title: Effects of long-term benzodiazepine use

text: Benzodiazepines when introduced in 1961 were widely believed to be safe drugs but as the decades went by increased awareness of adverse effects connected to their long-term use became known. Recommendations for more restrictive medical guidelines followed. Concerns regarding the long-term effects of benzodiazepines have been raised since 1980. These concerns are still not fully answered. A review in 2006 of the literature on use of benzodiazepine and nonbenzodiazepine hypnotics concluded that more research is needed to evaluate the long-term effects of hypnotic drugs. The majority of the problems of benzodiazepines are related to their long-term use rather than their short-term use. There is growing evidence of the harm of long-term use of benzodiazepines, especially at higher doses. In 2007, the Department of Health recommended that individuals on long-term benzodiazepines be monitored at least every 3 months and also recommended against long-term substitution therapy in benzodiazepine drug misusers due to a lack of evidence base for effectiveness and due to the risks of long-term use. The long-term effects of benzodiazepines are very similar to the long-term effects of alcohol consumption (apart from organ toxicity) and other sedative-hypnotics. Withdrawal effects and dependence are not identical. Dependence can be managed, with a medical professional of course, but withdrawal can be fatal. Physical dependence and withdrawal are very much related but not the same thing. A report in 1987 by the Royal College of Psychiatrists in Great Britain reported that any benefits of long-term use of benzodiazepines are likely to be far outweighed by the risks of long-term use. Despite this benzodiazepines are still widely prescribed. The socioeconomic costs of the continued widespread prescribing of benzodiazepines is high.


title: Effects of long-term benzodiazepine use

text: In 1980, the Medical Research Council (United Kingdom) recommended that research be conducted into the effects of long-term use of benzodiazepines A 2009 British Government parliamentary inquiry recommended that research into the long-term effects of benzodiazepines must be carried out. The view of the Department of Health is that they have made every effort to make doctors aware of the problems associated with the long-term use of benzodiazepines, as well as the dangers of benzodiazepine drug addiction.


title: Effects of long-term benzodiazepine use

text: In 1980, the Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency's Committee on the Safety of Medicines issued guidance restricting the use of benzodiazepines to short-term use and updated and strengthened these warnings in 1988. When asked by Phil Woolas in 1999 whether the Department of Health had any plans to conduct research into the long-term effects of benzodiazepines, the Department replied, saying they have no plans to do so, as benzodiazepines are already restricted to short-term use and monitored by regulatory bodies. In a House of Commons debate, Phil Woolas claimed that there had been a cover-up of problems associated with benzodiazepines because they are of too large of a scale for governments, regulatory bodies, and the pharmaceutical industry to deal with. John Hutton stated in response that the Department of Health took the problems of benzodiazepines extremely seriously and was not sweeping the issue under the carpet. In 2010, the All-Party Parliamentary Group on Involuntary Tranquilliser Addiction filed a complaint with the Equality and Human Rights Commission under the Disability Discrimination Act 1995 against the Department of Health and the Department for Work and Pensions alleging discrimation against people with a benzodiazepine prescription drug dependence as a result of denial of specialised treatment services, exclusion from medical treatment, non-recognition of the protracted benzodiazepine withdrawal syndrome, as well as denial of rehabilitation and back-to-work schemes. Additionally the APPGITA complaint alleged that there is a "virtual prohibition" on the collection of statistical information on benzodiazepines across government departments, whereas with other controlled drugs there are enormous volumes of statistical data. The complaint alleged that the discrimination is deliberate, large scale and that government departments are aware of what they are doing.


title: Effects of long-term benzodiazepine use

text: The Medical Research Council (UK) held a closed meeting among top UK medical doctors and representatives from the pharmaceutical industry between the dates of 30 October 1980 and 3 April 1981. The meeting was classified under the Public Records Act 1958 until 2014 but became available in 2005 as a result of the Freedom of Information Act. The meeting was called due to concerns that 10–100,000 people could be dependent; meeting chairman Professor Malcolm Lader later revised this estimate to include approximately half a million members of the British public suspected of being dependent on therapeutic dose levels of benzodiazepines, with about half of those on long-term benzodiazepines. It was reported that benzodiazepines may be the third- or fourth-largest drug problem in the UK (the largest being alcohol and tobacco). The Chairman of the meeting followed up after the meeting with additional information, which was forwarded to the Medical Research Council neuroscience board, raising concerns regarding tests that showed definite cortical atrophy in 2 of 14 individuals tested and borderline abnormality in five others. He felt that, due to the methodology used in assessing the scans, the abnormalities were likely an underestimate, and more refined techniques would be more accurate. Also discussed were findings that tolerance to benzodiazepines can be demonstrated by injecting diazepam into long-term users; in normal subjects, increases in growth hormone occurs, whereas in benzodiazepine-tolerant individuals this effect is blunted. Also raised were findings in animal studies that showed the development of tolerance in the form of a 15 percent reduction in binding capacity of benzodiazepines after seven days administration of high doses of the partial agonist benzodiazepine drug flurazepam and a 50 percent reduction in binding capacity after 30 days of a low dose of diazepam. The Chairman was concerned that papers soon to be published would "stir the whole matter up" and wanted to be able to say that the Medical Research Council "had matters under consideration if questions were asked in parliament". The Chairman felt that it "was very important, politically that the MRC should be 'one step ahead'" and recommended epidemiological studies be funded and carried out by Roche Pharmaceuticals and MRC sponsored research conducted into the biochemical effects of long-term use of benzodiazepines. The meeting aimed to identify issues that were likely to arise, alert the Department of Health to the scale of the problem and identify the pharmacology and nature of benzodiazepine dependence and the volume of benzodiazepines being prescribed. The World Health Organization was also interested in the problem and it was felt the meeting would demonstrate to the WHO that the MRC was taking the issue seriously. Among the psychological effects of long-term use of benzodiazepines discussed was a reduced ability to cope with stress. The Chairman stated that the "withdrawal symptoms from valium were much worse than many other drugs including, e.g., heroin". It was stated that the likelihood of withdrawing from benzodiazepines was "reduced enormously" if benzodiazepines were prescribed for longer than four months. It was concluded that benzodiazepines are often prescribed inappropriately, for a wide range of conditions and situations. Dr Mason (DHSS) and Dr Moir (SHHD) felt that, due to the large numbers of people using benzodiazepines for long periods of time, it was important to determine the effectiveness and toxicity of benzodiazepines before deciding what regulatory action to take.


title: Effects of long-term benzodiazepine use

text: Controversy resulted in 2010 when the previously secret files came to light over the fact that the Medical Research Council was warned that benzodiazepines prescribed to millions of patients appeared to cause cerebral atrophy similar to hazardous alcohol use in some patients and failed to carry out larger and more rigorous studies. "The Independent on Sunday" reported allegations that "scores" of the 1.5 million members of the UK public who use benzodiazepines long-term have symptoms that are consistent with brain damage. It has been described as a "huge scandal" by Jim Dobbin, and legal experts and MPs have predicted a class action lawsuit. A solicitor said she was aware of the past failed litigation against the drug companies and the relevance the documents had to that court case and said it was strange that the documents were kept 'hidden' by the MRC.


title: Effects of long-term benzodiazepine use

text: Professor Lader, who chaired the MRC meeting, declined to speculate as to why the MRC declined to support his request to set up a unit to further research benzodiazepines and why they did not set up a special safety committee to look into these concerns. Professor Lader stated that he regrets not being more proactive on pursuing the issue, stating that he did not want to be labeled as the guy who pushed only issues with benzos. Professor Ashton also submitted proposals for grant-funded research using MRI, EEG, and cognitive testing in a randomized controlled trial to assess whether benzodiazepines cause permanent damage to the brain, but similarly to Professor Lader was turned down by the MRC.


title: Effects of long-term benzodiazepine use

text: The MRC spokesperson said they accept the conclusions of Professor Lader's research and said that they fund only research that meets required quality standards of scientific research, and stated that they were and continue to remain receptive to applications for research in this area. No explanation was reported for why the documents were sealed by the Public Records Act.


title: Effects of long-term benzodiazepine use

text: Jim Dobbin, who chaired the All-Party Parliamentary Group for Involuntary Tranquilliser Addiction, stated that:


title: Effects of long-term benzodiazepine use

text: The legal director of Action Against Medical Accidents said urgent research must be carried out and said that, if the results of larger studies confirm Professor Lader's research, the government and MRC could be faced with one of the biggest group actions for damages the courts have ever seen, given the large number of people potentially affected. People who report enduring symptoms post-withdrawal such as neurological pain, headaches, cognitive impairment, and memory loss have been left in the dark as to whether these symptoms are drug-induced damage or not due to the MRC's inaction, it was reported. Professor Lader reported that the results of his research did not surprise his research group given that it was already known that alcohol could cause permanent brain changes.


title: Effects of long-term benzodiazepine use

text: Benzodiazepines spurred the largest-ever class-action lawsuit against drug manufacturers in the United Kingdom, in the 1980s and early 1990s, involving 14,000 patients and 1,800 law firms that alleged the manufacturers knew of the potential for dependence but intentionally withheld this information from doctors. At the same time, 117 general practitioners and 50 health authorities were sued by patients to recover damages for the harmful effects of dependence and withdrawal. This led some doctors to require a signed consent form from their patients and to recommend that all patients be adequately warned of the risks of dependence and withdrawal before starting treatment with benzodiazepines. The court case against the drug manufacturers never reached a verdict; legal aid had been withdrawn, leading to the collapse of the trial, and there were allegations that the consultant psychiatrists, the expert witnesses, had a conflict of interest. This litigation led to changes in British law, making class-action lawsuits more difficult.


title: Effects of long-term benzodiazepine use

text: Benzodiazepines have been found to cause teratogenic malformations. The literature concerning the safety of benzodiazepines in pregnancy is unclear and controversial. Initial concerns regarding benzodiazepines in pregnancy began with alarming findings in animals but these do not necessarily cross over to humans. Conflicting findings have been found in babies exposed to benzodiazepines. A recent analysis of the Swedish Medical Birth Register found an association with preterm births, low birth weight and a moderate increased risk for congenital malformations. An increase in pylorostenosis or alimentary tract atresia was seen. An increase in orofacial clefts was not demonstrated, however, and it was concluded that benzodiazepines are not major teratogens.


title: Effects of long-term benzodiazepine use

text: Neurodevelopmental disorders and clinical symptoms are commonly found in babies exposed to benzodiazepines in utero. Benzodiazepine-exposed babies have a low birth weight but catch up to normal babies at an early age, but smaller head circumferences found in benzo babies persists. Other adverse effects of benzodiazepines taken during pregnancy are deviating neurodevelopmental and clinical symptoms including craniofacial anomalies, delayed development of pincer grasp, deviations in muscle tone and pattern of movements. Motor impairments in the babies are impeded for up to 1 year after birth. Gross motor development impairments take 18 months to return to normal but fine motor function impairments persist. In addition to the smaller head circumference found in benzodiazepine-exposed babies mental retardation, functional deficits, long-lasting behavioural anomalies, and lower intelligence occurs.


title: Effects of long-term benzodiazepine use

text: Benzodiazepines, like many other sedative hypnotic drugs, cause apoptotic neuronal cell death. However, benzodiazepines do not cause as severe apoptosis to the developing brain as alcohol does. The prenatal toxicity of benzodiazepines is most likely due to their effects on neurotransmitter systems, cell membranes and protein synthesis. This, however, is complicated in that neuropsychological or neuropsychiatric effects of benzodiazepines, if they occur, may not become apparent until later childhood or even adolescence. A review of the literature found data on long-term follow-up regarding neurobehavioural outcomes is very limited. However, a study was conducted that followed up 550 benzodiazepine-exposed children, which found that, overall, most children developed normally. There was a smaller subset of benzodiazepine-exposed children who were slower to develop, but by four years of age most of this subgroup of children had normalised. There was a small number of benzodiazepine-exposed children who had continuing developmental abnormalities at 4-year follow-up, but it was not possible to conclude whether these deficits were the result of benzodiazepines or whether social and environmental factors explained the continuing deficits.


title: Effects of long-term benzodiazepine use

text: Concerns regarding whether benzodiazepines during pregnancy cause major malformations, in particular cleft palate, have been hotly debated in the literature. A meta analysis of the data from cohort studies found no link but meta analysis of case–control studies did find a significant increase in major malformations. (However, the cohort studies were homogenous and the case–control studies were heterogeneous, thus reducing the strength of the case–control results). There have also been several reports that suggest that benzodiazepines have the potential to cause a syndrome similar to fetal alcohol syndrome, but this has been disputed by a number of studies. As a result of conflicting findings, use of benzodiazepines during pregnancy is controversial. The best available evidence suggests that benzodiazepines are not a major cause of birth defects, i.e. major malformations or cleft lip or cleft palate.


title: Effects of long-term benzodiazepine use

text: Significant toxicity from benzodiazepines can occur in the elderly as a result of long-term use. Benzodiazepines, along with antihypertensives and drugs affecting the cholinergic system, are the most common cause of drug-induced dementia affecting over 10 percent of patients attending memory clinics. Long-term use of benzodiazepines in the elderly can lead to a pharmacological syndrome with symptoms including drowsiness, ataxia, fatigue, confusion, weakness, dizziness, vertigo, syncope, reversible dementia, depression, impairment of intellect, psychomotor and sexual dysfunction, agitation, auditory and visual hallucinations, paranoid ideation, panic, delirium, depersonalisation, sleepwalking, aggressivity, orthostatic hypotension and insomnia. Depletion of certain neurotransmitters and cortisol levels and alterations in immune function and biological markers can also occur. Elderly individuals who have been long-term users of benzodiazepines have been found to have a higher incidence of post-operative confusion. Benzodiazepines have been associated with increased body sway in the elderly, which can potentially lead to fatal accidents including falls. Discontinuation of benzodiazepines leads to improvement in the balance of the body and also leads to improvements in cognitive functions in the elderly benzodiazepine hypnotic users without worsening of insomnia.


title: Effects of long-term benzodiazepine use

text: A review of the evidence has found that whilst long-term use of benzodiazepines impairs memory, its association with causing dementia is not clear and requires further research. A more recent study found that benzodiazepines are associated with an increased risk of dementia and it is recommended that benzodiazepines be avoided in the elderly. A later study, however, found no increase in dementia associated with long-term usage of benzodiazepine.


title: Long-term memory

text: Long-term memory (LTM) is the stage of the Atkinson–Shiffrin memory model in which informative knowledge is held indefinitely. It is defined in contrast to short-term and working memory, which persist for only about 18 to 30 seconds. Long-term memory is commonly labelled as explicit memory (declarative), as well as episodic memory, semantic memory, autobiographical memory, and implicit memory (procedural memory).


title: Long-term memory

text: According to Miller, whose paper in 1956 popularized the theory of the "magic number seven", short-term memory is limited to a certain number of chunks of information, while long-term memory has a limitless store.


title: Long-term memory

text: According to the dual store memory model proposed by Richard C. Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin in 1968, memories can reside in the short-term "buffer" for a limited time while they are simultaneously strengthening their associations in long-term memory. When items are first presented, they enter short-term memory for approximately twenty to thirty seconds, but due to its limited space, as new items enter, older ones are pushed out. The limit of items that can be held in the short-term memory is an average between four and seven, yet, with practice and new skills that number can be increased. However, each time an item in short-term memory is rehearsed, it is strengthened in long-term memory. Similarly, the longer an item stays in short-term memory, the stronger its association becomes in long-term memory.


title: Long-term memory

text: In 1974 Baddeley and Hitch proposed an alternative theory of short-term memory: Baddeley's model of working memory. According to this theory, short-term memory is divided into different slave systems for different types of input items, and there is an executive control supervising what items enter and exit those systems. The slave systems include the phonological loop, the visuo-spatial sketchpad, and the episodic buffer (later added by Baddeley).


title: Long-term memory

text: Long-term memory encodes information semantically for storage, as researched by Baddeley. In vision, the information needs to enter working memory before it can be stored into long-term memory. This is evidenced by the fact that the speed with which information is stored into long-term memory is determined by the amount of information that can be fit, at each step, into visual working memory. In other words, the larger the capacity of working memory for certain stimuli, the faster will these materials be learned.


title: Long-term memory

text: Synaptic consolidation is the process by which items are transferred from short-term to long-term memory. Within the first minutes or hours after acquisition, the engram (memory trace) is encoded within synapses, becoming resistant (though not immune) to interference from outside sources.


title: Long-term memory

text: As long-term memory is subject to fading in the natural forgetting process, maintenance rehearsal (several recalls/retrievals of memory) may be needed to preserve long-term memories. Individual retrievals can take place in increasing intervals in accordance with the principle of spaced repetition. This can happen quite naturally through reflection or deliberate recall (also known as recapitulation), often dependent on the perceived importance of the material. Using testing methods as a form of recall can lead to the testing effect, which aids long-term memory through information retrieval and feedback.


title: Long-term memory

text: In long term memory, brain cells fire in specific patterns. When someone experiences something in the world, the brain responds by creating a pattern of specific nerves firing in a specific way to represent the experience. This is called distributed representation. Distributed representation can be explained through a scientific calculator. At the top of the calculator is an opening in which the numbers typed in show up. This small slot is compiled by many blocks that light up to show a specific number. In that sense, certain blocks light up when prompted to show the number 4, but other blocks light up to show the number 5. There may be overlap in the blocks used, but ultimately, these blocks are able to generate different patterns for each specific situation. The encoding of specific episodic memories can be explained through distributed representation. When you try to remember an experience, perhaps your friend's birthday party a year ago, your brain is activating a certain pattern of neurons. If you try to remember your mother's birthday party, another pattern of neurons are fired but there may be overlap because they are both birthday parties. This kind of remembering is the idea of retrieval because it involves recalling the specific distributed representation created during the encoding of the experience.


title: Long-term memory

text: Some theories consider sleep to be an important factor in establishing well-organized long-term memories. "(See also sleep and learning.)" Sleep plays a key function in the consolidation of new memories.


title: Long-term memory

text: According to Tarnow's theory, long-term memories are stored in dream format (reminiscent of Penfield & Rasmussen's findings that electrical excitations of the cortex give rise to experiences similar to dreams). During waking life an executive function interprets long-term memory consistent with reality checking . It is further proposed in the theory that the information stored in memory, no matter how it was learned, can affect performance on a particular task without the subject being aware that this memory is being used. Newly acquired declarative memory traces are believed to be reactivated during NonREM sleep to promote their hippocampo-neocortical transfer for long-term storage. Specifically, new declarative memories are better remembered if recall follows Stage II non-rapid eye movement sleep. The reactivation of memories during sleep can lead to lasting synaptic changes within certain neural networks. It is the high spindle activity, low oscillation activity, and delta wave activity during NREM sleep that helps to contribute to declarative memory consolidation. In learning before sleep, spindles are redistributed to neuronally active up-states within slow oscillations during NREM sleep. Sleep spindles are thought to induce synaptic changes and thereby contribute to memory consolidation during sleep. Here, we examined the role of sleep in the object-place recognition task, a task closely comparable to tasks typically applied for testing human declarative memory: It is a one-trial task, hippocampus-dependent, not stressful and can be repeated within the same animal. Sleep deprivation reduces vigilance or arousal levels, affecting the efficiency of certain cognitive functions such as learning and memory.


title: Long-term memory

text: The theory that sleep benefits memory retention is not a new idea. It has been around since Ebbinghaus's experiment on forgetting in 1885. More recently studies have been done by Payne and colleagues and Holtz and colleagues. In Payne and colleague's experiment participants were randomly selected and split into two groups. Both groups were given semantically related or unrelated word pairs, but one group was given the information at 9 am and the other group received theirs at 9 pm. Participants were then tested on the word pairs at one of three intervals 30 minutes, 12 hours, or 24 hours later. It was found that participants who had a period of sleep between the learning and testing sessions did better on the memory tests. This information is similar to other results found by previous experiments by Jenkins and Dallenbach (1924). It has also been found that many domains of declarative memory are affected by sleep such as emotional memory, semantic memory, and direct encoding.


title: Long-term memory

text: Holtz found that not only does sleep affect consolidation of declarative memories, but also procedural memories. In this experiment, fifty adolescent participants were taught either word pairs (which represents declarative memory) and a finger tapping task (procedural memory) at one of two different times of day. What they found was that the procedural finger tapping task was best encoded and remembered directly before sleep, but the declarative word pairs task was better remembered and encoded if learned at 3 in the afternoon.


title: Long-term memory

text: The brain does not store memories in one unified structure. Instead, different types of memory are stored in different regions of the brain. Long-term memory is typically divided up into two major headings: explicit memory and implicit memory.


title: Long-term memory

text: Explicit memory (or declarative memory) refers to all memories that are consciously available. These are encoded by the hippocampus, entorhinal cortex, and perirhinal cortex, but consolidated and stored elsewhere. The precise location of storage is unknown, but the temporal cortex has been proposed as a likely candidate. Research by Meulemans and Van der Linden (2003) found that amnesiac patients with damage to the medial temporal lobe performed more poorly on explicit learning tests than did healthy controls. However, these same amnesiac patients performed at the same rate as healthy controls on implicit learning tests. This implies that the medial temporal lobe is heavily involved in explicit learning, but not in implicit learning.


title: Long-term memory

text: Episodic memory refers to memory for specific events in time, as well as supporting their formation and retrieval. Some examples of episodic memory would be remembering someone's name and what happened at your last interaction with each other. Experiments conducted by Spaniol and colleagues indicated that older adults have worse episodic memories than younger adults because episodic memory requires context dependent memory.


title: Long-term memory

text: Semantic memory refers to knowledge about factual information, such as the meaning of words. Semantic memory is independent information such as information remembered for a test. In contrast with episodic memory, older adults and younger adults do not show much of a difference in semantic memory, presumably because semantic memory does not depend on context memory.


title: Long-term memory

text: Autobiographical memory refers to knowledge about events and personal experiences from an individual's own life. Though similar to episodic memory, it differs in that it contains only those experiences which directly pertain to the individual, from across their lifespan. Conway and Pleydell-Pearce (2000) argue that this is one component of the self-memory system.


title: Long-term memory

text: Implicit memory (procedural memory) refers to the use of objects or movements of the body, such as how exactly to use a pencil, drive a car, or ride a bicycle. This type of memory is encoded and it is presumed stored by the striatum and other parts of the basal ganglia. The basal ganglia is believed to mediate procedural memory and other brain structures and is largely independent of the hippocampus. Research by Manelis, Hanson, and Hanson (2011) found that the reactivation of the parietal and occipital regions was associated with implicit memory. Procedural memory is considered non-declarative memory or unconscious memory which includes priming and non-associative learning.


title: Long-term memory

text: The first part of nondeclarative memory (implicit memory) involves priming. Priming occurs when you do something faster after you have already done that activity, such as writing or using a fork.


title: Long-term memory

text: Emotional memory, the memory for events that evoke a particularly strong emotion, is a domain that can involve both declarative and procedural memory processes. Emotional memories are consciously available, but elicit a powerful, unconscious physiological reaction. Research indicates that the amygdala is extremely active during emotional situations, and acts with the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex in the encoding and consolidation of emotional events.


title: Long-term memory

text: Working memory is not part of long-term memory, but is important for long-term memory to function. Working memory holds and manipulates information for a short period of time, before it is either forgotten or encoded into long-term memory. Then, in order to remember something from long-term memory, it must be brought back into working memory. If working memory is overloaded it can affect the encoding of long-term memory. If one has a good working memory they may have a better long-term memory encoding.


title: Long-term memory

text: Minor everyday slips and lapses of memory are fairly commonplace, and may increase naturally with age, when ill, or when under stress. Some women may experience more memory lapses following the onset of the menopause.


title: Long-term memory

text: In general, more serious problems with memory occur due to traumatic brain injury or neurodegenerative disease.


title: Long-term memory

text: The majority of findings on memory have been the result of studies that lesioned specific brain regions in rats or primates, but some of the most important work has been the result of accidental or inadvertent brain trauma. The most famous case in recent memory studies is the case study of HM, who had parts of his hippocampus, parahippocampal cortices, and surrounding tissue removed in an attempt to cure his epilepsy. His subsequent total anterograde amnesia and partial retrograde amnesia provided the first evidence for the localization of memory function, and further clarified the differences between declarative and procedural memory.


title: Long-term memory

text: Many neurodegenerative diseases can cause memory loss. Some of the most prevalent (and, as a consequence, most intensely researched) include Alzheimer's disease, dementia, Huntington's disease, multiple sclerosis, and Parkinson's disease. None act specifically on memory; instead, memory loss is often a casualty of generalized neuronal deterioration. Currently, these illnesses are irreversible, but research into stem cells, psychopharmacology, and genetic engineering holds much promise.


title: Long-term memory

text: Those with Alzheimer's disease generally display symptoms such as getting momentarily lost on familiar routes, placing possessions in inappropriate locations and distortions of existing memories or completely forgetting memories. Researchers have often used the Deese–Roediger–McDermott paradigm (DRM) to study the effects of Alzheimer's disease on memory. The DRM paradigm presents a list of words such as doze, pillow, bed, dream, nap, etc., with a theme word that is not presented. In this case, the theme word would have been sleep. Alzheimer's disease patients are more likely to recall the theme word as being part of the original list than healthy adults. There is a possible link between longer encoding time and increased false memory in LTM. The patients end up relying on the gist of information instead of the specific words themselves. Alzheimer's leads to an uncontrolled inflammatory response brought on by extensive amyloid deposition in the brain, which leads to cell death in the brain. This gets worse over time and eventually leads to cognitive decline, after the loss of memory. Pioglitazone may improve cognitive impairments, including memory loss and may help protect long-term and visuospatial memory from neurodegenerative disease.


title: Long-term memory

text: Parkinson's disease patients have problems with cognitive performance; these issues resemble what is seen in frontal lobe patients and can often lead to dementia. It is thought that Parkinson's disease is caused by degradation of the dopaminergic mesocorticolimbic projection originating from the ventral tegmental area. It has also been indicated that the hippocampus plays an important role in episodic and spatial (parts of LTM) memory and Parkinson's disease patients have abnormal hippocampuses resulting in abnormal functioning of LTM. L-dopa injections are often used to try to relieve Parkinson's disease symptoms as well as behavioral therapy.


title: Long-term memory

text: Schizophrenia patients have trouble with attention and executive functions which in turn affects long-term memory consolidation and retrieval. They cannot encode or retrieve temporal information properly, which causes them to select inappropriate social behaviors. They cannot effectively use the information they possess. The prefrontal cortex, where schizophrenia patients have structural abnormalities, is involved with the temporal lobe and also affects the hippocampus, which causes their difficulty in encoding and retrieving temporal information (including long-term memory).


title: Long-term memory

text: Long-term memory, unlike short-term memory, is dependent upon the synthesis of new proteins. This occurs within the cellular body, and concerns the particular transmitters, receptors, and new synapse pathways that reinforce the communicative strength between neurons. The production of new proteins devoted to synapse reinforcement is triggered after the release of certain signaling substances (such as calcium within hippocampal neurons) in the cell. In the case of hippocampal cells, this release is dependent upon the expulsion of magnesium (a binding molecule) that is expelled after significant and repetitive synaptic signaling. The temporary expulsion of magnesium frees NMDA receptors to release calcium in the cell, a signal that leads to gene transcription and the construction of reinforcing proteins. For more information, see long-term potentiation (LTP).


title: Long-term memory

text: One of the newly synthesized proteins in LTP is also critical for maintaining long-term memory. This protein is an autonomously active form of the enzyme protein kinase C (PKC), known as PKMζ. PKMζ maintains the activity-dependent enhancement of synaptic strength and inhibiting PKMζ erases established long-term memories, without affecting short-term memory or, once the inhibitor is eliminated, the ability to encode and store new long-term memories is restored.


title: Long-term memory

text: The long-term stabilization of synaptic changes is also determined by a parallel increase of pre- and postsynaptic structures such as synaptic boutons, dendritic spines, and postsynaptic density.


title: Long-term memory

text: On the molecular level, an increase of the postsynaptic scaffolding proteins PSD-95 and HOMER1c has been shown to correlate with the stabilization of synaptic enlargement.


title: Long-term memory

text: The cAMP response element-binding protein (CREB) is a transcription factor which is believed to be important in consolidating short-term to long-term memories, and which is believed to be downregulated in Alzheimer's disease.


title: Long-term memory

text: Rats exposed to an intense learning event may retain a life-long memory of the event, even after a single training session. The long-term memory of such an event appears to be initially stored in the hippocampus, but this storage is transient. Much of the long-term storage of the memory seems to take place in the anterior cingulate cortex. When such an exposure was experimentally applied, more than 5,000 differently methylated DNA regions appeared in the hippocampus neuronal genome of the rats at one and at 24 hours after training. These alterations in methylation pattern occurred at many genes that were down-regulated, often due to the formation of new 5-methylcytosine sites in CpG rich regions of the genome. Furthermore, many other genes were upregulated, likely often due to hypomethylation. Hypomethylation often results from the removal of methyl groups from previously existing 5-methylcytosines in DNA. Demethylation is carried out by several proteins acting in concert, including TET enzymes as well as enzymes of the DNA base excision repair pathway (see Epigenetics in learning and memory). The pattern of induced and repressed genes in brain neurons subsequent to an intense learning event likely provides the molecular basis for a long-term memory of the event.


title: Long-term memory

text: A couple of studies have had results that contradict the dual-store memory model. Studies showed that in spite of using distractors, there was still both a recency effect for a list of items and a contiguity effect.


title: Long-term memory

text: Another study revealed that how long an item spends in short-term memory is not the key determinant in its strength in long-term memory. Instead, whether the participant actively tries to remember the item while elaborating on its meaning determines the strength of its store in long-term memory.


title: Long-term memory

text: An alternative theory is that there is only one memory store with associations among items and their contexts. In this model, the context serves as a cue for retrieval, and the recency effect is greatly caused by the factor of context. Immediate and delayed free-recall will have the same recency effect because the relative similarity of the contexts still exists. Also, the contiguity effect still occurs because contiguity also exists between similar contexts.


title: The Jimi Hendrix Experience (album)

text: The Jimi Hendrix Experience is a box set by the British-American rock band the Jimi Hendrix Experience, released in 2000 by MCA. The material includes alternative recordings, live performances and some rarities. Although most of the material had been released in earlier compilations, some previously unreleased material (such as live versions of "Killing Floor" and "The Wind Cries Mary") was also included.


title: The Jimi Hendrix Experience (album)

text: The alternative recordings include some tracks from Hendrix's studio albums, including some from "First Rays of the New Rising Sun". This list includes "Purple Haze", "Highway Chile", "Little Wing", "Gypsy Eyes", "Stone Free", among others. The live songs are taken from performances such as the Monterey Pop Festival, the Royal Albert Hall, and the Isle of Wight and includes a near-complete version of "Hendrix in the West".


title: The Jimi Hendrix Experience (album)

text: On some tracks, especially on those from "Hendrix in the West", the recordings have been slightly altered to clean up the sound, but even when modifications were made the result does not differ too much from the original masterings.


title: The Jimi Hendrix Experience (album)

text: Another edition of this boxed set was released on 28 November 2005, which, under the Universal music group label, included an exclusive bonus DVD featuring a 30-minute documentary called "Hendrix and the Blues", originally created as part of the series. As well as this, this bonus DVD also includes several live tracks, including "Johnny B. Goode" which was recorded live at Berkeley Community Theatre, Berkeley, California on May 30. 1970, "Red House" and "In from the Storm", both of which were recorded live at Isle of Wight, England on August 30, 1970.


title: The Jimi Hendrix Experience (album)

text: The cover shot is by Karl Ferris, whose photos were used for the US/Canada release of "Are You Experienced", the basis of the small group airbrush painting used in the cover art for "", and the US/Canada cover of "Electric Ladyland", which became the official international cover from 1997.


title: Nobara Kugisaki

text: In the "Jujutsu Kaisen" anime adaptation, she is voiced by Asami Seto in Japanese and Anne Yatco in English. Her character has been widely praised by critics alongside other female characters in the series for being more layered and true to herself than other female "shōnen" characters.


title: Nobara Kugisaki

text: Her name, Nobara, was meant by creator Gege Akutami to be "thorny", with the kanji characters for "No" and "Bara" meaning wild and rose while the character used to denote "Kugi" in her last name means nail or peg in order to demonstrate the two sides of her personality being rebellious and refined. He came up with her name at the same time as he came up with her powers and abilities, as they come hand-in-hand with each other. Akutami found her dialogue to be the easiest to write of the three main characters, but struggled with her composure in action scenes. Akutami felt it interesting to give her the sharp desire to go to Tokyo contrasting against her grandmother's wish for her to be raised normally in her small hometown.


title: Nobara Kugisaki

text: Nobara was designed to be more true to herself than the other two protagonists, her authenticity on full display at multiple points in the series including during the Kyoto Goodwill Exchange event where she declares that she will only ever be herself and refuses to try to follow expectations from others. According to Akutami, she is best described by the songs "Seishun Kyosokyoku" by Sunny Day Service and "Ano Depaato" by Natsuko Nisshoku which contrast rock with heartfelt vocals and plucky piano playing to show her country upbringing and creativity.


title: Nobara Kugisaki

text: According to Anne Yatco, her English voice actress, "she is confident, sassy, and snarky—and I love all of it! I also really appreciate that the dynamic between Nobara, Yuji, and Megumi isn’t affected by their gender. So, even though she’s “the girl” in the group, no one treats Nobara with kid gloves or thinks that she’s weaker than them." She also touched on Nobara's journey of self-discovery after leaving her home, saying that "I really came into my own as a person after l left home. I think Nobara wants to grow, not just as a sorcerer but also as a human being, and she outgrew her hometown long ago." Japanese voice actress Asami Seto struggled to voice Nobara as her own personality contrasts heavily with Nobara's brashness, and had to consult and rehearse many times with the producers to get the personality down through her voice acting.


title: Nobara Kugisaki

text: She first appears in "Chapter 3" of the manga after arriving in Tokyo by train. She is introduced to the other first-year sorcerers by Gojo, and aids Yuji in rescuing a child from a cursed spirit in an apartment complex. Although she initially expresses distaste for Yuji and Megumi, the trio become fast friends as they attend school together. She is present during the "cursed womb" invasion of a detention facility, though is taken out early in battle after being separated from the others. After training with the second-year students in preparation for the Exchange Event against Kyoto Jujutsu High, she is upset and annoyed when Yuji reveals that he has secretly been alive for weeks without telling his friends.


title: Nobara Kugisaki

text: During the battle with the Kyoto students, she argues about her worth and how she ignores the rules set by jujutsu society about being a female sorcerer, but is knocked out after being shot by Mai with a rubber bullet. While investigating cursed wombs known as "Death Paintings" with Yuji and Megumi, she helps Yuji kill one of the attackers but realizes too late that they were not actually cursed spirits but had a physical form, meaning they had human ancestry. She tells Yuji afterwards that she feels no regrets about having to kill other humans. After this incident, Nobara and Megumi discuss how Itadori's survival puts others in danger, due to Sukuna's presence in his body attracting dangerous cursed spirits that contain his fingers.


title: Nobara Kugisaki

text: In the "Shibuya Incident" arc, Nobara is one of many jujutsu sorcerers dispatched to stop the cursed spirits from waging their war against humans. She aids the other sorcerers in the battle and eventually comes across Mahito, a cursed spirit with the ability to reshape souls and fatally disfigure opponents simply by touching them. During the battle, she slips up in her attack strategy, and Mahito touches the right side of her face. Her life and most cherished relationships (including Yuji, Megumi, Gojo, and her other comrades from Jujutsu High) flash before her eyes, and she remembers her greatest regret of not being able to reunite with Saori, a girl from Tokyo who was ostracized and forced to leave her hometown. In her final waking moments, she bids farewell to Yuji and asks him to tell their friends that "it wasn't so bad", before her face is blasted open due to the effects of Mahito's transfiguration, losing her right eye and putting her on the brink between life and death.


title: Nobara Kugisaki

text: Nobara possesses an extremely high pain tolerance, tactical intellect, and a careful understanding of jujutsu arts. Her innate jujutsu techniques are the Straw Doll technique, allowing her to use a straw doll to attack her opponent from a distance by hitting a nail with a cursed energy-imbued hammer, such that curses feel whatever she inflicts onto the straw doll, and Resonance, which allows her to turn cursed technique attacks affecting her own body back on the user. The Straw Doll technique is based on the "ushi no toki mairi", who are portrayed as women dressed in white that lay upon cursed on people using a straw doll, hammer and nails which is a traditional method of inflicting curses. She is also highly proficient in using her hammer to launch nails at enemies, causing both physical and cursed energy damage to her opponent when they make contact, and can make the nails explode in a physical technique called Hairpin. In addition to her standard abilities, she has been able to a Cursed Energy Manipulation – Black Flash which creates a spatial distortion when the user comes into contact with the impact of cursed energy in a 0.000001 second window of a physical attack. It was revealed in the Volume extras that Nobara's grandmother is a sorcerer with the same abilities and was taught to use the technique before enrolling as a student in Tokyo Metropolitan Curse Technical College.


title: Nobara Kugisaki

text: In the official second Light Novel for Jujutsu Kaisen, it was revealed that Nobara can improvise the usage of her technique if she does not have access to her weapons. Using her heels as a nail and a makeshift doll out of rope, she was able to activate her Straw Doll Technique to defeat an opponent.


title: Nobara Kugisaki

text: Reception of Nobara’s character has been highly positive, with many critics and fans comparing her favorably to other female "shōnen" protagonists. Ana Diaz of "Polygon" praised Nobara's inclusion in "Jujutsu Kaisen" and the series' portrayal of women as a whole. She called a scene where Nobara calling out society's standards on gender roles "poignant" and "stunning", adding that "the scene has staying power, because Jujutsu Kaisen goes a step further than avoiding gender tropes...It’s not like there’s any right way for these young women to deal with the unique pressures they face. The story lets them disagree, and fight for their perspectives and their place." Komla Kwao praised the way Nobara's depiction was more than just a "clichéd, high school 'mean girl' who’s obsessed with her physical appearance and incapable of empathy" and how she and fellow sorcerer Maki Zenin "wholeheartedly embraced each other at first glance with no forced rivalry between them just because they’re both women." Theo J Ellis of "AnimeMotivation" said of Nobara: "She's undeniably independent, is an individual, and is NEVER reduced to a girl needing help from the knight in shining armor."


title: Nobara Kugisaki

text: Barrett Edwards Smith of "Game Rant" highlighted the way how "despite her aggressive personality, Nobara still embraces her femininity" and how she is more complex than being "traditionally female or not." Other praise was focused on how Nobara is "loud, aggressive, and always speaks her mind. However, she is more complex than being a mere badass fighter." James Beckett from Anime News Network listed her as his favorite anime character from 2021 due to her aggressive personality and how she stands out in the story.


title: Lyric Ross

text: Lyric Ross (born November 30, 2003) is an American actress. She is known for her role as Deja Pearson in the NBC drama series "This Is Us".


title: Lyric Ross

text: Ross, raised in Homewood, Illinois, is the daughter of Brandi Smith and Stephen Ross and granddaughter of Margaret Smith. She started acting when she was five years old, appearing in commercials and guest-starring in "Chicago Fire" and "Sirens". In 2017, she performed in a recurring role as Deja Pearson on season 2 of "This Is Us" while in the eighth grade at James Hart School in Homewood, Illinois. On August 27, 2018, NBC announced that Ross had been promoted to a series regular for season 3.


title: Altın Gün

text: Altın Gün (meaning "Golden Day" in Turkish) is a Turkish psychedelic rock, also known as Anatolian rock, band from Amsterdam, Netherlands. It was founded by bassist Jasper Verhulst in 2016 when he posted an ad on Facebook looking for Turkish musicians. Their style has been described as "psychedelic" with a "dirty blend of funk rhythms, wah-wah guitars and analogue organs". Altın Gün also performs psychedelic rock covers of Turkish folk music. Both the band's vocalists, Merve Daşdemir and Erdinç Ecevit Yıldız, are of Turkish origin, while the other four members are Dutch.


title: Altın Gün

text: Their debut album was "On", released in 2018. In 2019, they released "Gece" which was nominated for the 62nd Annual Grammy Awards (2019) in the Best World Music Album category. The band's first American tour commenced in mid 2019.


title: Khiva

text: Khiva (/, خىۋا; , ; alternative or historical names include "Kheeva", "Khorasam", "Khoresm", "Khwarezm", "Khwarizm", "Khwarazm", "Chorezm", and ) is a district-level city of approximately 93,000 people in Xorazm Region, Uzbekistan. According to archaeological data, the city was established around 1500 years ago. It is the former capital of Khwarezmia, the Khanate of Khiva, and the Khorezm People's Soviet Republic. Itchan Kala in Khiva was the first site in Uzbekistan to be inscribed in the World Heritage List (1991). The astronomer, historian and polymath, Al-Biruni (973–1048 CE) was born in either Khiva or the nearby city of Kath.


title: Khiva

text: The origin of the name Khiva is unknown, but many contradictory stories have been told to explain it.


title: Khiva

text: A traditional story attributes the name to one of the sons of the prophet Noah: "It is said that Shem, after the flood, he found himself wandering in the desert alone. Having fallen asleep, he dreamt of 300 burning torches. On waking up, he was pleased with this omen, he founded the city with outlines in the form of a ship mapped out according to the placement of the torches, about which he had dreamt. Then Shem dug the Kheyvak well, the water from which had a surprising taste. It is possible to see this well in Ichan-Kala (an internal town of Khiva City) even today."


title: Khiva

text: Another proposal is that the name comes from the word Khwarezm, altered by borrowing into Turkic as Khivarezem, then shortened to Khiva.


title: Khiva

text: In the early part of its history, the inhabitants of the area came from Iranian stock and spoke an Eastern Iranian language called Khwarezmian. Turks replaced the Iranian ruling-class in the 10th century A.D., and the region gradually turned into an area with a majority of Turkic speakers.


title: Khiva

text: Russia annexed Khiva Khanate in the 19th century. The last Khan from the ruling dynasty was liquidated a century later, in 1919. Thus Khiva became the capital city of the new Soviet People's Republic of Khorezm. Khorezm oasis was converted into a part of modern Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan in 1924.


title: Khiva

text: The earliest records of the city of Khiva appear in Muslim travel accounts from the 10th century, although archaeological evidence indicates habitation in the 6th century. By the early 17th century, Khiva had become the capital of the Khanate of Khiva, ruled by a branch of the Astrakhans, a Genghisid dynasty.


title: Khiva

text: In the 17th century Khiva began to develop as a slave market. During the first half of the 19th century, around 30000 Persians and an unknown number of Russians, were enslaved there before being sold. A large part of them were involved in the construction of buildings in the walled Ichan-Kala.


title: Khiva

text: In the course of the Russian conquest of Central Asia, in 1873 the Russian General Konstantin von Kaufman launched an attack on the city of Khiva, which fell on 28 May 1873. Although the Russian Empire now controlled the Khanate, it allowed Khiva to remain as a nominally quasi-independent protectorate.


title: Khiva

text: Following the Bolshevik seizure of power in Russia after the October Revolution of 1917, a short-lived (1920-1925) Khorezm People's Soviet Republic formed out of the territory of the old Khanate of Khiva before its incorporation into the USSR in 1925. The city of Khiva became part of the Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic.


title: Khiva

text: Khiva is split into two parts. The outer town, called Dichan Kala, was formerly protected by a wall with 11 gates. The inner town, or Itchan Kala, is encircled by brick walls, whose foundations are believed to have been laid in the 10th century. Present-day crenellated walls date back to the late 17th century and attain the height of 10 meters.


title: Khiva

text: Kalta Minor, the large blue tower in the central city square, was supposed to be a minaret, but the Khan died and the succeeding Khan did not complete it.


title: Khiva

text: The old town retains more than 50 historic monuments and 250 old houses, mostly dating from the 18th or the 19th centuries. Djuma Mosque, for instance, was established in the 10th century and rebuilt in 1788–89, although its celebrated hypostyle hall still retains 112 columns taken from ancient structures.


title: Khiva

text: Khiva was a home to a number of madrassahs (educational establishments), one of which, Sherghazi Khan madrassah, still stands today. It was built in the 18th century by slaves and is one of the oldest buildings in Ichan-Kala, that is the center of present-day Khiva. Among the renowned students of the madrassah were the Uzbek poet Raunaq, the Qaraqalpaq poet Kasybayuly, the Turkmen poet and sufi Magtymguly.


title: Serena Armstrong-Jones, Countess of Snowdon

text: Serena Alleyne Armstrong-Jones, Countess of Snowdon ("née" Stanhope; born 1 March 1970) is an Anglo-Irish aristocrat. She is the estranged wife of David Armstrong-Jones, 2nd Earl of Snowdon, who is the son of Princess Margaret and thus a cousin of King Charles III.


text: She was born as The Honourable Serena Alleyne Stanhope in Limerick, Ireland, the daughter of the then Viscount Petersham and his wife Virginia Freeman-Jackson, a debutante. Her parents divorced when she was 13 years old. She has one older brother. Through her father, she is a descendant of King Charles II of England's illegitimate child, Henry FitzRoy, 1st Duke of Grafton.


text: She spent most of her childhood between Chelsea with her father and her father's girlfriend (and later wife) Anita Howard, Countess of Suffolk, and Monaco with her mother. She went to St Mary's School, Wantage, where she was described as being "more interested in lacrosse than Latin". After leaving St Mary's School, she went on to study art in Italy. She also attended a finishing school in Switzerland.


text: In 1989, she joined Sotheby's as a trainee. She then worked as a publicist for Giorgio Armani until August 1993, two months before her wedding. She subsequently had her own shop called 'Serena Linley Provence'. The store closed in 2014.


text: On 8 October 1993, she married David Armstrong-Jones (then known as Viscount Linley), the only son of Princess Margaret and a nephew of Queen Elizabeth II, at St Margaret's Church, Westminster. They had met when her father commissioned Linley to design a walnut dining table for his Chelsea house.


text: There were 650 guests in attendance at the wedding, including Elton John, Jerry Hall, the Aga Khan, and Constantine II of Greece. In addition, there were an estimated 5,000 spectators in the streets. She wore a $9,000 dress designed by Bruce Robbins, noted for its resemblance to Princess Margaret's 1960 Norman Hartnell wedding dress, and the 'Lotus Tiara', which was on loan from her mother-in-law, Princess Margaret. Her going-away outfit was designed by Robinson Valentine.


text: When Viscount Linley became the Earl of Snowdon on the death of his father in 2017, she became the Countess of Snowdon.


text: In February 2020, she and the Earl of Snowdon separated, and a spokesperson confirmed they will be getting a divorce.


title: Gursharan Kaur

text: Gursharan Kaur Kohli (born 13 September 1937) is an Indian history professor and author who is the spouse of the former prime minister of India Dr. Manmohan Singh, the 13th Prime Minister of India.


title: Gursharan Kaur

text: Gurusharan was the youngest of seven siblings born to Sardar Chattar Singh Kohli, an engineer of Burmah-Shell, and Sri Bhagwanti Kaur in Jalandhar on 13 September 1937 in British India. She has four sisters and two brothers. Her ancestral village was Dhakkam in Jhelum district (now in Punjab, Pakistan).


title: Gursharan Kaur

text: Mrs. Singh is known in the Sikh community of Delhi for her "kirtan" singing, and has also appeared on Jalandhar Radio.


title: Gursharan Kaur

text: Since Manmohan Singh became Prime Minister in 2004, she has accompanied him abroad on state visits. However, the family has largely stayed out of the limelight. Their three daughters - Upinder, Daman and Amrit, have successful, non-political, careers. Upinder Kaur is a professor of history at Delhi University. She has written six books, including "Ancient Delhi" (1999) and "A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India" (2008). Daman Singh is a graduate of St. Stephen's College, Delhi and Institute of Rural Management, Anand, Gujarat, and author of "The Last Frontier: People and Forests in Mizoram" and a novel "Nine by Nine". Amrit Singh is a staff attorney at the ACLU.


title: Android Jelly Bean

text: Android Jelly Bean, or Android 4.1 is the codename given to the tenth version of the Android mobile operating system developed by Google, spanning three major point releases (versions 4.1 through 4.3.1). Among the devices that run Android 4.1 to 4.3 are the Nexus 7 (2012), Nexus 4, Nexus 10 and Nexus 7 (2013).


title: Android Jelly Bean

text: The first of these three releases, 4.1, was unveiled at Google's I/O developer conference in June 2012. It focused on performance improvements designed to give the operating system a smoother and more responsive feel, improvements to the notification system allowing for expandable notifications with action buttons, and other internal changes. Two more releases were made under the Jelly Bean name in October 2012 and July 2013 respectively, including 4.2—which included further optimizations, multi-user support for tablets, lock screen widgets, quick settings, and screensavers, and 4.3—which contained further improvements and updates to the underlying Android platform. The first device with Android Jelly Bean was the 2012 Nexus 7.


title: Android Jelly Bean

text: , 0.36% of Android devices run Jelly Bean. In July 2021, Google announced that Google Play Services would no longer support Jelly Bean after August of that year.


title: Android Jelly Bean

text: Android 4.1 Jelly Bean was first unveiled at the Google I/O developer conference on June 27, 2012, with a focus on "delightful" improvements to the platform's user interface, along with improvements to Google's search experience on the platform (such as Knowledge Graph integration, and the then-new digital assistant Google Now), the unveiling of the Asus-produced Nexus 7 tablet, and the unveiling of the Nexus Q media player.


title: Android Jelly Bean

text: For Jelly Bean, work was made on optimizing the operating system's visual performance and responsiveness through a series of changes referred to as "Project Butter": graphical output is now triple buffered, vsync is used across all drawing operations, and the CPU is brought to full power when touch input is detected—preventing the lag associated with inputs made while the processor is in a low-power state. These changes allow the operating system to run at a full 60 frames per second on capable hardware.


title: Android Jelly Bean

text: Following 4.1, two more Android releases were made under the Jelly Bean codename; both of these releases focused primarily on performance improvements and changes to the Android platform itself, and contained relatively few user-facing changes. Alongside Android 4.1, Google also began to decouple APIs for its services on Android into a new system-level component known as Google Play Services, serviced through Google Play Store. This allows the addition of certain forms of functionality without having to distribute an upgrade to the operating system itself, addressing the infamous "fragmentation" problems experienced by the Android ecosystem.


title: Android Jelly Bean

text: Attendees of the Google I/O conference were given Nexus 7 tablets pre-loaded with Android 4.1, and Galaxy Nexus smartphones which could be upgraded to 4.1. Google announced an intent to release 4.1 updates for existing Nexus devices and the Motorola Xoom tablet by mid-July. The Android 4.1 upgrade was released to the general public for GSM Galaxy Nexus models on July 10, 2012. In late 2012, following the official release of Jelly Bean, a number of third-party Android OEMs began to prepare and distribute updates to 4.1 for their existing smartphones and tablets, including devices from Acer, HTC, LG, Motorola, Samsung, Sony, and Toshiba. In August 2012, nightly builds of the aftermarket firmware CyanogenMod based on 4.1 (branded as CyanogenMod 10) began to be released for selected devices, including some Nexus devices (the Nexus S and Galaxy Nexus), the Samsung Galaxy S, Galaxy S II, Galaxy Tab 2 7.0, Motorola Xoom, and Asus Transformer.


title: Android Jelly Bean

text: On October 29, 2012, Google unveiled Android 4.2, dubbed "a sweeter tasting Jelly Bean", alongside its accompanying launch devices, the Nexus 4 and Nexus 10. Firmware updates for the Nexus 7 and Galaxy Nexus were released in November 2012. Android 4.3 was subsequently released on July 24, 2013 via firmware updates to the Galaxy Nexus, 2012 Nexus 7, Nexus 4, and Nexus 10.


title: Android Jelly Bean

text: Visually, Jelly Bean's interface reflects a refinement of the Holo appearance introduced by Android 4.0. The default home screen of Jelly Bean received new features, such as the ability for other shortcuts and widgets on a home screen page to re-arrange themselves to fit an item being moved or resized. The notification system was also improved with the addition of expandable and actionable notifications; individual notifications can now display additional content or action buttons (such as Call back or Message on a missed call), accessible by dragging open the notification with a two-finger gesture. Notifications can also be disabled individually per app.


title: Android Jelly Bean

text: Android 4.2 added additional features to the user interface; the lock screen can be swiped to the left to display widget pages, and swiped to the right to go to the camera. A pane of quick settings toggles (a feature often seen in OEM Android skins) was also added to the notification area— accessible by either swiping down with two fingers on phones, swiping down from the top-right edge of the screen on tablets, or pressing a button on the top-right corner of the notifications pane. The previous Browser application was officially deprecated on 4.2 in favor of Google Chrome for Android. 4.2 also adds gesture typing on the keyboard, a redesigned Clock app, and a new screensaver system known as Daydreams. On tablets, Android 4.2 also supports multiple users.


title: Android Jelly Bean

text: To promote consistency between device classes, Android tablets now use an expanded version of the interface layout and home screen used by phones by default, with centered navigation keys and a status bar across the top. These changes took effect for small tablets (such as the Nexus 7) on 4.1, and for larger tablets on 4.2. Small tablets on Android are optimized primarily for use in a portrait (vertical) orientation, giving apps expanded versions of the layouts used by phones. When used in a "landscape" (horizontal) orientation, apps adjust themselves into the widescreen-oriented layouts seen on larger tablets. On large tablets, navigation buttons were previously placed in the bottom-left of a bar along the bottom of the screen, with the clock and notification area in the bottom-right.


title: Android Jelly Bean

text: For developers, 4.1 also added new accessibility APIs, expanded language support with bi-directional text support and user-supplied keymaps, support for managing external input devices (such as video game controllers), support for multichannel, USB, and gapless audio, a new media routing API, low-level access to hardware and software audio and video codecs, and DNS-based service discovery and pre-associated service discovery for Wi-Fi. Android Beam can now also be used to initiate Bluetooth file transfers through near-field communication.


title: Android Jelly Bean

text: created by Qualcomm) to a rewritten Broadcom open source stack called BlueDroid. The new stack, initially considered "immature", promised several forward-looking benefits, including improved support for multiple displays, support for Miracast, native right-to-left support, updated developer tools, further accessibility improvements such as zooming gestures, and a number of internal security improvements such as always-on VPN support and app verification. A new NFC stack was added at the same time.


title: Android Jelly Bean

text: Android 4.3 consisted of further low-level changes, including Bluetooth low energy and AVRCP support, SELinux, OpenGL ES 3.0, new digital rights management (DRM) APIs, the ability for apps to read notifications, a VP8 encoder, and other improvements.


title: Android Jelly Bean

text: Android 4.3 also included a hidden privacy feature known as "App Ops", which allowed users to individually deny permissions to apps. However, the feature was later removed on Android 4.4.2; a Google spokesperson stated that the feature was experimental and could prevent certain apps from functioning correctly if used in certain ways. The concept was revisited as the basis of a redesigned permissions system for Android 6.0.


title: Mecklenburg

text: Mecklenburg (; ) is a historical region in northern Germany comprising the western and larger part of the federal-state Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania. The largest cities of the region are Rostock, Schwerin, Neubrandenburg, Wismar and Güstrow.


title: Mecklenburg

text: The name Mecklenburg derives from a castle named "Mikilenburg" (Old Saxon for "big castle", hence its translation into New Latin and Greek as ), located between the cities of Schwerin and Wismar. In Slavic languages it was known as "Veligrad", which also means "big castle". It was the ancestral seat of the House of Mecklenburg; for a time the area was divided into Mecklenburg-Schwerin and Mecklenburg-Strelitz among the same dynasty.


title: Mecklenburg

text: The adjective for the region is "Mecklenburgian" or "Mecklenburgish" (); inhabitants are called Mecklenburgians or Mecklenburgers ().


title: Mecklenburg

text: Mecklenburg is known for its mostly flat countryside. Much of the terrain is boggy, with ponds, marshes and fields as common features, with small forests interspersed. The terrain changes as one moves north towards the Baltic Sea.


title: Mecklenburg

text: Under the peat of Mecklenburg are sometimes found deposits of ancient lava flows. Traditionally, at least in the countryside, the stone from these flows is cut and used in the construction of homes, often in joint use with cement, brick and wood, forming a unique look to the exterior of country houses.


title: Mecklenburg

text: Mecklenburg is the site of many prehistoric dolmen tombs. Its earliest organised inhabitants may have had Celtic origins. By no later than 100 BC the area had been populated by pre-Christian Germanic peoples.


title: Mecklenburg

text: The traditional symbol of Mecklenburg, the grinning steer's head (Low German: "Ossenkopp", lit.: 'oxen's head', with "osse" being a synonym for steer and bull in Middle Low German), with an attached hide, and a crown above, may have originated from this period. It represents what early peoples would have worn, i.e. a steers's head as a helmet, with the hide hanging down the back to protect the neck from the sun, and overall as a way to instill fear in the enemy.


title: Mecklenburg

text: From the 7th through the 12th centuries, Mecklenburg was inhabited by Western Slavs who migrated there from what is now eastern Poland and north-western Ukraine. Among them were the Obotrites and other tribes that Frankish sources referred to as "Wends". The 11th-century founder of the Mecklenburger dynasty of Dukes and later Grand Dukes, which lasted until 1918, was Nyklot of the Obotrites.


title: Mecklenburg

text: In the late 12th century, Henry the Lion, Duke of the Saxons, reconquered the region, took oaths from its local lords, and Christianized its people, in a precursor to the Northern Crusades. From the 12th to 14th centuries, large numbers of Germans and Flemings settled the area (Ostsiedlung), importing German law and improved agricultural techniques. The Wends who survived all warfare and devastation of the centuries before, including invasions of and expeditions into Saxony, Denmark and Liutizic areas as well as internal conflicts, were assimilated in the centuries thereafter. However, elements of certain names and words used in Mecklenburg speak to the lingering Slavic influence. An example would be the city of Schwerin, which was originally called "Zuarin" in Slavic. Another example is the town of Bresegard, the 'gard' portion of the town name deriving from the Slavic word 'grad', meaning city or town.


title: Mecklenburg

text: Since the 12th century, the territory remained stable and relatively independent of its neighbours; one of the few German territories for which this is true. During the Reformation, the Duke in Schwerin would convert to Protestantism and so would follow the Duchy of Mecklenburg in 1549.


title: Mecklenburg

text: Like many German territories, Mecklenburg was sometimes partitioned and re-partitioned among different members of the ruling dynasty. In 1621 it was divided into the two duchies of Mecklenburg-Schwerin and Mecklenburg-Güstrow. With the extinction of the Güstrow line in 1701, the Güstrow lands were redivided, part going to the Duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, and part going to the new line of Mecklenburg-Strelitz.


title: Mecklenburg

text: In 1815, the two Mecklenburgian duchies were raised to Grand Duchies, the Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin and the Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, and subsequently existed separately as such in Germany under enlightened but absolute rule (constitutions being granted on the eve of World War I) until the revolution of 1918. Life in Mecklenburg could be quite harsh. Practices such as having to ask for permission from the Grand Duke to get married, or having to apply for permission to emigrate, would linger late into the history of Mecklenburg (i.e. 1918), long after such practices had been abandoned in other German areas. Even as late as the later half of the 19th century the Grand Duke personally owned half of the countryside. The last Duke abdicated in 1918, as monarchies fell throughout Europe. The Duke's ruling house reigned in Mecklenburg uninterrupted (except for two years) from its incorporation into the Holy Roman Empire until 1918. From 1918 to 1933, the duchies were free states in the Weimar Republic.


title: Mecklenburg

text: Traditionally Mecklenburg has always been one of the poorer German regions. The reasons for this may be varied, but one factor stands out: agriculturally the land is poor and can not produce at the same level as other parts of Germany. The two Mecklenburgs made attempts at being independent states after 1918, but eventually failed as their dependence on the rest of the German lands became apparent.


title: Mecklenburg

text: After three centuries of partition, Mecklenburg was united on 1 January 1934 by the German government. During World War II the Wehrmacht assigned Mecklenburg and Pomerania to Wehrkreis II under the command of "General der Infanterie" Werner Kienitz, with the headquarters at Stettin. Mecklenburg was assigned to an Area headquartered at Schwerin, which was responsible for military units in Schwerin, Rostock, Parchim, and Neustrelitz.


title: Mecklenburg

text: After World War II, the Soviet government occupying eastern Germany merged Mecklenburg with the smaller neighbouring region of Western Pomerania (German "Vorpommern") to form the state of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern. Mecklenburg contributed about two-thirds of the geographical size of the new state and the majority of its population. Also, the new state became temporary or permanent home for many refugees expelled from former German territories seized by the Soviet Union and Poland after the war. The Soviets changed the name from "Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania" to "Mecklenburg" in 1947.


title: Mecklenburg

text: In 1952, the East German government ended the independent existence of Mecklenburg, creating three districts ("Bezirke") out of its territory: Rostock, Schwerin and Neubrandenburg.


title: Mecklenburg

text: During German reunification in 1990, the state of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern was revived, and is now one of the 16 states of the Federal Republic of Germany.


title: Mecklenburg

text: The House of Mecklenburg was founded by Niklot, prince of the Obotrites, Chizzini and Circipani on the Baltic Sea, who died in 1160. His Christian progeny was recognized as prince of the Holy Roman Empire 1170 and Duke of Mecklenburg 8 July 1348. On 27 February 1658 the ducal house divided in two branches: Mecklenburg-Schwerin and Mecklenburg-Strelitz.


title: Mecklenburg

text: The flag of both Mecklenburg duchies is traditionally made of the colours blue, yellow and red. The sequence however changed more than once in the past 300 years. In 1813 the duchies used yellow-red-blue. 23 December 1863 for Schwerin and 4 January 1864 for Strelitz blue-yellow-red was ordered. Mecklenburg-Schwerin however used white instead of yellow for flags on sea by law of 24 March 1855.


title: Mecklenburg

text: Siebmachers Wappenbuch gives therefore (?) blue-white-red for Schwerin and blue-yellow-red for Strelitz.


title: Mecklenburg

text: According to this source, the grand ducal house of Schwerin used a flag of 3.75 to 5.625 M with the middle arms on a white quadrant (1.75 M) in the middle.


title: Mecklenburg

text: The middle arms show the shield of Mecklenburg as arranged in the 17th century. The county of Schwerin in the middle and in the quartering Mecklenburg (bull's head with hide), Rostock (griffin), principality of Schwerin (griffin surmounting green rectangle), Ratzeburg (cross surmounted by crown), Stargard (arm with hand holding ring) and Wenden (bull's head). The shield is supported by a bull and a griffin and surmounted by a royal crown.


title: Mecklenburg

text: The dukes of Strelitz used according to Siebmachers the blue-yellow-red flag with just the (oval) shield of Mecklenburg in the yellow band.


title: Mecklenburg

text: Ströhl in 1897 and Bulgaria, show another arrangement: The grand-duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin flows a flag (4:5) with the arms of the figures from the shield of arms.


title: Mecklenburg

text: Ströhl mentions a flag for the grand ducal house by law of 23 December 1863 with the middle arms in the yellow band. And he mentions a special sea flag, the same but with a white middle band.


title: Mecklenburg

text: 'Berühmte Fahnen' shows furthermore a standard for grand duchess Alexandra of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, princess of Hannover (1882–1963), showing her shield and that of Mecklenburg joined by the order of the Wendic Crown in a white oval. On sea the yellow band in her flag was of course white.


title: Mecklenburg

text: The princes (dukes) of Mecklenburg-Schwerin had according to this source their own standard, showing the griffin of Rostock.


title: Mecklenburg

text: A flat landscape, Mecklenburg is known for its farmlands - which produces quinoa, wheat, barley and maize – and its husbandry. Notably, the region is known for its cattle and Mecklenburger horse breed. Recently, with the upheavals and environmental disruptions created by globalisation, German farmers have been concerned about the introduction of potentially invasive species such as the Greater rhea and the Asian hornet.


title: Mecklenburg

text: Mecklenburg has seen a huge increase in tourism since German reunification in 1990, particularly with its beaches and seaside resorts at the Baltic Sea ("German Riviera", Warnemünde, Boltenhagen, Heiligendamm, Kühlungsborn, Rerik and others), the Mecklenburg Lakeland ("Mecklenburgische Seenplatte") and the Mecklenburg Switzerland ("Mecklenburgische Schweiz") with their pristine nature, the old Hanseatic towns of Rostock, Greifswald, Stralsund and Wismar (the latter two being World Heritage) well known for their medieval Brick Gothic buildings, and the former royal residences of Schwerin, Güstrow, Ludwigslust and Neustrelitz.


title: Thickening agent

text: A thickening agent or thickener is a substance which can increase the viscosity of a liquid without substantially changing its other properties. Edible thickeners are commonly used to thicken sauces, soups, and puddings without altering their taste; thickeners are also used in paints, inks, explosives, and cosmetics.


title: Thickening agent

text: Thickeners may also improve the suspension of other ingredients or emulsions which increases the stability of the product. Thickening agents are often regulated as food additives and as cosmetics and personal hygiene product ingredients. Some thickening agents are gelling agents (gellants), forming a gel, dissolving in the liquid phase as a colloid mixture that forms a weakly cohesive internal structure. Others act as mechanical thixotropic additives with discrete particles adhering or interlocking to resist strain.


title: Thickening agent

text: Thickening agents can also be used when a medical condition such as dysphagia causes difficulty in swallowing. Thickened liquids play a vital role in reducing risk of aspiration for dysphagia patients.


title: Thickening agent

text: Many other food ingredients are used as thickeners, usually in the final stages of preparation of specific foods. These thickeners have a flavor and are not markedly stable, thus are not suitable for general use. However, they are very convenient and effective, and hence are widely used.


title: Thickening agent

text: Different thickeners may be more or less suitable in a given application, due to differences in taste, clarity, and their responses to chemical and physical conditions. For example, for acidic foods, arrowroot is a better choice than cornstarch, which loses thickening potency in acidic mixtures. At (acidic) pH levels below 4.5, guar gum has sharply reduced aqueous solubility, thus also reducing its thickening capability. If the food is to be frozen, tapioca or arrowroot are preferable over cornstarch, which becomes spongy when frozen.


title: Thickening agent

text: Food thickeners frequently are based on either polysaccharides (starches, vegetable gums, and pectin), or proteins.


title: Thickening agent

text: This category includes starches as arrowroot, cornstarch, katakuri starch, potato starch, sago, wheat flour, almond flour, tapioca and their starch derivatives.


title: Thickening agent

text: A flavorless powdered starch used for this purpose is a fecula (from the Latin "faecula", diminutive of "faex," "dregs").


title: Thickening agent

text: Other sugar polymers include vegetable gums such as pectin from "Citrus" peel, guar gum from the guar bean, and locust bean gum from the carob bean.


title: Thickening agent

text: Agar, alginin and carrageenan are polysaccharides extracted from algae. Xanthan gum is a polysaccharide secreted by the bacterium "Xanthomonas campestris" and carboxymethyl cellulose is a synthetic gum derived from cellulose. Proteins used as food thickeners include collagen, egg whites, and gelatin. Other thickening agents act on the proteins already present in a food. One example is sodium pyrophosphate, which acts on casein in milk during the preparation of instant pudding.


title: Thickening agent

text: Gelling agents are food additives used to thicken and stabilize various foods, like jellies, desserts and candies. The agents provide the foods with texture through formation of a gel. Some stabilizers and thickening agents are gelling agents.


title: Thickening agent

text: Typical gelling agents include natural gums, starches, pectins, agar-agar and gelatin. Often they are based on polysaccharides or proteins.


title: Thickening agent

text: Commercial jellies used in East Asian cuisines include the glucomannan polysaccharide gum used to make "lychee cups" from the konjac plants, and aiyu or ice jelly from the "Ficus pumila" climbing fig plant.


title: Thickening agent

text: Agar-agar produces a very clear gel with light residual taste. Gelatin sheets disperse easily with no residual taste, but powdered form may have some taste. Kappa carragreenan may include potassium chloride to improve the gelling process and produces a clear product with very little aftertaste. Iota carrageenan contains sodium chloride which improves gel formation. Sodium alginate produces a medium viscosity gel but may have some aftertaste. High-methoxy pectin is one of the most widely used gelling agents in food processing. It reacts with some sugars and acids and sometimes includes minerals to improve gelling process. Low-methoxy pectin reacts with calcium, and is used for the preparation of low sugar jams.


title: Thickening agent

text: Functional flours are produced from specific cereal variety (wheat, maize, rice or other) conjugated to specific heat treatment able to increase stability, consistency and general functionalities. These functional flours are resistant to industrial stresses such as acidic pH, sterilisation, freeze conditions, and can help food industries to formulate with natural ingredients. For the final consumer, these ingredients are more accepted because they are shown as "flour" in the ingredient list.


title: Thickening agent

text: Flour is often used for thickening gravies, gumbos, and stews. The most basic type of thickening agent, flour blended with water to make a paste, is called whitewash. It must be cooked in thoroughly to avoid the taste of uncooked flour. Roux, a mixture of flour and fat (usually butter) cooked into a paste, is used for gravies, sauces and stews. Cereal grains (oatmeal, couscous, farina, etc.) are used to thicken soups. Yogurt is popular in Eastern Europe and Middle East for thickening soups. Soups can also be thickened by adding grated starchy vegetables before cooking, though these will add their own flavour. Tomato puree also adds thickness as well as flavour. Egg yolks are a traditional sauce thickener in professional cooking; they have rich flavor and offer a velvety smooth texture but achieve the desired thickening effect only in a narrow temperature range. Overheating easily ruins such a sauce, which can make egg yolk difficult to use as a thickener for amateur cooks. Other thickeners used by cooks are nuts (including rehan) or glaces made of meat or fish.


title: Thickening agent

text: Many thickening agents require extra care in cooking. Some starches lose their thickening quality when cooked for too long or at too high a temperature; on the other hand, cooking starches too short or not hot enough might lead to an unpleasant starchy taste or cause water to seep out of the finished product after cooling. Also, higher viscosity causes foods to burn more easily during cooking. As an alternative to adding more thickener, recipes may call for reduction of the food's water content by lengthy simmering. When cooking, it is generally better to add thickener cautiously; if over-thickened, more water may be added but loss of flavour and texture may result.


title: Thickening agent

text: Food thickening can be important for people facing medical issues with chewing or swallowing, as foods with a thicker consistency can reduce the chances of choking, or of inhalation of liquids or food particles, which can lead to aspiration pneumonia.


title: Thickening agent

text: Fumed silica and similar products form stiff microscopic chains or fibers which interlock or agglomerate into a mass, holding the associated liquid by surface tension, but which can separate or slide when sufficient force is applied. This causes the thixotropic or shear-thinning property (also frequently exhibited by gels), where the viscosity is non-Newtonian and becomes lower as the shearing force or time increases; their usefulness is primarily that the resulting increase in viscosity is large compared to the quantity of silica added. Fumed silica is generally accepted as safe as a food additive and is frequently used in cosmetics. Additives such as precipitated silica, fine talc, or chalk also meet the definition of "thickening agent" in that they increase viscosity and body while not affecting the target property of a mixture.


title: Thickening agent

text: Thickening agents used in cosmetics or personal hygiene products include viscous liquids such as polyethylene glycol, synthetic polymers such as carbomer (a trade name for polyacrylic acid) and vegetable gums. Some thickening agents may also function as stabilizers when they are used to maintain the stability of an emulsion. Some emollients, such as petroleum jelly and various waxes may also function as thickening agents in an emulsion.


title: Thickening agent

text: One of the main use of thickeners is in the paint and printing industries, which depend heavily on rheology modifiers, to prevent pigments settling to the bottom of the can, yielding inconsistent results. Water based formulas would be nearly impossible with the exception of India ink and the few other water-soluble pigments, but these would have very little coverage and at best would stain wood slightly. All modern paints and inks will have some pigment added at the factory for opacity and to control the specularity of the finish, from matte to high gloss, dependent on thickener used, but more so on the size of the particles added as opacity modifier. Particle sizes of 1 µm and below will be the limit of high gloss, probably confined to luxury automotive coatings, and about 100 µm particulates will make a bumpy surface on the microscopic scale, which scatters light and makes the surface appear matte.


title: Thickening agent

text: In petrochemistry, gelling agents, also called solidifiers, are chemicals capable of reacting with oil spills and forming rubber-like solids. The gelled coagulated oil then can be removed from the water surface by skimming, suction devices, or nets. Calm or only moderately rough sea is required.


title: Thickening agent

text: Various materials are used to convert liquid explosives to a gel form. Nitrocellulose and other nitro esters are often used. Other possibilities include nitrated guar gum.


title: Thickening agent

text: Many fuels used in incendiary devices require thickening for increased performance. Aluminium salts of fatty acids are frequently used. Some formulations (e.g. Napalm-B) use polymeric thickeners, namely polystyrene. Hydroxyl aluminium bis(2-ethylhexanoate) is also used. Thickened pyrophoric agent, a pyrophoric replacement of napalm, is a triethylaluminium thickened with polyisobutylene.


title: Hicksville, New York

text: Hicksville is a hamlet and census-designated place (CDP) within the Town of Oyster Bay in Nassau County, on Long Island, in New York. The population of the CDP was 41,547 at the 2010 census.


title: Hicksville, New York

text: Valentine Hicks, son-in-law of abolitionist and Quaker preacher Elias Hicks, and eventual president of the Long Island Rail Road, bought land in the village in 1834 and turned it into a station stop on the LIRR in 1837. The station became a depot for produce, particularly cucumbers for a Heinz Company plant. After a blight destroyed the cucumber crops, the farmers grew potatoes. It turned into a bustling New York City suburb in the building boom following World War II. The hamlet was named for Valentine Hicks.


title: Hicksville, New York

text: In 1953, Hicksville attempted to incorporate itself as the Incorporated Village of Hicksville. Many residents felt that by incorporating as a village, the community would be run more effectively than by the Town of Oyster Bay. A petition had been signed with 6,242 signatures from residents in favor of the plan.


title: Hicksville, New York

text: However, these plans were unsuccessful, and Hicksville remains an unincorporated area of the Town of Oyster Bay to this day, as of 2022.


title: Hicksville, New York

text: According to the United States Census Bureau, the CDP has a total area of , of which is land and 0.15% is water.


title: Hicksville, New York

text: The climate is borderline between hot-summer humid continental ("Dfa") and humid subtropical ("Cfa") and the local hardiness zone is 7a. Average monthly temperatures in the village centre range from 31.9 °F in January to 74.7 °F in July.


title: Hicksville, New York

text: Metalab Equipment Company, a division of Norbute Corp, made laboratory furniture and cabinetry. Alsy Manufacturing manufactured electric lamps and lampshades from 1975 through 1991.


title: Hicksville, New York

text: The Rubber Company of America (RUCO) built a manufacturing site in 1945. RUCO Polymer Corp. (Hooker Chemical Company) manufactured plastics, latex, and esters. Occidental Chemical Corporation (OCC) owned and operated this site from 1966 to 1982. The site was purchased by Sybron Corporation, then in 2000, the Bayer Corporation (Bayer MaterialScience) purchased the Hooker Ruco facility and in 2002 decided to close the facility. The facility was a freight customer of the Long Island Rail Road and New York and Atlantic Railway, served by a spur track off the Main Line next to the grade crossing at New South Road. The site was used for the production of polyester from 1982 until 2002. The LIRR removed the switch during track work sometime after the closure and demolition of the buildings on the property. The property remains fenced-off and vacant currently.


title: Hicksville, New York

text: The presence of a major LIRR hub means that Hicksville developed as a major bedroom community of New York City. The LIRR has a team yard on West John Street, just east of Charlotte Avenue, served by the New York and Atlantic Railway, for off-line freight customers receiving or shipping cargo by rail to anywhere in the North American rail network.


title: Hicksville, New York

text: Hicksville's North Broadway, positioned in the center of Nassau County, developed into a significant retail center. North Broadway was home to the Mid-Island Shopping Plaza (now known as Broadway Mall), a 156,000-square-foot Sears department store and auto center (which closed in 2018) and various other restaurants and retail stores.


title: Hicksville, New York

text: Hicksville is also home to a number of Indian restaurants on Long Island due to its large proportion of immigrants from India, Bangladesh, and Pakistan.


title: Hicksville, New York

text: As of the census of 2010, there were 41,547 people, 13,412 households, and 10,588 families living in the CDP. The population density was 6,109.9 per square mile (2,360.6/km). There were 13,761 housing units at an average density of 2,023.7/sq mi (781.9/km). The racial makeup of the CDP was 69.3% White, 61.6% Non Hispanic White, 2.2% African American, 0.3% Native American, 20.7% Asian, 4.8% from other races, and 2.7% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 14.5% of the population.


title: Hicksville, New York

text: There were 13,412 households, of which 35.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them. 63.1% were married couples living together, 10.8% had a female householder with no husband present, and 21.3% were non-families. 34.0% of all households were made up of individuals, and 8.8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 3.09 and the average family size was 3.47.


title: Hicksville, New York

text: In the CDP, the population was spread out, with 21.1% under the age of 18, 8.6% from 18 to 24, 25.3% from 25 to 44, 29.9% from 45 to 64, and 15.1% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 41.4 years.


title: Hicksville, New York

text: The median income for a household in the CDP was $89,231, and the median income for a family was $99,980. Males had a median income of $52,112 versus $46,278 for females. The per capita income for the CDP was $50,283. About 2.4% of families and 3.7% of the population were below the poverty line, including 3.9% of those under age 18 and 4.3% of those age 65 or over.


title: Hicksville, New York

text: A Little India has developed in Hicksville, centered around Route 107 and Broadway. Starting around 1990, the area began attracting Indian immigrants who have established an extensive community including Indian restaurants, stores such as Patel Brothers,and other businesses, as well as Hindu temples and cultural events such as parades and Diwali festivals. The Indian population was estimated to be around 5,000 in 2013.


title: Hicksville, New York

text: Per the 2000 U.S. Census, there were 41,261 people, 13,710 households, and 10,844 families living in the CDP. The population density was 6,057.2 per square mile (2,339.3/km). There were 13,912 housing units at an average density of 2,042.4/sq mi (788.8/km). The racial makeup of the CDP was 84.56% White, 1.36% African American, 0.11% Native American, 9.04% Asian, 0.03% Pacific Islander, 3.05% from other races, and 1.84% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 9.26% of the population.


title: Hicksville, New York

text: The median income for a household in the CDP was $82,231, and the median income for a family was $94,910. Males had a median income of $52,112 versus $46,278 for females. The per capita income for the CDP was $50,283. About 2.4% of families and 3.7% of the population were below the poverty line, including 3.9% of those under age 18 and 4.3% of those age 65 or over.


title: Hicksville, New York

text: By 1996 there were around four to five restaurants in Hicksville serving South Asian cuisine, and this started the ascent of a "Little India" there.


title: Hicksville, New York

text: Hicksville is primarily located within the boundaries of (and is thus served by) the Hicksville Union Free School District. However, a small part of the hamlet's southeastern corner is located within the boundaries of the Bethpage Union Free School District while a small portion of the hamlet's northeastern corner is located within the boundaries of the Syosset Central School District. As such, children who reside within Hicksville and attend public schools go to school in one of these three districts depending on where they live within the hamlet.


title: Hicksville, New York

text: Hicksville is located within the boundaries of (and is thus served by) the Hicksville Library District, the Bethpage Library District, and the Syosset Library District. The boundaries of these three districts within the hamlet roughly correspond to those of the three school districts.


title: Hicksville, New York

text: Four state-owned roads pass through the hamlet: New York State Route 106, New York State Route 107, the Northern State Parkway, and the Wantagh State Parkway.


title: Hicksville, New York

text: Other major roads within the hamlet include Jerusalem Avenue, Old Country Road, Plainview Road, and South Oyster Bay Road.


title: Hicksville, New York

text: Hicksville is a major hub on the Long Island Rail Road, where the Ronkonkoma Branch meets with the Port Jefferson Branch to form the Main Line.


title: Hicksville, New York

text: Hicksville's fire protection is provided by the Hicksville Fire Department. Its police protection comes from the Nassau County Police Department's 2nd and 8th precincts, as well as the MTA Police and Nassau County Auxiliary Police.