Menulog includes international franchises like McDonald's, KFC, Pizza Hut, Subway and South African Portuguese chicken franchise Nando's. Whilst national franchises include Hungry Jack's, Red Rooster, Pizza Capers and Oporto, and also state and localised suburban restaurants offering more than 130 cuisines. Menulog operates in all major Australian states and cities.


title: Menulog

text: The company is well-known through its television advertisements featuring musician Snoop Dogg titled "Did Somebody Say?", in which he raps about ways you can use the service, like ordering Fried Rice on a private jet or having Chocolate fondue delivered to your house.


title: Menulog

text: International pop music singer Katy Perry, is the latest star to front a media campaign, through TV adverts


title: Menulog

text: Menulog, based in Sydney, was founded by Dan Katz, Leon Kamenev and Kevin Sherman in 2006. Since its founding the company has handled over 22 million meal orders.


title: Menulog

text: In 2007, the same year Menulog launched its first in-store ordering device, the business expanded to Australian cities Brisbane, Canberra and Melbourne. The following year, Menulog launched in Adelaide and Perth and expanded its reach further launching in New Zealand in 2012.


title: Menulog

text: In February 2015, Menulog and EatNow announced their agreement to merge with a 70/30 share split arrangement, forming Menulog Group Limited. In May 2015, the company was bought by Just Eat, which funded the deal by issuing new shares for 855 million Australian dollars.


title: Menulog

text: In 2016, after reaching a ten million annual order milestone, Menulog lost its case against Pizza Fellas who successfully obtained interlocutory relief in the Victorian Civil and Administrative Tribunal (VCAT). The claim (VCAT 4345/2015) was brought by the Pizza Fellas Group who were granted Injunctive Relief to restrain Menulog from purchasing Google Adwords using Pizza Fellas' brandnames. Menulog's conduct, known as brandjacking had the effect of redirecting Pizza Fellas' customers to the Menulog website (so they could resell them back to the applicant Pizza Fellas).


title: Menulog

text: The group rebranded with a new logo and saw the appointment of former Groupon CEO Alistair Venn as managing director.


title: Menulog

text: In 2019, Menulog's British parent company, Just Eat, agreed to merge with Amsterdam-based rival Takeaway.com in an £8.2 billion deal. Menulog is now a subsidiary of the combined corporation, Just Eat Takeaway.


title: Menulog

text: By mid-2020, in the middle of the coronavirus pandemic where demand for services delivering food from restaurants and takeaways surged, Menulog announced it had received “a high volume” of requests to join its platform. The company said they had also implemented a range of measures to support both their drivers and restaurants on their platform, such as offering contactless delivery, and halved all commission on pickup orders until further notice.


title: Menulog

text: Menulog's research and insights into Australian food trends are regularly featured in the media, with a 2015 study showing Australia's hungriest suburbs published in "The Daily Telegraph" and "The Herald Sun". Menulog's annual Tasty Takeaway awards, which recognise the nation's most popular takeaway restaurants, have appeared on news.com.au.


title: Menulog

text: In October 2016, Menulog created Australia's first 23ct gold pizza in partnership with Pizza Design Co. Parramatta. The event was covered by Sunrise and Nine Kitchen.


title: Menulog

text: At the 2017 CEO Magazine 'Executive of the Year' Awards, Menulog's CFO Morten Belling was named CFO of the Year and managing director Alistair Venn was named Runner-up in his respective category.


title: Piper PA-24 Comanche

text: The Piper PA-24 Comanche is an American four-seat or six-seat, low-wing, all-metal, light aircraft of semimonocoque construction with tricycle retractable landing gear. Piper Aircraft designed and developed the Comanche, which first flew on May 24, 1956. Together with the PA-30 and PA-39 Twin Comanches, it made up the core of the Piper Aircraft lineup until the production lines for both aircraft were destroyed in the 1972 Lock Haven flood.


title: Piper PA-24 Comanche

text: The Comanche is a four-seat (or in 260B and 260C models, six-seat), single-engined, low-wing monoplane. It is an all-metal aircraft with a retractable landing gear. Two prototypes were built in 1956, with the first being completed by June 20, 1956. The first production aircraft, powered by a Lycoming O-360-A1A engine, first flew on October 21, 1957. In 1958, it was joined by a higher-powered PA-24-250 with a Lycoming O-540-A1A5 engine; this model was originally to be known as the PA-26, but Piper decided to keep the PA-24 designation.


title: Piper PA-24 Comanche

text: In 1964, the PA-24-400 was introduced. The following year, the PA-24-250 was superseded by the PA-24-260, featuring the Lycoming IO-540D or E engine of . The 260 was also available as the Turbo Comanche C with a Rajay turbocharger, and was introduced in 1970.


title: Piper PA-24 Comanche

text: Production of the Comanche ended in 1972, when torrential rains from Hurricane Agnes caused the great Susquehanna River flood of 1972, flooding the manufacturing plant and destroying airframes, parts, and much of the tooling necessary for production. Rather than rebuild the tooling, Piper chose to abandon production of the Comanche and Twin Comanche and continue with two newer designs already in production at Piper's other plant in Vero Beach, Florida - the twin-engined PA-34 Seneca and the PA-28R-200 Arrow.


title: Piper PA-24 Comanche

text: The original version of the Comanche was the PA-24, which featured a carbureted Lycoming O-360-A1A engine, swept tail, laminar flow airfoil, and all-flying stabilator.


title: Piper PA-24 Comanche

text: The standard fuel capacity of the PA-24-180 was . The flaps were manually actuated, controlled by the same Johnson bar actuator as the Piper Cherokee. The aircraft specifications were for cruise speeds of and fuel burns between at 55 and 75% power settings, respectively. Full-fuel payload with standard fuel was , with a gross weight of and range with 45-minute reserve of .


title: Piper PA-24 Comanche

text: When new, standard, typically equipped Comanche 180s sold between $17,850 (1958) and $21,580 (1964). A total of 1,143 were built.


title: Piper PA-24 Comanche

text: In 1958, Piper introduced a version using a Lycoming O-540 engine, giving the PA-24-250 Comanche a top cruise speed of . Most 250s had carbureted Lycoming O-540-AIA5 engines, but a small number were fitted out with fuel-injected versions of the same engine. Early Comanche 250s had manually operated flaps and carried of fuel. Auxiliary fuel tanks ( total) became available in 1961. Electrically actuated flaps were made standard with the 1962 model year.


title: Piper PA-24 Comanche

text: The 260 had an empty weight around and a maximum gross weight of . It had four seats, and a -capacity auxiliary fuel system was available as an option. Cruise speed was advertised as with fuel burn of .


title: Piper PA-24 Comanche

text: The 260B had an overall length more than the previous models due to a longer propeller spinner, not a longer fuselage. The 260B had a third side window and a provision for six seats. The fifth and sixth seats take up the entire baggage area and seat smaller adults, placarded to a total weight of . Typical empty weight was and gross weight was . Fuel burn was and advertised speed was .


title: Piper PA-24 Comanche

text: The 260C introduced a new "Tiger Shark" cowling, maximum gross weight of , cowl flaps, and an aileron-rudder interconnect. Cruise speed was advertised as with fuel flow of . To prevent possible aft center-of-gravity problems due to the increased gross weight and its fifth and sixth seats, the propeller shaft was extended. This moved the center of gravity slightly forward. With a useful load of , it has the largest payload of all of the Comanches except the 400. Often mistaken on the ramp for the 400 model, the slightly longer cowling includes a distinctively longer nose gear door, as compared to the B models and older versions.


title: Piper PA-24 Comanche

text: Starting in 1970, Piper offered a turbo-normalized variant of the PA-24-260 known as the 260TC with a Lycoming IO-540-R1A5 engine and dual Rajay turbochargers. Twenty-six were produced between 1970 and 1972. Advertised by Piper as a "second throttle", the turbochargers are controlled using a manual wastegate assembly that places an additional handle labeled "boost" next to the throttle handle in the cockpit, effectively creating a secondary throttle. The TC model is certified for flight to , with an advertised turbo critical altitude of , giving a maximum true airspeed of .


title: Piper PA-24 Comanche

text: Two prototype aircraft were built in 1961. They were standard Comanche airframes, but had Lycoming IO-720-A1A engines with a three-bladed propeller. The design was modified with an even larger engine and produced as the PA-24-400.


title: Piper PA-24 Comanche

text: The Comanche 400 is powered by the , horizontally opposed, eight-cylinder Lycoming IO-720 engine, developed specifically for the model. Cooling problems have happened with the rear cylinders.


title: Piper PA-24 Comanche

text: The Comanche 400 has a three-bladed propeller and carries of fuel, or with optional extended tanks. Fuel burn was advertised as , at 55-75% power. The high fuel burn means that it is expensive to operate. The 400 had a typical empty weight of and a maximum gross weight of .


title: Piper PA-24 Comanche

text: While identical in planform to other PA-24 models, the 400 is structurally strengthened, primarily in the tail, with an extra nose rib in the stabilator and the vertical fin. The stabilator, vertical fin, and rudder of the 400 share virtually no common parts with the 180, 250, or Comanches.


title: Piper PA-24 Comanche

text: In 1967, a single Comanche was modified by Swearingen with a pressurized cabin. The prototype, powered by a Lycoming O-540 engine and equipped with Twin Comanche landing gear, was designated the PA-33. First flown on March 11, 1967, the prototype later crashed on takeoff in May 1967 and the project was cancelled.


title: Piper PA-24 Comanche

text: In June 1959, Max Conrad flew a Comanche 250 on a record-breaking distance flight in Fédération Aéronautique Internationale C1-D Class, for aircraft from to less than . Having removed the interior seats and replaced them with fuel tanks, Conrad flew nonstop from Casablanca, Morocco, to Los Angeles, a distance of . When the aircraft took off from Casablanca, it was heavily overloaded and just cleared the airport fence. The Comanche 250 Max Conrad flew for this flight is now located in the museum at the Liberal, Kansas, airport.


title: Piper PA-24 Comanche

text: On November 24–26, 1959, Conrad flew a Comanche 180 on a distance record flight in FAI C1-C Class for aircraft taking off at weights from to less than ) that still stands: Casablanca to El Paso, Texas, nonstop, a distance of , in 56 hours 26 minutes. He set a closed-circuit distance record in the same aircraft on July 4–6 November 1960, flying .


title: Piper PA-24 Comanche

text: On 14 May 1962, Kenneth Walker arrived in Brisbane, Australia, in a PA-24-250 on a delivery flight from San Francisco. Walker's flight was the first ever solo single-engine crossing of the Pacific, and the third solo crossing from the US to Australia. From Brisbane, Walker continued south to deliver the Comanche to the Royal Newcastle Aero Club at Maitland, New South Wales, Australia.


title: Piper PA-24 Comanche

text: In July 1964, Henry Ohye, flying a 1961 PA-24-250, made the first successful trans-Pacific flight from the United States to Japan in a single-engined aircraft. He flew from Los Angeles to Tokyo with stops in Honolulu, Midway, Wake, Guam, and Okinawa.


title: Piper PA-24 Comanche

text: A 1966 Comanche 260B, named "Myth Too" and registered as G-ATOY, was owned by English aviator Sheila Scott. The aircraft, flown by Scott, holds 90 world-class light aviation records. It is on public display at the National Museum of Flight, Scotland.


title: Piper PA-24 Comanche

text: The circumnavigation by the oldest pilot on record in 1994 was made by Fred Lasby at age 82 in a Comanche 260B.


title: Multinomial theorem

text: In mathematics, the multinomial theorem describes how to expand a power of a sum in terms of powers of the terms in that sum. It is the generalization of the binomial theorem from binomials to multinomials.


title: Multinomial theorem

text: For any positive integer and any non-negative integer , the multinomial formula describes how a sum with terms expands when raised to an arbitrary power :


title: Multinomial theorem

text: is a multinomial coefficient. The sum is taken over all combinations of nonnegative integer indices through such that the sum of all is . That is, for each term in the expansion, the exponents of the must add up to . Also, as with the binomial theorem, quantities of the form that appear are taken to equal 1 (even when equals zero).


title: Multinomial theorem

text: This can be computed by hand using the distributive property of multiplication over addition, but it can also be done (perhaps more easily) with the multinomial theorem. It is possible to "read off" the multinomial coefficients from the terms by using the multinomial coefficient formula. For example:


title: Multinomial theorem

text: First, for , both sides equal since there is only one term in the sum. For the induction step, suppose the multinomial theorem holds for . Then


title: Multinomial theorem

text: appearing in the theorem are the multinomial coefficients. They can be expressed in numerous ways, including as a product of binomial coefficients or of factorials:


title: Multinomial theorem

text: The number of terms in a multinomial sum, , is equal to the number of monomials of degree on the variables :


title: Multinomial theorem

text: The largest power of a prime that divides a multinomial coefficient may be computed using a generalization of Kummer's theorem.


title: Multinomial theorem

text: The multinomial coefficients have a direct combinatorial interpretation, as the number of ways of depositing distinct objects into distinct bins, with objects in the first bin, objects in the second bin, and so on.


title: Multinomial theorem

text: In statistical mechanics and combinatorics, if one has a number distribution of labels, then the multinomial coefficients naturally arise from the binomial coefficients. Given a number distribution on a set of total items, represents the number of items to be given the label . (In statistical mechanics is the label of the energy state.)


title: Multinomial theorem

text: is also the number of distinct ways to permute a multiset of elements, where is the multiplicity of each of the th element. For example, the number of distinct permutations of the letters of the word MISSISSIPPI, which has 1 M, 4 Is, 4 Ss, and 2 Ps, is


title: Multinomial theorem

text: One can use the multinomial theorem to generalize Pascal's triangle or Pascal's pyramid to Pascal's simplex. This provides a quick way to generate a lookup table for multinomial coefficients.


title: Einstein on the Beach

text: Einstein on the Beach is an opera in four acts composed by Philip Glass and directed by theatrical producer Robert Wilson, who also collaborated with Glass on the work's libretto. The opera eschews traditional narrative in favor of a formalist approach based on structured spaces laid out by Wilson in a series of storyboards which are framed and connected by five "knee plays" or intermezzos. The music was written "in the spring, summer and fall of 1975." Glass recounts the collaborative process: "I put [Wilson’s notebook of sketches] on the piano and composed each section like a portrait of the drawing before me. The score was begun in the spring of 1975 and completed by the following November, and those drawings were before me all the time." The premiere took place on July 25, 1976, at the Théâtre Municipal in Avignon, France, as part of the Avignon Festival. The opera contains writings by Christopher Knowles, Samuel M. Johnson and Lucinda Childs. It is Glass's first and longest opera score, taking approximately five hours in full performance without intermission; given the length, the audience is permitted to enter and leave as desired.


title: Einstein on the Beach

text: The work became the first in Glass's thematically related Portrait Trilogy, along with "Satyagraha" (1979), and "Akhnaten" (1983). These three operas were described by Glass as portraits of people whose personal vision transformed the thinking of their times through the power of ideas rather than by military force.


title: Einstein on the Beach

text: Glass and Wilson first met to discuss the prospects of a collaborative work, and decided on an opera of between four and five hours in length based around a historical persona. Wilson initially suggested Charlie Chaplin or Adolf Hitler, whom Glass outright rejected, while Glass proposed Mahatma Gandhi (later the central figure of his 1979 opera "Satyagraha"). Albert Einstein was the eventual compromise.


title: Einstein on the Beach

text: "Einstein on the Beach" premiered on July 25, 1976, at the Théâtre Municipal in Avignon, France, as part of the Avignon Festival. It was performed by the Philip Glass Ensemble and presented by the Byrd Hoffmann Foundation. The opera was also staged that summer in Hamburg, Paris, Belgrade, Venice, Brussels and Rotterdam. The Byrd Hoffman Foundation in cooperation with the Metropolitan Opera held two performances in November 1976. Lucinda Childs, Robert Wilson, pupil Sheryl S. Sutton, and Samuel M. Johnson filled the primary characters. All three would go on to reappear in the 1984 BAM revival.


title: Einstein on the Beach

text: The Brooklyn Academy of Music (BAM) next mounted the opera in 1984. A one-hour documentary about this production appeared on public television, titled "Einstein on the Beach: The Changing Image of Opera".


title: Einstein on the Beach

text: In 1988, opera director Achim Freyer, who had staged the world premiere of Glass's "Akhnaten" in Stuttgart, Germany in 1984, designed and staged a reworked version in a highly abstract style, with new spoken texts from the early 20th century, at the Stuttgart State Opera. As with the premiere, this version was also conducted by Michael Riesman.


title: Einstein on the Beach

text: In 1992, a revival was mounted by International Production Associates that included the participation of Wilson, Glass and Childs. The production was re-staged at the McCarter Theatre at Princeton University. It subsequently toured to Frankfurt, Melbourne, Barcelona, Madrid, Tokyo, Brooklyn (BAM), and Paris.


title: Einstein on the Beach

text: In 2001, the opera was staged as an "opera-installation" at the former headquarters of the State Bank of the GDR in Berlin. It was conducted by Ari Benjamin Meyers, directed by , with stage design by Veronika Witte. The performance combined the concepts of opera and installation art, created by various artists for the production. The spectators were encouraged to wander through the exhibition, while the actions of the musicians could be followed on video screens. A different production by the same team, following the same principle, was staged on the Einstein anniversary in 2005 at the Berlin Parochialkirche.