title: Battle of Baltimore

text: Until April 1814, Britain was at war against Napoleonic France, which limited British war aims in America. Meanwhile, the British primarily used a defensive strategy and repelled American invasions of the Provinces of Upper and Lower Canada. However, the Americans gained naval control over Lake Erie in 1813 and seized parts of western Ontario. In the Mississippi Territory, in an area in modern central Alabama General Andrew Jackson destroyed the military strength of the Creek nation at the Battle of Horseshoe Bend in 1814.


title: Battle of Baltimore

text: Although Great Britain was unwilling to draw military forces from the war with France, it still enjoyed a naval superiority on the ocean, and vessels of North America and West Indies Squadron, based at Bermuda, blockaded American ports on the Atlantic throughout the war, strangling the American economy (initially, the north-eastern ports were spared this blockade as public sentiments in New York and New England were against the war). The Royal Navy and Royal Marines also occupied American coastal islands and landed military forces for raids along the coast, especially around the Chesapeake Bay, encouraging enslaved blacks to defect to the Crown and recruiting them into the Corps of Colonial Marines.


title: Battle of Baltimore

text: Following the defeat of Napoleon in the spring of 1814, the British adopted a more aggressive strategy, intended to compel the United States to negotiate a peace that restored the pre-war status quo. Thousands of seasoned British soldiers were deployed to British North America. Most went to the Canadas to re-enforce the defenders (the British Army, Canadian militias, and their First Nations allies drove the American invaders back into the United States, but without naval control of the Great Lakes they were unable to receive supplies, resulting in the failure to capture Plattsburgh in the Second Battle of Lake Champlain and the withdrawal from US territory), but a brigade under the command of Major General Robert Ross was sent in early July with several naval vessels to join the forces already operating from Bermuda. The combined forces were to be used for diversionary raids along the Atlantic coast, intended to force the Americans to withdraw forces from Canada. Some historians claim that they were under orders not to carry out any extended operations and were restricted to targets on the coast. However, the British had in fact launched three major operations targeting the three largest ports of America at Baltimore, New York City (via Lake Champlain and the Hudson River), and New Orleans from August 1814 to February 1815 despite the Treaty of Ghent negotiations that started in August 1814. Each of these three expeditions had over 10,000 British Army troops, many of them the best soldiers and officers from the Peninsular War, so they were not just minor diversionary raids. Britain had already captured most of modern-day Maine and re-established the Crown colony of New Ireland in September 1814 and this could have been a blueprint of what they had in mind for New York City, Baltimore, Washington, D.C., New Orleans, West Florida, and the whole Louisiana Territory. Britain and their ally Spain voided all treaties and land deals made by Napoleon after his defeat in 1814, especially the Louisiana Purchase. The original British goal was to annex New Ireland permanently as well as other possible territories from the United States, but they failed to take New York City, Baltimore, and New Orleans. As a result they had to return New Ireland/Maine back to the United States after the ratification of the Treaty of Ghent in February 1815.


title: Battle of Baltimore

text: An ambitious raid was planned as the result of a letter sent to Bermuda on 2 June by Sir George Prévost, Governor General of The Canadas, who called for retaliation in response to the "wanton destruction of private property along the north shores of Lake Erie" by American forces under Colonel John Campbell in May, the most notable being the Raid on Port Dover. Prévost argued that,


title: Battle of Baltimore

text: ... in consequence of the late disgraceful conduct of the American troops in the wanton destruction of private property on the north shores of Lake Erie, in order that if the war with the United States continues you may, should you judge it advisable, assist in inflicting that measure of retaliation which shall deter the enemy from a repetition of similar outrages.


title: Battle of Baltimore

text: The letter was considered by Ross and Vice-Admiral Sir Alexander Cochrane (who had replaced Sir John Borlase Warren earlier that year as the Commander-in-Chief of the North America and West Indies Station of the Royal Navy, headquartered at Admiralty House in Bermuda) in planning how to use their forces. Cochrane's junior, Rear Admiral George Cockburn, had been commanding ships of the squadron in the operations on the Chesapeake Bay since the previous year. On 25 June he wrote to Cochrane stressing that the defenses there were weak, and he felt that several major cities were vulnerable to attack. Cochrane suggested attacking Baltimore, Washington and Philadelphia. On 17 July, Cockburn recommended Washington as the target, because of the comparative ease of attacking the national capital and "the greater political effect likely to result".


title: Battle of Baltimore

text: On 18 July, Cochrane ordered Cockburn that to "deter the enemy from a repetition of similar outrages..." You are hereby required and directed to "destroy and lay waste such towns and districts as you may find assailable". Cochrane instructed, "You will spare merely the lives of the unarmed inhabitants of the United States".


title: Battle of Baltimore

text: In August, the vessels in Bermuda sailed from the Royal Naval Dockyard and St. George's to join those already operating along the American Atlantic coast. After defeating a US Navy gunboat flotilla, a military force totaling 4,370 (composed of British Army, Royal Marines, and Royal Navy detachments for shore service) under Ross was landed in Virginia. After beating off an American force of 1,200 on the 23rd, on the 24th they attacked the prepared defenses of the main American force of roughly 6,400 (US Army soldiers, militiamen, US Marines, and US Navy sailors) in the Battle of Bladensburg. Despite the considerable disadvantage in numbers (standard military logic dictates that a three-to-one advantage is needed in carrying out an attack on prepared defenses) and sustaining heavy casualties, the British force routed the American defenders and cleared the path into the capital (President James Madison and the entire government fled the city, and went North, to the town of Brookeville, Maryland).


title: Battle of Baltimore

text: On 24 August 1814, British troops led by Rear Admiral George Cockburn and Major General Robert Ross entered Washington and captured the city with a force of 4,500 "battle-hardened" men, during the burning of Washington. British troops, commanded by Ross, set fire to a number of public buildings, including the White House and the United States Capitol. Extensive damage to the interiors and the contents of both were subsequently reported. The British forces subsequently returned to the ships.


title: Battle of Baltimore

text: The British also sent a fleet up the Potomac to cut off Washington's water access and threaten the prosperous ports of Alexandria, just downstream of Washington, and Georgetown, just upstream. The mere appearance of the fleet cowed American defenders into fleeing from Fort Warburton without firing a shot, and undefended Alexandria surrendered. The British spent several days looting hundreds of tons of merchandise from city merchants and then turned their attention north to Baltimore, where they hoped to strike a powerful blow against the demoralized Americans. Baltimore was a busy port and was thought by the British to harbor many of the privateers who were raiding British shipping. The British planned a combined operation, with Ross launching a land attack at North Point, and Vice-Admiral Sir Alexander Cochrane laying siege to Fort McHenry, which was the point defensive installation in Baltimore Harbor.


title: Battle of Baltimore

text: Baltimore's defenses had been planned in advance and overseen by the state militia commander, Major General Samuel Smith.


title: Battle of Baltimore

text: The British landed a force of 5,000 troops who marched toward Baltimore and first met heavy resistance at the Battle of North Point, which was fought on September 12 about 5 miles (8 km) from the city. The city's defense was under the overall command of Major General Samuel Smith, an officer of the Maryland Militia. He dispatched roughly 3,000 men under the command of General John Stricker to meet the British in a forward engagement. General Stricker was to stall the British invasion force to delay the British advance long enough for Major General Smith to complete the defenses in Baltimore.


title: Battle of Baltimore

text: The land invasion force for the British was led by Ross, who would be killed in the second shift of the American defense by an American sharpshooter (it has been suggested that either Daniel Wells or Henry McComas of Captain Aisquith's rifle company, of the 5th Maryland Militia regiment, was responsible, and both killed shortly afterwards).


title: Battle of Baltimore

text: After Ross's death, the British army came under the command of Colonel Arthur Brooke. However, the Americans had already begun to form an organized retreat back to the main defenses of Baltimore, where they awaited a British assault.


title: Battle of Baltimore

text: Rodgers Bastion, also known as Sheppard's Bastion, located on Hampstead Hill (now part of Patterson Park), was the centerpiece of a 3-mile-wide earthworks from the outer harbor in Canton, north to Belair Road, dug to defend the eastern approach to Baltimore against the British. The redoubt was assembled and commanded by U.S. Navy Commodore John Rodgers, with General Smith in command of the overall line. At dawn on September 13, the day after the Battle of North Point, some 4,300 British troops advanced north on North Point Road, then west along the Philadelphia Road (now Maryland Route 7) toward Baltimore, which forced the U.S. troops to retreat to the main defensive line around the city. The British commander, Col. Arthur Brooke, established his new headquarters at the Sterret House on Surrey Farm (nowcalled Armistead Gardens), about two miles east-northeast of Hampstead Hill.


title: Battle of Baltimore

text: When the British began probing actions on Baltimore's inner defenses, the American line was defended by 100 cannons and more than 10,000 regular troops, including two shadowing infantry regiments commanded by general officers Stricker and Winder as well as a few thousand local militia and irregulars. The defenses were far stronger than the British anticipated. The American defenders at Fort McHenry successfully stopped British naval forces but a few ships were still able to provide artillery support. Once the British had taken the outer defenses, the inner defenses became the priority. The British infantry had not anticipated how well defended they would be so the first attack was a failure; however, Brooke's forces managed to outflank and to overrun American positions to the right. After a discussion with lower ranking officers, Brooke decided that the British should bombard the fort instead of risk a frontal assault and, at 3:00 a.m. on September 14, ordered the British troops to return to the ships.


title: Battle of Baltimore

text: At Fort McHenry, some 1,000 soldiers under the command of Major George Armistead awaited the British naval bombardment. Their defense was augmented by the sinking of a line of American merchant ships at the adjacent entrance to Baltimore Harbor in order to further thwart the passage of British ships.


title: Battle of Baltimore

text: The attack began on September 13, as the British fleet of some nineteen ships began pounding the fort with Congreve rockets (from rocket vessel HMS "Erebus") and mortar shells (from bomb vessels "Terror", "Volcano", "Meteor", "Devastation", and "Aetna"). After an initial exchange of fire, the British fleet withdrew to just beyond the range of Fort McHenry's cannons and continued to bombard the American redoubts for the next 25 hours. Although 1,500 to 1,800 cannonballs were launched at the fort, damage was light because of recent fortification that had been completed prior to the battle.


title: Battle of Baltimore

text: After nightfall, Cochrane ordered a landing to be made by small boats to the shore just west of the fort, away from the harbor opening on which the fort's defense was concentrated. He hoped that the landing party might slip past Fort McHenry and draw Smith's army away from the main British land assault on the city's eastern border. That gave the British a good diversion for half an hour and allowed them to fire again and again. On the morning of September 14, the oversized American flag, which had been made a year earlier by local flagmaker Mary Pickersgill and her 13-year-old daughter, was raised over Fort McHenry (replacing the tattered storm flag which had flown during battle). It was responded to by a small encampment of British riflemen on the right flank, who fired a round each at the sky and taunted the Americans just before they too returned to the shore line.


title: Battle of Baltimore

text: Originally, historians said that the oversized Star Spangled Banner Flag was raised to taunt the British, but that is not the case. The oversized flag was used every morning for reveille, as was the case on the morning of September 14.


title: Battle of Baltimore

text: Brooke had been instructed not to attack the American positions around Baltimore unless he was certain that there were fewer than 2,000 men in the fort. Because of his orders, Brooke had to withdraw from his positions and returned to the fleet, which would set sail for New Orleans.


title: Battle of Baltimore

text: Colonel Brooke's troops withdrew, and Admiral Cochrane's fleet sailed off to regroup before his next (and final) assault on the United States, at the Battle of New Orleans. Armistead was soon promoted to lieutenant colonel. Much weakened by the arduous preparations for the battle, he died at 38, only three years after the battle.


title: Battle of Baltimore

text: Three active battalions of the Regular Army (1-4 Inf, 2-4 Inf and 3-4 Inf) perpetuate the lineages of the old 36th and 38th Infantry Regiments, both of which were at Fort McHenry during the bombardment. The lineage of the 5th Maryland Infantry Regiment, which played a major role in the Battle of North Point, is perpetuated by the Maryland Army National Guard's 175th Infantry Regiment.


title: Battle of Baltimore

text: An American lawyer and amateur poet, Francis Scott Key, was on a mercy mission for the release of Dr. William Beanes, a prisoner of the British. Key showed the British letters from wounded British officers praising the care that they received from Dr. Beanes. The British agreed to release Beanes, but Key and Beanes were forced to stay with the British until the attack on Baltimore was over. Key watched the proceedings from a truce ship in the Patapsco River. On the morning of the 14th, Key saw the American flag waving above Fort McHenry. Inspired, he began jotting down verses on the back of a letter he was carrying. Key's poem was originally named "Defence on Fort McHenry" was printed on pamphlets by the "Baltimore American".


title: Battle of Baltimore

text: Key's poem was later set to the tune of a British song called "To Anacreon in Heaven," the official song of the Anacreontic Society, an 18th-century gentlemen's club of amateur musicians in London. The song eventually became known as "The Star-Spangled Banner." The US Congress made it the national anthem of the United States in 1931.


title: Louie Barry

text: Louie Mark Barry (born 21 June 2003) is an English professional footballer who plays as a striker and winger for EFL League One club Milton Keynes Dons, on loan from Premier League club Aston Villa.


title: Louie Barry

text: Having spent a decade in the West Bromwich Albion Academy he moved to Barcelona in 2019, becoming the first English player to join and play for the La Masia academy. He subsequently joined the Aston Villa Academy in January 2020. Barry has represented both England and the Republic of Ireland at youth international level.


title: Louie Barry

text: Barry was born in Sutton Coldfield, and has dual British and Irish citizenship. He attended Bishop Walsh Catholic School. In February 2020, he said that he had been an Aston Villa fan his entire life.


title: Louie Barry

text: Barry played for local Sutton Coldfield side, Sutton United as an under-8 where he played with future teammate Tim Iroegbunam. Barry joined the West Bromwich Albion academy at the age of six and by 2018, had progressed to the U21 squad.


title: Louie Barry

text: After spending ten years with West Bromwich Albion, Barry signed a three-year contract with Spanish club Barcelona in July 2019. He had previously been close to signing for French club Paris Saint-Germain. He became the first English player to join La Masia. In September 2019 it was announced that Albion were going to report Barcelona to FIFA over the transfer, claiming that they had not received the compensation they were due. Barcelona contested this, however, stating that they did not believe that his scholarship for Albion had any international standing, and that they would wait for the verdict from FIFA. He subsequently had to wait three months for his international registration to be confirmed which meant he missed the first seven matches of the Barcelona under-19 season. A judge ultimately ruled in favour of Barcelona and in November 2021 stated that Albion were due no further compensation.


title: Louie Barry

text: Barry made his debut for Barcelona's under-19 side in October 2019, scoring on his first start, in a 6–0 victory against Ebro. He made ten competitive under-19 appearances in the league and UEFA Youth League for Barcelona in the 2019–20 season, scoring twice. His side were declared U19 league champions in May 2020, a few months after Barry left the club, after the COVID-19 pandemic curtailed the youth season.


title: Louie Barry

text: In January 2020 he held talks with Aston Villa, signing for them later that month for a fee of £880,000, which could rise to £3.5m with add-ons. Barry signed a three-year contract, as this is the maximum allowed for a player of his age – with an agreement of an automatic further three years at the end of that. He made his debut for the club's U23 team on 23 January, shortly before he was officially unveiled by the Midlands club. He came on to score the equaliser in a 2–1 win over Cardiff City. In June he spent time training with the Aston Villa first team, then made a first appearance in the EFL Trophy with the club's under-21 side four months later.


title: Louie Barry

text: On 8 January 2021, after ten of Villa's first-team players tested positive for COVID-19, Barry was selected to make his debut in the FA Cup third round against Liverpool. Barry scored to equalise the game at 1–1, before Liverpool went on to win 4–1. Barry's performance prompted the Liverpool manager, Jürgen Klopp, to refer to the youngster as "Little Jamie Vardy" The goal was voted 'Goal of the Round' by BBC Sport readers. On 24 May, Barry was part of the Aston Villa U18 squad that won the FA Youth Cup, beating Liverpool U18s 2–1 in the final. On 7 July, Villa announced that they had exercised an option in Barry's contract to automatically extend it until 2024.


title: Louie Barry

text: On 6 August 2021, Barry signed for League One side Ipswich Town on a season-long loan. He made his debut on 10 August, in a 1–0 EFL Cup defeat to Newport County. He made his Football League debut four days later in a 2–1 defeat at Burton Albion. After finding game time limited at Ipswich, Barry returned to Villa in January, having made 6 appearances during his loan.


title: Louie Barry

text: On 28 January 2022, Barry signed for League Two side Swindon Town on loan for the remainder of the season. He made his debut on 1 February, as a second half substitute in a 1–1 draw against Crawley Town. On 19 February, he scored his first senior league goal, in a 3–0 away victory over Carlisle United.


title: Louie Barry

text: On 12 July 2022, Barry joined League One club Milton Keynes Dons until the end of the 2022–23 season. He made his debut on 30 July 2022 as a 61st-minute substitute in a 1–0 defeat away to Cambridge United.


title: Louie Barry

text: Barry has represented England at under-15, under-16 and under-17 youth levels. He is also eligible to represent the Republic of Ireland, and has represented them at under-15 and under-16 level in 2018 before returning to play for England youth sides. In 2018 Barry scored ten goals in five games for the England under-15 side at a tournament in Italy.


title: Louie Barry

text: In 2019 Barry was part of the England under-17 side that were victorious in the "Syrenka Cup", he started the final and assisted Jamal Musiala for one of England's goals against hosts Poland, a 2–2 draw which England subsequently won on penalties.


title: Louie Barry

text: On 29 March 2021, Barry made his debut for England U18s during a 2–0 win away to Wales at the Leckwith Stadium.


title: Teaching Mrs. Tingle

text: Teaching Mrs. Tingle is a 1999 American teen black comedy thriller film written and directed by Kevin Williamson, in his directorial debut, and starring Helen Mirren, Katie Holmes, Marisa Coughlan, Barry Watson, and Jeffrey Tambor. It follows a trio of high school seniors who must prove their innocence to their vindictive history teacher, who accuses them of cheating on their final exams. Williamson wrote the script before his work on "Scream" and "Dawson's Creek." Following the success of those projects, his script was picked up and production of the film proceeded.


title: Teaching Mrs. Tingle

text: Released in the United States on August 20, 1999, the film was originally titled "Killing Mrs. Tingle", but was delayed and retitled due to the uproar over teen violence in films after the Columbine High School massacre. The film received mostly negative reviews from critics and was a box-office bomb. Williamson has not directed another film since.


title: Teaching Mrs. Tingle

text: In Grandsboro, California, Leigh Ann Watson is a high school student living with her single mother, Faye, who works as a waitress. Leigh Ann's goals are to get top grades, become valedictorian, and leave town. However, her grade in history class is threatened by her teacher, Mrs. Eve Tingle, who has a special dislike for Leigh Ann and downgrades her well-designed project due to a minor historical inaccuracy. Fellow student Luke Churner makes a copy of Tingle's final exam and offers it to Leigh Ann, but she declines. However, Luke stashes the copy in Leigh Ann's backpack. Tingle discovers the copy and threatens to expel her. Tingle immediately heads to Principal Potter's office, but he has left for the day so she decides to tell him in the morning.


title: Teaching Mrs. Tingle

text: Leigh Ann, her best friend Jo Lynn Jordan, and Luke visit Tingle's house that night and try to persuade her that Leigh Ann is innocent. Tingle, however, refuses to listen. Luke threatens Tingle with a loaded crossbow, fellow student Brian Berry's project. A physical struggle ensues, and in the ensuing mêlée, Tingle is accidentally knocked unconscious. The trio panic and tie Tingle to her bed. Leigh Ann returns to her house and promises to return in the morning, while Luke and Jo Lynn are left to watch Tingle. While under Jo Lynn's watch, Tingle regains consciousness, and playing on her guilt, asks to be untied. Tingle immediately attacks Jo Lynn, but is restrained again by Luke.


title: Teaching Mrs. Tingle

text: The next morning, Jo Lynn calls the school and impersonates Tingle, calling in sick. Leigh Ann and Luke go to school, leaving Jo Lynn to watch Tingle. When they return, the trio devise a plan to blackmail Tingle by using fake photos of Luke and Tingle in bed together. Meanwhile, Tingle plays mind games with Jo Lynn, concerning her jealousy about Leigh Ann's supposed relationship with Luke. Later that day, the plan goes awry when Coach Richard Wenchell, the school's married gym teacher and Tingle's secret lover, visits the house. Jo Lynn, again, impersonates Tingle and blindfolds Coach Wenchell to hide her identity. When Wenchell passes out after a high intake of alcohol, the trio decide to blackmail Tingle by producing photographic evidence of her affair with Wenchell.


title: Teaching Mrs. Tingle

text: While Leigh Ann and Luke leave to have the pictures printed and take an unconscious Wenchell back home, Tingle reveals to Jo Lynn that Leigh Ann and Luke spent the night together at a party. Distraught, Jo Lynn leaves. When Leigh Ann and Luke arrive back, Leigh Ann berates Tingle for hating her because she has, unlike Tingle herself, the potential to leave town and experience life. Tingle retaliates that she used to be like Leigh Ann and that Tingle herself is Leigh Ann's future. In response, Leigh Ann and Luke have sex downstairs. Later, the two find Tingle's grade book. Leigh Ann marks down her rival Trudie Tucker's top A grade down to a B, and upgrades her own C to an A+.


title: Teaching Mrs. Tingle

text: The next day at school, Jo Lynn ignores Leigh Ann, still hurt over the revelation. Leigh Ann tries to make amends, but admits that she had sex with Luke, further infuriating Jo Lynn. Tingle escapes from her bonds, ties Luke down in her place, and using the loaded crossbow, threatens Leigh Ann. Jo Lynn returns in a failed attempt to persuade Tingle she will help her blackmail Leigh Ann. After a violent fight, Tingle fires the crossbow, hitting Trudie in the chest as she enters the house. Leigh Ann checks her pulse and says she is dead. Potter arrives to check up on Tingle and is horrified by the scene. Guilt-ridden, Tingle confesses that she shot Trudie and wanted to make Leigh Ann fail like Tingle did herself. However, Trudie was protected by the thick textbook she was holding to her chest and is completely unharmed, which Leigh Ann already knew. Potter calls the police and fires Tingle. The film ends with Leigh Ann being named valedictorian at graduation.


title: Teaching Mrs. Tingle

text: Meryl Streep, Glenn Close, Sigourney Weaver and Sally Field were considered for the role of Mrs. Eve Tingle, the antagonist. Gillian Anderson was offered the role of Mrs. Tingle, but turned it down. Alicia Silverstone was considered for the role of Leigh Ann Watson, the protagonist.


title: Teaching Mrs. Tingle

text: Katie Holmes, who then had a principal role on Kevin Williamson's TV series "Dawson's Creek", was cast as Leigh Ann in February 1998. Shortly after, Helen Mirren was cast in the role of Mrs. Tingle. Of Mirren, Williamson said, "I think Helen Mirren is one of the greatest living actresses that we have and the fact that she wanted to play this role was amazing. She elevated Mrs. Tingle to a new level."


title: Teaching Mrs. Tingle

text: Of her casting, Mirren said, "This is not the sort of film that I'm usually associated with, so I was thrilled that Kevin would think of me for this role." Mirren commented, "For me "Teaching Mrs. Tingle" addresses teenagers' insecurities, ambitions, and fears about the future. Remembering back to the ages of Leigh Ann, Luke, and Jo Lynn, fear of the future is the most powerful thing driving you on. You don't know what's going to happen to you and it's terrifying. I think adults forget how scary that is."


title: Teaching Mrs. Tingle

text: Production began in April 1998 on a budget of $14 million. The film was entirely shot in the Los Angeles area and wrapped in July 1998. The fictional Grandsboro High School was a combination of location work filmed at Rose City High School in Pasadena, Culver City High School in Culver City, and sound stage sets at Culver Studios. Exterior shots of Mrs. Tingle's house took place at a Victorian-style residence in Pasadena.


title: Teaching Mrs. Tingle

text: The film was originally to be called "Killing Mrs. Tingle" and released at an earlier date. However, due to the Columbine High School massacre that occurred on April 20, 1999, a huge uproar occurred over violence in the media. Because of this, many films and TV shows were affected and were rescheduled or re-edited. The film was pushed back to August 20 and retitled" Teaching Mrs. Tingle", which was deemed more acceptable.


title: Teaching Mrs. Tingle

text: The film received mostly negative reviews. On Rotten Tomatoes it has an approval rating of 19% based on 70 reviews, with an average score of 3.92/10. The critics' consensus reads: "As a dark comedy-thriller, this movie lacks humor and thrill". On Metacritic, the film scored 35 out of 100 based on 32 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews".


title: Teaching Mrs. Tingle

text: Roger Ebert gave the film one and a half stars and compared the film to "Election" in its concept, but said that "Teaching Mrs. Tingle" fell short of "Election" in wit, and in that "Teaching Mrs. Tingle" had no sympathetic characters; although he complimented Mirren's acting. Common Sense Media gave the film 1 star of out of 5, calling it a "misguided teen thriller".


title: Teaching Mrs. Tingle

text: There were some positive reviews for the film. Thom Bennett of Film Journal International praised the film, calling it "an entertaining film full of Williamson's familiar movie-reference-laced dialogue". Michael Dequina of The Movie Reporter gave the film 3 out of 4 stars calling the film "admittedly junky but wickedly watchable revenge fantasy".


title: Teaching Mrs. Tingle

text: The film was a box-office bomb; it made US$3.3 million in its opening weekend, debuting at number 10 at the North American box office. However, by its second week, the film dropped down to number 15 and brought in $2,344,298. The film continued to drop, and on its final week in the box office, the film was at number 44. By the end of its run, the film grossed $8,951,935 at the domestic box office against an estimated budget of $13 million.


title: Teaching Mrs. Tingle

text: The original motion picture soundtrack was released by Capitol Records on August 17, 1999. The album features music from Eve 6, The Moffatts, Stretch Princess, Tara MacLean, Duncan Sheik, Kendall Payne, Sozzi, Bree Sharp, Radford, and Eman.


title: Teaching Mrs. Tingle

text: The score was composed by John Frizzell and was released as an album on August 24, 1999 by Varèse Sarabande.


title: Teaching Mrs. Tingle

text: The film was released on DVD and VHS on December 21, 1999, by Dimension Home Video. As part of a deal with Miramax, Echo Bridge Home Entertainment released the film on Blu-ray on May 3, 2011. "Teaching Mrs. Tingle" was released in several countries on Blu-ray, including the United Kingdom on June 25, 2012, by StudioCanal UK, Germany on June 7, 2012 by Studio Canal, France on July 3, 2012 by Studio Canal and Spain on November 30, 2011 by Emon Home Entertainment.


title: Church tabernacle

text: A tabernacle or sacrament house is a fixed, locked box in which the Eucharist (consecrated communion hosts) is stored as part of the "reserved sacrament" rite. A container for the same purpose, which is set directly into a wall, is called an "aumbry".


title: Church tabernacle

text: Within Catholicism, Eastern Orthodoxy, and in some traditions of Anglicanism and Lutheranism, the tabernacle is a box-like or dome-like vessel for the exclusive reservation of the consecrated Eucharist. It is normally made from precious metals, stone or wood, and is lockable and secured to the altar or adjacent wall to prevent the consecrated elements within from being removed without authorization. These denominations believe that the Eucharist contains the real presence of Jesus, and thus use the term "tabernacle", a word referring to the Old Testament tabernacle, which was the locus of God's presence among the Jewish people.


title: Church tabernacle

text: The "reserved Eucharist" is secured in the tabernacle for distribution at services, for use when bringing Holy Communion to the sick, and, in the Western Church, as a focal point for reflection, meditation and prayer. Until the very late 20th century, it was required that the Christian tabernacle be covered with a tent-like veil (conopaeum) or have curtains across its door when the Eucharist is present within. Although this is no longer required in the 21st century, it continues to be the tradition in many places.


title: Church tabernacle

text: By way of metaphor, Catholics and Orthodox alike also refer to the Blessed Virgin Mary as the tabernacle in their devotions (such as the Akathist hymn or Catholic Litanies to Mary) since as Theotokos, the Mother of God, she carried within her the body of Christ.


title: Church tabernacle

text: In early Christianity, priests delivered bread consecrated at their Eucharist to the homes of the sick and others unable to attend the celebration. Laypeople were sometimes commissioned for this purpose. When the Edict of Milan ended persecution and the early Church was allowed to practise its religion publicly, the Eucharist was no longer safeguarded in private Christian homes, but was instead reserved near the altars of churches.


title: Church tabernacle

text: At this time, the preferred containers or "tabernacles" had the form of a dove within a tower. The dove was typically gold, and the tower silver. Emperor Constantine gave to Saint Peter's Basilica in Rome, a gift of two such vessels, both gold and adorned with 250 white pearls. Similar vessels of silver towers and golden doves were also given to particular churches by Pope Innocent I and Pope Hilarius.


title: Church tabernacle

text: Such vessels came to be kept in a place called the or , away from the central body of the church and were suspended by fine chains from the middle of the canopy (hence called a or bread store) above the altar of the church. Later on, simpler vessels would also be used in place of the dove and tower.


title: Church tabernacle

text: By the 13th century, the Eucharist was most often kept in a highly embellished cabinet inserted into the wall to the right or left of the altar. The lit altar lamp indicated the presence of Christ. This was in accordance with the 1215 Fourth Lateran Council, which decreed that the reserved sacrament be kept in a locked receptacle.


title: Church tabernacle

text: The construction of ceremonial stone containers for the Eucharist began in the late 14th century, largely in northern Europe. German and Dutch churches from this period still display tall towers - known in German as , and in Dutch - usually placed to the north of the altar and near the ceiling. German examples of this are found in the church of St. Lawrence in Nuremberg (), the Minster of Salem (), Saints Peter and Paul City Church in Weil der Stadt (over ), the Church of Our Lady in Lübeck (), and St. Mary's Cathedral in Fürstenwalde upon Spree. Belgian churches with such sacrament towers include St. Catherine's in Zuurbemde, St. Martin's in Kortrijk, St. Peter's and St. James's in Leuven, St. James's in Bruges and St. Leonard's in Zoutleeuw.


title: Church tabernacle

text: In the early 16th century, Bishop Matteo Giberti enacted edicts through the Diocese of Verona which proclaimed that the container for the consecrated bread should be placed on the altar. The custom then spread throughout northern Italy. Saint Charles Borromeo, who became Archbishop of Milan in 1560, had the sacrament moved from the sacristy to the altar (though not the main altar) of his cathedral. The edition of the Roman Missal revised and promulgated by Pope Pius V in 1570 (see Tridentine Mass) still did not envisage placing the tabernacle on an altar: it decreed that the altar card, containing some of the principal prayers of the Mass, should rest against a cross placed midway on the altar. However, in 1614 Pope Paul V imposed on the churches of his diocese of Rome the rule of putting the tabernacle on an altar. In reaction to Protestantism's denial of the reality and permanence of the Real Presence of Christ, it became the practice to place the tabernacle in conspicuous places such as the high altar, making it more visible. Whether on the main altar of the church or in a special chapel, the tabernacle became larger and more ornate, eventually becoming the focal point wherever it was placed.


title: Church tabernacle

text: The Catholic Church holds to the doctrine of transubstantiation which holds to the belief that the body and blood of Christ continue to be present in the bread and wine even after Mass is concluded. Therefore, a tabernacle serves as a secure and sacred place in which to store the Blessed Sacrament for carrying to the sick and others who cannot participate in Mass, or as a focus for the prayers of those who visit the church.


title: Church tabernacle

text: The renewal of the Roman-rite liturgy following the Second Vatican Council (see Mass of Paul VI) highlighted the primacy of the Eucharistic celebration. This liturgical renewal determined that the altar should be "truly the centre to which the attention of the whole congregation of the faithful naturally turns". Before Vatican II, Mass was often celebrated directly in front of the tabernacle. After Vatican II the altar for the celebration of Mass now stands on its own, and the tabernacle is given its own, usually smaller altar, or is placed on a nearby pedestal or in its own separate chapel. This allows the faithful to focus on the celebration of the Eucharistic action during Mass while providing the tabernacle with a place that fosters prayer and meditation outside of Mass.


title: Church tabernacle

text: Tabernacles have generally been made of metal (such as bronze or brass), or sometimes of heavy wood. They are traditionally lined in white cloth (often silk), and are always securely lockable and affixed or bolted to a support structure. Some tabernacles are veiled when the Eucharist is present in them. These veils are often made of a cloth in the liturgical colour of the day or season, thus matching the priest's vestments.


title: Church tabernacle

text: There is no separate place for consecrated hosts to be distributed at Mass and those used for the homebound and sick. All consecrated hosts are kept in the ciborium inside the tabernacle. When bringing Communion to the homebound or sick, a small to medium-sized receptacle called a pyx is used by lay ministers, deacons and priests. Most are made from pewter with designs ranging from plain to very ornate and come in varying sizes, depending upon how many consecrated hosts one will need. The pyx is usually carried in a protective case made out of leather called a burse. Most burses have a long, string-like strap that can be worn around the neck.


title: Church tabernacle

text: Catholics only administer the consecrated hosts outside of the church. Priests have both a home Mass kit and a "sick call" kit. These come in carrying cases with a handle and vary in size, depending upon what is needed. A sick call kit comes with a small vial filled with the Oil of the Sick for administering the Sacrament of the Sick along with the pyx for administering Communion, crucifix, prayer book, perhaps a vestment called a "stole" for administering the Sacrament of Reconciliation (Confession) and any other items deemed essential by the priest. The anointing of the sick and confession are the two Sacraments of Healing in the Catholic Church.


title: Church tabernacle

text: Per the Church's teaching, it is inappropriate for a person to take the consecrated hosts into the home with them. After all sick calls have been made, the consecrated hosts are to be returned to the ciborium located inside the tabernacle.


title: Church tabernacle

text: In the Eastern Orthodox Church, the Holy Mysteries (reserved sacrament) are kept in a tabernacle (, ) or "ark" (, ) on the altar at all times. The tabernacle is normally wrought of gold, silver, or wood and elaborately decorated. It is often shaped like a miniature church building, and usually has a cross on top of it. It may be opened using small doors, or a drawer that pulls out. Some churches keep the tabernacle under a glass dome to protect it and the Holy Mysteries it contains from dust and changes in humidity.


title: Church tabernacle

text: The Orthodox do not observe Eucharistic adoration as a devotion separate from the reception of Holy Communion. However, the real presence of the body and blood of Christ requires the Holy Mysteries to be respected. The clergy must be vested whenever they handle the tabernacle. During the Liturgy of the Presanctified Gifts (wherein Communion is received from the reserved Sacrament), when the consecrated Holy Mysteries are brought out during the Great Entrance, everyone makes a full prostration—even the chanters stop singing and prostrate themselves while the entrance is made in silence.


title: Church tabernacle

text: When Orthodox Christians receive Holy Communion, they always receive both the body and the blood of Christ. This includes Communion taken to the sick. Therefore, both are reserved in the tabernacle. Every year on Holy Thursday, the reserved Mysteries are renewed. The priest will cut an extra Lamb (host) for that liturgy and after the consecration, just before the clergy receive communion, the priest will take the extra host and carefully pour a little of the blood of Christ over it. This host will then be cut into very small portions, allowed to dry thoroughly and placed in the tabernacle. The deacon (or priest, if there is no deacon) will consume whatever remains of the previous year's reserved sacrament when he performs the ablutions.


title: Church tabernacle

text: Typically, a sanctuary lamp is kept burning in the Holy Place (Sanctuary) when the Mysteries are reserved. This may be a separate lamp hanging from the ceiling, or it may be the top lamp of the seven-branch candlestick which sits either on top of the Holy Table or behind it.


title: Church tabernacle

text: The receptacle for taking communion to the sick is also called a pyx. However, it is quite different from those used by Catholics, Anglicans and Lutherans. The pyx used by Western Rite Christians is a flat, circular container made to hold only consecrated hosts. The pyxides used in the Orthodox and Eastern Rites are designed for much more, and they, too, vary in size and designs may differ. They also may have a metal case with a chain attached so it can be hung around the neck. Inside the case are several compartments. One compartment contains a small box with a tightly fitting lid into which some of the reserved Holy Mysteries will be placed. There is also a place for a very small chalice, just enough to hold a small amount of wine and a particle of the reserved Mysteries. There will be a small bottle to hold ordinary wine (not consecrated) which is used to soften the particle before it is consumed, and a small pair of tweezers with which the priest removes a particle of the Mysteries from the box to place it in the chalice without touching it, and finally, a small communion spoon with which to administer Holy Communion. This sick call kit is normally kept on the Holy Table, or sometimes on the Table of Oblation.


title: Church tabernacle

text: Rather than using a kit like the one described above, a priest may use a small chalice with a tight-fitting lid. He pours a little wine into the chalice, places a particle of the reserved Mysteries in the wine, and attaches the lid. He will take the chalice and a communion spoon to administer Holy Communion to the sick.


title: Church tabernacle

text: A smaller tabernacle sometimes referred to as a pyx, is used during Great Lent. It may be a rectangular, gold-plated box, often with a cross on top, and with a hinged lid. On Sundays during Great Lent, the priest will consecrate extra hosts (in the same manner as on Holy Thursday), for use during the Presanctified Liturgy. These hosts will be kept in the pyx on the Holy Table, or sometimes on the Prothesis (Table of Oblation).


title: Church tabernacle

text: Reservation of the blessed sacrament is permitted in the Lutheran Churches, although not for the purposes of Eucharistic adoration. In Lutheran parishes that practice sacramental reservation, a chancel lamp is kept near the tabernacle or aumbry.


title: Church tabernacle

text: The now-defunct Evangelical Catholic Church, a Lutheran denomination of Evangelical Catholic, taught:


title: Church tabernacle

text: Only some Anglican parishes of Anglo-Catholic churchmanship use tabernacles, either fixed on the altar, placed behind or above it or off to one side. As in Catholic churches, the presence of the reserved sacrament is indicated by a "presence lamp" – an oil or wax-based flame in a clear glass vessel placed close to the tabernacle. Normally, only ciboria and Blessed Sacrament are placed in the tabernacle, although it is not uncommon for the wine or consecrated oils to be placed there as well. When the tabernacle is vacant, it is common practice to leave it open so that the faithful will not inadvertently perform an act of devotion (such as bowing or genuflecting). Tabernacles are customarily lined with, if not constructed from, cedar wood, whose aromatic qualities discourage insect life.


title: Church tabernacle

text: E. J. Bicknell in "A Theological Introduction to the Thirty-Nine Articles" writes that "According to the first Prayer-Book of Edward VI the sick might be communicated with the reserved sacrament on the same day as a celebration in church." "Article XXVIII — Of the Lord's Supper" in Anglicanism's 39 Articles and "Article XVIII — Of the Lord's Supper" in Methodism's Articles of Religion state that "The Sacrament of the Lord's Supper was not by Christ's ordinance reserved, carried about, lifted up, or worshipped." The Rev. Jonathan A. Michigan, founder of "The Conciliar Anglican" writes that this "Article" "does not explicitly ban these practices but does add a note of caution about them by pointing to the fact that none of them is biblical." As such, the reserved sacrament was used by Anglican priests who held these views to administer communion to persons unable to attend church through illness. However, in 1885 the upper house of Convocation ruled against this practice, declaring "the practice of reservation is contrary to the wise and carefully revised Order of the Church of England".


title: Church tabernacle

text: Among those Anglicans who identify as "Anglo-Catholics," the Protestant Reformation is often considered one episode in church history that no longer defines their faith as Anglicans. After the Oxford Movement, reservation became commonplace in large parts of the Anglican Communion, and some parishes also perform services of solemn benediction and/or other forms of Eucharistic adoration.


title: Church tabernacle

text: The Anglo-Catholic manual of rites and ceremonies "Ritual Notes" described tabernacles as generally made of wood. They could however, be made of gold, silver or even iron (if the iron is enclosed in gilt-wood, wrought metal or carved stone). If the material is metal there should be an inner lining of poplar or cedar wood which also has a lining of white silk or cloth of gold or silver. The tabernacle should be securely fixed to the altar or (shelf), but away from the wall so that the conopaeum (a veil used to cover it when it contains the blessed sacrament) can completely surround it. The veil may be white or varying in liturgical colour. There may be a second tabernacle but not more than one can be in use at the same time. A lamp should remain lit nearby when the tabernacle is in use.


title: Dane axe

text: The Dane axe is an early type of battle axe, primarily used during the transition between the European Viking Age and early Middle Ages. Other names for the weapon include English long axe, Danish axe, and hafted axe.


title: Dane axe

text: Most axes, both in period illustrations and extant artifact, that fall under the description of Danish axe possess type L or type M heads according to the Petersen axe typology. Both types consist of a wide, thin blade, with pronounced "horns" at both the toe and heel of the bit. Cutting surfaces vary, but is generally between . Type L blades tend to be smaller, with the toe of the bit swept forward for superior shearing capability. Later type M blades are typically larger overall, with a more symmetrical toe and heel.


title: Dane axe

text: The blade itself was reasonably light and forged very thin, making it superb for cutting. The thickness of the body on top the edge is as thin as 2 mm. Many of these axes were constructed with a reinforced bit, typically of a higher carbon steel to facilitate a harder, sharper edge. Average weight of an axe this size is between . Proportionally, the long axe has more in common with a modern meat cleaver than a wood axe. This complex construction (i.e. forged thin and incorporating a harder type of steel near the edge) results in a lively and quick weapon with devastating cutting ability.


title: Dane axe

text: Based on period depictions, the haft of a longaxe for combat was usually between approx. long, although Dane axes used as status symbols might be as long as 1.5 to 1.7 m (5 to 5½ ft). Such axes might also feature inlaid silver and frequently do not have the flared steel edge of a weapon designed for war. Some surviving examples also feature a brass haft cap, often richly decorated, which presumably served to keep the head of the weapon secure on the haft, as well as protecting the end of the haft from the rigours of battle. Ash and oak are the most likely materials for the haft, as they have always been the primary materials used for polearms in Europe.


title: Dane axe

text: Through the course of the 9th–11th centuries, the Dane axe began to gain further popularity outside of Scandinavia, either through Viking trade or influence or independent developments; such as England, Ireland and Normandy. Historical accounts may depict the Dane axe as the weapon of some of the warrior elite in this period, such as the Huscarls of Anglo-Saxon England. In the Bayeux tapestry, a visual record of the ascent of William the Conqueror to the throne of England, the axe is almost exclusively wielded by well armoured huscarls. These huscarls formed the core bodyguard of King Harold at the Battle of Hastings. A Dane axe, perhaps King Edward's, is offered to Harold before he is crowned. The Bayeux Tapestry also depicts a huscarl cleaving a Norman knight's horse's head with one blow. The Dane axe is also known to have been used by the Varangian Guard, also known as (), the "axe-bearing guard". One surviving ivory plaque from the 10th century Constantinople depicts a Varangian holding an axe that is at least as tall as its wielder.


title: Dane axe

text: Although the name appears to indicate Scandinavian heritage, the Dane axe is thought to be named because of its popularity in Scandinavia as opposed to its origin. It became widely used throughout Europe from the 10th century, with axes gaining acceptance as a knightly weapon not long after; albeit not achieving the status of the sword. They also began to be used widely as an infantry polearm, with the haft lengthening to about . The 13th and 14th centuries also saw form changes, with the blade also lengthening, the rear horn extending to touch or attach to the haft. The lengthened weapon, especially if combined with the lengthened blade, was called a "sparth" in England. Some believe this weapon is the ancestor of the halberd.


title: Dane axe

text: While the use of the Dane axe continued into the 14th. century, axes with an armour piercing back-spike and spear-like spike on the fore-end of the haft became more common, eventually evolving into the pollaxe in the 15th century. The simple Danish axe continued to be used in the West of Scotland and in Ireland into the 16th century. In Ireland, it was particularly associated with gallowglass mercenaries.


title: Dane axe

text: After the Battle of Stiklestad, the axe also became the symbol of St. Olaf and can still be seen on the Coat of Arms of Norway. However, this is because the axe is the implement of his martyrdom, rather than signifying use.


title: Dane axe

text: The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle describes how a giant Norse axeman wielding what was most likely a Dane axe, single-handedly cut down up to 40 Englishman during the battle of Stamford bridge. Supposedly, he was only defeated when an English soldier floated under the bridge in a barrel and thrust his spear through the planks, mortally wounding the axeman.


title: Dane axe

text: King Stephen of England famously used a Danish axe at the Battle of Lincoln 1141. While one account says after his sword broke, another says he used his sword only after his axe broke.


title: Dane axe

text: Richard the Lionheart was often recorded in Victorian times wielding a large war axe, though references are sometimes wildly exaggerated as befitted a national hero:


title: Dane axe

text: Richard is, however, recorded as using a Danish Axe at the relief of Jaffa. Geoffrey of Lusignan is another famous crusader associated with the axe.


title: Dane axe

text: Robert the Bruce, King of Scotland, famously killed Henry de Bohun at the Battle of Bannockburn with a single blow of his axe. The blow was so powerful it split de Bohun's helmet and skull open and snapped the shaft of the axe. Depictions of the axe show a standard battle axe, however, not a Dane Axe.


title: Dane axe

text: In the 14th century, the use of axes is increasingly noted by Froissart in his Chronicle, with King John II using one at the Battle of Poitiers in 1356 and Sir James Douglas at the Battle of Otterburn in 1388. Bretons were apparently noted axe users, with Bertrand du Guesclin and Olivier de Clisson both wielding axes in battle. In these cases, it is uncertain whether the weapon was a Danish axe, or the proto-pollaxe.


title: Trading card

text: A trading card (or collectible card) is a small card, usually made out of paperboard or thick paper, which usually contains an image of a certain person, place or thing (fictional or real) and a short description of the picture, along with other text (attacks, statistics, or trivia). There is a wide variation of different types of cards.


title: Trading card

text: Trading cards are traditionally associated with sports (baseball cards are particularly common) but can also include subjects such as "Pokémon" and other non-sports trading cards. These often feature cartoons, comic book characters, television series and film stills. In the 1990s, cards designed specifically for playing games became popular enough to develop into a distinct category, collectible card games. These games are mostly fantasy-based gameplay. Fantasy art cards are a subgenre of trading cards that focus on the artwork.


title: Trading card

text: Trade cards are the ancestors of trading cards. Some of the earliest prizes found in retail products were cigarette cards—trade cards advertising the product (not to be confused with trading cards) that were inserted into paper packs of cigarettes as stiffeners to protect the contents. Allen and Ginter in the U.S. in 1886, and British company W.D. & H.O. Wills in 1888, were the first tobacco companies to print advertisements. A couple years later, lithograph pictures on the cards with an encyclopedic variety of topics from nature to war to sports — subjects that appealed to men who smoked - began to surface as well. By 1900, there were thousands of tobacco card sets manufactured by 300 different companies. Children would stand outside of stores to ask customers who bought cigarettes for the promotional cards. Following the success of cigarette cards, trade cards were produced by manufacturers of other products and included in the product or handed to the customer by the store clerk at the time of purchase. World War II put an end to cigarette card production due to limited paper resources, and after the war cigarette cards never really made a comeback. After that collectors of prizes from retail products took to collecting tea cards in the UK and bubble gum cards in the US.


title: Trading card

text: The first baseball cards were trade cards printed in the late 1860s by a sporting goods company, around the time baseball became a professional sport. Most of the baseball cards around the beginning of the 20th century came in candy and tobacco products. It was during this era that the most valuable baseball card ever printed was produced - the T206 tobacco card featuring Honus Wagner. The T206 Set, distributed by the American Tobacco Company in 1909, is considered by collectors to be the most popular set of all time. In 1933, Goudey Gum Company of Boston issued baseball cards with players biographies on the backs and was the first to put baseball cards in bubble gum. The 1933 Goudey set remains one of the most popular and affordable vintage sets to this day. Bowman Gum of Philadelphia issued its first baseball cards in 1948.


title: Trading card

text: Topps Chewing Gum, Inc., now known as "The Topps Company, Inc.", started inserting trading cards into bubble gum packs in 1950 with such topics as TV and film cowboy Hopalong Cassidy; "Bring 'Em Back Alive" cards featuring Frank Buck on big game hunts in Africa; and All-American Football Cards. Topps produced its first baseball trading card set in 1951, with the resulting design resembling that of playing cards. Topps owner and founder Sy Berger created the first true modern baseball card set, complete with playing record and statistics, the following year in the form of 1952 Topps Baseball. This is one of the most popular sets of all time; its most valued piece was 1952 Topps Mickey Mantle #311, which is sometimes erroneously referred to as Mantle's rookie card, though he had in fact appeared in the 1951 Bowman Baseball set. On August 28, 2022, a Mickey Mantle baseball card (Topps; #311; SGC MT 9.5) was sold for $12.600 million.


title: Trading card

text: Topps purchased their chief competitor, Bowman Gum, in 1956. Topps was the leader in the trading card industry from 1956 to 1980, not only in sports cards but in entertainment cards as well. Many of the top selling non-sports cards were produced by Topps, including Wacky Packages (1967, 1973–1977), "Star Wars" (beginning in 1977) and Garbage Pail Kids (beginning in 1985). In 1991 Topps ceased packaging gum with their baseball cards, making many collectors happy that their cards could no longer be damaged by gum stains The following year, in 1992, Topps ceased using heavily waxed paper to wrap their packs of cards and began using cellophane plastic exclusively, thus eliminating the possibility of wax stains on the top and bottom cards in the packs.


title: Trading card

text: In an attempt to stay current with technology and digital trends, existing and new trading card companies started to create digital trading cards that lived exclusively online or as a digital counterpart of a physical card.


title: Trading card

text: In 1995 Michael A. Pace produced "computer based" trading cards, utilizing a CD ROM computer system and floppy discs.


title: Trading card

text: In 2000, Topps launched a brand of sports cards, called etopps. These cards were sold exclusively online through individual IPO's (initial player offering) in which the card is offered for usually a week at the IPO price. That same year, Tokenzone launched a digital collectibles platform that was used by media companies to distribute content in the form of digital trading cards. The quantity sold depended on how many people offered to buy but was limited to a certain maximum. After a sale, the cards were held in a climate-controlled warehouse unless the buyer requests delivery, and the cards could be traded online without changing hands except in the virtual sense. In January 2012, Topps announced that they would be discontinuing their eTopps product line.


title: Trading card

text: Digital collectible card games were estimated to be a $1.3B market in 2013. A number of tech start-ups have attempted to establish themselves in this space, notably Stampii (Spain, 2009), Fantom (Ireland, 2011), Deckdaq (Israel, 2011), and 2Stic (Austria, 2013).


title: Trading card

text: Panini launched their Adrenalyn XL platform with an NBA and NFL trading card collection. Connect2Media together with Winning Moves, created an iPhone Application to host a series of trading card collections, including Dinosaurs, James Bond - 007, Celebs, Gum Ball 3000, European Football Stars and NBA. In 2011, mytcg Technologies launched a platform that enabled content holders to host their content on.


title: Trading card

text: On July 1, 2011, Wildcat Intellectual Property Holdings filed a lawsuit against 12 defendants, including Topps, Panini, Sony, Electronic Arts, Konami, Pokémon, Zynga and Nintendo, for allegedly infringing Wildcat's "Electronic Trading Card" patent.


title: Trading card

text: In 2012, Topps also launched their first phone application. Topps Bunt was an app that allowed users to connect with other fans in a fantasy league type game environment wherein they can collect their favorite players, earn points based on how well they play and trade and compete with other fans. Three years later, the same company launched a digital experiment in Europe (geotargeted to exclude the USA) with its Marvel Hero Attax, using digital as an overlay to its physical product.


title: Trading card

text: Today, the development of the Internet has given rise to various online communities, through which members can trade collectible cards with each other. Cards are often bought and sold via eBay and other online retail sources. Many websites solicit their own "sell to us" page in hopes to draw in more purchase opportunities.


title: Trading card

text: The value of a trading card depends on a combination of the card's condition, the subject's popularity and the scarcity of the card. In some cases, especially with older cards that preceded the advent of card collecting as a widespread hobby, they have become collectors' items of considerable value. In recent years, many sports cards have not necessarily appreciated as much in value due to overproduction, although some manufacturers have used limited editions and smaller print runs to boost value. Trading cards, however, do not have an absolute monetary value. Cards are only worth as much as a collector is willing to pay.


title: Trading card

text: Card condition is one aspect of trading cards that determine the value of a card. There are four areas of interest in determining a card's condition. Centering, corners, edges and surface are taken into consideration, for imperfections, such as color spots and blurred images, and wear, such as creases, scratches and tears, when determining a trading card's value. Cards are considered poor to pristine based on their condition, or in some cases rated 1 through 10. A card in pristine condition, for example, will generally be valued higher than a card in poor condition.


title: Trading card

text: Popularity of trading cards is determined by the subject represented on the card, their real life accomplishments, and short term news coverage as well as the specifics of the card.


title: Trading card

text: While vintage cards are truly a scarce commodity, modern-day manufacturers have to artificially add value to their products in order to make them scarce. This is accomplished by including serial-numbered parallel sets, cards with game-worn memorabilia, autographs, and more. Time can also make cards more scarce due to the fact that cards may be lost or destroyed.


title: Trading card

text: Trading card catalogs are available both online and offline for enthusiast. They are mainly used as an educational tool and to identify cards. Online catalogs also contain additional resources for collection management and communication between collectors.


title: Trading card

text: Sports card is a generic term for a trading card with a sports-related subject, as opposed to non-sports trading cards that deal with other topics. Sports cards were among the earliest forms of collectibles. They typically consist of a picture of a player on one side, with statistics or other information on the reverse. Cards have been produced featuring most major sports, especially those played in North America, including, but not limited to, American football, association football (soccer), baseball, basketball, boxing, golf, ice hockey, racing and tennis.


title: Trading card

text: The first set with a sporting theme appeared in 1896, a cricket series by W.D. & H.O. Wills of 50 cricketers. The tobacco companies soon realised that sports cards were a great way to obtain brand loyalty. In 1896 the first association football set, "Footballers & Club Colours", was published by Marcus & Company, a small firm in Manchester. Other football sets issued at that time were "Footballers & Club Colours" (Kinner, 1898); "Footballers" (J. F. Bell, 1902); "Footballers" (F. J. Smith, 1902) and "Footballers" (Percy E. Cadle, 1904).


title: Trading card

text: The first stage in the development of sports cards, during the second half of the 19th century, is essentially the story of baseball cards, since baseball was the first sport to become widely professionalized. Hockey cards also began to appear early in the 20th century. Cards from this period are commonly known as cigarette cards or tobacco cards, because many were produced by tobacco companies and inserted into cigarette packages, to stiffen cigarette packaging and advertise cigarette brands. One of the most expensive cards in the hobby is a cigarette card of Honus Wagner in a set called 1909 T-206. The story told is that Wagner was against his cards being inserted into something that children would collect. So the production of his cards stopped abruptly. It is assumed that less than 100 of his cards exist in this set. The 1909 T-206 Honus Wagner card has sold for as much as $2.8 million. More recently, on August 28, 2022, a Mickey Mantle baseball card (Topps; #311; SGC MT 9.5) was sold for $12.600 million.


title: Trading card

text: Sets of cards are issued with each season for major professional sports. Since companies typically must pay players for the right to use their images, the vast majority of sports cards feature professional athletes. Amateurs appear only rarely, usually on cards produced or authorized by the institution they compete for, such as a college.


title: Trading card

text: Many older sports cards (pre-1980) command a high price today; this is because they are hard to find, especially in good quality condition. This happened because many children used to place their cards in bicycle spokes, where the cards were easily damaged. Rookie cards of Hall of Fame sports stars can command thousands of dollars if they have been relatively well-preserved.


title: Trading card

text: In the 1980s, sports cards started to get produced in higher numbers, and collectors started to keep their cards in better condition as they became increasingly aware of their potential investment value. This trend continued well into the 1990s. This practice caused many of the cards manufactured during this era to stay low in value, due to their high numbers.


title: Trading card

text: The proliferation of cards saturated the market, and by the late 1990s, card companies began to produce scarcer versions of cards to keep many collectors interested. The latest trends in the hobby have been "game used memorabilia" cards, which usually feature a piece of a player's jersey worn in a real professional game; other memorabilia cards include pieces of bats, balls, hats, helmets, and floors. Authenticated autographs are also popular, as are "serially numbered" cards, which are produced in much smaller amounts than regular "base set cards".


title: Trading card

text: Autographs obtained by card manufacturers have become the most collected baseball cards in the hobby's history. This started in 1990 in baseball when Upper Deck randomly inserted autographs of Reggie Jackson into boxes. They are commonly referred to as "Certified Autographed Inserts" or "CAI's". Both the athlete's and card company's reputations are on the line if they do not personally sign these cards. This has created the most authentic autographs in existence. These cards all have some form of printed statements that the autographs are authentic, this way, no matter who owns the autograph there is no question of its authenticity. CAI's have branched out into autographs of famous actors, musicians, Presidents, and even Albert Einstein. Mostly these autographs are cut from flat items such as postcards, index cards, and plain paper. Then they are pasted onto cards. In 2001, a company called Playoff started obtaining autographs on stickers that are stuck on the cards instead of them actually signing the cards. There is strong opposition against these types of autographs because the players never even saw the cards that the stickers were affixed to.


title: Trading card

text: The competition among card companies to produce quality sports cards has been fierce. In 2005, the long-standing sports card producer Fleer went bankrupt and was bought out by Upper Deck. Not long after that, Donruss lost its MLB license. Currently, Topps is the official baseball card of the MLB.


title: Trading card

text: The first association football (or "soccer") cards were produced in 1898 by the Marcus & Company Tobacco in Manchester, England. The set consisted of over 100 cards and was issued under the title of "Club Colours". They featured illustrated images of players on the front of the card, and a tobacco advertisement on the back of the card. Many other cigarette companies quickly created their own series, beginning with Kinner in 1898. A later series of cards was produced in 1934 by Ardath, which was a 50-card set called "Famous Footballers" featuring images of players on the front of the card, and a tobacco advertisement and short biography of the player on the back of the card.


title: Trading card

text: Modern association football trading cards were sold with bubble gum in the United Kingdom from 1958 to 1975 by A&BC, and later by Topps, UK from 1975 to 1981. Similar smaller sized cards were issued in Spain and Italy beginning in the late 1940s. Cards have been produced from 1981 to present, save 1985 and 1986. Under its "Merlin" brand, since 1994 Topps has held the licence to produce stickers for the Premier League sticker album. Launched by Topps in the 2007–08 season, Match Attax, the official Premier League trading card game, is the best selling boys collectable in the UK – with around 1.5m collectors in the UK – and with global sales it is also the biggest selling sports trading card game in the world.


title: Trading card

text: Other variations of football products exist, such as marbles, cut-outs, coins, stamps and stickers, some made of light cardboard and attached with glue or stickers, into sticker albums specifically issued for the products. Forming a partnership with FIFA in 1970, Panini first produced a World Cup sticker album for the 1970 World Cup. Initiating a craze for collecting and trading stickers, since then, it has become part of the World Cup experience, especially for the younger generation. "The Guardian" states, “the tradition of swapping duplicate [World Cup] stickers was a playground fixture during the 1970s and 1980s.” Panini begins assembling World Cup squads for their sticker album a few months before they are officially announced by each nation, which means surprise call ups often don’t feature in their album. A notable example of this was 17-year-old Brazilian striker Ronaldo who was called up for the Brazil squad for the 1994 FIFA World Cup.


title: Trading card

text: Panini’s football trading card game Adrenalyn XL was introduced in 2009. In 2010 Panini released a UEFA Champions League edition of Adrenalyn XL, containing 350 cards from 22 of the competing clubs, including defending champions FC Barcelona. The fourth edition of Panini FIFA 365 Adrenalyn XL was released for 2019, featuring top clubs, teams and players.


title: Trading card

text: Australian rules football cards are almost exclusively found in Australia as no top-level leagues are present outside the country. The first Australian rules football cards were produced in conjunction with Goodwin & Co's Old Judge Cigarettes in the late 1880s. In the set were Australian celebrities which included Australian rules footballers from Victoria and South Australia. Other companies that issued earlier football cards were W.D. & H.O. Wills in 1905, and Sniders & Abrahams (featuring scenes of matches in 1908 and then releasing other sets with portraits of football players in the 1910s, all in full color). In the 1930s, the Australian division of British Godfrey Phillips Co. released a set of football cards. By the same time, Hoadleys, a local confectionery company, released a set of illustrated cards. Another confectionery company, Clarke-Ellis, also released its own set of cards. Other companies that launched cards sets in the 1930s were Pals Periodical, Plaistowe & Co., Carreras (two illustrated sets in 1933, the first of them with footballers caricatures by Bob Miram), Giant Licorice Cigarettes, MacRobertson's and W.D. & H.O. Wills, among others. The most popular set of Australian rules football cards are often the considered to be the 1963 Scanlens card set. Select Australia is currently the longest continuously operating and largest producer of Australian rules football cards. Prices for Australian rules football cards can be relatively high compared to other sporting codes in Australia. This is illustrated for both vintage and modern cards, such as an 1894 American Tobacco Company card featuring Essendon player Will Crebbin which sold for $10,110 in 2018 and a 2004 Select AFL Conquest Triple Brownlow Medallist signature card featuring Nathan Buckley, Adam Goodes and Mark Ricciuto which was valued at $3,000 in 2018.


title: Trading card

text: Baseball cards will usually feature one or more baseball players or other baseball-related sports figures. The front of the card typically displays an image of the player with identifying information, including, but not limited to, the player's name and team affiliation. The reverse of most modern cards displays statistics and/or biographical information. Cards are most often found in the United States but are also common in countries such as Canada, Cuba, and Japan, where baseball is a popular sport and there are professional leagues.


title: Trading card

text: The earliest baseball cards were in the form of trade cards produced in 1868. They evolved into tobacco cards by 1886. In the early 20th century other industries began printing their own version of baseball cards to promote their products, such as bakery/bread cards, caramel cards, dairy cards, game cards and publication cards. Between the 1930s and 1960s the cards developed into trading cards, becoming their own product. In 1957, Topps changed the dimensions of its cards slightly, to 2-1/2 inches by 3-1/2 inches, setting a standard that remains the basic format for most sports cards produced in the United States.


title: Trading card

text: Basketball cards feature one or more players of the NBA, NCAA, Olympic basketball, WNBA, WBL, or some other basketball-related theme. The first basketball cards were produced in 1910, in a series cataloged as "College Athlete Felts B-33". The complete series included ten different sports, with only 30 cards being associated with basketball. The cards were issued as a cigarette redemption premium by Egyptiene Cigarettes. The number of cigarette packages needed to redeem for the tobacco cards is not known.


title: Trading card

text: The next series of basketball cards were issued in 1911, in two separate series; "T6 College Series", measuring approximately 6" by 8", and "T51 College Series", measuring approximately 2" by 3". These series included a variety of sports, with only 4 cards being associated with basketball, one card from the T6 series and three cards from the T51 series. Both series were produced in two variations, one variation reading "College Series", the other, "2nd Series". The cards were acquired in trade for fifteen Murad cigarette coupons. The offer expired June 30, 1911.


title: Trading card

text: Basketball cards were not seen again until 1932, when C.A. Briggs Chocolate issued a 31-card set containing multiple sports. In exchange for a completed set of cards, Briggs offered baseball equipment. The number of basketball cards in the set is not known.


title: Trading card

text: One of the first boxing cards on record in "America's Greatest Boxing Cards" and encyclopedia and check-list of boxing cards, was of John C. Heenan issued by photographs Charles D. Fredericks in the 1860s. The first set of boxer cards was issued by Goodwin & Company in 1886. Other companies, including Duke and Sons and the Lorillard Tobacco Company, also issued boxing cards in this period. American company Allen & Ginter issued several boxing cards in the "World Champions" series, among other sportsmen.


title: Trading card

text: After the World War II, other companies took over the manufacturing of boxing cards, such as Leaf (1948), Topps (1951) and Donruss.


title: Trading card

text: Cricket cards usually feature one or more players or a cricket-related theme. One of the first cricket collections was released by tobacco company W.D. & H.O. Wills in 1896. Other companies that released cricket collections were Australian Sniders & Abrahams in 1905, and Capstan (a Wills brand) in 1909–10. Alexander Boguslavsky Ltd. also released an illustrated sports collection (that included cricket) in 1925.


title: Trading card

text: Panini released collections of some of the most famous bicycle races in Europe, such as the Tour de France and the Giro d'Italia.


title: Trading card

text: A gridiron football card is a type of collectible trading card typically printed on paper stock or card stock that features one or more American football, Canadian Football League all or World League of American Football players or other related sports figures. These cards are most often found in the United States and Canada where the sport is popular.


title: Trading card

text: Most football cards features National Football League players. There are also Canadian Football League and college football cards. Player cards normally list the player's statistics.


title: Trading card

text: Golf cards will usually feature one or more golf players or a golf-related theme. Golf cards were first introduced in 1901 by Ogden.


title: Trading card

text: The first hockey cards were included in cigarette packages from 1910 to 1913. After World War I, only one more cigarette set was issued, during the 1924–25 season by Champ's Cigarettes. NHL player Billy Coutu's biography includes an example of one of the 40 cards issued at that time.


title: Trading card

text: During the 1920s, some hockey cards were printed by food and candy companies, such as Paulin's Candy, Maple Crispette, Crescent, Holland Creameries and La Patrie.


title: Trading card

text: Through 1941, O-Pee-Chee printed hockey cards, stopping production for World War II. Presumably, the 1941 involvement of the US in the war affected the hockey card market, since Canada had been in the war since 1939.


title: Trading card

text: Hockey cards next appeared during 1951–52, issued by Shirriff Desserts, York Peanut Butter and Post Cereal. Toronto's Parkhurst Products Company began printing cards in 1951, followed by Brooklyn's Topps Chewing Gum in 1954–1955. O-Pee-Chee and Topps did not produce cards in 1955 or 1956, but returned for 1957–58. Shirriff also issued "hockey coins."


title: Trading card

text: With the Suncorp Super Netball competition in Australia Tap'n'Play decided to enter the Netball trading card market. In 2018 they produced their first very basic release but in 2019 they have ramped it with a release full of colour and signature cards.


title: Trading card

text: Racing cards consist of a card stock with stats and pictures on it. Sometimes it shows the car, sometimes it shows the driver's face, and sometimes both. It also shows the endorsing companies for the car.


title: Trading card

text: In September 2020, it was announced that Topps has signed an exclusive worldwide agreement to become the Official Sticker and Trading Card Licensee of Formula 1.


title: Trading card

text: Rugby League cards were first produced in England in 1895. Initially these were produced as part of a multi-sport series. Early in the 1920s the first dedicated Rugby League series was produced, featuring star players from the Northern Union, as the English based Rugby Football League was then known. These were followed shortly after by cards produced in Australia, New Zealand, and Wales. Rugby League trading cards are popular in Australia, with sets having been produced annually since 1968. These sets primarily featured players from the Sydney based New South Wales Rugby Football League, with some sets also being produced featuring players from the Brisbane based Queensland Rugby League. In 1988 the New South Wales Rugby League expanded to become a de facto national league, and the cards were branded accordingly as "Australian Rugby League" cards in 1995, and "National Rugby League" cards in 1998.


title: Trading card

text: Rugby Union cards have been produced since the 1880s, however production has been sporadic, with limited interest post-1940.


title: Trading card

text: In 1993 Futera trading card company produced its first surfing trading card release Hot Surf with a similar release following in 1994 and 1995. These are the only three surfing trading card release for the Australian market.


title: Trading card

text: Upper Deck has also produced surfing trading cards as a part of its annual Goodwins champion release and World of Sport series.


title: Trading card

text: Sumo cards consist of sports card that features one or more sumo wrestlers (sumoists) or another sumo-related theme.


title: Trading card

text: From the early 1900s through to the 1980s several companies produced tennis trading cards as part of general sports card promotional release or exclusive tennis card release. One of these being W.A. & A.C. Churchman tobacco company Men of the Moment in sport release of 1936. They also produced an exclusive lawn tennis release in 1928.


title: Trading card

text: In 1983 Robinson's Barley Water produced a Sporting Records series which featured many tennis superstars of the era like Billie Jean King.


title: Trading card

text: In 1996 the Intrepid trading card company produced the only Australian market tennis trading card release " Blitz ".


title: Trading card

text: During the 1990s and early 2000s the major players in the international tennis trading card market have been NetPro, Leaf and Ace Authentic. Upper Deck has also produced tennis trading cards as part of its Goodwin's Champions annual series.


title: Trading card

text: Wrestling and pro wrestling cards will usually feature one or more wrestlers or another Wrestling-related theme.


title: Trading card

text: This list contains companies that produce, or have produced, sports trading cards. This list does not contain all the brand names associated with their respective manufacturers.


title: Trading card

text: Non-sports trading cards feature subject material relating to anything other than sports, such as comics, movies, music and television. Supersisters was a set of 72 trading cards produced and distributed in the United States in 1979 by Supersisters, Inc, featuring famous women from politics, media and entertainment, culture, and other areas of achievement. The cards were designed in response to the trading cards popular among children in the US at the time which mostly featured men.


title: Trading card

text: The following list includes companies that, apart of producing sports cards, manufacture/have manufactured non-sports cards as well:


title: Trading card

text: A popular niche of non-sports trading cards emerged in 2021 and 2022 with "alternative (Alt) trading cards". G.A.S. Trading Cards and Heavy Trading Cards are popular alternative trading card manufacturers, and include interesting and unique cards - often very limited in production - with a variety of themes and subject matter depicted. Common themes include technology, [cryptocurrency], science and engineering, [conspiracy theories], pop cultural personalities, and more. Within the "alt card" nice, [bootleg] trading cards have become popular as well. Bootleg trading cards are often lower design and production quality with humorous or notorious subject matter, often as an inside joke appealing to a small community of collectors. Prominent bootleg trading card producers include Fill The Void Bootlegs and Trash Panda Cards.


title: Ella-Rae Smith

text: Ella-Rae Kirby-Smith (born 21 February 1998) is an English actress and model. She began modeling in 2014 and rose to fame for her portrayal of Phoebe in "Clique" and Nix in the AMC martial arts drama series "Into the Badlands".


title: Ella-Rae Smith

text: Smith is from Bristol and has two younger siblings. She attended Cotham School. She was scouted at the age of 13 to become a model during a school trip to Paris and signed her first contract in 2014.


title: Ella-Rae Smith

text: Smith's first television role was in "Marley's Ghosts", where she played the role of Mia for two episodes and her film debut was in "Butterfly Kisses" that premiere in 2017. She also started in the television series, "Clique" as Phoebe. She has started in numerous short films in the past two years. In 2017, she was cast to play the role of Nix in "Into the Badlands". She played one of Madame M's crew-members in the film "Hobbs & Shaw". She also plays the role of Daisy Hoy in the Netflix series "The Stranger".


title: Vencer la ausencia

text: Vencer la ausencia (English: Overcoming Loss) is a Mexican telenovela that aired on Las Estrellas from 18 July 2022 to 4 November 2022. The series is produced by Rosy Ocampo and is the fourth production of the "Vencer" franchise. It stars Ariadne Díaz, Mayrín Villanueva, Alejandra Barros, and María Perroni Garza.


title: Vencer la ausencia

text: The sisterhood of four women of different origins is shattered when an accident causes them all to lose a loved one. After discovering the causes of the accident, they will share a painful mystery. The four women must overcome the absence of their loved ones and resolve the grief to rebuild their lives, regaining the sisterhood that united them.


title: Grave robbery

text: Grave robbery, tomb robbing, or tomb raiding is the act of uncovering a grave, tomb or crypt to steal commodities. It is usually perpetrated to take and profit from valuable artefacts or personal property. A related act is body snatching, a term denoting the contested or unlawful taking of a body (seldom from a grave), which can be extended to the unlawful taking of organs alone.


title: Grave robbery

text: Grave robbing has caused great difficulty to the studies of archaeology, art history, and history. Countless precious grave sites and tombs have been robbed before scholars were able to examine them. In any way, the archaeological context and the historical and anthropological information are destroyed:


title: Grave robbery

text: Grave robbers who are not caught usually sell relatively modern items anonymously and artifacts on the black market. Those intercepted, in a public justice domain, are inclined to deny their guilt. Though some artifacts may make their way to museums or scholars, the majority end up in private collections.


title: Grave robbery

text: Grave robbing in China is a practice stretching back to antiquity; the classic Chinese text "Lüshi Chunqiu", dating to the 2nd century BCE, advised readers to plan simple burials to discourage looting. The presence of jade burial suits and other valuables in tombs were powerful temptations to rob graves.


title: Grave robbery

text: In modern China, grave robbing has been perpetrated by both amateurs (such as farmers and migrant laborers) and by professional thieves associated with transnational criminal networks. The practice reached epidemic proportions in the 1980s, as the development and construction boom following the Chinese economic reform led to many archaeological sites being revealed. Other peaks of tomb robbing occurred in the early 2000s and in the 2010s, when the plunder of graves was on the upswing due to an increase in global and domestic demand (and prices) for Chinese antiquities. The provinces of Henan, Shaanxi, and Shanxi were particularly affected by tomb robbing.


title: Grave robbery

text: Ancient Egyptian tombs are one of the most common examples of tomb or grave robbery. Most of the tombs in Egypt's Valley of the Kings were robbed within one hundred years of their sealing (including the tomb of the famous King Tutankhamen, which was raided at least twice before it was discovered in 1922). As most of the artifacts in these ancient burial sites have been discovered, it is through the conditions of the tombs and presumed articles that are missing in which historians and archaeologists are able to determine whether the tomb has been robbed. Egyptian pharaohs often kept records of the precious items in their tombs, so an inventory check is presumed for archaeologists. Oftentimes, warnings would be left by the Pharaohs in the tombs of calamities and curses that would be laid upon any who touched the treasure, or the bodies, which did little to deter grave robbers. There are many examples of grave robbing in the Ancient World outside of Egypt.


title: Grave robbery

text: In parts of Europe, graves are robbed on an accelerating and alarming scale. Many grave robbers work with metal detectors and some of the groups are organised criminals, feeding the black market with highly prized archaeological artifacts.


title: Grave robbery

text: Merovingian graves in France and Germany and Anglo-Saxon graves in England contain many metal grave goods, mostly of iron. Grave robbers often leave them, being only interested in gold and silver. Grave contexts, ceramics, iron weapons and skeletons are typically destroyed in the process.


title: Grave robbery

text: In Eastern Europe, including Southeast Europe and the European part of Russia, grave robbers target all kinds of historically important graves, from prehistoric tombs to World War II graves.


title: Grave robbery

text: Modern grave robbing in North America also involves long-abandoned or forgotten private Antebellum Period to pre-Great Depression era grave sites. These sites are often desecrated by grave robbers in search of old, hence valuable, jewelry. Affected sites are typically in rural, forested areas where once-prominent, wealthy landowners and their families were interred. The remote and often undocumented locations of defunct private cemeteries make them particularly susceptible to grave robbery. The practice may be encouraged by default upon the discovery of a previously unknown family cemetery by a new landowner.


title: Grave robbery

text: One notable historical incident occurred during the evening of November 7, 1876, when a group of counterfeiters attempted to steal Abraham Lincoln's body from his grave in Springfield, Illinois, in an attempt to secure the release of their imprisoned leader, counterfeit engraver Benjamin Boyd. However, a Secret Service agent was present and had notified the police beforehand, so the grave robbers only succeeded in dislodging the lid of his coffin. As a consequence, when Lincoln was reburied, additional security measures were implemented to prevent further grave robbery attempts.


title: Grave robbery

text: Grave robbers often sold stolen Aztec or Mayan goods on the black market for an extremely high price. The buyers (museum curators, historians, etc.) didn't often suffer the repercussions of being in possession of stolen goods; the blame (and charges) were placed upon the lower-class grave robbers. Today's antiquities trade has become a streamlined industry, the speed at which these artifacts enter the market has grown exponentially. Laws to prevent grave robbing have been enacted in these regions, but due to extreme poverty, these grave robberies continue to grow each year.


title: Grave robbery

text: African Americans would often be compelled to bury their dead in a potter's field, not having the access or money for a proper funeral. When buried in potter's fields, the dead were not normally buried very deeply. A grave robber could wait discreetly in the distance until nobody else was in sight, then quickly and easily disinter the body from its shallow resting place.


title: Grave robbery

text: Once the railroad was invented and tracks laid, the sale of the bodies of African American slaves from the South for dissection began in earnest. The bodies were robbed from graves by night doctors and shipped to medical schools in the northern part of the United States. One New England anatomy professor reported that, in the 1880s and 1890s, he entered into an arrangement in which he received, twice each semester, a shipment of 12 bodies of southern African Americans. "They came in barrels labeled [as containing] turpentine and were shipped to a local hardware store that dealt in painting materials".


title: Grave robbery

text: State laws in Mississippi and North Carolina were passed in the 19th century which allowed medical schools to use the remains of those at the bottom of society's hierarchy—the unclaimed bodies of poor persons and residents of almshouses, and those buried in potter's fields for anatomical study. The option to dissect Confederate soldiers was also available, as Mississippi and North Carolina legally released those bodies to the families of the deceased. The North Carolina law also provided that the bodies of whites never be sent to an African American medical college (such as the Leonard Medical School). These African American medical schools typically obtained unclaimed Black ‘‘potter’s field bodies’’.


title: Grave robbery

text: The geography and placement of burial grounds became a deterrent within itself. This is because without the accessibility of the automobile (in the early 19th century), the transportation of bodies was difficult.


title: Grave robbery

text: A perfect example of this is Mount Auburn Cemetery, in Cambridge Massachusetts. It was the first rural cemetery inside the United States. The rural location of the cemetery created transportation issues. In addition, the terrain of and around the cemetery was formidable. Further, Henry Alexander Scammell Dearborn, the designer wanted to leave the natural terrain (including ponds and hills) within the cemetery. If someone wanted to rob a grave, they would have to maneuver around these obstacles and navigate large stretches of land in the dark. Note that Mount Auburn Cemetery is over 175 acres. Other cemeteries, of the time, that were originally built away from populated areas for similar reasons, include: Mount Hope Cemetery in Bangor, Maine (1834); Laurel Hill Cemetery in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania (1836); Mount Pleasant Cemetery in Taunton, Massachusetts (1836); Mount Hope Cemetery in Rochester, New York (1838); Green-Wood Cemetery in Brooklyn, New York (1838); and, Green Mount Cemetery in Baltimore, Maryland (1838).


title: Grave robbery

text: A mortsafe or mort safe was an iron coffin or framework which helped to protect a grave by preventing the body from being dug up and taken away. Mortsafes were specific for the task of preventing bodies from being stolen for purposes of medical dissections. Other variants included movable stone slabs capable of being hoisted over the fresh grave. All work on the principle of greatly increasing the required time for criminals to access the grave.


title: Grave robbery

text: These deterrents, used commonly in Scotland, would be rented from the sexton until the body decomposed and were used on a circulating basis. At the creation of the Dissections Act the purpose became redundant and they were left where last used, sometimes being incorporated into the grave marker by addition of inscription.


title: Grave robbery

text: A mort house, ossuaries or dead house was used to store bones (usually skulls and femurs) gleaned from graves a year or two after burial. They are common throughout northern Europe. They usually predate any graverobbing periods and indeed serve to purpose in relation to graverobbing as they stored bones not bodies.


title: Grave robbery

text: Up to 31 recorded mort houses were scattered throughout Scotland and northern England. Usually these structures were built within or near cemeteries to make transportation easier. Prior to grave robbers, they were used to store dead bodies in the winter, being that the ground was too cold and in some cases impossible to dig into. An example is the Udny Mort House built in 1832, Aberdeenshire, north-east Scotland and still standing today.


title: Grave robbery

text: The coffin collar was an iron collar often fixed to a piece of wood. It was fixed around the neck of a corpse and then bolted to the bottom of a coffin. Most common reports of these collars being used came from Scotland around the 1820s.


title: Grave robbery

text: Mausolea do not play a major role in the history of graverobbing and are largely built as a display of wealth rather than security.