title: Drexel Burnham Lambert

text: Due to several deals that did not work out, as well as an unexpected crash of the junk bond market, 1989 was a difficult year for Drexel even after it settled the criminal and SEC cases. Reports of an $86 million loss going into the fourth quarter resulted in the firm's commercial paper rating being cut in late November. This made it nearly impossible for Drexel to reborrow its outstanding commercial paper, and it had to be repaid. Rumors abounded that the banks could yank Drexel's lines of credit at any time. Drexel had no corporate parent that could pump in cash in the event of such a crisis, unlike most American financial institutions. Groupe Bruxelles Lambert refused even to consider making an equity investment until Joseph improved the bottom line. The firm posted a $40 million loss for 1989—the first operating loss in its 54-year history.


title: Drexel Burnham Lambert

text: Drexel managed to survive into 1990 by transferring some of the excess capital from its regulated broker/dealer subsidiary into its holding company, Drexel Burnham Lambert Group—only to be ordered to stop by the SEC on February 9 out of concerns about the broker's solvency. This sent Joseph and other senior executives into a near-panic. After the SEC, the New York Stock Exchange, and the Federal Reserve Bank of New York cast doubts about a restructuring plan, Joseph concluded that Drexel could not stay independent. Unfortunately, concerns about possible liability to civil suits scared off an eleventh-hour attempt to find a prospective buyer.


title: Drexel Burnham Lambert

text: By February 12, it was obvious Drexel was headed for collapse. Its commercial paper rating was further reduced that day, and the holding company defaulted on $100 million in loans. Citibank led a group of banks that tried to put together a loan package for the reeling firm, but this came to nothing. With other firms shutting Drexel out of deals, Joseph's last resort was a bailout by the government. Unfortunately for Drexel, one of Drexel's first hostile deals came back to haunt it at this point. At the time of Pickens' raid on Unocal, the company's investment bank was the establishment firm Dillon, Read. Dillon, Read's former chairman, Nicholas F. Brady, was now Secretary of the Treasury. Brady had never forgiven Drexel for its role in the Unocal deal, and would not even consider signing off on a bailout.


title: Drexel Burnham Lambert

text: Early on the morning of February 13, New York Fed president E. Gerald Corrigan and SEC chairman Richard Breeden called Joseph and told him that they, Brady and NYSE chairman John J. Phelan Jr. saw "no light at the end of the tunnel" for Drexel. They gave Joseph an ultimatum–unless Drexel filed for bankruptcy, the SEC would seize Drexel that morning before the markets opened. After Joseph told the board that Drexel had effectively been told to "go out of business", the board voted to file for bankruptcy. That night, Drexel officially filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection. Drexel was the first Wall Street firm since the Depression to be forced into bankruptcy. The filing covered only the parent company, not the broker/dealer; executives and lawyers believed that confidence in Drexel had deteriorated so much that the firm was finished in its then-current form.


title: Drexel Burnham Lambert

text: Even before the firm's bankruptcy, Tubby Burnham spun off the firm's funds management arm as Burnham Financial Group, which currently operates as a diversified investment company. Burnham was reportedly still arranging deals until his death in 2002 at age 93. The rest of Drexel emerged from bankruptcy in 1992 as New Street Capital, a small investment bank with only 20 employees (at its height, Drexel employed over 10,000 people) and strict limits on its activities. In 1994, New Street merged with Green Capital, a merchant bank owned by Atlanta financier Holcombe Green.


title: Drexel Burnham Lambert

text: Richard A. Brenner, the brother of a president with controlling stakes stated in his memoir "My Life Seen Through Our Eyes" that other firms at Wall Street did not support Drexel or come to its aid when the company got into trouble because they were "smelling an opportunity to grab this business".


title: Drexel Burnham Lambert

text: By the late 1980s, public confidence in leveraged buyouts had waned, and criticism of the perceived engine of the takeover movement, the junk bond, had increased. Innovative financial instruments often generate skepticism, and few have generated more controversy than high yield debt. Some argue that the debt instrument itself, sometimes dubbed "turbo debt", was the cornerstone of the 1980s "Decade of Greed". However, junk bonds were actually used in less than 25% of acquisitions, and hostile takeovers during that period. Nevertheless, by 1990 default rates on high yield debt had increased from 4% to 10%, further eroding confidence in this financial instrument. Without Milken's cheerleading, the liquidity of the junk bond market dried up. Drexel was forced to buy the bonds of insolvent and failing companies, which depleted their capital and would eventually bankrupt the company.


title: Drexel Burnham Lambert

text: A few other firms emerged or became more important from Drexel's collapse, besides Burnham Financial.


title: Own goal

text: An own goal, also called a self goal, is where a player performs actions that result in them or their team scoring a goal on themselves, often resulting in a point for the opposing team, such as when a football player kicks a ball into their own net or goal, awarding the other team a point.


title: Own goal

text: In some parts of the world, the term has become a metaphor for "any" action that backfires on the person or group undertaking it, sometimes even carrying a sense of "poetic justice". During The Troubles, for instance, it acquired a specific metaphorical meaning in Belfast, referring to an IED (improvised explosive device) that detonated prematurely, killing the person making or handling the bomb with the intent to harm others.


title: Own goal

text: A player trying to throw a game might deliberately attempt an own goal. Such players run the risk of being sanctioned or banned from further play.


title: Own goal

text: In association football, an own goal occurs when a player causes the ball to go into their own team's goal, resulting in a goal being scored for the opposition. Defenders often "turn behind" dangerous balls into the penalty area, particularly crosses, by kicking or heading the ball out of play behind their goal-line. In this way, the defender's aim is to concede a corner rather than giving attacking players scoring opportunities. Consequently, the defender may misjudge and inadvertently turn the ball into their own goal, particularly if they are under pressure from attacking players who might otherwise score. While the defending player who scored the own goal is personally "credited" with the goal as part of the statistical abstract of the game (with the annotation "(og)" to indicate its nature), own goals are not added to a player's seasonal or career goalscoring total.


title: Own goal

text: The Laws of the Game currently stipulate that an own goal cannot be scored directly from most methods of restarting the game; instead, a corner kick is awarded to the attacking team. This is the case for the kick-off, goal kick, dropped-ball (since 2012), throw-in, corner kick, and free kick (indirect and direct).


title: Own goal

text: The Laws do not stipulate any rules or procedures for crediting goals to players, and indeed such records are not a compulsory part of the game. In 1997 FIFA issued detailed guidelines for crediting own goals, recognising the increasing commercial importance of statistics such as and fantasy football. The guidelines state that credit for scoring is decided by the referee, or match commissioner if present; and "[a] defender's intervention must be deliberate in order for an own goal to be registered against him". Regarding a shot which deflects or ricochets into the goal off a defender, some sources credit the score to the attacker; others count them as own goals; for others it depends on whether the original shot was off target; others are more nuanced. There was controversy in 2013 when the Premier League credited Tim Howard with an own goal when a shot came off the post, hit him in the back, and went in.


title: Own goal

text: Major competitions may have video reviews which can alter the accreditation, such as the Dubious Goals Committee of the FA Premier League. In the 2002 FIFA World Cup, one of Ronaldo's eight goals in winning the Golden Boot was initially credited as an own goal but reassigned on appeal by Brazil. UEFA's review procedure was formalised in 2008. , the English Football League allowed the club which scored to nominate the scorer, which "The Guardian" criticised with an example from 2002: "every single national newspaper, agency and football factbook agreed that Coventry City defender Calum Davenport had scored an own goal against Burnley. The Clarets, however, gave the goal to Gareth Taylor".


title: Own goal

text: The most infamous own goal was perhaps that of Andrés Escobar of Colombia in the 1994 FIFA World Cup which lost the match against the United States and knocked Colombia out; a week later, Escobar was shot dead in Colombia by a drug gang member whose boss had lost betting on the match.


title: Own goal

text: The fastest own goal in history is believed to have been scored by Torquay United defender Pat Kruse, eight seconds into a match against Cambridge United in January 1977.


title: Own goal

text: Another notable own goal was scored in a 1994 Caribbean Cup match between Barbados and Grenada. To advance in the competition Barbados needed to win by a margin of 2 or more goals. Because they were winning by just one goal as the match was nearly over, they deliberately scored an own goal to take the match into extra time to give themselves an opportunity to score a goal in extra time. Due to unusual tournament rules, this would not only win the game but also be worth 2 goals allowing them to advance on goal difference.


title: Own goal

text: If a goal is scored by a player on the defending team, credit for the goal goes to the last player on the other team to have touched the puck; this is because own goals in hockey are typically cases where the player so credited had the shot deflected, but this convention is used even where this is not the case. Occasionally, it is also credited to the closest player to the goal from the other team if he is determined to have caused the opposing player to shoot it into the wrong net. Assists are not awarded on an own goal because the defending team has possession of the puck between any pass and the goal itself. Occasionally in the NHL, players have directed the puck into their own empty net, either late in the game or because of a delayed penalty call. This was the situation which resulted in Billy Smith of the New York Islanders becoming the first goaltender to receive credit for a goal in the NHL. In some parts of Canada, an own goal is referred to as a limoges. The term is believed to have originated in New Brunswick (approximately 1970) and became more common in the greater Toronto region starting in the 1990s.


title: Own goal

text: Treatment of "own goals" in field hockey has varied over recent years. In 2013 the International Hockey Federation (FIH) implemented a "mandatory experiment" such that a deflection of a shot from outside the shooting circle from a defender would be equivalent to a touch from an attacker, and thus if the shot continued into the goal the score would be counted. This proved unpopular and the change was reversed.


title: Own goal

text: Presently rule 8.1 states that ""A goal is scored when the ball is played within the circle by an attacker and does not travel outside the circle before passing completely over the goal-line and under the crossbar."" Added clarification: ""The ball may be played by a defender or touch their body before or after being played in the circle by an attacker."" Thus, an "own goal" may occur, but in such situations the goal will likely be credited to the attacker whose initial play into the circle was necessary for the goal to stand.


title: Own goal

text: When accidentally scoring at an opposing team's basket (basketball's equivalent of an "own goal"), the goal is credited to an offensive player. One typical own-goal scenario occurs when a player tries to block a goal shot but ends up knocking the ball into the goal.


title: Own goal

text: In NCAA basketball, the rules state: "When a player scores a field goal in the opponent’s basket, it shall count two points for the opponent regardless of the location on the playing court from where it was released. Such a field goal shall not be credited to a player in the scorebook but shall be indicated with a footnote."


title: Own goal

text: In NBA rules, the goal is credited to the player on the scoring team who is closest to defensive shooter and is mentioned in a footnote.


title: Own goal

text: When a ball carrier is tackled or exits the field of play within the end zone being defended by his team, the result is a safety and the opposing team is awarded two points, and receives the ball after a free kick taken at the twenty-yard line. (This does not apply if the ball carrier secures possession of the ball in the end zone as a result of an interception or a kick; in that case, no points are awarded and the play is considered a touchback.)


title: Own goal

text: A true "own goal", in which the team place kicks or drop kicks the ball through their own goal posts (which has never happened at any level in football history and would require either a very strong headwind or a deliberate act of sabotage), is treated as any other backward kick in most leagues' rule books. Backward kicks are treated as fumbles, and as such, a backward kick through the back of the end zone, including through the goal posts, is scored as a safety. This occurred in a 2012 game between two Texas high schools; a punter kicked against a strong wind that blew the ball backward into the end zone, where the defense took control of it.


title: Own goal

text: On two occasions, players disoriented after recovering a fumble have returned the ball into their own teams's end zone, believing they had scored a touchdown only to see the other team receiving a safety. Roy Riegels took a ball 69 yards (more than half the length of the field) to his own end zone during the 1929 Rose Bowl while playing for the University of California, and in 1964 Minnesota Vikings' defensive lineman Jim Marshall went 66 yards pursued by his own teammates in an attempt to prevent him from scoring 2 points for the San Francisco 49ers. Both men have been remembered for those blunders despite accomplished careers otherwise.


title: Own goal

text: In the final minutes of a game, a team may take a deliberate safety in order to get the free kick, rather than punting from the end zone, or to otherwise run out the clock. In 2003, the New England Patriots came back to win a game after giving a safety that put them three points behind. Similarly, the Baltimore Ravens took a safety with twelve seconds left in Super Bowl XLVII instead of punting out of the end zone, cutting their lead to three points but winning the game since they were able to burn eight seconds off the clock with the safety play, and the opposing San Francisco 49ers were unable to score on the ensuing free kick.


title: Own goal

text: In Canadian football, if a scrimmage kick (punt or missed field goal attempt) is kicked into the end zone and the opponent does not advance it out, the kicking team is awarded a single, worth one point.


title: Own goal

text: In the 2017 Grey Cup, the Calgary Stampeders deliberately took a safety when their punter Rob Maver, having lost control of a high snap, was faced with loss of down deep in his own territory. He intentionally kicked the ball backwards through the back of his own end zone for a safety.


title: Own goal

text: Gaelic footballers can play the ball with their hands; therefore, they have a much greater degree of control over the ball and thus, own goals are much rarer than they are in association football. They do occur, and two were scored by Mayo in the drawn 2016 All-Ireland SFC Final.


title: Own goal

text: As an own goal is scored when the ball goes under the crossbar, so an "own point" is scored (like any other point) when the ball goes over the crossbar. However, when a shot on goal is deflected over the bar by the defending team, the point is credited to the attacker who shot and not considered an "own point". Genuine examples of own points are very rare; one was scored by Stefan Connolly in the Cavan championship in 2015, while Seanie Malone scored an own point in the final of the 2019 Clare Senior Football Championship.


title: Own goal

text: Kildare player Niall Ó Muineacháin scored an own goal against London in the opening minute of the 2022 Christy Ring Cup contest.


title: Own goal

text: As a legitimate defensive play, an Australian rules football defender may concede an "own score". Such a score, referred to as a "rushed behind" and statistically credited to no player (score sheets simply include the tally of rushed behinds), results in the opposition team scoring one point. A defending player may choose to concede a rushed behind when the risk of the opposition scoring a goal (worth six points) is high. It is impossible for a team to concede an own goal worth six points.


title: Jhoom Barabar Jhoom

text: Jhoom Barabar Jhoom () is a 2007 Indian Hindi-language musical romantic comedy film directed by Shaad Ali and produced by Aditya Chopra under Yash Raj Films. Based on a story by Ali and a script by Habib Faisal, the film stars Abhishek Bachchan, Preity Zinta, Bobby Deol and Lara Dutta. Amitabh Bachchan makes a special appearance. The film released on 15 June 2007.


title: Jhoom Barabar Jhoom

text: The film begins with a mysterious Romani gypsy-like musician (Amitabh Bachchan) leading the crowds at Waterloo Station in London in a dance to the title song.


title: Jhoom Barabar Jhoom

text: At the station, two strangers, Rakesh “Rikki” Thakkral (Abhishek Bachchan) and Alvira Khan (Preity Zinta), wait for their respective fiancés arriving on the same train. Rikki is a fun-loving Punjabi from Bathinda who lives in Southall, while Alvira is a sexy, elite class Pakistani from Lahore who is more assimilated into British culture. The two share a table in a café together and to kill the time they talk about how they met their partners-to-be.


title: Jhoom Barabar Jhoom

text: Rikki says that he met his fiancé, Anaida Raza, at Hôtel Ritz Paris, the same night that Diana, Princess of Wales and Dodi Al-Fayed left the hotel to take their last journey together. Rikki explains "When two lovers die, another two are born", as he fell in love with Anaida that night. Alvira says she met her fiancé, the dashing lawyer Steve Singh, at Madame Tussauds in London when he saved her from a falling Superman wax model. The encounter changed her life and she was smitten by the lawyer who also helped her sue Madame Tussauds for substantial damages.


title: Jhoom Barabar Jhoom

text: As Rikki and Alvira talk they begin to enjoy each other's company and their different backgrounds cease to matter. They exchange numbers and go to meet their partners.


title: Jhoom Barabar Jhoom

text: However, it is then revealed that they had not gone to meet their respective partners. Rikki is in fact at the train station to meet his business partner, while Alvira is meeting her relatives. As they leave the station separately, they realise they are in love but believe their love is unrequited, each of the other.


title: Jhoom Barabar Jhoom

text: The two get in touch when Alvira calls Rikki, pretending it was a wrong number. They decide to meet up at a disco where there is a dance competition but both try to maintain that they are engaged. Out of desperation, Rikki hires Laila (Lara Dutta), a prostitute, to pose as Anaida, and Alvira fools and then blackmails a co-worker Satvinder (Bobby Deol) to pretend to be Steve. The four meet at a club and take part in the dance competition while throwing insults at each other. Rikki and Laila emerge as the winners but Alvira is jealous and storms out in tears.


title: Jhoom Barabar Jhoom

text: Satvinder goes to Rikki's flat and tells him that he has fallen in love with Laila. He also tells him that Alvira is not engaged to him. Rikki, realising what has happened, goes to see Alvira, who is at first moping in bed and later tries to convince her cousin not to marry her. Rikki calls her from a neighbour's window. Then they confront each other and confess that they love each other and start to date while Satvinder and Laila go to Hollywood.


title: Jhoom Barabar Jhoom

text: The film ends with the mysterious gypsy musician showing how Rikki and Alvira invented the stories about their non-existent lovers by taking inspiration from Alvira's newspaper and Rikki's comic book.


title: Jhoom Barabar Jhoom

text: Pre-production of the film began in 2005, during the making of "Bunty Aur Babli". Abhishek Bachchan was the first actor to be cast in the film. The working title was "Sangam Mein". Vidya Balan and John Abraham were first approached for the roles of Anaida Raza and Steve Singh. When they refused, Dutta and Deol were roped in. Amitabh Bachchan has been credited with a special appearance in the film.


title: Jhoom Barabar Jhoom

text: Shooting began in the second half of 2006 in London and included a shooting schedule in Paris, France. Many images from the set show shooting being conducted at Waterloo station, London. Some shooting took place in Agra, near the Taj Mahal. The choreography has been done by Vaibhavi Merchant. Filming has taken place in numerous locations along Green Lanes, Harringay in North London.


title: Jhoom Barabar Jhoom

text: Abhishek Bachchan and Bobby Deol worked together for the first time in this film. Their fathers Amitabh Bachchan and Dharmendra had worked together in the Bollywood classic "Sholay" (1975). The film features a scene in which they travel in a scooter like their fathers had done in "Sholay", only this time Bobby Deol is driving and Abhishek Bachchan is on the passenger seat. The film reunites Bobby Deol and Preity Zinta who starred in "Soldier" (1998) as well as Abhishek Bachchan and Lara Dutta who co-starred in "Mumbai Se Aaya Mera Dost" (2003).


title: Jhoom Barabar Jhoom

text: Some filming took place in Stamford Bridge stadium, home to Chelsea F.C. It was announced in September 2006 that the Chelsea football team would be part of the film, but this scene did not appear in the completed film.


title: Jhoom Barabar Jhoom

text: "Jhoom Barabar Jhoom"'s teaser trailer was released along with "Ta Ra Rum Pum", which released on 27 April 2007.


title: Jhoom Barabar Jhoom

text: This is the third directorial venture of Shaad Ali, and second with Shankar–Ehsaan–Loy, after the crime comedy "Bunty Aur Babli" (2005). The album has a dhol-oriented sound. Santoor, sarangi and flute were used for the melody "Bol Na Halke Halke" and Mahalakshmi Iyer has sung in a lower key. "Ticket to Hollywood" has a hip hop feel to it, while "Kiss of Love" is a zingy and rambunctious. "JBJ" is the techno song during the climax scenes of the movie, which is picturised on Abhishek Bachchan, Preity Zinta, Bobby Deol and Lara Dutta. "Jhoom Jam" is the only instrumental in the album, which as title suggests, is the 'jam of the instrumental version of all track of the album"."


title: Jhoom Barabar Jhoom

text: The soundtrack of the film was released on 8 March 2007 by Yash Raj Music in various formats including music cassette, MP3 files, audio CD, and the DVD-Audio.


title: Jhoom Barabar Jhoom

text: Joginder Tuteja of "Bollywood Hungama" said, "Jhoom Barabar Jhoom" is an album that has chartbuster written on it in bold letters. There are some albums that take time to register with music lovers. There are some that require the strong word of mouth to carry them forward. There are some which are destined to be popular in the very first listening. "Jhoom Barabar Jhoom" of course belongs to the last category. Sukanya Verma of "Rediff" described the album as high on melody, entertainment and attitude. Gianysh Toolsee of "Planet Bollywood" in his review, stated, "S-E-L successfully manage to hit the bull's eye with their proper use of zingy sounds, effective arrangements, lively tunes, rhythmic variations and groovy beats." "S-E-L, the most prolific composers of last year maintains their golden streak of success with "Jhoom Barabar Jhoom"", said the "GlamSham" review. Sanjay Ram of "Businessofcinema.com" stated that the album is positively a must-buy.


title: Jhoom Barabar Jhoom

text: The music for the film entered the charts at #6 and in its second week climbed to #5. By the first week of July, the album topped the music charts and stayed there for 2 weeks. Despite the poor response to the film, the music received high acclaim. On the week beginning 23 July, the album was placed at #3. On the week beginning 17 September, the soundtrack dropped to #10. According to the Indian trade website "Box Office India", with around units sold, this film's soundtrack album was the year's fourth highest-selling.


title: Jhoom Barabar Jhoom

text: The film opened to a 65–80%response, which was below expectations for a Yash Raj film. As per IBOS, the film has opened to a good response and has taken the biggest opening of the year at the box office.


title: Jhoom Barabar Jhoom

text: The film did achieve the 90%+ response at some places, such as Punjab and Haryana. The film had opened well in big cities such as Mumbai with a 75% turnout and Delhi which had a 70% turnout. In the south, it opened to a poor response due to the release of the Tamil film "Sivaji". However, all the big theatres reached to a 90%+ response with many being 100%.


title: Jhoom Barabar Jhoom

text: The film's international box office performance was considered to be average. In its first week, the film made £264,347 and debuted at #6 in the UK charts. In the US, the film debuted at #16 on the film chart making $455,257 in its first week. In Australia, the film made $91,485 debuting at #10. The film had made Rs. 190–200 million in its first week and debuted at #1 but the collections began to fall from the second week. The film had done better in the UK than in the US. As of 27 June, the film was positioned at #9 on the UK charts and at #21 on the U.S chart. The film was a moderate box-office success. but the collections began to fall. In the UK, the film had performed well. "Box Office India" declared the film as "Average".


title: Jhoom Barabar Jhoom

text: "Jhoom Barabar Jhoom" received mixed reviews upon release, with praise for its music, visuals and cinematography, and criticism for its screenplay and the performances of the cast.


title: Jhoom Barabar Jhoom

text: "Indicine.com" rated the film at 4 out 5, saying "t"he movie is a fun ride and is well worth the ticket money. It is the kind of movie that can wash away your blues. Taran Adarsh of "indiafm.com" gave the film a 1.5 out of 5 rating, saying the film is all gloss, no substance. The performances of the lead actors received mixed reviews with Taran Adarsh saying that the film belongs to Abhishek first, and Preity next. "Hindustantimes.com" gave the film 2 stars, as did G"lamsham.com", with the latter praising the performances of the cast. Sanjay Ram of "businessofcinema.com" gave the film 2 out of 5 stars and said "though "Jhoom Barabar Jhoom" offers the colour, it is all but a short-story stretched." "Moviewallah.com" gave the film 2 out of 5 stars but praised the performances to a certain extent. "BollywoodArchive.com" gave the film 2.5 out of 5 stars says it's a good light-hearted entertainer with good music from Shankar-Ehsaan-Loy.


title: Camiguin

text: Camiguin, officially the Province of Camiguin (; ; Kamigin: "Probinsya ta Kamigin"), is an island province in the Philippines located in the Bohol Sea, about off the northern coast of Mindanao. It is geographically part of Region X, the Northern Mindanao Region of the country and formerly a part of Misamis Oriental province.


title: Camiguin

text: Camiguin is the second-smallest province in the country in both population and land area after Batanes. The provincial capital is Mambajao, which is also the province's largest municipality in both area and population.


title: Camiguin

text: The province is famous for its sweet lanzones, to which its annual Lanzones Festival is dedicated and celebrated every third weekend of October. It is home to lush interior forest reserves, collectively known as the Mount Hibok-Hibok Protected Landscape, which has been declared by all Southeast Asian nations as an ASEAN Heritage Park. The province also boasts three National Cultural Treasures, namely, the Old Bonbon Church ruins in Catarman, the Sunken Cemetery of Catarman, and the Spanish-era watchtower in Guinsiliban. The three sites were declared for “possessing outstanding historical, cultural, artistic and/or scientific value which is highly significant and important to the country and nation.”


title: Camiguin

text: Additionally, the island province has numerous Important Cultural Treasures, such as the Old Mambajao Fountain - situated in the town's rotonda, the Old Mambajao Municipal Building, the façade of the Santo Rosario Church in Sagay, and 14 heritage and ancestral houses. The sites were declared for “having exceptional cultural, artistic and historical significance to the Philippines.” All cultural treasures were declared by the National Commission for Culture and the Arts. There have been moves to establish a dossier nomination for the province to be included in the UNESCO World Heritage List.


title: Camiguin

text: The name "Camiguin" is derived from the native word "Kamagong", a species of ebony tree that thrives near Lake Mainit in the province of Surigao del Norte, the region from which the earlier inhabitants of the islands, the Manobos, originated. Kamigin, the local dialect of Camiguin, is the northernmost variant of the Manobo languages.


title: Camiguin

text: An earlier Spanish geography book spells the island as "Camiguing". There is reason to suppose the Spaniards dropped the final "g", given how the phoneme does not exist in Spanish. Today it is rendered as "Camiguín".


title: Camiguin

text: The island of Camiguin is believed to have been first inhabited by the Manobo people of Surigao del Norte, as evidenced by the distinctly connected language between the two groups. The island was used as a trading stop point by various merchants and traders from the Rajahnate of Butuan, the Kedatuan of Dapitan, the ancient people of the Anda peninsula, and possibly the Rajahnate of Cebu and the animist Maranao of Lanao before the Islamization of the Lanao provinces.


title: Camiguin

text: Old Spanish documents indicate that the renowned explorers Ferdinand Magellan and Miguel Lopez de Legaspi landed in Camiguin in 1521 and 1565, respectively. The first Spanish settlement was established in 1598 in what is now Guinsiliban. Guinsiliban, which comes from the old Kinamiguin word "Ginsil-ipan" (which means “to look out for pirates from a watchtower”) has an old Spanish watchtower where the Camiguinons kept watch for Moro pirates.


title: Camiguin

text: The first major Spanish settlement, established in 1679, was called "Katagman" or "Katadman" (known as Catarman). The settlement grew and prospered but was destroyed by the eruption of Mt. Vulcan in 1871. The former location is what is now "Barangay Bonbon" of Catarman.


title: Camiguin

text: Sagay, located south of Catarman, was formally established as a town in 1848. The word "Sagay" is derived from the name of poisonous fruit trees that grow in the area. Mambajao became a town in 1855. The name was coined from the Visayan terms "mamahaw", meaning to usher breakfast, and "bajao", which is leftover boiled rice. In the early 1900s, Mambajao prospered and became the busiest port in Northern Mindanao. Mahinog was established as a municipality in 1860. The name "Mahinog" comes from a Visayan word meaning "to ripen" or "to become ripe". Although Guinsiliban was the oldest settlement in the island, it was only in 1950 that it became a municipality. Mahinog was formerly governed by Mambajao while Guinsiliban was formally governed from Sagay.


title: Camiguin

text: In 1901, in the middle of the Philippine–American War, American soldiers landed in Camiguin to assume political control over the island. A group of Camiguinons, armed with bolos and spears, led by "Valero Camaro", fought them in a short battle in Catarman. Valero Camaro was killed by a bullet in the forehead. Further study is needed before he and his band can be recognized as patriots in the same way we recognize the Katipuneros. There is no study that identifies an independence movement in Camiguin during the American occupation. However, a small detail with regards to the colonial resistance in Cagayan, Misamis indicates that Camiguinons supported in a clandestine way the revolutionary activities of the Cagayanons against the new colonizers. They offered their arms and ammunitions and a typewriter to the revolucionarios in Cagayan.


title: Camiguin

text: In 1903, the first public school in Camiguin was built in Mambajao but what is known today as the Mambajao Central School was completed in 1912. On September 9, 1904, the first public water system, known as Las Aguas Potables de Mambajao, spearheaded by an admired civic leader by the name of Placido Reyes and co-operated by townspeople, was inaugurated.


title: Camiguin

text: On June 18, 1942, the Japanese Imperial Army landed in Camiguin and set up a government in Mambajao. They gutted central Mambajao in reprisal to guerrilla activities in the area. The remains of some of these buildings still exist today.


title: Camiguin

text: On July 4, 1946, the Philippines gained independence from the US. Camiguin was then part of Misamis Oriental. In 1958, it became a sub-province. It was made into a separate province on June 18, 1966, and formally inaugurated in 1968.


title: Camiguin

text: The province consists primarily of Camiguin Island, as well as a few other surrounding minor islets including:


title: Camiguin

text: Camiguin Island is a pearl-shaped island with an area of approximately . The island measures about at its longest and at its widest breadth. The island is mountainous with the highest elevation reaching over . It is encircled by a national road with a length of about . As of the August 1, 2007, census, the province has a fifth-class income classification with a population of 81,293.


title: Camiguin

text: The people of Camiguin are called "Camiguingnon" or "Camiguinon" (). Cebuano is the most spoken language in the province, although Kinamigin is considered to be the indigenous language. Today, Kinamigin is still spoken by a few people in the municipalities of Sagay and Guinsiliban. Tagalog and English are also widely spoken and understood by the local population.


title: Camiguin

text: Camiguin is a predominantly Roman Catholic province with 95% adherence. The remaining religions are represented by various Protestant and a few Islamic groups.


title: Camiguin

text: The economy is based upon fishing and farming, with copra providing the greatest income contribution. Lanzones has since then became the main agricultural product of the island province. Other agricultural products are abaca, rice, mangoes and other fruit trees. The growing tourism industry has improved the economy of the province. Small cottage industries have increased in number to accommodate the influx of visitors.


title: Camiguin

text: Camiguin has three colleges, all located in Mambajao: Fatima College of Camiguin (FCC), Camiguin Polytechnic State College (CPSC), with a satellite campus in Catarman, and Camiguin School of Arts and Trades (CSAT). A complete secondary and elementary education is provided as well, both in private and public schools. There are also day care centers offering nursery and pre-school education.


title: Camiguin

text: The province has a total number of 68 day care centers managed by the Department of Social Welfare and Development (DSWD) and 56 public and private elementary schools. There are 13 secondary schools, 3 private institutions and the rest government-owned. There is one special school, which accommodates underprivileged or special children, the Family-to-Family School and Farm, which is managed by a Non-Government Organization (NGO).


title: Camiguin

text: The Technical Education and Skills Development Authority (TESDA) also offers vocational courses, as well as the Alternative Learning System Education Sector which helps individuals through its literacy and livelihood program.


title: Camiguin

text: Each year in the third week of October, a festival is held to celebrate the Lanzones (locally called bwahan/buahan), a small grape-sized tropical fruit grown all over the island. Lanzones grown in Camiguin is considered to be the sweetest. The unique flavor is due to the richness of the volcanic soil. The week-long Lanzones Festival is one of numerous colorful events in the Philippines.


title: Camiguin

text: Several centuries-old Spanish Colonial and 20th century churches are found in various parts of the island.


title: Camiguin

text: Beautiful and ornate ancestral homes dating back to the Spanish Colonial Period and American Colonial Period are still abundant and can be found along the streets of Camiguin. Fourteen of these heritage houses have been declared as "Important Cultural Properties" of the Philippines. These include the Borromeo ancestral house, Bacut ancestral house, Luspo ancestral house, Neri ancestral house, Nery ancestral house, Nerio-Chan ancestral house, Corrales ancestral house, Corrales y Gamali ancestral house, Francisco ancestral house, Juni ancestral house and Lim ancestral house, and Catalino Chan and Eleuterio Chan ancestral houses.


title: Camiguin

text: The province is dotted with numerous heritage structures and zones from the classical, Spanish, and American eras, but most of its heritage sites are from the 300-year Spanish colonial era.


title: Camiguin

text: The island of Camiguin is of volcanic origin composed of four stratovolcanoes. Each volcano (except Mount Guinsiliban) is made up of several flank domes. The only volcano on the island with historical eruptions is Hibok-Hibok, which last erupted in 1953.


title: Camiguin

text: During the volcanic birth of Mt. Vulcan lasting from 1871 to about 1875, some areas in the town of Bonbon subsided, sinking the cemetery of the town to below sea level. The place is commemorated by a huge cross erected in 1982.


title: Camiguin

text: On February 16, 1871, earthquakes began to be felt on the island, which increased in severity until April 30, when a volcanic fissure opened up 400 yards southwest of the village of Catarman, northwest of Hibok-Hibok Volcano. "Mt. Vulcan" was born and continued erupting and pouring lava into the sea, at the same time gaining in height and width. In 1875, the "Challenger expedition" visited the area and described the mountain as a dome, in height, without any crater, but still smoking and incandescent at the top.


title: Camiguin

text: The town of Catarman was destroyed and a portion of the town sank beneath the sea. The settlement moved to where the town center is presently located. All that remains today of old Catarman are the ruins of the ancient Spanish church, a convent, and a bell tower.


title: Camiguin

text: From 1948 to 1951, Mt. Hibok-Hibok was constantly rumbling and smoking. The first minor eruption in 1948 caused little damage and loss of life, but in 1949, a larger eruption caused 79 deaths due to pyroclastic flows. The largest eruption occurred in the morning of December 4, 1951. The volcano unleashed lava flows, poisonous gases, and pyroclastic flows destroying nearly 19 square kilometers of land, particularly in Mambajao. All in all, over 3,000 people were killed. Before the eruption of Mt. Hibok-Hibok in 1951, the population of Camiguin had reached 69,000. After the eruption, the population was reduced to about 34,000 due to massive out-migration.


title: Camiguin

text: A disastrous typhoon hit the province in the dawn of November 7, 2001. The tropical storm named "Lingling" (local name "Nanang") brought "buhawi" (torrential downpours) on the mountains, causing multiple massive mudslides which killed about 200 inhabitants, most of whom were missing.


title: Television comedy

text: Television comedy is a category of broadcasting that has been present since the early days of entertainment media. While there are several genres of comedy, some of the first ones aired were variety shows. One of the first United States television programs was the comedy-variety show "Texaco Star Theater", which was most prominent in the years that it featured Milton Berle - from 1948 to 1956. The range of television comedy has become broader, with the addition of sitcoms, improvisational comedy, and stand-up comedy, while also adding comedic aspects into other television genres, including drama and news. Television comedy provides opportunities for viewers to relate the content in these shows to society. Some audience members may have similar views about certain comedic aspects of shows, while others will take different perspectives. This also relates to developing new social norms, sometimes acting as the medium that introduces these transitions.


title: Television comedy

text: The "situation comedy", or sitcom, has become one of the most commonly-watched types of television comedy. As the name suggests, these programs feature recurring characters placed in humorous situations. The first television sitcom was the U.K.'s "Pinwright's Progress", ten episodes being broadcast bi-weekly from November 1946 to May 1947. Since the early 1950s, with shows including "Hancock's Half Hour" in the U.K. (derived from a radio show), and "I Love Lucy" in the United States, sitcoms have become more prominent among television viewers. "I Love Lucy" was popular in Nielsen's audience ratings, topping the viewing charts in four out of their six years on the air. Sitcoms will often portray comedic moments through audience laughter, either through live audiences or a laugh track. They are almost always a half-hour in length, and in some cases, they will film using a multiple-camera setup. Sitcoms are seldom presented as realistic depictions of life, but they can generate honest humour through the relationships between and development of characters.


title: Television comedy

text: Improvisational comedy is a genre that features actors creating dialogue while in the process of acting. It has a history of prominence in the United States, the United Kingdom, and Australia. Before appearing on television, comedy programs were already present on the radio. Several of these programs, including "The Day Today" and "The Mary Whitehouse Experience", eventually transferred over to television. "Whose Line is it Anyway?" was created in 1988 by The Comedy Store Players, Mike Myers' improvisation students in London. It began broadcasting in the UK before expanding to the US, with Drew Carey starring in the American version until its cancellation.


title: Television comedy

text: Some sitcoms may also use improvisation when filming. The actors of "Curb Your Enthusiasm" had general episode summaries to rely on, but would often create their own lines when they were in front of the camera.


title: Television comedy

text: News comedy is a genre that brings humour into stories reported on mainstream news, commonly adding this by creating mostly-fictional jokes to summarize true events. It is a common way for young adults to learn about the political news and events of their time. Programs that have accomplished this include "The Daily Show" and "Weekend Update" on "Saturday Night Live". "The Daily Show" became more well-known when Jon Stewart began hosting in 1999. The award-winning show mocks political events and candidates, and brings in correspondents to report further on these events and people. During the 2000 U.S. presidential election, 435,000 young adults viewed Stewart's coverage, while 459,000 watched traditional news. Despite its satirical approach, journalists have stated that programs such as "The Daily Show" and "Weekend Update" still broadcast real news, which ensures that its producers are aware of how to cover this news in a way that viewers can gain knowledge.


title: Television comedy

text: Stand-up comedy has been represented on television. Stand-up comedians have been a staple of variety and late-night talk shows; talk-variety shows such as "The Tonight Show" traditionally open with a comedy monologue performed by the program host. Television stand-up reached a peak of popularity on British schedules with the ITV programme "The Comedians". Their style of comedy was swept away almost entirely in the Britain of the early 1980s when a new generation of stand-ups challenged what they saw as racist and sexist humour and revolutionised the form under the banner alternative comedy. In the US, stand-up comedy programs became popular on many cable television channels beginning in the mid-1980s, as such "brick wall" shows (nicknamed for the stereotypical use of a fake brick wall as a backdrop) were cheap to produce and air. Stand-up humour later had mixed fortunes on the small screen, often shunted away to the small hours or as part of a larger entertainment extravaganza.


title: Television comedy

text: Some gameshows may give the guests a chance to perform stand up comedy to win a round. Examples of this genre in the UK include "Have I Got News For You", "8 Out of 10 Cats", "Mock the Week", and "Never Mind the Buzzcocks". In the USA this is a less common genre, "Oblivious" being one of the few examples. In Japan and South Korea, these comedy gameshows, often with subtitles and word bubbles, are extremely popular.


title: Television comedy

text: A comedy-drama, is a program that combines humor with more serious dramatic elements, aiming for a considerably more realistic tone than conventional sitcoms. These programs are shot with a single-camera setup and presented without a laugh track, and typically run an hour in length. This can refer to a genre of television or radio drama series. There are different subgenres within this category, such as the medical comedy dramas like "M*A*S*H" and "Grey's Anatomy", legal comedy dramas like "Ally McBeal" and "Boston Legal", and the musical comedy drama "Glee".


title: Television comedy

text: Sketch comedy programs differ from sitcoms in that they do not basically feature recurring characters (though some characters and scenarios may be repeated) and often draw upon current events and emphasize satire over character development. Sketch comedy was pioneered by Sid Caesar, whose "Your Show of Shows" debuted in 1950 and established many conventions of the genre. American sketch comedy reached a later peak in the mid-1970s with the debut han "Saturday Night Live", originally a variety program but soon devoted mostly to sketches. In the UK, two of the more successful examples are "Monty Python's Flying Circus" and "Little Britain".


title: Television comedy

text: Animated cartoons have long been a source of comedy on television. Early children's programming often recycled theatrical cartoons; later, low-budget animation produced especially for television dominated Saturday-morning network programming in the US.


title: Television comedy

text: Television comedy is described by media scholar Bore as a way to bring audiences to a collective sense in viewing and enjoying commonly-watched programs across societies. One specific way this can be done is through laugh tracks. While some view laugh tracks as ways to allow audiences to lightheartedly poke fun at characters, others see them as ways to restrict viewers to only laugh at certain moments. For the latter, it can also be seen as collectively taking over the real laughter of viewers watching from home.


title: Television comedy

text: Another aspect of audience's interpretations of comedy on television refer to how far writers go when poking fun at characters or real-life people. "Saturday Night Live" found itself in controversy when a sketch was performed, imitating politician David Paterson for both his political abilities and his blindness. This brought up the idea of two central forms of humour that comedies will use: one prioritizes the joke itself and how it generates laughter from an audience, while the other prioritizes the personal characteristics of whom an actor is impersonating.


title: Television comedy

text: Comedy has been a television genre prominent for introducing concepts that typically do not align with series' respective social norms. One of these concepts is same-sex intimacy. The appearance of these scenes were not popular in the early days of comedy, and in shows such as "Roseanne" and "Ellen", ratings could be changed up to TV-14 and receive a "mature content" warning as a result. Ellen DeGeneres famously came out on her show, although ABC cancelled "Ellen" one year later, with some gay rights groups protesting this decision.


title: Television comedy

text: "I Love Lucy" became the first sitcom to have a multilingual couple. Lucy was American and spoke English, while Ricky was Cuban and spoke Spanish. The relationship between spouses in sitcoms has also changed throughout history. In earlier shows, the women would be the ones who made comedic errors, while the men, having more dominance, would become upset at their wives. Some more recent shows, such as "The King of Queens", would have the opposite roles, with the male characters making more mistakes, while their more sophisticated wives would become upset at their husbands for their actions.


title: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt

text: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt (; HMH) is an American publisher of textbooks, instructional technology materials, assessments, reference works, and fiction and non-fiction for both young readers and adults. The company is based in the Boston Financial District.


title: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt

text: It was formerly known as Houghton Mifflin Company, but it changed its name following the 2007 acquisition of Harcourt Publishing. Prior to March 2010, it was a subsidiary of Education Media and Publishing Group Limited, an Irish-owned holding company registered in the Cayman Islands and formerly known as Riverdeep.


title: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt

text: In 1832, William Ticknor and John Allen purchased a bookselling business in Boston and began to involve themselves in publishing; James T. Fields joined as a partner in 1843. Fields and Ticknor gradually gathered an impressive list of writers, including Ralph Waldo Emerson, Nathaniel Hawthorne, and Henry David Thoreau. The duo formed a close relationship with Riverside Press, a Boston printing company owned by Henry Oscar Houghton. Houghton also founded his own publishing company with partner Melancthon Hurd in 1864, with George H. Mifflin joining the partnership in 1872.


title: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt

text: In 1878, Ticknor and Fields, now under the leadership of James R. Osgood, found itself in financial difficulties and merged its operations with Hurd and Houghton. The new partnership, named Houghton, Osgood and Company, and based in Boston's Winthrop Square, held the rights to the literary works of both publishers. When Osgood left the firm two years later, the business reemerged as Houghton, Mifflin and Company. Despite a lucrative partnership with Lawson Valentine, Houghton, Mifflin and Company still had debt it had inherited from Ticknor and Fields, so it decided to add partners. In 1884, James D. Hurd, the son of Melancthon Hurd, became a partner. In 1888, three others became partners as well: James Murray Kay, Thurlow Weed Barnes, and Henry Oscar Houghton Jr.


title: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt

text: Shortly thereafter, the company established an Educational Department, and from 1891 to 1908, sales of educational materials increased by 500 percent. The firm incorporated in 1908, changing its name to Houghton Mifflin Company. Soon after 1916, Houghton Mifflin became involved in publishing standardized tests and testing materials, working closely with such test developers as E. F. Lindquist. By 1921, the company was the fourth-largest educational publisher in the United States.


title: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt

text: In 1961, Houghton Mifflin famously passed on Julia Child's "Mastering the Art of French Cooking", giving it up to Alfred A. Knopf who published it in 1962. It became an overnight success, and is considered by many to be the bible of French cooking. Houghton Mifflin's strategic error was depicted in the 2009 film "Julie & Julia".


title: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt

text: In 1967, Houghton Mifflin became a publicly traded company on the New York Stock Exchange under the stock symbol .


title: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt

text: In 1979, Houghton Mifflin acquired the complete catalog of "Parnassus Press", a Berkeley, California small press, established in 1957 by Herman Schein, the husband of writer-illustrator Ruth Robbins. Works by authors included: Ursula K. Le Guin, Theodora Kroeber, Nicolas Sidjakov, Edward Ormondroyd, Charlotte Zolotow, Anne B. Fisher, Allen Say, Beverly Cleary, Crawford Kilian, Adrien Stoutenburg, and Sam DeWitt. In 1979, Houghton Mifflin acquired Clarion Books, the children's division of Seabury Press. In 1980, Houghton Mifflin acquired the educational publishing operations of Rand McNally.


title: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt

text: Under (new from 1991) president Nader F. Darehshori Houghton Mifflin acquired McDougal Littell in 1994, for $138 million, an educational publisher of secondary school materials, and the following year acquired D.C. Heath and Company, a publisher of supplemental educational resources. In 1995, the company acquired Chapters Publishing, a publisher of cooking, garden, and craft titles. In 1996, the company created their Great Source Education Group to combine the supplemental material product lines of their School Division, McDougal Littell, and Heath.


title: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt

text: In 1998, HMH announced a sub-brand called LOGAL Software, which was to release a new line of interactive science software called "Science Gateways", to support the United States curriculum. As of 2017, Houghton Mifflin Harcourt is offering the "Logal Science" brand as a licensing opportunity on its website.


title: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt

text: In 2017, it was announced that Houghton Mifflin Harcourt would be getting involved in TV production with a planned 2019 Netflix series that will revive the "Carmen Sandiego" franchise.


title: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt

text: In 2001, Houghton Mifflin was acquired by French media giant Vivendi Universal for $2.2 billion, including assumed debt. Vivendi Universal already owned the British children's publisher Kingfisher, which became a Houghton Mifflin imprint. In 2002, facing mounting financial and legal pressures, Vivendi sold Houghton to private equity investors Thomas H. Lee Partners, Bain Capital, and Blackstone Group for $1.66 billion, including assumed debt (approximately 25% less than Vivendi had paid a year earlier).


title: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt

text: On December 22, 2006, it was announced that Riverdeep PLC had completed its acquisition of Houghton Mifflin. The new joint enterprise would be called the Houghton Mifflin Riverdeep Group. Riverdeep paid $1.75 billion in cash and assumed $1.61 billion in debt from the private investment firms Thomas H. Lee Partners, Bain Capital, and Blackstone Group. Tony Lucki, a former non-executive director of Riverdeep, remained in his position as the company's chief executive officer until April 2009.


title: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt

text: Houghton Mifflin sold its professional testing unit, Promissor, to Pearson plc in 2006. The company combined its remaining assessment products within Riverside Publishing, including San Francisco-based Edusoft.


title: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt

text: On July 16, 2007, Houghton Mifflin Riverdeep announced that it signed a definitive agreement to acquire the Harcourt Education, Harcourt Trade, and Greenwood-Heinemann divisions of Reed Elsevier for $4 billion. The expanded company would become Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. McDougal Littell was merged with Harcourt's Holt, Rinehart & Winston to form Holt McDougal.


title: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt

text: On December 3, 2007, Cengage Learning (formerly Thomson Learning) announced that it had agreed to acquire the assets of the Houghton Mifflin College Division for $750 million, pending regulatory approval.


title: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt

text: On November 25, 2008, Houghton Mifflin Harcourt announced a temporary freeze on acquisition of new trade division titles, allegedly in response to the economic crisis of 2008. The publisher of the trade division resigned, apparently in protest. Many observers familiar with the publishing industry saw the move as a devastating blunder.


title: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt

text: On July 27, 2009, the "Irish Independent" newspaper reported that Houghton Mifflin Harcourt's controlling shareholder EMPG was in the process of a re-structuring negotiations with its unsecured-debt holders that would lead to the conversion of the debt into equity. The news story reported that the unsecured debt holders would receive a 45% equity stake. As a result, the royal family of Dubai via their Istithmar World Capital investment vehicle became major stakeholders. Estimates were that EMPG would cut its debt from $7.3bn to $6.1bn. On August 15, 2009, the "Financial Times" reported in an interview with Houghton Mifflin Harcourt's CEO at the time, Barry O'Callaghan, that the refinancing had received approval of more than 90% of lenders. The terms included the holding company debt converting into 45% of the fully diluted common equity, an effective 25 percent relaxation of financial covenants, second lien lenders agreeing to convert their holdings into a PIK instrument, reducing annual interest costs by $100m, and a further $50m increase its working capital facility.


title: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt

text: A further restructuring of Houghton Mifflin Harcourt's debts was confirmed by the company on January 13, 2010. The proposed restructuring materially impacted the shareholders of EMPG, the former holding company of Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.


title: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt

text: On February 22, 2010, Houghton Mifflin Harcourt announced that EMPG and HMH had reached an agreement to restructure the finances of the company and recapitalize its balance sheet with a substantial fresh cash investment by institutional investors.


title: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt

text: The agreement, supported by 100% of HMH's creditors, highlighted a reduction in the senior debt to $3 billion from the current $5 billion, with new equity issued to the senior debt holders (including Paulson & Co. and Guggenheim Partners), conversion of the $2 billion mezzanine debt into equity and warrant, receipt of $650m of new cash from the sale of new equity. In addition to the key highlights, HMH announced its new $100m Innovation Fund, to invest in the next generation of technology for the education industry.


title: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt

text: The "Irish Times" reported that the investments by the then equity holders of EMPG, including HMH's CEO at the time, Barry O'Callaghan, private clients of Davy Stockbrokers, Reed Elsevier, and others of over $3.5 billion would be written down to zero. Additionally, the Irish Independent reported that following the restructuring, the investors of EMPG would have a nominal investment in Houghton Mifflin Harcourt via warrants over 5% of the company if it exceeded the $10 billion valuation placed on the company at the time of the merger between Houghton Mifflin Riverdeep and Harcourt. In addition to the warrants in HMH, the EMPG shareholders would continue to own a stake in the international investment vehicle, EMPGI which has stakes in China, the Middle East and elsewhere.


title: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt

text: The "Financial Times" reported that no management changes were expected as part of the deal with both the CEO at the time, Barry O'Callaghan and the CFO, Michael Muldowney expected to remain in their roles. The Times reported that a new nine-member board was to be created with the CEO the only executive representative, one independent, two representative of Paulson & Co, and one director from each of Apollo, BlackRock, Guggenheim Partners, Fidelity and Avenue Capital.


title: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt

text: On March 10, 2010, Houghton Mifflin Harcourt announced that it had completed its re-capitalization. In addition to a new investment of $650 million of equity, the debt levels of the company were reduced by approximately 60% and the annual interest payments by over 75%. According to the Irish State Broadcaster, RTÉ, the old equity investors based in Ireland has lost all their investment. The "Irish Independent" reported that the old shareholders were denied a shareholders meeting to vote or discuss the restructuring. The former shareholders have been left with warrants over 5% of the company, in the case its value recovers to previous levels.


title: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt

text: On September 19, 2011, it was announced that Linda K. Zecher would be replacing Barry O'Callahan as chief executive officer and Director of Houghton Mifflin Harcourt after O'Callahan resigned. In July 2012, Zecher detailed her plans for post-bankruptcy to D.C. Denison at The Boston Globe. Zecher went to HMH from Microsoft.


title: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt

text: In 2012, HMH acquired the culinary and reference portfolio of John Wiley & Sons, including CliffsNotes and "Webster's New World Dictionary".


title: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt

text: In 2014, Houghton Mifflin Harcourt sponsored Curious George (TV series) on PBS Kids replacing Chuck E. Cheese.


title: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt

text: On May 13, 2014, HMH bought Channel One News. In 2015, Houghton Mifflin struggled to find a charity that would accept royalties for "Mein Kampf" by Adolf Hitler.


title: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt

text: On February 15, 2017, John J. ("Jack") Lynch, Jr., the former CEO of Renaissance Learning, was named the new CEO of Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.


title: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt

text: In 2018, HMH sold its Steck-Vaughn adult education titles to Paxen Publishing and its Riverside test publishing subsidiary to Alpine Investments.


title: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt

text: On March 29, 2021, The Wall Street Journal reported that HarperCollins, a division of American mass media and publishing company News Corp, had reached a deal to buy HMH Books & Media for US$349 million. The sale includes HMH's trade publishing division and computer game franchises such as "Carmen Sandiego" and "The Oregon Trail". The deal would allow HMH to pay down its debt so it could further its digital-first strategy in educational publishing. The deal was completed on May 10.


title: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt

text: On February 22, 2022, a tender offer was announced by Veritas Capital to acquire HMH at a price of $21 per share, or about $2.8 Billion. The tender deadline was originally April 1st, before being extended to April 6th on March 29th. Prior to the tender date, the stock generated a lot of hype on internet forum WallStreetBets, with over 36,000 contracts traded for the June 17th $22.5 strike price call options. Many investors purchased call options based on numerous reports from institutional investors with large stakes in the company, claiming that the $21 per share offer was undervaluing the company. On April 6th, 57% of $HMHC shares were put up for tender, leading to the tender offer going through and HMH going private. Once the sale was completed, the stock of Houghton Mifflin Harcourt was delisted from Nasdaq.


title: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt

text: On September 22, 2016, Zecher resigned from HMH and was replaced by Interim CEO and Board Member L. Gordon Crovitz. Crovitz is a former publisher of the "Wall Street Journal". On February 15, 2017, John J. "Jack" Lynch Jr., the former CEO of Renaissance Learning, was named the new CEO of HMH.


title: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt

text: Lynch brought former employee Jim O'Neill back to the company to lead the core division as GM and EVP.


title: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt

text: HMH is also home to media brands like Carmen Sandiego and The Oregon Trail; and brands including The Whole30; "The Best American Series"; "The American Heritage" and "Webster's New World Dictionaries"; "Better Homes and Gardens"; "How to Cook Everything"; the Peterson Field Guides; CliffsNotes; and many children's books, including the "Curious George" series and "The Little Prince"; as well as publishing the works of J. R. R. Tolkien for United States distribution.


title: History of Gujarat

text: The history of Gujarat began with Stone Age settlements followed by Chalcolithic and Bronze Age settlements like Indus Valley civilisation. Gujarat's coastal cities, chiefly Bharuch, served as ports and trading centers in the Nanda, Maurya, Satavahana and Gupta empires as well as Western Kshatrapas period. After the fall of the Gupta empire in the 6th century, Gujarat flourished as an independent Hindu/Buddhist state. The Maitraka dynasty, descended from a Gupta general, ruled from the 6th to the 8th centuries from their capital at Vallabhi, although they were ruled briefly by Harsha during the 7th century. The Arab rulers of Sindh sacked Vallabhi in 770, bringing the Maitraka dynasty to an end. The Gurjara-Pratihara Empire ruled Gujarat after from the 8th to 10th centuries. As well as, for some periods the region came under the control of Rashtrakuta Empire and Pala Empire. In 775 the first Parsi (Zoroastrian) refugees arrived in Gujarat from Greater Iran.


title: History of Gujarat

text: During the 10th century, the native Chaulukya dynasty came to power. From 1297 to 1300, Alauddin Khalji, the Turkic Sultan of Delhi, destroyed Anhilwara and incorporated Gujarat into the Delhi Sultanate. After Timur's sacking of Delhi at the end of the 14th century weakened the Sultanate, Gujarat's governor Zafar Khan Muzaffar asserted his independence, and his son, Sultan Ahmad Shah I (ruled 1411 to 1442), restructured Ahmedabad as the capital. In the early 16th century the Rana Sanga invasion of Gujarat weakened the power of Gujarat as he annexed northern Gujarat and appointed his vassal to rule there, however after his death, the Sultan of Gujarat recovered its kingdom and even sacked Chittor Fort in 1535. The Sultanate of Gujarat remained independent until 1576, when the Mughal emperor Akbar conquered it and annexed it to the Mughal Empire as a province. Surat had become the prominent and main port of India during Mughal rule.


title: History of Gujarat

text: Later in the 18th century, Gujarat came under control of the Maratha Empire who dominated the politics of India. The British East India Company wrested control of much of Gujarat from the Marathas during the Second Anglo-Maratha War. Many local rulers, notably the Gaekwads of Baroda, made a separate peace with the British and acknowledged British sovereignty in return for retaining local self-rule. Gujarat was placed under the political authority of the Bombay Presidency, with the exception of Baroda state, which had a direct relationship with the Governor-General of India. From 1818 to 1947, most of present-day Gujarat, including Kathiawar, Kutch, and northern and eastern Gujarat were divided into hundreds of princely states, but several districts in central and southern Gujarat were ruled directly by British officials. Mahatma Gandhi, considered India's "father of the nation", was a Gujarati who led the Indian Independence Movement against the British colonial rule.


title: History of Gujarat

text: Gujarat was formed by splitting Bombay state in 1960 on linguistic lines. From 1960 to 1995, Indian National Congress retained power in Gujarat Legislative Assembly while other political parties ruled for incomplete terms in the 1970s and 1990. Bharatiya Janata Party has been in the power since 1998.


title: History of Gujarat

text: The cultural history of Gujarat begins from the Middle Pleistocene. The lands of Gujarat has been continuously inhabited from the Lower Paleolithic (c. 200,000 BP) period. Several sites of stone age are discovered in riverbeds of Sabarmati, Mahi river and lower Narmada rivers of Gujarat.


title: History of Gujarat

text: The Middle Paleolithic sites are found from Kutch, Jamnagar, Panchmahals, Hiran valley in Saurashtra and Vapi and Lavacha of Valsad district. The Upper Paleolithic period sites from Visadi, Panchmahals, Bhamaria, Kantali, Palanpur and Vavri are also explored. The Middle (c.45,000–25,000 BP) and Late Palaeolithic artifacts include hand-axes, cleavers, chopping tools, borers, points, and scrapers. The sites in Kutch and Bhadar riverbeds in Saurashtra has also yielded stone age tools. Bhandarpur near Orsang valley is rich in Palaeolithic tools. Some of other such sites are Hirpura, Derol, Kapadvanj, Langhnaj and Shamlaji.


title: History of Gujarat

text: More than 700 sites are located in Gujarat which indicate Mesolithic/Microlithic using communities dated to 7000 BC to 2000 BCE divided in Pre-Chalcolithic and Chalcolithic period. Some Mesolithic sites include Langhnaj, Kanewal, Tarsang, Dhansura, Loteshwar, Santhli, Datrana, Moti Pipli and Ambakut. The people of the Mesolithic period were nomadic hunter-gathers with some managing the herds of sheep-goat and cattle. Neolithic tools are found at Langhnaj in north Gujarat.


title: History of Gujarat

text: Total 755 chalcolithic settlements are discovered in Gujarat belonging to various traditions and cultures which ranged from 3700 BCE to 900 BCE. Total 59 of these sites are excavated while others are studied from artifacts. These traditions are closely associated with Harappan civilization and difference between them is identified by difference in ceramics and findings of microliths. These traditions and cultures include Anarta Tradition (c. 3950–1900 BCE), Padri Ware (3600–2000 BCE), Pre-Prabhas Assemblage (3200–2600 BCE), Pre Urban Harappan Sindh Type Pottery (Burial Pottery) (3000–2600 BCE), Black and Red Ware (3950–900 BCE), Reserved Slip Ware (3950–1900 BCE), Micaceous Red Ware (2600–1600 BCE). Prabhas Assemblage (2200–1700 BCE) and Lustrous Red Ware (1900–1300 BCE) are some late material cultures. The few sites associated with Malwa Ware and Jorwe Ware are also found.


title: History of Gujarat

text: Gujarat has a large number of archaeological sites associated with the Indus Valley civilization. A total of 561 Classical Harappan (2600–1900 BCE) and Sorath Harappan (2600–1700 BCE) sites are reported in Gujarat. The sites in Kutch, namely, Surkotada, Desalpur, Pabumath and Dholavira are some major sites of Urban period. The sites of the post-Urban period include Lothal B, Rangpur IIC and III, Rojdi C, Kuntasi, Vagad I B, Surkotada 1C, Dholavira VI &VII. It has been noted that in Gujarat, urban cities quickly expanded rather than the slow evolution of urbanism in the northwest.


title: History of Gujarat

text: During the end of the Indus Valley Civilisation, there was a migration of people from Sindh to Gujarat forming the Rangpur culture.


title: History of Gujarat

text: Linguists and archeologists believe it is likely Gujarat was inhabited by Dravidian speakers during the middle Rigvedic period, which be determined from Dravidian place names in Gujarat.


title: History of Gujarat

text: At several sites the post-Harappan culture continued. Pastoralism was also widespread and served as trade-links between sites. There is no mention of Gujarat in Vedic literature.


title: History of Gujarat

text: The Early Historic material culture of Gujarat include the presence of Northern Black Polished Ware, continued dominance of Black-and-Red Ware, slow introduction and later domination of Red Polished Ware, occurrence of Roman Amphorae, Rang Mahal Ware (100–300), introduction of glass and lead, followed by gradual conquest of Iron, an agriculture-based economy, shell industry, development of script, rise of the urban settlements, brick structural remains, monumental buildings, international trade and development of Jainism, Buddhism, and Vaishnavism.


title: History of Gujarat

text: The excavated sites of the Early Historic period include Dhatva, Jokha, Kamrej, Karvan, Bharuch, Nagal, Timbarva, Akota from South Gujarat; Nagara from central Gujarat; Vadnagar, Shamlaji, Devnimori from north Gujarat and Amreli, Vallabhi, Prabhas Patan, Padri and Dwarka from Saurashtra.


title: History of Gujarat

text: Candragupta Maurya's rule over present-day Gujarat is attested to by the Junagadh rock inscription of Rudradaman. Under his rule, the provincial governor Puṣyagupta, a Vaiśya, started the construction of the Sudarśana lake by damming the Suvarṇasikatā and Palāśinī rivers which flowed from Mt Ūrjayat (modern Mt Girnār). The dam was completed under the reign of Aśoka by the Yavana king Tuṣāspha. What is now Gujarat comprised two provinces, Ānarta (northern mainland Gujarat and northern Kathiawar), and Surāṣṭra (southern Kathiawar).


title: History of Gujarat

text: According to the "Pettavattu" and "Paramatthadīpanī", a ruler of Suraṭṭha, Piṅgala became king in 283 BCE. He was converted to "Natthika diṭṭhi" (a nihilistic doctrine) by his general, Nandaka, and attempted to convert the emperor Aśoka, but was himself converted to Buddhism.


title: History of Gujarat

text: According to Kauṭilya, the Kṣatriyas and Vaiśyas of Surāṣṭra belong to various Śreṇīs "corporations or guilds". The Śreṇīs were devoted to the "possession of arms" or "agriculture, cattle-rearing, and trade" respectively.


title: History of Gujarat

text: There was a Greek trading presence at the port of Barugaza (Bharuch), but historians are uncertain whether the Indo-Greek Kingdom ruled over Gujarat.


title: History of Gujarat

text: For nearly 300 years from the start of the 1st century CE, Saka rulers played a prominent part in Gujarat's history. Weather-beaten rock at Junagadh gives a glimpse of the Ruler Rudradaman I (100 CE) of the Saka satraps known as Western Satraps, or Kshatraps. Mahakshatrap Rudradaman I founded the Kardamaka dynasty which ruled from Anupa on the banks of the Narmada up to Aparanta region which bordered Punjab. In Gujarat several battles were fought between the south Indian Satavahana dynasty and the Western Satraps.


title: History of Gujarat

text: The greatest ruler of the Satavahana Dynasty was Gautamiputra Satakarni who defeated the Western Satraps and conquered some parts of Gujarat in the 2nd century CE


title: History of Gujarat

text: The Gupta Emperor Samudragupta defeated the Indo-Scythian rulers in battle and had then admit their submission to him. Samudragupta's successor, Chandragupta II, finally conquered the Western Satraps and occupied Gujarat. Chandragupta II assumed the title of "Vikramaditya", in celebration of his victory over the Western Satraps. During the Gupta reign, villagers and peasants were put into forced labour by the Gupta army and officials. During the reign of Skandagupta, Cakrapālita was the governor of Surāṣṭra.


title: History of Gujarat

text: Towards the middle of the 5th century the Gupta empire started to decline. Senapati Bhatarka, the Maitraka general of the Guptas, took advantage of the situation and in 470 CE he set up what came to be known as the Maitraka state. He shifted his capital from Girinagar to Valabhipur, near Bhavnagar, on Saurashtra's east coast. Maitrakas of Vallabhi became very powerful and their rule prevailed over large parts of Gujarat and even over adjoining Malwa. Maitrakas set up a university which came to be known far and wide for its scholastic pursuits and was compared with the famous Nalanda university. It was during the rule of Dhruvasena Maitrak that Chinese philosopher-traveler Xuanzang visited in 640 CE.


title: History of Gujarat

text: In the early 8th century some parts of Gujarat was ruled by the south Indian Chalukya dynasty. In the early 8th century the Arabs of the Umayyad Caliphate established an Empire which stretched from Spain in the west to Afghanistan and Pakistan in the east. The Arab rulers tried to expand their Empire in the 8th century and invaded Gujarat but the Arab invaders were defeated by the Chalukya general Pulakeshin. After this victory the Arab invaders were driven out of Gujarat. Pulakeshin received the title Avanijanashraya (refuge of the people of the earth) by Vikramaditya II for the protection of Gujarat. In the late 8th century the Kannauj Triangle period started. The 3 major Indian dynasties the northwest Indian Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty, the south Indian Rashtrakuta Dynasty and the east Indian Pala Empire dominated India from the 8th to 10th century. During this period the northern part of Gujarat was ruled by the north Indian Gurjara-Pratihara Dynasty and the southern part of Gujarat was ruled by the south Indian Rashtrakuta Dynasty. Southern Gujarat was ruled by the south Indian Rashtrakuta dynasty until it was captured by the south Indian ruler Tailapa II of the Western Chalukya Empire.


title: History of Gujarat

text: The Chaulukya dynasty ruled Gujarat from c. 960 to 1243. Gujarat was a major center of Indian Ocean trade, and their capital at Anhilwara (Patan) was one of the largest cities in India, with population estimated at 100,000 in the year 1000. In 1026, the famous Somnath temple in Gujarat was destroyed by Mahmud of Ghazni. After 1243, the Chaulukyas lost control of Gujarat to their feudatories, of whom the Vaghela chiefs of Dholka came to dominate Gujarat. In 1292 the Vaghelas became tributaries of the Yadava dynasty of Devagiri in the Deccan. Karna of the Vaghela dynasty was the last Hindu ruler of Gujarat. He was defeated and overthrown by the superior forces of Alauddin Khalji from Delhi in 1297. With his defeat Gujarat not only became part of the Mughal empire but the Rajput hold over Gujarat lost forever.


title: History of Gujarat

text: Before 1300, Muslims had little presence in Gujarat. The occasional was mainly either as sea-farers or traders coming from Arabian Sea. They were allowed to establish two small settlements in Cambay (now Khambhat) and Bharuch. Gujarat finally fell under Delhi Sultanate following repeated expeditions under Alauddin Khalji around the end of the 13th century. He ended the rule of Vaghela dynasty under Karna II and established Muslim rule in Gujarat. Soon the Tughluq dynasty came to power in Delhi whose emperor carried out expeditions to quell rebellion in Gujarat and established their firm control over the region by the end of the 14th century.


title: History of Gujarat

text: Following Timur's invasion of Delhi, the Delhi Sultanate weakened considerably so the last Tughluq governor Zafar Khan declared himself independent in 1407 and formally established Gujarat Sultanate. The next sultan, his grandson Ahmad Shah I founded the new capital Ahmedabad in 1411. The prosperity of the sultanate reached its zenith during the rule of Mahmud Begada. He subdued most of the Rajput chieftains and built navy off the coast of Diu. In 1509, the Portuguese wrested Diu from Gujarat sultanate following the Battle of Diu (1509).


title: History of Gujarat

text: In 1520 Rana Sanga of Mewar invaded Gujarat with his powerful Rajput confederacy of 52,000 Rajputs supported by his three vassals. Rao Ganga Rathore of Marwar too joined him with Garrison of 8,000 Rajputs, other allies of Rana were Rawal Udai Singh of Vagad and Rao Viram deva of Merta. He defeated the Muslim army of Nizam khan and chased them as far as Ahmedabad. Sanga call off his invasion 20 miles before reaching the capital city of Ahmedabad. He plundered the royal treasuries of Gujarat. Sanga successfully annexed Northern Gujarat and appointed one of his vassals to rule there.


title: History of Gujarat

text: Mughal emperor Humayun attacked Gujarat in 1535 and thereafter Bahadur Shah was killed by the Portuguese while making a deal in 1537. The decline of the Sultanate started with the assassination of Sikandar Shah in 1526. The end of the sultanate came in 1573, when Akbar annexed Gujarat in his empire. The last ruler Muzaffar Shah III was taken prisoner to Agra. In 1583, he escaped from the prison and with the help of the nobles succeeded to regain the throne for a short period before being defeated by Akbar's general Abdul Rahim Khan-I-Khana.


title: History of Gujarat

text: Akbar (1542–1605) set out on his first campaign of Gujarat from Fatehpur Sikri on 2 July 1572 arriving in Ahmedabad on 20 November 1572. He then reorganized the government of Ahmedabad under the charge of his foster brother Mirza Aziz Koka, the Khan-i-Azam and quelled the rebellion led by the Mirzas by laying siege to the castle of Surat. Akbar then embarked on a second campaign of Gujarat on 23 August 1573 to assist Mirza Aziz Koka against a rebellion from the combined forces of Muhammad Husain Mirza and Ikhtiyar-ul-Mulk. Following Akbar's second campaign, Gujarat was organized into a province ("subah") of the Mughal Empire governed by viceroys ("subahdars" or "nazims") responsible for the executive and military branches as well as treasurers ("diwans") responsible for the financial branch.


title: History of Gujarat

text: Gujarati ports with significant trade and financial importance now came into the possession of the Mughal Empire and were organized as special districts directly under the authority of the Delhi government. Under Jahangir (1605–1627) and following the advent of the British East India Company, Surat gained importance as a center of oceanic trade between India and Europe; a factory was established there in 1612. The nobles of the former Sultanate and the Hindu chiefs that rebelled and protested were subdued by the viceroys and officers of the Mughal Empire. Under Shah Jahan (1627–1658), Ahmedabad saw an exodus resulting from officials extracting money from citizens—both the rich and the poor—without the royal permission. Viceroys under Shah Jahan saw to expansion efforts south, taking up of arms against the incursions from the Koli and Kathi tribes, and the implementation of a hardline stance on collection of tribute from the Rajput chiefs of Saurashtra.


title: History of Gujarat

text: The reign of Aurangzeb (1658–1707) was characterized by incidents of drawn-out conflict and religious disputes. As a viceroy, he had previously converted the Chintamani Jain temple at Saraspur into a mosque. His rule included enforcement of Islamic laws, discriminatory laws and taxes against Hindu merchants, and a capitation tax on all non-Muslims. Aurangzeb's viceroys retaliated against the Khachars and other Kathi tribes, destroyed the Temple of the Sun while attacking and storming the fort of Than, razed the Temple at Vadnagar, and engaged in a drawn out conflict with the Rathores of Marwar.


title: History of Gujarat

text: During the next three emperors (1707–1719) who had brief reigns, the nobles became more and more powerful due to instability in the Delhi. The royals of Marwar were appointed viceroys frequently. During the reign of the emperor Muhammad Shah (1719–1748), the struggle between the Mughal and Maratha nobles were heightened with frequent battles and incursions. The south Gujarat was lost to the Marathas and the towns in north and central Gujarat was attacked on several occasions with frequent demand of tributes. The Marathas continued to grow their hold and the frequent change of viceroys did not reverse the trend. The competing houses of Marathas, Gaikwars and Peshwas engaged between themselves which slow down their progress for a while. They later made peace between themselves. During the reign of the next emperor Ahmad Shah Bahadur (1748–1754), there was nominal control over the nobles who acted on their own. There were frequent fights between themselves and with Marathas. Ahmedabad, the capital of province, fell to the Marathas in 1752. It was regained by noble Momin Khan for a short time but again lost to the Marathas in 1756 after a long siege. Finding opportunity, the British captured Surat in 1759. After a setback at Panipat in 1761, the Marathas strengthened their hold on Gujarat. During this fifty years, the power struggle between the Mughal nobles and Marathas caused disorder and the decline in prosperity.


title: History of Gujarat

text: When the cracks had started to develop in the edifice of the Mughal empire in the mid-17th century, the Marathas were consolidating their power in the west, Chatrapati Shivaji, the great Maratha ruler, attacked Surat twice first in 1664 and again in 1672. These attacks marked the entry of the Marathas into Gujarat. However, before the Maratha inroads into Gujarat, the Europeans had made their presence felt, with the Portuguese leading them, followed by the Dutch and the English.


title: History of Gujarat

text: Starting with Bajirao I in the 1720s, the Peshwas based in Pune established their sovereignty over Gujarat including Saurashtra.In the process they defeated and removed the control of their fellow Marathas, the Dabhades and Kadam Bande from Gujarat. The Peshwas collected taxes through Damaji Gaekwad.Damaji established the sway of Gaekwad over Gujarat and made Baroda (present-day Vadodara) his capital. Maratha control of Gujarat slowly waned in the latter half of the 1700s due to rivalries between different ruling Maratha houses as well within the Peshwa family. The British East India Company fully exploited this situation to expand its control of Gujarat and other Maratha territories. The Company also embarked upon its policy of Subsidiary Alliance. With this policy they established their paramountcy over one indigenous state after another. Anandrao Gaekwad joined the Alliance in 1802 and surrendered Surat and adjoining territories to the company. In the garb of helping the Marathas, the British helped themselves, and gradually the Marathas' power came to an end, in 1819 in Gujarat. Gaekwad and other big and small rulers accepted the British Paramountcy.


title: History of Gujarat

text: In the 1600s, the Dutch, French, English and Portuguese all established bases along the western coast of the region. Portugal was the first European power to arrive in Gujarat, and after the Battle of Diu and Treaty of Bassein, acquired several enclaves along the Gujarati coast, including Daman and Diu as well as Dadra and Nagar Haveli. These enclaves were administered by Portuguese India under a single union territory for over 450 years, only to be later incorporated into the Republic of India on 19 December 1961 by military conquest.


title: History of Gujarat

text: The English East India Company established a factory in Surat in 1614, following the commercial treaty made with Mughal Emperor Nuruddin Salim Jahangir, which formed their first base in India, but it was eclipsed by Bombay after the English received it from Portugal in 1668 as part of the marriage treaty of Charles II of England and Catherine of Braganza, daughter of King John IV of Portugal. The state was an early point of contact with the west, and the first English commercial outpost in India was in Gujarat.17th-century French explorer François Pyrard de Laval, who is remembered for his 10-year sojourn in South Asia, bears witness accounts that the Gujaratis were always prepared to learn workmanship from the Portuguese, also in turn imparting skills to the Portuguese:


title: History of Gujarat

text: Later in the 17th century, Gujarat came under control of the Maratha Empire that rose defeating the Mughals and who dominated the politics of India. Most notably, from 1705 to 1716, Senapati Khanderao Dabhade led the Maratha Empire forces in Baroda. Pilaji Gaekwad, first ruler of Gaekwad dynasty, established the control over Baroda and other parts of Gujarat.


title: History of Gujarat

text: The East India Company wrested control of much of Gujarat from the Marathas during the Second Anglo-Maratha War in 1802–1803. Many local rulers, notably the Rajput Maratha Gaekwad Maharajas of Baroda (Vadodara), made a separate peace with the British and acknowledged British sovereignty in return for retaining local self-rule.


title: History of Gujarat

text: Gujarat was placed under the political authority of the Bombay Presidency, with the exception of Baroda state, which had a direct relationship with the Governor-General of India. From 1818 to 1947, most of present-day Gujarat, including Kathiawar, Kutch and northern and eastern Gujarat were divided into hundreds of princely states, but several districts in central and southern Gujarat, namely Ahmedabad, Broach (Bharuch), Kaira (Kheda), Panchmahal and Surat, were governed directly by British officials.


title: History of Gujarat

text: The people of Gujarat were the most enthusiastic participants in India's struggle for freedom. Leaders like Mahatma Gandhi, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, Morarji Desai, K.M. Munshi, Narhari Parikh, Mahadev Desai, Mohanlal Pandya and Ravi Shankar Vyas all hailed from Gujarat. It was also the site of the most popular revolts, including the "Satyagrahas" in Kheda, Bardoli, Borsad and the Salt Satyagraha.


title: History of Gujarat

text: After Indian independence and the Partition of India in 1947, the new Indian government grouped the former princely states of Gujarat into three larger units; Saurashtra, which included the former princely states on the Kathiawar peninsula, Kutch, and Bombay state, which included the former British districts of Bombay Presidency together with most of Baroda state and the other former princely states of eastern Gujarat. In 1956, Bombay state was enlarged to include Kutch, Saurashtra, and parts of Hyderabad state and Madhya Pradesh in central India. The new state had a mostly Gujarati-speaking north and a Marathi-speaking south. Mahagujarat Movement led by Indulal Yagnik demanded splitting of Bombay state on linguistic lines. On 1 May 1960, Bombay state bifurcated into Gujarat and Maharashtra. The capital of Gujarat was Ahmedabad.


title: History of Gujarat

text: Kutch was hit by the earthquake in 1956 which destroyed major parts of Anjar town. Gandhidham, Sardarnagar and Kubernagar were refugee settlements established for the resettlement of Sindhi Hindu refugees arriving from Pakistan after partition.


title: History of Gujarat

text: Members of legislative assembly were elected from 132 constituencies of newly formed Gujarat state. Indian National Congress (INC) won the majority and Jivraj Narayan Mehta became the first chief minister of Gujarat. He served until 1963. Balwantrai Mehta succeed him. During Indo-Pakistani War of 1965, Mehta flew on aircraft to inspect Kutch border between India and Pakistan. The aircraft was shot down by Pakistan Air Force. Mehta was killed in the crash. Hitendra Kanaiyalal Desai succeeded him and won assembly elections. In 1969, Indian National Congress split into Congress (O) headed by Morarji Desai and Congress (I) headed by Indira Gandhi. At the same time, the Hindu nationalist organization Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS) had established itself deeply in Gujarat around this period. The riots broke out across Gujarat in September to October 1969, resulting in large number of casualties and damage to properties. Desai resigned in 1971 due to split of INC and President's rule was imposed in Gujarat. Later Ghanshyam Oza became chief minister when Indira Gandhi led Congress (I) won majority in parliament after 1971 Indo-Pakistani war. Chimanbhai Patel opposed Oza and became chief minister in 1972. The capital of Gujarat moved from Ahmedabad to Gandhinagar in 1971 but legislative assembly building was completed in 1982.


title: History of Gujarat

text: Navnirman movement started in December 1973 due to price rise and corruption in public life. People demanded resignation of Patel. Due to pressure of protests, Indira Gandhi asked Patel to step down. He resigned on 9 February 1974 and President's rule imposed. The governor suspended the state assembly and President's rule was imposed. Opposition parties led stepped in with demand for dissolution of state assembly. Congress had 140 out of 167 MLAs in state assembly. 15 Congress (O) and three Jan Sangh MLAs also resigned. By March, protesters had got 95 of 167 to resign. Morarji Desai, leader of Congress (O), went on an indefinite fast in March and the assembly was dissolved bringing end to agitation. No fresh election held until Morarji Desai went on indefinite hunger strike in April 1975. The fresh elections were held in June 1975. Chimanbhai Patel formed new party named Kisan Mazdoor Lok Paksh and contested on his own. Congress lost elections which won only 75 seats. Coalition of Congress (O), Jan Sangh, PSP and Lok Dal known as Janata Morcha won 88 seats and Babubhai J. Patel became Chief Minister. Indira Gandhi imposed the emergency in 1975. Janata Morcha government lasted nine months and president's rule imposed in March 1976 following failure of passage of budget in assembly to opposition of coalition partners. Later Congress won elections in December 1976 and Madhav Singh Solanki became Chief Minister. A year later Madhav Singh Solanki resigned and again Babubhai Patel led Janata Party formed the government. He shifted his cabinet to Morbi for six months during 1979 Machchhu dam failure disaster which resulted in large casualties.


title: History of Gujarat

text: Janata Morcha government was dismissed and president's rule was imposed in 1980 even though it had majority. Later Madhav Singh Solanki led INC won the election in 1980 and formed the government which completed five years in office. Amarsinh Chaudhary succeeded him in 1985 and headed government till 1989. Solanki again became chief minister until INC lost in 1990 election following Mandal commission protests. Chimanbhai Patel came back to power in March 1990 as the head of a Janata Dal -Bharatiya Janata Party coalition government. Coalition broke just few months after in October 1990 but Chimanbhai Patel managed to retain majority with support of 34 INC legislatures. Later Patel joined the INC and continued till his death in February 1994. Chhabildas Mehta succeeded him and continued till March 1995. In 1994 plague endemic broke out in Surat resulting in 52 deaths.


title: History of Gujarat

text: Following the rise of Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) at centre, Keshubhai Patel led BJP won in 1995 assembly election. Keshubhai Patel became the chief minister of Gujarat in March but resigned eight months later as his colleague Shankersinh Vaghela revolted against him. BJP was split as Rashtriya Janata Party was formed by Vaghela who became the Chief Minister by support of INC. Assembly was dissolved in 1998 as INC withdrew its support. BJP returned to power led by Patel in 1998 assembly elections and he became the chief minister again. In 1998, a severe tropical cyclone hit Kandla port and Saurashtra and Kutch regions.


title: History of Gujarat

text: Gujarat was hit with a devastating earthquake on 26 January 2001 which claimed a staggering 20,000 lives, injured another 200,000 people and severely affected the lives of 40 million of the population. Patel resigned as chief minister in October 2001 due to his failing health. Allegations of abuse of power, corruption and poor administration; as well as a loss of BJP seats in by-elections and mismanagement of relief works during the aftermath of the 2001 Bhuj earthquake; prompted the BJP's national leadership to seek a new candidate for the office of chief minister. He was replaced by Narendra Modi.


title: History of Gujarat

text: The Gujarat Riots of 2002, was a three-day period of inter-communal violence in Gujarat between the Hindus and Muslims, characterized by mass murder, loot, rape, and destruction of property, affecting thousands of people, mostly Muslims. Though officially classified as a communalist riot, the events of 2002 have been described as a pogrom by many scholars. Scholars studying the 2002 riots state that they were premeditated and constituted a form of ethnic cleansing, and that the state government and law enforcement were complicit in the violence that occurred. However, Special Investigation Team (SIT) appointed by the Supreme Court of India, rejected claims that the state government had not done enough to prevent the riots.


title: History of Gujarat

text: In September 2002, there was a terrorist attack on Akshardham temple complex at Gandhinagar. Modi led BJP won December 2002 election with majority. In 2005 and 2006, Gujarat was affected by floods. In July 2008, a series of 21 bomb blasts hit Ahmedabad, within a span of 70 minutes. 56 people were killed and over 200 people were injured in the attack. 2009 Gujarat hepatitis outbreak resulted in 49 deaths. In July 2009, more than 130 people died in hooch tragedy.


title: History of Gujarat

text: Narendra Modi led BJP retained power in 2007 and 2012 assembly elections. Anandiben Patel became the first women Chief Minister of Gujarat on 22 May 2014 as Modi left the position following win in 2014 Indian general election. He was sworn in as the second Prime Minister of Gujarati origin after Morarji Desai in May 2014. Heavy rain in June and July 2015 resulted in widespread flooding in Saurashtra and north Gujarat resulting in more than 150 deaths. The wild life of Gir Forest National Park and adjoining area was also affected. Starting July 2015, the people of Patidar community carried out demonstrations across the state seeking Other Backward Class status which turned violent on 25 August and 19 September 2015 for brief period. The agitation continued and again turned violent in April 2016. In late 2016, Dalits protested across Gujarat in response to an assault on Dalit men in Una. Following heavy rain in July 2017, the state, especially north Gujarat, was affected by the severe flood resulting in more than 200 deaths. In October 2018, a rape incident had triggered the attacks on the Hindi-speaking migrants in Gujarat leading to exodus. In 2019, Vadodara was flooded while there was a fire in a commercial complex at Surat causing death of 22 children. During COVID-19 pandemic, more than 1,00,000 cases and 3100 deaths were reported in Gujarat between March and September 2020. In 2020, the industrial explosions at Dahej and Ahmedabad resulted in five and twelve deaths respectively.


title: History of Gujarat

text: The Narendra Modi Stadium of Motera became the world's largest stadium following the renovation in 2021.