title: Vipassana movement

text: According to Buswell, by the 10th century "vipassana" was no longer practiced in the Theravada tradition, due to the belief that Buddhism had degenerated, and that liberation was no longer attainable until the coming of "Maitreya". According to Braun, "the majority of Theravadins and dedicated Buddhists of other traditions, including monks and nuns, have focused on cultivating moral behavior, preserving the Buddha’s teachings (dharma), and acquiring the good karma that comes from generous giving." Southern Esoteric Buddhist practices were widespread in the whole Theravadin world before being replaced by the Vipassana movement.


title: Vipassana movement

text: The interest in meditation was re-awakened in Myanmar (Burma) in the 18th century by Medawi (1728–1816), who wrote "vipassana" manuals. The actual practice of meditation was re-invented in Theravada-countries in the 19th and 20th centuries and simplified meditation techniques, based on the "Satipatthana sutta", the "Visuddhimagga", and other texts, emphasizing "satipatthana" and bare insight were developed.


title: Vipassana movement

text: In the 19th and 20th century the Theravada traditions in Burma, Thailand and Sri Lanka were rejuvenated in response to western colonialism. They were rallying points in the struggle against western hegemonism, giving voice to traditional values and culture. But the Theravada-tradition was also reshaped, using the Pali scriptural materials to legitimize these reforms. Ironically, the Pali canon became widely accessible due to the western interest in those texts, and the publications of the Pali Text Society. A major role was also being played by the Theosophical Society, which sought for ancient wisdom in south-East Asia, and stimulated local interest in its own traditions. The Theosophical Society started a lay-Buddhist organisation in Sri Lanka, independent from power of conventional temples and monasteries. Interest in meditation was awakened by these developments, whereas the main Buddhist practice in temples was the recitation of texts, not of meditation practice.


title: Vipassana movement

text: Lay participation in Theravada countries grew strongly in the 20th century, and eventually also reached the west. Most influential in this renewed interest was the "new Burmese method" of Vipassana practice, as developed by U Nārada (1868–1955) and popularized by Mahasi Sayadaw (1904–1982). Ultimately, this practice aims at stream entry, with the idea that this first stage of the path to awakening safeguards future development of the person towards full awakening, despite the degenerated age we live in. This method spread over South and Southeast Asia, Europe and America, and has become synonymous with "Vipassana".


title: Vipassana movement

text: A comparable development took place in Thailand, where the Buddhist orthodoxy was challenged by monks who aimed to reintroduce the practice of meditation, based on the Sutta Pitaka. In contrast to the Burmese vipassana teachers, Thai teachers taught "vipassana" in tandem with "samatha". The practical and doctrinal differences have been heatedly debated within south-east Asian Theravada Buddhism. They have also influenced western teachers, who have tended to take a more liberal approach, questioning the new orthodoxy and integrating various practices and doctrines.


title: Vipassana movement

text: Since the 1980s, the Vipassana movement has given way to the largely secularized "mindfulness" practice, which has its roots in Zen and "vipassana"-meditation, and has eclipsed the popularity of vipassana meditation. In the latter approach, mindfulness, understood as "the awareness that arises by paying attention on purpose, in the present moment, and non-judgmentally", is the central practice, instead of "vipassana".


title: Vipassana movement

text: The vipassanā movement emphasizes the use of vipassanā to gain insight into the three marks of existence as the main means to attain wisdom and the beginning of awakening and become a stream-enterer, or even attain full liberation. The practices are based on the "Satipatthana sutta", the "Visuddhimagga", and other texts, emphasizing "satipatthana" and bare insight.


title: Vipassana movement

text: The various movements espouse forms of samatha and vipassanā meditation. The various vipassana teachers also make use of the scheme of the insight knowledges, stages of insight which every practitioner passes through in their progress of meditation. The foundation for this progress is the meditation on the arising and passing away of all contemplated phenomena (anicca), which leads to an understanding of their unsatisfactory (dukkha) nature and insight into not-self (anatta).


title: Vipassana movement

text: Contemporary Burmese Theravāda Buddhism is one of the main creators of modern vipassanā practice, which has gained popularity from the 1950s onward.


title: Vipassana movement

text: Ledi Sayadaw (1846–1923) prepared the ground for the popularisation of meditation by a lay audience, by re-introducing the practice of meditation, based on the Abhidhamma.


title: Vipassana movement

text: S. N. Goenka (1924–2013) was a well-known Indian lay teacher in the Ledi-lineage who was taught by Sayagyi U Ba Khin (1899–1971). According to S. N. Goenka, vipassanā techniques are essentially non-sectarian in character, and have universal application. He asserted that Vipassana technique of meditation was originally espoused in Rigveda however lapsed after the Vedic era and was rejuvenated by Gautam Buddha. One need not convert to Buddhism to practice these styles of meditation. Meditation centers teaching the vipassanā popularized by S. N. Goenka exist now in Nepal, India, other parts of Asia, North and South America, Europe, Australia, Middle East and Africa. In the tradition of S.N.Goenka, vipassanā practice focuses on the deep interconnection between mind and body, which can be experienced directly by disciplined attention to the physical sensations that form the life of the body, and that continuously interconnect and condition the life of the mind.


title: Vipassana movement

text: The practice is usually taught in 10-day retreats, in which 3 days are given to the practice of anapanasati, intended to increase consistency and precision of attention, and the rest of the time is given to vipassanā in the form of "body sweep" practice in which the meditator moves through the body in sections, or as a whole, paying attention to the various sensations that arise without reacting to them. According to Bhikkhu Analayo, "this form of meditation has by now become what probably is the most widely taught form of insight meditation world-wide."


title: Vipassana movement

text: Ruth Denison (1922–2015) was another senior teacher of the U Ba Khin method. Anagarika Munindra studied with both S.N. Goenka and Mahasi Sayadaw, and combined both lineages. Dipa Ma was a student of his.


title: Vipassana movement

text: The "New Burmese method" was developed by U Nārada (1868–1955) and popularized by his student, Mahasi Sayadaw (1904–1982). It was introduced to Sri Lanka in 1939, but became popular in the 1950s with the arrival of Burmese monks, where it gained great popularity among the laity, but was also severely criticised because of its disregard of "samatta". Most senior western vipassana teachers (Goldstein, Kornfield, Salzberg) studied with Mahasi Sayadaw and his student Sayadaw U Pandita. Nyanaponika Thera (1901–1994) ordained already in the fifties, contributing to the interest in "vipassana" with his publications. Prominent teacher Bhikkhu Bodhi is a student of Nyanaponika.


title: Vipassana movement

text: Ajahn Tong was a Thai master who studied for a short time under Mahasi Sayadaw before returning to found his own Vipassana lineage at Chom Tong in Thailand.


title: Vipassana movement

text: The "New Burmese Method" emphasizes the attainment of "vipassana", insight, by practising "satipatthana", paying close attention to the ongoing changes in body and mind. Gil Fronsdal:


title: Vipassana movement

text: Nyanaponika Thera coined the term "bare attention" for the mindfulness practice of the "new Burmese Method." Yet, Robert H. Sharf notes that Buddhist practice is aimed at the attainment of "correct view", not just "bare attention":


title: Vipassana movement

text: Mogok Sayadaw (1899-1962) taught the importance of the awareness of noticing the 'arising' and 'Passing away' of all experience as the way to gain insight into impermanence. Mogok Sayadaw emphasized the importance of right understanding and that a meditator should learn the theory of Dependent Origination (Paticcasamuppada) when practicing vipassana. The Mogok vipassana Method focuses on meditation of Feeling (Vedanannupassana) and meditation on Mind states (Cittanupassana).


title: Vipassana movement

text: The method of the Pa Auk Sayadaw is closely based on the Visuddhimagga, a classic Theravada meditation manual. He promotes the extensive development of the four jhanas, states of meditative absorption and focus. The insight element is based on surveying the body by observing the four elements (earth, water, fire and wind) by using the sensations of hardness, heaviness, warmth and motion. Western teachers who work with this method include Shaila Catherine, Stephen Snyder and Tina Rasmussen.


title: Vipassana movement

text: Since the early 1980s, insight meditation has gained a growing popularity in the western world, and saw a synthesis of various practices and backgrounds, with the growing insight in its roots and doctrinal background, and the introduction of other modern traditions. A major developments is the popularisation of mindfulness as a technique of its own.


title: Vipassana movement

text: Jack Kornfield and Joseph Goldstein taught a series of classes at Naropa University in 1974, and began teaching a series of retreats together for the next two years. The retreats were modeled on 10- and 30-day Goenka retreats, but the technique taught was mainly based on Mahasi Sayadaw's practice (with the inclusion of Metta meditation). In 1976 Kornfield and Goldstein, along with Sharon Salzberg and Jacqueline Schwartz founded the Insight Meditation Society in Barre, Massachusetts, followed by its sister center, Spirit Rock Meditation Center in Marin County, California.


title: Vipassana movement

text: Kornfield, and related teachers, tend to de-emphasize the religious elements of Buddhism such as "rituals, chanting, devotional and merit-making activities, and doctrinal studies" and focus on meditative practice. According to Jack Kornfield,


title: Vipassana movement

text: Some teachers adhere to a strict 'Burmese approach', in which meditation is equated with "kasina" (concentration) meditation, and vipassana is the main aim. Others, like Bhikkhu Thannissaro, who trained in Thailand, criticise the Burmese orthodoxy, and propagate an integrative approach, in which samatha and vipassana are developed in tandem. Kornfield, who trained in both Burma and Thailand, also propagates an integrative approach.


title: Vipassana movement

text: A main criticism of the Burmese method is its reliance on the commentatorial literature, in which vipassana is separated from samatha, and "jhana" is equated with concentration meditation. Thanissaro Bhikkhu stresses the fact that the kasina method is marginally treated in the suttas, in which the emphasis is predominantly on "jhana". In the suttas, "samatha" and "vipassana" are qualities of the mind which are developed together. This point is also reiterated by Shankman, arguing that samatha and vipassana cannot be separated.


title: Vipassana movement

text: Groundbreaking research on early Buddhist meditation has been conducted by Bronkhorst, Vetter, Gethin, Gombrich, and Wynne arguing that "jhana" may have been the core practice of early Buddhism, and noting that this practice was not a form of concentration-meditation, but a cumulative practice resulting in mindful awareness of objects while being indifferent to it. Polak, elaborating on Vetter, notes that the onset of the first "dhyana" is described as a quite natural process, due to the preceding efforts to restrain the senses and the nurturing of wholesome states. Recently Keren Arbel, elaborating on Bronkhorst, Vetter and Gethin, has argued that mindfulness, jhana, samatha and vipassana form an integrated whole, leading to an alert, joyful and compassionate state of mind and being. Polak and Arbel, following Gethin, further note that there is a "definite affinity" between the four "jhanas" and the "bojjhaṅgā", the seven factors of awakening.


title: Vipassana movement

text: The "bare attention" propagated in the New Burmese Method has been popularized as mindfulness, starting with Jon Kabat Zinn's mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR), developed in the late 1970s, and continuing in applications such as mindfulness-based cognitive therapy (MBCT) and mindfulness-based pain management (MBPM).


title: Vipassana movement

text: Women have been quite prominent as teachers in the vipassanā movement. Though the formal Theravāda vipassanā tradition has been maintained by an almost exclusively male monastic tradition, nuns and non-monastic female adepts have played important roles, despite being completely absent or only noted in the background of the historical record. These teachers and practitioners expand the framework of vipassanā to incorporate the immanence of the female body and its innate opportunities for enlightenment through the cycles of its physiology and the emotions of marriage, childlessness, childbearing, child loss, and widowhood.


title: Vipassana movement

text: The modern Bangladeshi teacher Dipa Ma, a student of Anagarika Munindra, was one of the first female Asian masters to be invited to teach in America. As a widowed, single mother, Dipa Ma was a householder (non-monastic) who exemplified liberation and taught vipassanā as not only a retreat practice but also a lifestyle. Her message to women and men was you don't have to leave your family to reach high states of spiritual understanding, and she taught a radical inclusiveness. She encouraged women who were mothers of young children to practice vipassanā through the daily activities of mothering. She once said to Joseph Goldstein that "Women have an advantage over men because they have more supple minds... It may be difficult for men to understand this, because they are men." When asked if there was any hope for men, she replied "The Buddha was a man, and Jesus was a man. So there is hope for you."


title: Vipassana movement

text: Dipa Ma's mettā (loving-kindness) meditation instruction was a core component to be practiced after each vipassanā session. It involves five stages, the first of which was the mastery of self-compassion in mind and heart, then continuing to the other stages. The prayer of the first stage, given in English is as follows:


title: Vipassana movement

text: Indian teacher Ilaichidevi Goenka, was the wife of the Burmese-trained S. N. Goenka and mother of six children, began practicing adhittan vipassanā when her youngest child was four years old, eventually joining her husband on the teaching platform as co-teacher to thousands of students at retreat centers and prisons all over India as well as internationally. Prisoners who do vipassanā meditation reportedly experience less behavior problems while incarcerated and have lower rates of recidivism. "Mataji", as she is lovingly referred to by her students, also used to lead chants with her husband.


title: Vipassana movement

text: Indian Shambhavi Chopra, a former textiles designer and divorced mother of two who is now co-director of the American Institute of Vedic Studies, writes of her 10-day vipassanā meditation training at a retreat center in Germany in her book "Yogini: The Enlightened Woman", and encourages students to explore vipassanā practice and mastery as a devotion to the Divine Mother of all.


title: Vipassana movement

text: Vipassanā movement traditions have offered meditation programs in some prisons. One notable example was in 1993 when Kiran Bedi, a reformist Inspector General of India's prisons, learned of the success of vipassanā in a jail in Jaipur, Rajasthan. A ten-day retreat involved officials and inmates alike was then tried in India's largest prison Tihar Jail near New Delhi. Vipassana is being taught in Jail 4 of Tihar Prisons to inmates in two ten day courses every month around the year since 1994 onwards. This program was said to have dramatically changed the behavior of inmates and jailers alike. Inmates who completed the ten-day course were less violent and had a lower recidivism rate than other inmates. This project was documented in the documentary film, "Doing Time, Doing Vipassana". Vipassana prison courses are routinely offered at the Donaldson Prison Facility in Alabama through the Vipassana Prison Trust.


title: Rosa rugosa

text: Rosa rugosa (rugosa rose, beach rose, Japanese rose, Ramanas rose, or letchberry) is a species of rose native to eastern Asia, in northeastern China, Japan, Korea and southeastern Siberia, where it grows on beach coasts, often on sand dunes. It should not be confused with "Rosa multiflora", which is also known as "Japanese rose". The Latin word "rugosa" means "wrinkled", referring to the wrinkled leaves.


title: Rosa rugosa

text: "Rosa rugosa" is a suckering shrub which develops new plants from the roots and forms dense thickets 1–1.50 m tall with stems densely covered in numerous short, straight prickles 3–10 mm long. The leaves are 8–15 cm long, pinnate with 5–9 leaflets, most often 7, each leaflet 3–4 cm long, with a distinctly corrugated (rugose, hence the species' name) surface. The leaf is elliptical in shape with a rounded base or broadly cuneate with a leather feel, dark green top. The back of the leaf is composed of a green-grey colour with hair along the veins. The leaf margin is composed of teeth along the edges and is crenate-serrate. The flower has five petals that are usually 6–9 cm in width. The flower is composed of 200–250 stamens per flow and vary in style. The flowers are pleasantly scented, dark pink to white (on "R. rugosa" f. "alba" ), 6–9 cm across, with somewhat wrinkled petals; flowering occurs in spring.


title: Rosa rugosa

text: The edible hips, which resemble cherry tomatoes, are large, 2–3 cm diameter, and often shorter than their diameter, not elongated; in late summer and early autumn the plants often bear fruit and flowers at the same time. The leaves typically turn bright yellow before falling in autumn.


title: Rosa rugosa

text: This rose species was introduced to America from Japan in the mid-19th century; it was valued because it can tolerate salt water spray.


title: Rosa rugosa

text: "Rosa rugosa" is widely used as an ornamental plant. It has been introduced to numerous areas of Europe and North America. It has many common names, several of which refer to the fruit's resemblance to a tomato, including beach tomato or sea tomato; others include saltspray rose, beach rose, potato rose and Turkestan rose. In parts of the US the fruits are also occasionally called beach plums, causing confusion with the plant properly bearing that name, "Prunus maritima".


title: Rosa rugosa

text: The sweetly scented flowers are traditionally used to make flower jam and dessert in China. They are also used to make pot-pourri in Japan and China. It is used in traditional Chinese medicine to treat irregular menstruation and gastritis. Beach rose hips, like those of other rose species, are edible and can be used to make jams, syrups, tea, or eaten raw.


title: Rosa rugosa

text: This species hybridises readily with many other roses, and is valued by rose breeders for its considerable resistance to the diseases rose rust and rose black spot. It is also extremely tolerant of seaside salt spray and storms, commonly being the first shrub in from the coast. It is widely used in landscaping, being relatively tough and trouble-free. Needing little maintenance due to its being very disease resistant, it is suitable for planting in large numbers; its salt-tolerance makes it useful for planting beside roads which need deicing with salt regularly.


title: Rosa rugosa

text: Numerous cultivars have been selected for garden use, with flower colour varying from white to dark red-purple, and with semi-double to double flowers where some or all of the stamens are replaced by extra petals. Popular examples include 'Rubra Plena' (semi-double variant, with strong clove scented dark pink petals and dark green wrinkled leaves and large round orange-red hips), 'Hansa' (very fragrant, red-purple double), 'Fru Dagmar Hastrup' (pink, single), 'Pink Grootendorst' (pink, semi-double), 'Blanc Double de Coubert' (white, double) and the more common 'Roseraie de L'Haÿ' (pink, double), which is often used for its very successful rootstock and its ornamental rose hips.


title: Rosa rugosa

text: Varieties of this species are sold in nurseries. In cultivation, it has been cross-bred with other roses. It is valued for its attractive flowers, and it is often used to create hedges and windbreakers. It can control erosion and is planted along highways in Germany and Denmark.


title: Rosa rugosa

text: "Rosa rugosa" is naturalized in many parts of Europe, and it is considered an invasive species in some habitats, particularly in seashores of Northern Europe. It was first introduced into England from Japan in 1796, and then in Germany in 1845. This was the first presence of the flower within the European continent. In 1875, "Rosa rugosa" was found in Denmark and then in Sweden in 1918. By 2001, the flower species had become well established within 61 European countries. Although it is native within China, it has been labeled as an endangered species due to a noticeable high decline in population rates of the flower. The species was able to spread due to birds and animals that eat the berries from the bush and people buying the rose and taking it with them overseas. It can outcompete native flora, thereby threatening biological diversity. On Sylt, an island in the north of Germany, it is sufficiently abundant to have become known as the "Sylt rose".


title: Rosa rugosa

text: It is considered noxious in some states of the US. "R. rugosa" was first introduced into North America in 1845. The first report of it being naturalized far from the location in which it was planted occurred on Nantucket in 1899 and was spreading rapidly by 1911. By 1920, the rose had been well established in Nantucket and in Connecticut. Ten years later it was said to be "straying rapidly" and today it is naturalized on the entire coast of New England and in scattered locations around the Northeast and Pacific Northwest.


title: Rosa rugosa

text: In Japanese, it is called "beach aubergine", "beach pear", or simply "rose". In Mandarin Chinese, it is called "méiguì huā" () "rose" or "cì méiguì" () "thorned rose". In Korean, the species is called "haedanghwa" (, ), literally "flowers near the seashore".


title: Silver (color)

text: Silver or metallic gray is a color tone resembling gray that is a representation of the color of polished silver.


title: Silver (color)

text: The visual sensation usually associated with the metal silver is its metallic shine. This cannot be reproduced by a simple solid color because the shiny effect is due to the material's brightness varying with the surface angle to the light source. In addition, there are no mechanism for showing metallic or fluorescent colors on a computer without resorting to rendering software that simulates the action of light on a shiny surface. Consequently, in art and in heraldry, one would typically use a metallic paint that glitters like real silver. A matte grey color could also be used to represent silver.


title: Silver (color)

text: The first recorded use of "silver" as a color name in English was in 1481. In heraldry, the word argent is used, derived from Latin "argentum" over Medieval French "argent".


title: Silver (color)

text: Crayola crayons have a color called "silver" which is a pale tone of silver color. This silver (Crayola) has been a Crayola color since 1903.


title: Silver (color)

text: Crayola silver is not a neutral grayscale color but a warm gray with a very slight tinge of orange-red.


title: Silver (color)

text: The source of this color is the "Plochere Color System", a color system formulated in 1948 that is widely used by interior designers.


title: Silver (color)

text: The color name "silver sand" for this silver-tone has been used since 2001 when it was promulgated as one of the colors on the Xona.com Color List.


title: Silver (color)

text: The color name "silver chalice" for this tone of silver has been in use since 2001 when it was promulgated as one of the colors on the Xona.com Color List.


title: Silver (color)

text: "Roman silver", a blue-gray tone of silver, is one of the colors on the Resene Color List, a color list widely popular in Australia and New Zealand.


title: Silver (color)

text: Sonic silver is a tone of silver included in Metallic FX crayons, specialty crayons formulated by Crayola in 2001.


title: Fire Down Below (1997 film)

text: Fire Down Below is a 1997 American action film starring Steven Seagal and directed by Félix Enríquez Alcalá in his directorial debut. The film also includes cameos by country music performers Randy Travis, Mark Collie, Ed Bruce, Marty Stuart and Travis Tritt, and country-rocker and the Band member Levon Helm, as well as Kris Kristofferson in a supporting role. Steven Seagal plays Jack Taggert, an EPA agent who investigates a Kentucky mine and helps locals stand up for their rights. The film was released in the United States on September 5, 1997.


title: Fire Down Below (1997 film)

text: In the peaceful Appalachian hills of eastern Kentucky, toxins are being dumped into abandoned mines, causing environmental havoc, but the locals, mindful of their jobs and the power of the mine owners, can do nothing. EPA CID agent Jack Taggert is sent to investigate, after a fellow agent, revealed to be Jack’s friend and partner, is found dead, probably not by accident. The EPA has received an anonymous letter from Jackson, Kentucky, and Taggert goes there undercover to continue his colleague's investigations.


title: Fire Down Below (1997 film)

text: It is discovered that Hanner Coal Company, owned by Orin Hanner Sr., is being paid to dump toxic waste into an abandoned coal mine shaft, so Jack is assigned to go to the small town of Jackson, where his cover is that of assistant and volunteer carpenter to a local church. He stays in a room in the church's basement, and begins his cover work by repairing the roof at a house where one of the children is sick because of the pollution. He attempts to question the family, but they do not have much to say. He has little better results elsewhere; even the man who tipped off the EPA is decidedly taciturn. While testing the water, Taggert wanders into a local marijuana field, and is accosted by the growers. After disarming them, he tells them that he has no interest in arresting them.


title: Fire Down Below (1997 film)

text: The men responsible for the other agent's death soon notice Taggert's presence. As a newcomer to the small local community, he is threatened by Hanner's son Orin, Jr. (Brad Hunt), the incompetent local tool of the company, the corrupt local Sheriff Lloyd Foley, and several thugs that work for them. The thugs in question start by leaving two rattlesnakes in his dwelling; Taggert responds by capturing the snakes alive and leaving them in the pickup that the thugs were driving, causing them to crash. Soon after, five of them attack him while he is buying supplies, and receive a severe beating as a result. Orin then orders one of his truck drivers to arrange an "accident" by running him off the road, but Taggert escapes alive while the driver is killed after falling off an open-pit mine cliff.


title: Fire Down Below (1997 film)

text: While these conflicts are occurring, Taggert strikes up a relationship with Sarah Kellogg, a young woman who lives in the town. She is regarded as an outcast because of her father's murder, a crime of which she was accused but not convicted. Eventually, she agrees to testify against Orin and his people, much to the anger of her estranged brother Earl, who actually committed the murder, after their father found out about his sexual abuse against her. Earl is revealed to be working as one of Hanner's thugs, and sets the church on fire, in the process killing the preacher who was helping Taggert. He then attempts to collapse the mine with Taggert inside it. Taggert escapes, while several mercenaries are killed, including Earl.


title: Fire Down Below (1997 film)

text: With evidence and a witness, Taggert calls the FBI to take Sarah into protective custody. However, they are revealed to be corrupt, and a firefight ensues. Taggert kills one agent, then sends the second back to Orin with a message that he'll be coming for him next. However, when Orin is arrested and charged, he gets off with a slap on the wrist for the environmental violations. Taggert goes back into the town and fights his way past the last of Orin Jr's thugs, then demands the truth from him. Orin agrees to turn state's evidence, implicating his father on racketeering, conspiracy, and murder charges. Taggert goes to a casino to arrest Orin, Sr. Upon hearing about the reception awaiting him in federal prison, Orin produces a gun and resists, but Taggert shoots him in the shoulder and he is taken into custody. Taggert then returns to Jackson, where he is reunited with Sarah.


title: Fire Down Below (1997 film)

text: The film was shot on location in and around Kentucky; parts of the "truck chase scene" were shot at Natural Bridge State Resort Park. Some of the opening scenes were filmed at Cumberland Falls State Resort Park. The cave scenes were filmed in the Great Saltpetre Cave. This was the third, and final time that Kane Hodder worked with Seagal as a stuntman.


title: Fire Down Below (1997 film)

text: Seagal liked the film in part because it was "kind of an environmental movie." He also enjoyed working with Helgenberger. "While I don’t think she’s a physical, spectacular, drop dead gorgeous woman, at the same time she’s a spectacular actress," said Seagal. "Her performance was wonderful."


title: Fire Down Below (1997 film)

text: "Fire Down Below" was released on September 5, 1997. It grossed $6 million on its opening weekend in the United States and Canada and went on to gross $16.2 million plus $8.3 million internationally for a worldwide total of $24.5 million.


title: Fire Down Below (1997 film)

text: On Rotten Tomatoes the film has an approval rating of 14% based on 28 reviews, with an average rating of 3.5/10. On Metacritic the film has a score of 40 out of 100, based on reviews from 13 critics.


title: Fire Down Below (1997 film)

text: Seagal was also nominated for Worst Actor at the Stinkers Bad Movie Awards but lost to Tom Arnold for "McHale's Navy".


title: Father of the House (United Kingdom)

text: The Father of the House is a title that is bestowed on the senior member of the House of Commons who has the longest continuous service. If two or more members have the same length of current uninterrupted service, then whoever was sworn in earliest, as listed in "Hansard", is named as Father of the House.


title: Father of the House (United Kingdom)

text: The only formal duty of the Father of the House is to preside over the election of the Speaker of the House of Commons. However, the relevant Standing Order does not refer to this member by the title of "Father of the House", but instead to the longest-serving member of the House present who is not a Minister of the Crown. Until 1971, the Clerk of the House of Commons presided over the election of the Speaker. As the clerk is never a member, and therefore is not permitted to speak, he would silently stand and point at the Member who was to speak. However, this procedure broke down at the election of a new Speaker in 1971 and was changed upon the recommendation of a select committee.


title: Father of the House (United Kingdom)

text: Until 6 November 2019, the Father of the House of Commons was Kenneth Clarke, a Conservative MP until 3 September 2019, and then an Independent MP, for Rushcliffe. Clarke began his continuous service at the 1970 general election. He declined to seek re-election and he retired before the 2019 general election. Dennis Skinner, Labour MP for Bolsover, also began continuous service at the 1970 general election, but was sworn in after Clarke. Skinner contested the 2019 election, but was defeated, and so Sir Peter Bottomley, who has been an MP continuously since 1975, became Father of the House.


title: Father of the House (United Kingdom)

text: Historically, the Father of the House was not a clearly defined term, and it is not clear by what process it was used for individual Members. The first recorded usage of the term dates to 1788, in an obituary of Thomas Noel; it is also attested in an engraved portrait of Whitshed Keene by Charles Picart, from 1816. It may have been interpreted at various times as the oldest member, the member with the longest total service, the member with the longest unbroken service (the modern definition), or the member who entered the House longest ago. There is also some evidence that in the late 19th century, the position may have been elected. The modern definition was not settled upon until the late 1890s.


title: Father of the House (United Kingdom)

text: After the Second World War, a convention arose that the Father would normally be a member of the Select Committee on Privileges, but this lapsed following the establishment of the modern Standards and Privileges Committee in the 1990s.


title: Father of the House (United Kingdom)

text: Among the twentieth-century Fathers, there were several very prominent figures; four former Prime Ministers became Father of the House, and a fifth, Henry Campbell-Bannerman was simultaneously Father of the House and Prime Minister from May 1907 until soon before his death during April 1908. Almost all have been Privy Councillors.


title: Father of the House (United Kingdom)

text: To date, all holders of the position have been men. In 2015 Harriet Harman described herself as the 'Mother of the House' as she was the longest continuously serving woman MP. David Cameron referred to her as the Mother the week after, and Theresa May referred to Harriet Harman as the Mother of the House in 2017. Harman had in fact been the longest serving female MP since at least 2010.


title: Father of the House (United Kingdom)

text: This list covers all Fathers of the House since W.W. Beach, the first to become Father after the modern approach (longest period of continuous service) was agreed in 1898.


title: Father of the House (United Kingdom)

text: This list covers all those who would have been considered Father of the House, by the modern definition, since an arbitrary date of 1701. Many of these will "not" have been considered "Father of the House" by contemporaries, and some men who were described as such are not listed here.


title: Father of the House (United Kingdom)

text: The title 'Father of the House' is not used in the House of Lords. The longest-serving member is recorded on the House website, though no duties or special distinctions are associated with the position. , the longest-serving member is The Lord Trefgarne (Conservative), who first took his seat on 3 July 1962 (having succeeded his father in the peerage in 1960 while still a minor). The House of Lords Act 1999 repealed the automatic right of hereditary peers to be members of the House of Lords; Trefgarne was one of those elected to continue as a member under section 2 of the Act.


title: Father of the House (United Kingdom)

text: , the longest-serving life peer is The Baroness Masham of Ilton (Crossbench), who is also the longest-serving female member of the House, as well as the senior life peer by date of creation. She first took her seat on 25 February 1970.


title: Ayako Kawasumi

text: She performed "...To You", the opening theme to "," and played pianists in the anime "Piano" and "Nodame Cantabile. "She is one of the most prolific and well-known voice actresses in Japan. Throughout her career, she has voiced plenty of iconic and famous characters, such as Akari Kamigishi ("To Heart"), Saber ("Fate/stay night"), Elie ("Rave Master"), Melfina ("Outlaw Star"), Nodame ("Nodame Cantabile"), Lafiel ("Crest of the Stars" – "Banner of the Stars"), Fuu ("Samurai Champloo"), Leina ("Queen's Blade"), Aoi Sakuraba ("Ai Yori Aoshi"), Mahoro ("Mahoromatic") and Natsuki Mogi ("Initial D").


title: Number 1's (Mariah Carey album)

text: The album was met with some criticism regarding the new songs and the decision to only include Carey's number-one hits in the United States. Despite this, the album became a worldwide commercial success. It debuted at number four on the "Billboard" 200, topped the charts in Japan, Greece, Malaysia and Taiwan; and reached the top-ten throughout almost every major worldwide music market. "#1's" was certified six-times platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) and double platinum by the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry (IFPI) denoting shipments of five and two million copies. The album reported sales in Japan at 3,250,000 copies in the first three months and remains the best-selling album of all-time in Japan by a non-Asian artist. As of 2021, the album has sold over 15,000,000 units worldwide.


title: Number 1's (Mariah Carey album)

text: "When You Believe", a duet with Whitney Houston, charted well around the world, peaking at number fifteen in the United States, the top two in Norway, Spain, Sweden and Switzerland and the top five in Belgium, France, the Netherlands and the United Kingdom, and reaching number one in Hungary. "When You Believe" was featured in "The Prince of Egypt" soundtrack, and received the Academy Award for Best Original Song. The album's third single, "I Still Believe", performed best of the four new songs, peaking at number four.


title: Number 1's (Mariah Carey album)

text: On May 15, 2015, Carey released "#1 to Infinity", an updated version of "#1's" with 18 of her number ones, to coincide with the beginning of her residency show of the same name in Las Vegas.


title: Number 1's (Mariah Carey album)

text: During mid-1998, after the release of her sixth studio album, "Butterfly" (1997), the previous September, Carey was in the midst of developing a film and soundtrack project titled "All That Glitters". Midway through the project, "All That Glitters" fell into developmental hell, causing Carey to pause the entire production. During this period, Carey considered embarking on a tour to support "Butterfly", which was continuing to sell strongly.


title: Number 1's (Mariah Carey album)

text: In Carey's 2020 memoir The Meaning of Mariah Carey, Carey states that she conceptualized "#1's" as part of a four-album agreement with Sony Music to terminate her contract with then-label, Columbia. Sony wanted to release an album that featured her US number-one singles, void of any new material. However, Carey felt that not including any new material would be unfair to fans, and eventually four new songs were included to accompany her thirteen number ones.


title: Number 1's (Mariah Carey album)

text: The first of Carey's number ones to be featured on the album was "Vision of Love". It was Carey's first single and was the song that propelled her into the music scene. The song received acclaim, and was credited with influencing and popularizing the use of melisma throughout the 1990s. Three other songs were included from her self-titled debut album, of them were "Love Takes Time", "Someday" and "I Don't Wanna Cry". The fifth single featured on the album was "Emotions", the lead single from the album of the same name. Because of the album's strict array of chart topping singles, none of the other singles on "Emotions" made the track listing. Another song that was featured on "#1's" was Carey's version of The Jackson 5 classic, "I'll Be There", which was the lead single from her live album, "MTV Unplugged". The singles from Carey's 1993 release "Music Box", made an appearance on the album as well. "Dreamlover", the seventh number one from the album, was the lead single from "Music Box". The song topped the "Billboard" Hot 100 for eight weeks and was described as a "slight piece of pop fluff", representing a more commercial side to Carey than the "more ambitious", "Vision of Love". The song was the start of a vocal maturity for Carey, and was considered a notable song in her career. The second single from "Music Box", "Hero", also made the album's final cut. According to author Chris Nickson, "Hero" was one of Carey's "most inspirational ballads". The album's third single, Carey's cover of Harry Nielsen's "Without You" failed to make the US album version, however, due to the song's popularity in Europe, it was included in the album's international edition.


title: Number 1's (Mariah Carey album)

text: "All I Want for Christmas Is You", the lead single from Carey's holiday album "Merry Christmas" also made the international track listing. The song became one of the best-selling singles by a non–Asian female, and the best-selling Japanese single of 1994, selling 1.1 million copies. Additionally, "All I Want for Christmas Is You" was called "one of the essential musical hallmarks of the holiday season", and is the only holiday song and ringtone to reach multi-platinum status in the US. Occupying three of the thirteen number ones on the album were the singles from Carey's 1995 release, "Daydream". The album's lead single "Fantasy", was featured on "#1's". However, it was the song's official remix, which featured rap verses from Ol' Dirty Bastard, which made the album cut. This was a personal decision made by Carey, as it was of her preference. The second song from "Daydream" to be featured on the album was "One Sweet Day", Carey's duet with Boyz II Men. The song topped the Hot 100 for a then-unprecedented sixteen weeks, and held the record for longest running number-one song in Hot 100 history until 2019. The third and final song from the album, "Always Be My Baby", spent two weeks atop the charts in the US, therefore earning a place on the album as well.


title: Number 1's (Mariah Carey album)

text: Carey's most recent studio effort at the time, "Butterfly", also yielded two number-one songs. The album's lead single, "Honey", was a career-transitional song for Carey, which introduced her as a hip hop soul artist, as well as featured extended rap verses throughout the song. While very different than anything Carey had ever recorded, the track was described as "street Hip-Hop music, with a booming bass." The second song from "Butterfly", "My All", spent one week atop the charts. Carey described the song as "[having] a lush sound and intense styling." Solely written by Carey and Walter Afanasieff, "My All" featured guitar arpeggios, which were synthetically created with the clever use of sampling and playing keyboard notes. As a result, the song was well-received, being called a "slinky, slow jam R&B sound, that fit Mariah like a glove."


title: Number 1's (Mariah Carey album)

text: Since Carey intended "#1's" to serve as a sign of gratitude to her fans, the album contained four new songs not previously included on her albums. The first was a cover of Rainy Davis' "Sweetheart" (1987) performed as a duet with co-producer and rapper Jermaine Dupri. Dupri had worked with Carey in the past, contributing to her album "Daydream", and co-produced several hip-hop remixes of her songs. Carey said of the inspiration for its recording, "I was thinking of the old songs I used to listen to when I was in school. It's a really cute record. Young girls'll like it the way I liked it when I was growing up." Another new song featured on "#1's" was "When You Believe", which Carey said was included because she felt it was "a miracle" that she and Houston collaborated on a record. During the development of "All That Glitters", Carey had been introduced to DreamWorks producer Jeffrey Katzenberg, who asked her if she would record the song "When You Believe" for the soundtrack to the animated film "The Prince of Egypt". Carey and Houston were shown the film separately, and both became very enthusiastic about participating in the project. In an interview with MTV, Carey made the following statement regarding "When You Believe" and working with Whitney Houston:


title: Number 1's (Mariah Carey album)

text: "It's sort of a message song. It's what 'Prince of Egypt' is about, Moses. If we were ever going to come together on any kind of record, this is definitely the right one, and really the coolest thing to me is that after all of the drama and everybody making it like we had a rivalry, she was just really cool and we had a really good time in the studio. We had fun. And so, if nothing else, it was a good experience... and diva-ism, whatever."


title: Number 1's (Mariah Carey album)

text: The song was co-written by Stephen Schwartz and Babyface, who also produced the song. Carey had previously collaborated with Babyface on her albums, "Music Box" (1993) and "Daydream" (1995). Babyface expressed how he went through more than one version of the song and described its production as a beautiful movie ballad, something different than he, Carey or Houston ever recorded. In an interview with "Vibe", Carey said that she "liked [the song] the way it was." She had characterised it as "a very big ballad but in an inspirational way" and denied speculation that there had been past rivalry or animosity between her and Houston prior to its recording: "I never even really talked to her until this. We never had any issues between us. The media and everybody made it an issue."


title: Number 1's (Mariah Carey album)

text: Carey co-wrote and co-produced the song "Whenever You Call" with longtime collaborator Walter Afanasieff for her album, "Butterfly". However, in order to change the song's tempo and format, Carey decided to re-do the song as a duet with Brian McKnight, because she felt it was one of the best songs on "Butterfly". Carey had also expressed how McKnight's vocals added a great deal to the song, describing the project as "perfecting the song". McKnight shared similar sentiments, saying, "It was amazing to go into the studio with someone who's so successful, and has that kind of track record. Mariah is someone who could ask anyone in the world to sing with her, and they called me. The album contains a duet with Whitney Houston ... it's just been great company to be in."


title: Number 1's (Mariah Carey album)

text: One of the songs Carey recorded specifically for "#1's" was a cover of Brenda K. Starr's "I Still Believe" (1988) co-produced by Stevie J and Mike Mason. During the late 1980s Starr helped Carey secure a record contract while she worked as Starr's backup singer. In the album's liner notes, Carey wrote that the purpose of the song was solely paying tribute to her. According to Carey, the song "reminds me of the fact that not long ago I was a teenage girl with nothing to my name but a demo tape, my voice, and my ability to write songs. Brenda K. Starr treated me like a 'star' and gave me a shot." Another song Carey and Stevie J co-produced was a cover of, "Theme from Mahogany (Do You Know Where You're Going To)" (1975) by Diana Ross. The latter song was the third non-original song on the album, and experienced a limited release throughout few countries in Europe. During a press release for the album, it was reported that an exclusive live version of "Hero" would be included. However, the idea fell through and was never released.


title: Number 1's (Mariah Carey album)

text: Throughout 1998, the songs Carey was compiling songs for the compilation album led to a publicized conflict with Columbia Records. Carey insisted that while the compilation is not a greatest hits collection, Sony titled the album "#1's" to reflect the fact that the album is a collection of her number-one hits rather than her "greatest" or "favorite" songs. Carey has frequently cited "Underneath the Stars" (1996) and "Breakdown" (1998) as examples of songs she was unsuccessful in releasing on the collection. Carey has expressed distaste towards the album's song selection, expressing her disappointment in the omission of her "favorite songs."


title: Number 1's (Mariah Carey album)

text: In December 2001, Columbia released the album "Greatest Hits", which featured Carey's number-one singles alongside songs she said "needed to be really heard", such as "Underneath the Stars" and "Forever". In an interview with MTV, Carey made the following statement regarding her first Greatest hits album. She stated that, "There's a lot of songs that I'm happy are gonna see the light of day. I think people are going to like this "Greatest Hits" because there are songs on it that were not necessarily singles."


title: Number 1's (Mariah Carey album)

text: "When You Believe", the album's lead single, was promoted as the first single from both "The Prince of Egypt: Original Soundtrack" and Houston's "My Love Is Your Love". It was given a wider release than "Sweetheart" and achieved worldwide success. The song peaked within the top two in Norway, Spain, Sweden and Switzerland, and in the top five in Belgium, the Netherlands, France and the United Kingdom. In the UK, "When You Believe" became one of Carey's biggest successes, selling 260,000 units. Despite reaching high positions around the globe, "When You Believe" performed moderately in the US, where it peaked at number fifteen. Serving as the album's second single, "I Still Believe" performed stronger in the US than the album's previous singles, peaking at number four. The song was certified platinum in the United States, however performing weakly in other territories. "I Still Believe" performed well in Spain, where it peaked at number seven, and in Canada, where the song reached the top-ten.


title: Number 1's (Mariah Carey album)

text: "Whenever You Call" was considered for release as a single in mid-1999, but its promotion was cancelled due to the impending release of "Heartbreaker", the lead single from Carey's following album "Rainbow".


title: Number 1's (Mariah Carey album)

text: "Sweetheart" was released as single from Jermaine Dupri's debut album "Life in 1472" and later included on "#1's". In the US, due to the song's low radio airplay, "Sweetheart" only reached number twenty-five on "<nowiki>Billboard'</nowiki>"s Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles. Internationally, the song performed better, peaking within the top twenty in Germany and Switzerland. "Do You Know Where You're Going To" was issued as a promotional single in Brazil and some parts of Europe during June. The song performed weakly around the world, not charting in any major music market. In December 1999, Columbia released the video/DVD "#1's", which contained music videos and recordings of live performances for the number-one singles featured on "#1's", as well as "Heartbreaker", which had gone to number one during that time.


title: Number 1's (Mariah Carey album)

text: The album received generally mixed reviews from music critics. "#1's" was awarded four and a half out of five stars from Heather Phares of AllMusic. Phares complimented the album's content, feeling the song selection was too commercial, but very strong. Additionally, Phares wrote "Her career has been an extraordinary succession of number ones and record-breaking firsts in the music world, her entire album catalog has achieved RIAA multi-platinum status." Phares also commented on the accompanying DVD, writing, "Interviews and interactive menus make #1s a better-than-average DVD video collection and one that will doubtlessly please Carey's legions of fans."


title: Number 1's (Mariah Carey album)

text: Mark Bautz, an editor from "Entertainment Weekly" gave the album a B−. Bautz felt that Carey's primary limitation was "wan, homogeneous songs" and that "hearing them months apart on the radio makes them passable, but strung together on #1s they're like a mile-long elevator ride." While criticizing the album for its song selection and content, he complimented the songs "My All" and the remix for "Fantasy", writing, "that said, though, "Fantasy" (with O.D.B.) and "My All" stand up as two of the best pop tunes of the '90s." The album received a scathing review from Britain's "NME" magazine, with its critic writing:


title: Number 1's (Mariah Carey album)

text: "I fear Mariah Carey. Superficially, she might seem like a purveyor of saccharine bilge like 'Hero' ... But that's bullshit. You don't sell 90 million records unless you reserve that fluffybunny stuff for your sucker fans ... you gotta be cold-eyed, hard-boiled and have balls of steel ... She'll do whatever it takes. And her most fiendish weapon is the duet. If the MOR market needs servicing, she'll duet with Luther or Whitney ... If her contemporary edge needs sharpening, she'll hang with the Wu-Tang Clan ... If you're big in the R&B charts, like Brian McKnight, she'll be in there ... like a heat-seeking parasite. She don't give a fuck. She destroys competition by sucking them dry and spitting them out. [...] Mariah Carey is She Who Must Be Bought At All Costs. Be very afraid..."


title: Number 1's (Mariah Carey album)

text: In a review for Carey's 2001 album, "Greatest Hits", Sal Cinquemani of "Slant Magazine" felt the album was solely a string of Carey's most commercial and popular hits, however, not her best. Cinquemani complimented "Greatest Hits" and wrote, "It seems like only yesterday that we were served with the self-congratulatory #1s, a collection of Carey's record-breaking string of chart-toppers, but the 27-track Greatest Hits is the singer's first proper hits compilation." In his consumer guide for "The Village Voice", critic Robert Christgau gave the album a "choice cut" rating, indicating "a good song on an album that isn't worth your time or money; Some (choice cut)s are arbitrarily personal, others inescapably social." His "choice cut" was "Fantasy" (with O.D.B.)


title: Number 1's (Mariah Carey album)

text: In 1998, Carey received the World Music Awards for becoming the "World's Best Selling Recording Artist of the 1990s" as well as the award for "World's Best Selling R&B Artist". Carey received the 1998 Billboard Music Award for Artist of the Decade. At the 1999 BMI Music Awards, Carey took home the coveted Songwriter of the Year award. "When You Believe" was nominated at the 2000 Grammy Awards for Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals and won an NAACP Image Award for Outstanding Duo or Group. Additionally, the song won the award for Best Original Song at the 71st annual Academy Awards. After the album's release, Carey won a Blockbuster Entertainment Award in the category of Favorite Female Artist, and Entertainer of the Year at the Soul Train Music Awards. "#1's" won a 1999 Japan Gold Disc Award for International Pop Album of the Year.


title: Number 1's (Mariah Carey album)

text: As executives at Columbia had done during the album's development, Eric Boehlert of "Rolling Stone" noted the importance of the release date of "#1's" and other albums on sale during the same period: "Artists who make a habit of hitting it big during the holiday shopping season are wise indeed, as sales traditionally skyrocket. This year is no exception." Journalist and author Marc Shapiro, in his biography of Carey, attributed the album's high sales to the presence of new songs, writing:


title: Number 1's (Mariah Carey album)

text: "The consensus among the music press was that Mariah's insistence on including the new material made all the difference in increasing sales figures more than expected. Including some new with the old in a greatest-hits package had been tried from time to time by other artists with varying degrees of success, but with the triumph of "#1's", it would become a regular element in nearly all future greatest-hits albums. As such packages go, "#1's" was a solid retrospective of Mariah's chart hits, but because these songs were oversaturating the radio, including a favorite nonhit album track or two might have made a nice change. The new songs were a definite bonus even though none ever really rose to the spectacular level of her best ... they added up to a nice touch but little more."


title: Number 1's (Mariah Carey album)

text: "#1's" was released in the same week as several other albums by high-profile musicians such as Garth Brooks, Jewel, Method Man, Ice Cube and Whitney Houston. MTV News called November 17 "what is shaping up to be the music industry's Super Tuesday ... most onlookers know that first week sales aren't everything, but they will also tell you that they are pretty darn important."


title: Number 1's (Mariah Carey album)

text: "#1's" entered the U.S. "Billboard" 200 at number four, with 221,000 copies sold in its first week. In its sixth week of release (ending January 2) the album's weekly sales peaked at 360,000 copies. It remained in the top twenty for thirteen weeks and on the chart for sixty-two weeks. It made two re-entries, including in 2022, where it peaked at number 20. In Canada, "#1's" was certified triple-platinum by the Canadian Recording Industry Association (CRIA), denoting shipments of 300,000 copies.


title: Number 1's (Mariah Carey album)

text: In Europe, the album experienced success, peaking within the top-ten in almost every major music market. By 2003, the album received a double-platinum certification by the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry (IFPI), denoting shipments of two million copies throughout Europe, until that year. In France, "#1's" was certified double-platinum. The album received a platinum certification in Belgium, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland and the United Kingdom, where it shipped 800,000 copies. "#1's" received a gold certification in Germany, the Netherlands and Norway. Aside from its success in Europe, the album experienced its highest sales in Japan (after the US), where it sold 3,250,000 copies in the first three months after its release. In Japan, "#1's" remains the best-selling album in Japan by a non-Asian artist and is certified the triple-Million award. The album was certified five-times platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), denoting shipments of five million copies throughout the United States. The album sold more than 15 million copies worldwide.


title: Wave packet

text: In physics, a wave packet (or wave train) is a short "burst" or "envelope" of localized wave action that travels as a unit. A wave packet can be analyzed into, or can be synthesized from, an infinite set of component sinusoidal waves of different wavenumbers, with phases and amplitudes such that they interfere constructively only over a small region of space, and destructively elsewhere.


title: Wave packet

text: Each component wave function, and hence the wave packet, are solutions of a wave equation. Depending on the wave equation, the wave packet's profile may remain constant (no dispersion, see figure) or it may change (dispersion) while propagating.


title: Wave packet

text: Quantum mechanics ascribes a special significance to the wave packet; it is interpreted as a probability amplitude, its norm squared describing the probability density that a particle or particles in a particular state will be measured to have a given position or momentum. The wave equation is in this case the Schrödinger equation, and through its application it is possible to deduce the time evolution of a quantum mechanical system, similar to the process of the Hamiltonian formalism in classical mechanics. The dispersive character of solutions of the Schrödinger equation has played an important role in rejecting Schrödinger's original interpretation, and accepting the Born rule.


title: Wave packet

text: In the coordinate representation of the wave (such as the Cartesian coordinate system), the position of the physical object's localized probability is specified by the position of the packet solution. Moreover, the narrower the spatial wave packet, and therefore the better localized the position of the wave packet, the larger the spread in the momentum of the wave. This trade-off between spread in position and spread in momentum is a characteristic feature of the Heisenberg uncertainty principle,


title: Wave packet

text: In the early 1900s, it became apparent that classical mechanics had some major failings. Isaac Newton originally proposed the idea that light came in discrete packets, which he called corpuscles, but the wave-like behavior of many light phenomena quickly led scientists to favor a wave description of electromagnetism. It wasn't until the 1930s that the particle nature of light really began to be widely accepted in physics. The development of quantum mechanicsand its success at explaining confusing experimental resultswas at the root of this acceptance. Thus, one of the basic concepts in the formulation of quantum mechanics is that of light coming in discrete bundles called photons. The energy of a photon is a function of its frequency,


title: Wave packet

text: The photon's energy is equal to Planck's constant, , multiplied by its frequency, . This resolved a problem in classical physics, called the ultraviolet catastrophe.


title: Wave packet

text: The ideas of quantum mechanics continued to be developed throughout the 20th century. The picture that was developed was of a particulate world, with all phenomena and matter made of and interacting with discrete particles; however, these particles were described by a probability wave. The interactions, locations, and all of physics would be reduced to the calculations of these probability amplitudes.


title: Wave packet

text: The particle-like nature of the world has been confirmed by experiment over a century, while the wave-like phenomena could be characterized as consequences of the wave packet aspect of quantum particles (see wave-particle duality). According to the principle of complementarity, the wave-like and particle-like characteristics never manifest themselves at the same time, i.e., in the same experiment; see, however, the Afshar experiment and the lively discussion around it.


title: Wave packet

text: As an example of propagation "without dispersion", consider wave solutions to the following wave equation from classical physics


title: Wave packet

text: This relation between and should be valid so that the plane wave is a solution to the wave equation. It is called a dispersion relation.


title: Wave packet

text: To simplify, consider only waves propagating in one dimension (extension to three dimensions is straightforward). Then the general solution is


title: Wave packet

text: in which we may take . The first term represents a wave propagating in the positive since it is a function of only; the second term, being a function of , represents a wave propagating in the negative .


title: Wave packet

text: A wave packet is a localized disturbance that results from the sum of many different wave forms. If the packet is strongly localized, more frequencies are needed to allow the constructive superposition in the region of localization and destructive superposition outside the region. From the basic solutions in one dimension, a general form of a wave packet can be expressed as


title: Wave packet

text: As in the plane-wave case the wave packet travels to the right for , since , and to the left for , since .


title: Wave packet

text: The factor comes from Fourier transform conventions. The amplitude contains the coefficients of the linear superposition of the plane-wave solutions. These coefficients can in turn be expressed as a function of evaluated at by inverting the Fourier transform relation above:


title: Wave packet

text: The nondispersive propagation of the real or imaginary part of this wave packet is presented in the above animation.


title: Wave packet

text: By contrast, as an example of propagation now "with dispersion", consider instead solutions to the Schrödinger equation (nondimensionalized with , , and "ħ" set equal to one),


title: Wave packet

text: Once again, restricting attention to one dimension, the solution to the Schrödinger equation satisfying the initial condition formula_14, representing a wave packet localized in space at the origin, is seen to be


title: Wave packet

text: An impression of the dispersive behavior of this wave packet is obtained by looking at the probability density:


title: Wave packet

text: It is evident that this dispersive wave packet, while moving with constant group velocity , is delocalizing rapidly: it has a width increasing with time as , so eventually it diffuses to an unlimited region of space.


title: Wave packet

text: The above dispersive Gaussian wave packet, unnormalized and just centered at the origin, instead, at =0, can now be written in 3D, now in standard units:


title: Wave packet

text: Each separate wave only phase-rotates in time, so that the time dependent Fourier-transformed solution is


title: Wave packet

text: The inverse Fourier transform is still a Gaussian, but now the parameter has become complex, and there is an overall normalization factor.


title: Wave packet

text: The integral of over all space is invariant, because it is the inner product of with the state of zero energy, which is a wave with infinite wavelength, a constant function of space. For any energy eigenstate , the inner product,


title: Wave packet

text: only changes in time in a simple way: its phase rotates with a frequency determined by the energy of . When has zero energy, like the infinite wavelength wave, it doesn't change at all.


title: Wave packet

text: in which is the width of at ; is the distance from the origin; the speed of the particle is zero; and the time origin can be chosen arbitrarily.


title: Wave packet

text: The width of the Gaussian is the interesting quantity which can be read off from the probability density, ,


title: Wave packet

text: For example, if an electron wave packet is initially localized in a region of atomic dimensions (i.e., m) then the width of the packet doubles in about s. Clearly, particle wave packets spread out very rapidly indeed (in free space): For instance, after ms, the width will have grown to about a kilometer.


title: Wave packet

text: This linear growth is a reflection of the (time-invariant) momentum uncertainty: the wave packet is confined to a narrow , and so has a momentum which is uncertain (according to the uncertainty principle) by the amount , a spread in velocity of , and thus in the future position by . The uncertainty relation is then a strict inequality, very far from saturation, indeed! The initial uncertainty has now increased by a factor of (for large ).


title: Wave packet

text: function based on Airy functions, propagates freely without envelope dispersion, maintaining its shape. It accelerates undistorted in the absence of a force field: . (For simplicity, , , and "B" is a constant, cf. nondimensionalization.)


title: Wave packet

text: Nevertheless, there is no dissonance with Ehrenfest's theorem in this force-free situation, because the state is both non-normalizable and has an undefined (infinite) for all times. (To the extent that it could be defined, for all times, despite the apparent acceleration of the front.)


title: Wave packet

text: In phase space, this is evident in the pure state Wigner quasiprobability distribution of this wavetrain, whose shape in "x" and "p" is invariant as time progresses, but whose features accelerate to the right, in accelerating parabolas ,


title: Wave packet

text: Note the momentum distribution obtained by integrating over all is constant. Since this is the probability density in momentum space, it is evident that the wave function itself is not normalizable.


title: Wave packet

text: In 2018, the first experimental observation of the cubic phase of accelerating Airy wave packets was achieved by a collaboration of researchers from Israeli, German, and American universities.


title: Wave packet

text: The narrow-width limit of the Gaussian wave packet solution discussed is the free propagator kernel . For other differential equations, this is usually called the Green's function, but in quantum mechanics it is traditional to reserve the name Green's function for the time Fourier transform of .


title: Wave packet

text: Returning to one dimension for simplicity, with "m" and ħ set equal to one, when is the infinitesimal quantity , the Gaussian initial condition, rescaled so that its integral is one,


title: Wave packet

text: Note that a very narrow initial wave packet instantly becomes infinitely wide, but with a phase which is more rapidly oscillatory at large values of "x". This might seem strange—the solution goes from being localized at one point to being "everywhere" at "all later times", but it is a reflection of the enormous momentum uncertainty of a localized particle, as explained above.


title: Wave packet

text: Further note that the norm of the wave function is infinite, which is also correct, since the square of a delta function is divergent in the same way.


title: Wave packet

text: The factor involving is an infinitesimal quantity which is there to make sure that integrals over are well defined. In the limit that , becomes purely oscillatory, and integrals of are not absolutely convergent. In the remainder of this section, it "will" be set to zero, but in order for all the integrations over intermediate states to be well defined, the limit "ε"→0 is to be only taken after the final state is calculated.


title: Wave packet

text: The propagator is the amplitude for reaching point "x" at time "t", when starting at the origin, "x"=0. By translation invariance, the amplitude for reaching a point "x" when starting at point "y" is the same function, only now translated,


title: Wave packet

text: but only in the sense of distributions: The integral of this quantity multiplied by an arbitrary differentiable test function gives the value of the test function at zero.


title: Wave packet

text: since this integral is the inner-product of "K" with the uniform wave function. But the phase factor in the exponent has a nonzero spatial derivative everywhere except at the origin, and so when the time is small there are fast phase cancellations at all but one point. This is rigorously true when the limit "ε"→0 is taken at the very end.


title: Wave packet

text: So the propagation kernel is the (future) time evolution of a delta function, and it is continuous, in a sense: it goes to the initial delta function at small times. If the initial wave function is an infinitely narrow spike at position ,


title: Wave packet

text: Thus, this is a formal way to express the fundamental solution or general solution. The interpretation of this expression is that the amplitude for a particle to be found at point at time is the amplitude that it started at , times the amplitude that it went from to , "summed over all the possible starting points". In other words, it is a convolution of the kernel with the arbitrary initial condition ,


title: Wave packet

text: Since the amplitude to travel from to after a time +' can be considered in two steps, the propagator obeys the composition identity,


title: Wave packet

text: which can be interpreted as follows: the amplitude to travel from to in time +' is the sum of the amplitude to travel from to in time , multiplied by the amplitude to travel from to in time ', summed over "all possible intermediate states y". This is a property of an arbitrary quantum system, and by subdividing the time into many segments, it allows the time evolution to be expressed as a path integral.


title: Wave packet

text: The spreading of wave packets in quantum mechanics is directly related to the spreading of probability densities in diffusion. For a particle which is randomly walking, the probability density function at any point satisfies the diffusion equation (also see the heat equation),


title: Wave packet

text: where the factor of 2, which can be removed by rescaling either time or space, is only for convenience.


title: Wave packet

text: and, since the integral of "ρ" is constant while the width is becoming narrow at small times, this function approaches a delta function at "t"=0,


title: Wave packet

text: The spreading Gaussian is the propagation kernel for the diffusion equation and it obeys the convolution identity,


title: Wave packet

text: which allows diffusion to be expressed as a path integral. The propagator is the exponential of an operator ,


title: Wave packet

text: A matrix has two indices, which in continuous space makes it a function of and '. In this case, because of translation invariance, the matrix element only depend on the difference of the position, and a convenient abuse of notation is to refer to the operator, the matrix elements, and the function of the difference by the same name:


title: Wave packet

text: The exponential can be defined over a range of "t"s which include complex values, so long as integrals over the propagation kernel stay convergent,


title: Wave packet

text: As long as the real part of is positive, for large values of , is exponentially decreasing, and integrals over are indeed absolutely convergent.


title: Wave packet

text: The limit of this expression for approaching the pure imaginary axis is the above Schrödinger propagator encountered,


title: Wave packet

text: holds for all complex "z" values, where the integrals are absolutely convergent so that the operators are well defined.


title: Władysław III of Poland

text: Władysław III (31 October 1424 – 10 November 1444), also known as Ladislaus of Varna, was King of Poland and the Supreme Duke ("Supremus Dux") of Grand Duchy of Lithuania from 1434 as well as King of Hungary and Croatia from 1440 until his death at the Battle of Varna. He was the eldest son of Władysław II Jagiełło, King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania, and the Lithuanian noblewoman Sophia of Halshany.


title: Władysław III of Poland

text: Władysław III of Varna is known in Hungarian as "I. Ulászló"; in Polish as "Władysław III Warneńczyk"; in Slovak as "Vladislav I"; in Czech as "Vladislav Varnenčík"; in Bulgarian as "Владислав Варненчик" ("Vladislav Varnenchik"); in Lithuanian as "Vladislovas III" (or "Vladislovas Varnietis"); in Croatian as "Vladislav I. Jagelović".


title: Władysław III of Poland

text: Latin: "Ladislaus Dei Gratia Poloniae, Hungariae, Dalmatiae, Croatiae, Rascia etc. rex necnon terrarum Cracouie, Sandomirie, Syradie, Lancicie, Cuyauie, Lithuaniae princeps supremus, Pomeraniae, Russieque dominus et heres etc."


title: Władysław III of Poland

text: English: "Vladislaus by the Grace of God king of Poland, Hungary, Dalmatia, Croatia, Rascia (Serbian Grand Principality) and lands of Kraków, Sandomierz, Sieradz, Łęczyca, Kuyavia, Supreme Prince of Lithuania, lord and heir of Pomerania and Ruthenia"


title: Władysław III of Poland

text: Władysław was the first-born son of Władysław II Jagiełło and Sophia of Halshany. He ascended the throne at the age of ten and was immediately surrounded by a group of advisors headed by Cardinal Zbigniew Oleśnicki, who wanted to continue to enjoy his high status at court. In spite of that, the young ruler and his ambitious mother were aware that there was opposition to them. In 1427, the Polish nobility initiated an anti-Jagiellonian opposition and attempted to have Władysław II Jagiełło's sons Władysław III and Casimir IV Jagiellon declared illegitimate to the Polish throne as they had no blood link to the previous ruling Polish dynasty, the Piasts. Despite the agreements signed between Władysław II and the Polish magnates to ensure the succession for his sons, the opposition wanted another candidate for the Polish throne: Frederick of Brandenburg, who was betrothed to Hedwig, Jagiełło's daughter by his second wife. However, the conspiracy was resolved by the death of the princess, rumoured to have been poisoned by Queen Sophia.


title: Władysław III of Poland

text: The young king's reign was difficult from the very outset. His coronation was interrupted by a hostile nobleman, Spytko III of Melsztyn. On the next day, the customary homage of the townsfolk of Kraków did not take place due to a dispute between the temporal and spiritual lords of Mazovia over their place in the retinue. Neither did Władysław have much to say later about matters of state, which were run by the powerful cleric and chancellor Oleśnicki. The situation did not change even after the Sejm (Polish parliament) had gathered in Piotrków in 1438, and declared the fourteen-year-old king to have attained his majority.


title: Władysław III of Poland

text: This situation continued until 1440, when Władysław was offered the crown of Hungary. However, accepting it would have led to numerous problems. Hungary was under a growing threat from the Ottoman Empire, and some Polish magnates did not want to agree to the king of Poland also being the monarch of Hungary, while Elisabeth, widow of the deceased King of Hungary, Albert II of Germany, attempted to keep the crown for her yet unborn child. Such inconveniences aside, Władysław finally took the Hungarian throne, having engaged in a two-year civil war against Elisabeth. He had received significant support from Pope Eugene IV, in exchange for his help in organising an anti-Muslim crusade. The eighteen-year-old king, although thus far a king solely by title, became deeply involved in the war against the Ottomans, having been brought up in the standard of a pious Christian monarch and ideal Christian knight, and paid no heed to the interests of Poland and of the Jagiellonian dynasty.


title: Władysław III of Poland

text: The "bulwark of Christianity" and other slogans put forward by the papal envoy Giuliano Cesarini, together with much more reasonable but only verbal promises of Venetian and papal fleets blockading the Dardanelles Straits, along with an enticing vision of a promise of victory in the Crusade of Varna against the Muslims, persuaded Władysław to engage his freshly victorious forces for another season of war, thus breaching the ten-year truce with the aggressive and still powerful Ottoman Empire. Despite their alleged forthcoming help, the Venetian fleet carried the Muslim army from Asia into Europe but failed to sail to Varna, a surprising move that Władysław and his most senior military commander John Hunyadi failed to anticipate. The Venetian treachery placed the huge Muslim army (60,000) under sultan Murad II in close proximity to the unsuspecting crusaders (20,000). As a result, when the Battle of Varna began on 10 November 1444, the Polish king and his multi-ethnic subjects did not sense that this would be for many of them their final fight. Facing the desperate circumstance the king, seeing the experienced Hunyadi fight and break the Sipahi cavalry, decided to gamble and directly attack the sultan, who was protected by the guard cavalry and formidable Janissary infantry. The young king was killed while personally leading his own 500-strong royal Polish heavy cavalry company, his charge losing impetus and coming to a standstill amongst the unyielding Janissaries protecting the sultan. The Janissaries killed the king's bodyguard and beheaded Władysław, displaying his head on a pole. Disheartened by the death of their king, the Hungarian army fled the battlefield. Neither the king's body nor his armor were ever found.


title: Władysław III of Poland

text: Władysław III had no children and did not marry. The chronicler Jan Długosz, known for his antipathy towards the king and his father, alleged that there was something unusual about Władysław's sexuality, though Długosz did not specify what: "too subject to his carnal desires", "he did not abandon his lewd and despicable habits". Długosz wrote about him some sentences later: "No age has ever seen and will never see a more Catholic and holy ruler who, according to his highest goodness, has never harmed any Christian. [...] Finally, like a holy king and a second angel on Earth, he lived an unmarried and virgin life at home and during the war."


title: Władysław III of Poland

text: Władysław was succeeded in the Kingdom of Poland by his younger brother, Duke Casimir IV of Lithuania, in 1447, after a three-year interregnum. In Hungary he was succeeded by his former rival, the child-king Ladislaus the Posthumous.


title: Władysław III of Poland

text: According to a Portuguese legend Władysław survived the Battle of Varna (although the Ottomans claimed to have his head, his body in royal armor was never found) and then journeyed in secrecy to the Holy Land. He became a knight of Saint Catharine of Mount Sinai ("O Cavaleiro de Santa Catarina") and then he settled on Madeira. King Afonso V of Portugal granted him the lands in Madalena do Mar district of the Madeira Islands, for the rest of his life. He was known there as "Henrique Alemão" (Henry the German) and married Senhorinha Anes (the King of Portugal was his best man), who gave him two sons. He established a church of Saint Catherine and Saint Mary Magdalene in Madalena do Mar (1471). There he was depicted in a painting as Saint Joachim meeting Saint Anne at the Golden Gate on a painting by Master of the Adoration of Machico (Mestre "da Adoração de Machico") in the beginning of the 16th century.


title: Władysław III of Poland

text: According to the tradition, he felt his defeat at Varna was a warning sign from God (since he declared war on a false pretext, violating the truce with the Ottoman Muslims). Thus he wandered as a pilgrim, seeking forgiveness, which he found in Jerusalem. For the rest of his life he would deny his identity. A delegation of Polish monks went to Madeira to question him and certified he was in fact the long lost king, now living in secrecy. He declined their suggestion to ascend the Polish throne again.


title: Władysław III of Poland

text: According to another version of the legend, promoted by Manuel da Silva Rosa, Władysław (as "Henrique Alemão") was the real father of Christopher Columbus.


title: Władysław III of Poland

text: A main boulevard and residential district in Varna are named after Warneńczyk. In 1935 a park-museum, Władysław Warneńczyk, was opened in Varna, with a symbolic cenotaph of Władysław III built atop of an ancient Thracian mound tomb. There has also been a soccer team named Vladislav Varna (now PFC Cherno More Varna).


title: Generation 6 (NASCAR)

text: The Generation 6 car, shortened to Gen-6, was the common name for the car that was used in the NASCAR Cup Series from 2013 to 2021. The car was part of a project to make NASCAR stock cars look more like their street-legal counterparts. The cars have used many different aero and downforce packages to improve their racing characteristics as well as using the safety measures of its predecessor, the Car of Tomorrow. The Generation 6 car has received both praise and criticism from fans and drivers.


title: Generation 6 (NASCAR)

text: The Generation 6 body style was introduced in the 2013 Daytona 500 and was originally scheduled to be retired after 2020 in favor of the new Next Gen car. However, due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the implementation of the Next Gen car was pushed to 2022.


title: Generation 6 (NASCAR)

text: In 2013, NASCAR allowed the car manufacturers to design a brand new body style for the COT chassis so that they would better resemble the street legal versions of what the sport's fans could purchase and drive. Another hope of the Generation 6 car was that it would give more grip and speed to the drivers and more great racing action to the fans.


title: Generation 6 (NASCAR)

text: During the 2012 season, it was announced that Ford would use the new second generation Fusion, Toyota would continue to use the 2013 Camry, while Chevrolet would use the Chevrolet SS (a rebadged Holden Commodore), replacing the Chevrolet Impala. Dodge announced they would use the Charger. However, soon after, Dodge announced its withdrawal from the Cup Series, after being unable to convince other teams into switching to Dodge to replace Team Penske (which returned to Ford in 2013).


title: Generation 6 (NASCAR)

text: For the 2015 season, Toyota updated its body to match the 2015 Camry, marking the first vehicle design change since the adoption of the Generation 6 body. Two seasons later, Toyota updated its body to match the new 2018 Camry.


title: Generation 6 (NASCAR)

text: Following the closure of General Motors' Elizabeth, South Australia plant and the discontinuation of the Holden VF Commodore (effectively ending production of the Chevrolet SS), Chevrolet announced on August 10, 2017 that it would be using the 2018 Camaro ZL1 starting with the 2018 season. The Camaro will be the brand's first coupe-based entry since the Monte Carlo was retired in 2007.


title: Generation 6 (NASCAR)

text: On April 17, 2018, Ford announced that the Mustang GT will replace the Fusion in the 2019 season. This was the manufacturer's first coupe-based entry since the Ford Thunderbird was retired from NASCAR in 1998.


title: Generation 6 (NASCAR)

text: Throughout the 2014, 2015, and 2016 seasons, NASCAR implemented different downforce and aero packages to promote passing and give their fans more interesting racing.


title: Generation 6 (NASCAR)

text: The car had a low downforce package at the 2015 Quaker State 400 at Kentucky Speedway and another at the 2015 Bojangles' Southern 500 at Darlington Raceway. This package took 1,000 pounds of downforce away from the car. The cars had a high downforce package in July for the 2015 Brickyard 400 and in Michigan. These races saw almost no action and the down force package was criticized by the many fans. Martin Truex Jr. told USA Today: "We could run anybody down and get to them, but it took a long time to pass cars. It was just so damn hard to pass. I could run a guy down from way back and get to him and about spin out. It’s no fun to race like that. We had a car that could have contended with the 20 (Kenseth) today and just couldn’t ever get there."


title: Generation 6 (NASCAR)

text: The major differences between the 2015 and 2016 cars are the shortened spoiler and splitter to give the car less downforce and therefore grip in the turns. Following year's base package includes a 3.5-inch spoiler (currently six inches), a 0.25-inch front leading splitter edge (currently two inches) and a 33-inch wide radiator pan (currently 38 inches; it was 28 inches at the Darlington and Kentucky races).


title: Generation 6 (NASCAR)

text: To improve passing on high-speed tracks, aero ducts were implemented for the 2017 Indiana 250 to alleviate the drag rise on a close trailing car.


title: Generation 6 (NASCAR)

text: The Generation 6 car features additions of forward roof bar and center roof support bar to the roll cage to reinforce integrity and increase the crush structure of the roof. Larger roof flaps help to keep the car on the ground to prevent it from flipping whilst going backward at high speeds.


title: Generation 6 (NASCAR)

text: Despite these safety improvements, there have still been multiple instances of the Gen-6 car flipping during high-speed crashes. At the 2015 Coke Zero 400 at Daytona, Austin Dillon's car went airborne during a multiple car pileup on the final lap and ripped a catchfence. Five spectators were injured while Dillon walked away with a bruised tailbone and forearm. On the final lap of the 2020 Daytona 500, Ryan Newman's car was spun out by Ryan Blaney, sending it to the frontstretch wall and in the air before being broadsided on the driver's side by Corey LaJoie on its way down. Newman survived the crash with serious injuries.


title: Generation 6 (NASCAR)

text: The car's new hood and deck lid are composed of carbon fiber. To alleviate carbon fiber's tendency to splinter and shatter with extreme impacts, Kevlar is incorporated. With the exception of the carbon fiber rear deck lid, all body panels are produced by the manufacturer and individually stamped for verification.


title: Generation 6 (NASCAR)

text: In a move to make race cars closer in style and appearance to modern street vehicles, all NASCAR Cup Series cars began utilizing a digital dash sold by McLaren in 2016. This dash includes 16 customizable preset screens, allowing the driver to monitor all the previous info with several additional elements such as lap time and engine diagnostics, for a total of 24 data elements. Information can be displayed as a gauge, numeral, bar graph or LED.


title: Generation 6 (NASCAR)

text: Future plans for the display capabilities include information such as flag status, restart order and penalties, allowing all such information to be available instantly to the driver. Ultimately, NASCAR could use the digital dash to transmit driver biometrics and provide information to the fans. It is NASCAR's position, however, not to move toward real time telemetry.


title: Generation 6 (NASCAR)

text: Of the 23 tracks NASCAR used the Generation 6 car on, the car set new track records at 16 of them. Despite not setting a new track record at Daytona International Speedway, Danica Patrick's No. 10 car was the one of the closest since the restrictor plate era began. Because the Las Vegas qualifying session was rained out, it can be said the car set records at 16 of the 23 tracks possible.


title: Generation 6 (NASCAR)

text: The Generation 6 car also provided a margin of victory between drivers of 1.267 seconds, the lowest since 2005.


title: Generation 6 (NASCAR)

text: Although the car was liked by drivers such as Jeff Gordon, other drivers were critical about the new car. At the 2013 Subway Fresh Fit 500, Denny Hamlin rallied from the rear to third place where he finished. He commented on how the newer Generation 6 cars were too difficult to pass with. Hamlin stated: "I don't want to be the pessimist, but it did not race as good as our generation 5 or regular CoT cars did." Comments from drivers, like Hamlin, were also similar to those said when the Car of Tomorrow came out. Many drivers stated that it was hard for the teams to figure out how to get the aerodynamics correctly balanced.


title: Generation 6 (NASCAR)

text: Hamlin was fined $25,000 for his comments on the new Generation 6 car. NASCAR spokesperson Kenny Tharp stated, "While NASCAR gives its competitors ample leeway in voicing their opinions when it comes to a wide range of aspects about the sport, the sanctioning body will not tolerate publicly made comments by its drivers that denigrate the racing product."


title: Generation 6 (NASCAR)

text: Fan response to the new body design was positive, as the perception that the race cars in the Cup Series "are cars that I would be interested in buying" increased from 49 percent to 76 percent. However, towards the end of the Generation 6's tenure, many fans, drivers, and team owners became dissatisfied with the car, in part because of several rule changes made by NASCAR affecting the performance of the car.


title: Generation 6 (NASCAR)

text: The Car of Tomorrow had roughly $10,000 in sheet metal per car, which is $5,000 less in comparison to the $15,000 worth of sheet metal of the Generation 6 car. On average, a well-funded team produces about 50 bodies per car which could lead to a possible issue of being over the estimated budget for this particular category.


title: Generation 6 (NASCAR)

text: Additionally, multiple new requirements, such as a new rear camber (which meant new suspension components) were also introduced. NASCAR's new weight rules required a new lighter-weight chassis. Those changes came with a hefty price, as they increased the cost per car by $500,000 for the season. Including the other changes, the total cost for the season per car was estimated to have increased by $750,000 over the Car of Tomorrow. The price increase led then-team owner/driver Tony Stewart to tell reporter Marty Smith the Gen-6 car is financially "great for NASCAR, not for the owner. There's a lot of added cost, a lot of parts that are a lot more expensive than in the past. But racers are very resourceful. These teams will find a way to make it work."


title: Generation 6 (NASCAR)

text: For 2022, NASCAR replaced the Generation 6 car with the all-new Next Gen car. The rules package of the 2019 season served as the starting point of the new car's development. In addition, the Next Gen car is meant to attract new original equipment manufacturers (OEMs) to compete with Chevrolet, Ford, and Toyota. The Next Gen car was tested at Richmond Raceway with Austin Dillon on October 8 and 9, at Phoenix Raceway with Joey Logano on December 9 and 10, at Homestead–Miami Speedway with Erik Jones on January 15 and 16, and at Auto Club Speedway with William Byron on March 2–3. The test car was built by Richard Childress Racing and used a generic body. The Next Gen car was originally set to debut at the 2021 Daytona 500; the Gen-6 car would be used for the 2021 Busch Clash, which will use Daytona's road course configuration. However, due to testing delays caused by the COVID-19 pandemic, the Gen-6 car was used for 2021.


title: Electroejaculation

text: Electroejaculation is a procedure used to obtain semen samples from sexually mature male mammals. The procedure is used for breeding programs and research purposes in various species, as well as in the treatment of ejaculatory dysfunction in human males. This procedure is used frequently with large mammals, particularly bulls and some domestic animals, as well as humans who have certain types of anejaculation. Electroejaculation has also been used for the cryoconservation of animal genetic resources, where semen is stored in low temperatures with the intent of conserving genetic material and future revival.


title: Electroejaculation

text: In the practice of veterinary medicine and animal science, it is common to collect semen from domestic ruminants using electro-ejaculation without sedation or anesthesia. Only in goats is mild sedation sometimes used. Because of the significant skeletal muscle contractions it causes, electroejaculation is not used in stallions — except in rare cases, under general anesthesia.


title: Electroejaculation

text: In humans, electroejaculation is usually carried out under a general anesthetic. An electric probe is inserted into the rectum adjacent to the prostate gland. The probe delivers an AC voltage, usually 12–24 volts sine wave at a frequency of 60 Hz, with a current limited to usually 500 mA, although some devices can generate currents of up to 1 A. The probe is activated for 1–2 seconds, referred to as a stimulus cycle. Ejaculation usually occurs after 2–3 stimulus cycles. Care must be taken when using currents greater than 500 mA, as tissue burns may result due to heating of the probe. The electric current stimulates nearby nerves, resulting in contraction of the pelvic muscles and ejaculation.


title: Electroejaculation

text: The procedure has been adopted and modified as an assisted reproduction technique for managing endangered species, to ensure the production of offspring from incompatible pairs of animals where artificial insemination is feasible.


title: The Nativity Story

text: The Nativity Story is a 2006 American biblical drama film based on the nativity of Jesus and directed by Catherine Hardwicke. The film stars Keisha Castle-Hughes, Oscar Isaac, Hiam Abbass, Shaun Toub, Alexander Siddig, Ciarán Hinds, and Shohreh Aghdashloo.


title: The Nativity Story

text: "The Nativity Story" premiered in Vatican City on November 26, 2006, making it the first film to hold a world premiere in the city, and was released in the United States on December 1, 2006, by New Line Cinema. The film received mixed reviews from critics and grossed over $46 million worldwide.


title: The Nativity Story

text: The story begins in the Roman province of Judea with the portrayal of the Massacre of the Innocents in the Nativity. The remainder of the film portrays the annunciation and birth of Jesus Christ to explain why King Herod the Great (Ciarán Hinds) ordered the murder.


title: The Nativity Story

text: One year before the massacre, Zechariah (Stanley Townsend), a rabbi in Jerusalem, is making an offering, when he is told in a vision by the Archangel Gabriel (Alexander Siddig) that his wife, Elizabeth (Shohreh Aghdashloo), will bear a son. Zechariah does not believe him, stating that he is too old, and Gabriel tells him that he will be unable to speak until the boy is born. In Nazareth, 16 to 17-year-old Mary (Keisha Castle-Hughes) is farming when soldiers come to collect taxes. One man, unable to pay, has a third of his land seized and his daughter pressed into debt slavery. Mary, betrothed to marry 32-year-old Joseph of Judaea (Oscar Isaac), is visited by Archangel Gabriel and told that she will become pregnant with God's son, whom she is to name "Jesus". He tells her that God has blessed her cousin Elizabeth with a child despite her old age. Mary visits her before the harvest, where she witnesses the birth of John the Baptist to Elizabeth and Zechariah, who regains his speech. Mary returns from the visit pregnant, to the shock of Joseph and her parents, who fear that Joseph will accuse her of adultery, a sin punishable by death by stoning according to the Torah. At first Joseph does not believe Mary's religious explanation, but decides not to accuse her. Still shocked and angry, he is later visited in a dream by the Archangel Gabriel, who tells him of God's plan for Mary's son. Finally believing, he is ashamed of his earlier doubts.


title: The Nativity Story

text: Meanwhile, Roman emperor Caesar Augustus has demanded that every man across the Roman Empire return with his family to his place of birth for the census. A direct descendant of King David, Joseph is forced to travel across Judea's rocky terrain from Nazareth to Bethlehem, the place of his birth. With Mary on a donkey laden with supplies, it takes the couple nearly four weeks to reach Bethlehem. Upon arriving in town, Mary goes into labour, and Joseph frantically seeks a place for her to deliver. There is, however, no room in any inn or home because of the crowds arriving for the census, but at the last minute an innkeeper offers his stable for shelter.