title: Junkers Ju 287

text: The Junkers Ju 287 was an aerodynamic testbed built in Nazi Germany to develop the technology required for a multi-engine jet bomber. It was powered by four Junkers Jumo 004 engines, featured a novel forward-swept wing, and apart from the wing was assembled largely from components scavenged from other aircraft. It was one of the very few jet propelled aircraft ever built with fixed landing gear.


title: Junkers Ju 287

text: The Ju 287 was intended to provide the "Luftwaffe" with a bomber that could avoid interception by outrunning enemy fighters. The swept-forward wing was suggested by the project's head designer Dr. Hans Wocke as a way of providing extra lift at low airspeeds - necessary because of the poor responsiveness of early turbojets at the vulnerable times of takeoff and landing. A further structural advantage of the forward-swept wing was that it would allow for a single massive weapons bay in the best location, the centre of gravity of the plane, with the main wing spar passing behind the bomb bay. The same structural requirement meant the wing could then be located at the best aerodynamic location, the centre of the fuselage. Prior to the assembly of the first Ju 287, an He 177 A-5 (designated as an He 177 prototype, V38) was modified at the Letov plant in Prague to examine the technical characteristics of this single large bomb bay design.


title: Junkers Ju 287

text: The first and second prototypes (Ju 287 V1 and V2; both designated Ju 288 V201 and Ju 288 V202 for security reasons) were intended to evaluate the concept, with V1 being intended to test the FSW and V2 being earmarked for evaluating flight at high subsonic speeds, and both were assembled from the fuselages of the He 177 A-5, the tail of the Ju 188G-2, main undercarriage from a Ju 352, and nosewheels taken from shot-down B-24 Liberators, all of which were fixed to lower weight and complexity, and equipped with spats to reduce drag. The fixed undercarriage was used as the wing box couldn't have cutouts for wheel stowage which would reduce wing torsion box stiffness required for the forward sweep design. Later prototypes with higher power engines and higher top speed would have the undercarriage stowage in the centre fuselage sides Two of the Jumo 004 engines were hung in nacelles (pods) under the wings, with the other two mounted in nacelles added to the sides of the forward fuselage.


title: Junkers Ju 287

text: Flight tests began on 16 August 1944 (pilot: Siegfried Holzbaur), with the aircraft displaying extremely good handling characteristics, as well as revealing some of the problems of the forward-swept wing under some flight conditions. The most notable of these drawbacks was 'wing warping', or excessive in flight flexing of the main spar and wing assembly. Tests suggested that the warping problem would be eliminated by concentrating greater engine mass under the wings. This technical improvement would be incorporated in the subsequent prototypes with under wing engines moved forward under leading edge as a mass balance. The Ju 287 was intended to be powered by four Heinkel-Hirth HeS 011 engines, but because of the development problems experienced with that engine, the BMW 003 was selected in its place. The second prototype (Junkers Ju 287 V2) would have had six engines (originally four underwing BMW 003s and two fuselage-mounted Jumo 004s, but later changed to two triple clusters composed of four Jumo 004s and two BMW 003s), and also differed from the Ju 287 V1 in having the main undercarriage struts with an inward cant, the horizontal stabilizer lowered by 30 centimeters, and light grey-colored trouser pants for the nose wheels. The third prototype, the Junkers Ju 287 V3, employed six BMW 003s, in a triple cluster under each wing, and featured the all-new fuselage and tail design intended for the production bomber, the Ju 287A-1, utilizing a pressurised cockpit used on the Junkers Ju 288. The Ju 287 V4 and V5 would have served as prototypes of the Ju 287A-2 and Ju 287B-1 respectively, and the V5 and V6 were to feature tail armament and ejection seats. The Ju 287B-1 would have had four thrust HeS 011 turbojets, while the Junkers Ju 287B-2 was to employ two thrust BMW 018 turbojets. While the Heinkel turbojet was in the pre-production phase at war's end, work on BMW's radical and very powerful turbine engine never proceeded past three barely-tested prototypes. The final Ju 287 variant design to be mooted was a Mistel combination-plane ground attack version, comprising an unmanned explosives-packed "drone" 287 and a manned Me 262 fighter attached to the top of the bomber by a strut assembly. The cockpit of the 287 would be replaced by a massive impact-fused warhead. Takeoff and flight control of the combination would be under the direction of the 262's pilot. The 262 would disengage from the 287 drone as the Mistel neared its target, the pilot of the fighter remotely steering the 287 for the terminal phase of its strike mission.


title: Junkers Ju 287

text: Work on the Ju 287 programme, along with all other pending German bomber projects (including Junkers' other ongoing heavy bomber design, the piston-engined Ju 488) came to a halt in July 1944, but Junkers was allowed to go forward with the flight testing regime on the V1 prototype. The components for the Junkers Ju 287 V2 had been completed by that time, and were shipped to Brandis for final assembly. Seventeen test flights were undertaken in total, which passed without notable incident. Minor problems, however, did arise with the turbojet engines and the equally-experimental HWK 109-501 higher-thrust (14.71 kN apiece) bipropellant "Starthilfe" RATO booster units, which proved to be unreliable over sustained periods. This initial test phase was designed purely to assess the low-speed handling qualities of the forward-swept wing, but despite this the V1 was dived at full jet power on at least one occasion, attaining a speed in the medium dive-angle employed of 660 km/h. To gain data on airflow patterns, small woolen tufts were glued to the airframe and the "behavior" of these tufts during flight was captured by a cine camera mounted on a sturdy tripod directly ahead of the plane's tailfin. After the seventeenth and last flight in late autumn of 1944, the V1 was transferred to the Luftwaffe's primary "Erprobungsstelle" evaluation and test centre at Rechlin", for flow tests. However, in March 1945, for unknown reasons, the Ju 287 program was restarted, with the RLM issuing a requirement for mass production of the jet bomber (100 airframes a month) as soon as possible.


title: Junkers Ju 287

text: The Junkers factory in Dessau was overrun by the Red Army in late April 1945. Before long, the Junkers Ju 287 V2 had been almost completed, waiting for its engines to be fitted, and construction of the V3 had reached 80-90 percent completion, while the V4 was reportedly 60 percent complete. Both V1 and V2 were destroyed by the Nazis to avoid capture by Allied forces. Wocke and his staff were captured by the Red Army and taken to the Soviet Union, and remnants of V2, especially the wings, were used in construction of the EF 131 which was flown on 23 May 1947, but by that time, jet development had already overtaken the Ju 287. A final much-enlarged derivative, the EF 140, was tested in prototype form in 1949 but soon abandoned.


title: Eli Erlick

text: Eli Erlick (born July 10, 1995) is an American activist, writer, academic, and founder of the organization Trans Student Educational Resources.


title: Eli Erlick

text: Eli Erlick was born on July 10, 1995. Her parents met while protesting, which she cites as a background behind her activism. She is of Jewish heritage and grew up near the rural community of Willits, California. She came out as transgender when she was 8 years old, when she started to experience harassment, isolation, and violence. She was not allowed to use her school's restroom and was threatened and bullied for years after.


title: Eli Erlick

text: At age 13, she publicly transitioned to female, keeping her birth name. She medically transitioned shortly after. She then began her work in advocacy and writing at 15 and founded the organization Trans Student Educational Resources at age 16. She attended Pitzer College in Claremont from 2013 to 2016, where she graduated early with honors.


title: Eli Erlick

text: Erlick cites starting activism at age 15, in 2010, when she became a board member for a local LGBTQ youth conference. She became public in media over a year later while advocating for California's School Success and Opportunity Act, the first state bill to protect transgender students. That year Erlick co-founded Trans Student Educational Resources, an organization "dedicated to transforming the educational environment for trans and gender nonconforming students through advocacy and empowerment."


title: Eli Erlick

text: While advocating for admissions for trans students at women's colleges, she spoke about the importance of remaining skeptical of all policy work. In 2015, Erlick published an article on why equality should not be the goal of the transgender movement. For her organizing, Erlick has been recognized in "Refinery29" and "The Advocate" among other publications.


title: Eli Erlick

text: In 2015, she led national efforts with Trans Student Educational Resources to admit trans women at women's colleges. She also co-authored Trans Student Educational Resources' model policy for admissions of trans students at women's colleges.


title: Eli Erlick

text: Erlick also co-founded Trans Youth Leadership Summit, a program run through Trans Student Educational Resources. It is the only national fellowship program in the United States for transgender youth. Several of its fellows have gone on to become prominent media advocates, activists, and organizers since its launch. In 2017, she began publicly advocating for self-expression of gender-nonconforming transgender women.


title: Eli Erlick

text: Erlick and a group of transgender activists erected a bronze sculpture of activist Marsha P. Johnson in 2021 in Christopher Park. The sculpture was not authorized by New York City Parks but later received a use permit, making it the first sculpture of a transgender person in New York City. The sculpture received positive reviews from art commentators, citing the criticism of George Segal's Stonewall National Monument for "whitewashing" the Stonewall Riots. The New York City Mayor's office announced plans for a statue of Johnson and her collaborator, Sylvia Rivera, in 2019 but the statues never came to fruition.


title: Eli Erlick

text: In February 2022, Erlick alleged that conservative political commentator Matt Walsh was "attempting to dupe dozens of trans people and doctors into participating in an anti-trans documentary under false pretenses". She uncovered that Walsh created a front organization, the Gender Unity Project, after his producer attempted to recruit her into the project. Walsh later revealed the project was part of his upcoming film, "What is a Woman?".


title: Eli Erlick

text: In 2011, at age 16, Erlick co-founded Trans Student Educational Resources, an organization "dedicated to transforming the educational environment for trans and gender nonconforming students through advocacy and empowerment."


title: Eli Erlick

text: It is the only national organization led by transgender youth. It is one of the largest transgender organizations in the United States.


title: Eli Erlick

text: In August 2022, conservatives including Tucker Carlson, Matt Walsh, and Blaire White, criticized Erlick for detailing a plan on social media for individuals to send spare hormone therapy prescriptions to people in those U.S. states which are working to criminalize such drugs, despite the law only allowing such drugs to be prescribed by a physician. Some conservatives reported her to federal authorities, including the U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration.


title: Eli Erlick

text: Chaya Raichik announced her account Libs of TikTok was suspended from Twitter after accusing Erlick of distributing the medications.


title: Eli Erlick

text: Walsh accused Erlick of being a "confessed drug dealer" and later reported Erlick to the University of California, Santa Cruz, where she is a PhD candidate. After the university's leadership initially ignored Walsh, he shared the contact information for several leaders of the university on social media. The university then said in a statement that "as a campus continuously working in pursuit of social justice," it "strongly supports transgender members of our community.", adding that "The university is aware of social media posts by one of our graduate students related to gender-affirming medical care outlawed in certain states. The university takes allegations of illegal activity seriously, harassment included." Erlick defended herself from criticism, saying that "all trans people should have access to gender-affirming care" and that "trans people have shared hormone replacement therapy treatments for over 80 years. This is nothing new or unique. It is important to add that no one is providing hormone replacement therapy to children and the accusations that I am are false and absurd." Erlick also accused Walsh of "profiting from the moral panic over transness through new followers, advertisers and pageviews. Money, fame and power are his only goals." Following Walsh's comments about her, Erlick received slurs, harassment, and threats of violence.


title: Eli Erlick

text: Erlick and other activists accused Walsh of stochastic terrorism, a term used to describe an incitement of violence against a target through social media with plausible deniability. Walsh denied these accusations of terrorism, arguing that sharing contact information that is publicly available does not constitute harassment and that criticizing someone does not constitute terrorism. Erlick alleged Walsh targeted her for her accusations that he misrepresented his documentary to potential interviewees.


title: Eli Erlick

text: Erlick writes about political philosophy, social movements, and transgender communities. She is a doctoral candidate at the University of California, Santa Cruz in its Feminist Studies Department.


title: Eli Erlick

text: In 2016, "Teen Vogue" named Erlick the "New Face of Feminism" as a "young feminist changing the game". Erlick also writes for publications including "Teen Vogue" and "Glamour" magazine about culture, media, and fashion. In 2017, "Glamour" named her College Woman of the Year, the first trans woman to receive the honor in its 60-year history.


title: Eli Erlick

text: Erlick has appeared in numerous publications discussing fashion. In an interview with "Yahoo News", Erlick stated that she felt pressured to dress femininely based on the widespread misunderstanding of gender identity and gender expression. Erlick describes herself as gender nonconforming.


title: Vienna, Virginia

text: Vienna () is a town in Fairfax County, Virginia, United States. As of the 2010 U.S. census, it had a population of 15,687. Significantly more people live in ZIP codes with the Vienna postal addresses (22180, 22181, and 22182), bordered approximately by Interstate 66 on the south, Interstate 495 on the east, Route 7 to the north, and Hunter Mill Road to the west, than in the town itself.


title: Vienna, Virginia

text: Non-native settlement in the region dates to ca. 1740. In 1754, prominent soldier and land owner Colonel Charles Broadwater settled within the town boundaries. Broadwater's son-in-law, John Hunter built the first recorded house there in 1767, naming it Ayr Hill to recall his birthplace, Ayr, Scotland. That name was then applied to the tiny developing community. The name of the town was changed in the 1850s, when a doctor, William Hendrick, settled there if the town renamed itself after his hometown, Phelps, New York, which was then known as Vienna.


title: Vienna, Virginia

text: On June 17, 1861, a relatively-minor but widely noted military engagement occurred there, the Battle of Vienna, one of the earliest armed clashes of the American Civil War. A would-be Union occupation unit under Brigadier General Robert C. Schenck approached Vienna from the east by train but was ambushed and forced to retreat by a superior Confederate force led by Colonel Maxcy Gregg. Today, several historical markers in Vienna detail its Civil War history. In addition, in the center of town lies the well preserved Freeman House; which, in 1861, was the polling place for the secession vote and was used during the war by both sides as a hospital. The house has been turned into a museum and gift shop.


title: Vienna, Virginia

text: The First Baptist Church of Vienna was founded in 1867, and the original church structure was built using Union Army barracks lumber obtained through the Freedmen's Bureau. This church building was also the town's first black public school. The first white public school was built in 1872. A permanent black elementary school was built, which was later named for its long-time principal, Louise Archer. Fairfax County Schools were completely desegregated by the Fall of 1965.


title: Vienna, Virginia

text: Vienna is located at (38.8991, −77.2607), at an elevation of 358 feet (109 meters). It lies in the Piedmont approximately southwest of the Potomac River. Wolftrap Creek, a tributary of nearby Difficult Run, flows north from its source in the eastern part of town. The Bear Branch of Accotink Creek, a Potomac tributary, flows south from its source in the southern part of town. Located in Northern Virginia on Interstate 66, Vienna is west of Washington, D.C. and northeast of Fairfax, the county seat.


title: Vienna, Virginia

text: According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of 4.4 square miles (11.5 km), all of it land. As a suburb of Washington, D.C., Vienna is a part of both the Washington metropolitan area and the larger Washington–Baltimore combined statistical area. It is bordered on all sides by other Washington suburbs, including: Wolf Trap to the north, Tysons Corner to the northeast, Dunn Loring to the east, Merrifield to the south, and Oakton to the west. These communities are unincorporated, and portions of them lie in ZIP codes with Vienna postal addresses despite lying outside the town's borders.


title: Vienna, Virginia

text: As of the 2010 census, there were 15,687 people, 5,528 households, and 4,215 families residing in the town. The population density was 3,565.2 per square mile (1,376.5/km). There were 5,686 housing units at an average density of 1,292.3 per square mile (494.4/km). The racial makeup of the town was 75.5% White, 12.1% Asian, 3.2% African American, 0.3% Native American, 5.3% from other races, and 3.6% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 12.0% of the population.


title: Vienna, Virginia

text: There were 5,528 households, out of which 39.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 63.4% were married couples living together, 3.7% had a male householder with no wife present, 9.1% had a female householder with no husband present, and 23.8% were non-families. 18.2% of all households were made up of individuals, and 8.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.84, and the average family size was 3.19.


title: Vienna, Virginia

text: In the town, the population was spread out, with 25.7% under the age of 18, 6.1% from 18 to 24, 24.7% from 25 to 44, 30.3% from 45 to 64, and 13.2% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 40.7 years. For every 100 females, there were 99.5 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 97.1 males age 18 and over.


title: Vienna, Virginia

text: As of 2009, the median income for a household in the town was $113,817, and the median income for a family was $124,895. Males had a median income of $88,355 versus $66,642 for females. The per capita income for the town was $49,544. About 3.7% of families and 5.9% of the population were below the poverty line, including 6.5% of those under age 18 and 2.9% of those age 65 or over.


title: Vienna, Virginia

text: Vienna is served by three high schools (Oakton, Madison, and Marshall); two middle schools (Kilmer and Thoreau), and seven elementary schools. However, of all the schools Vienna students attend, only four public and one private are actually within the town limits: Cunningham Park Elementary School, Marshall Road Elementary School, Louise Archer Elementary School, Vienna Elementary School and Green Hedges School.


title: Vienna, Virginia

text: Vienna has one independent school, Green Hedges, accredited by the Virginia Association of Independent Schools. Green Hedges has students from ages 3– 5 (Montessori preschool and kindergarten program) through preparatory grades 1–8. Founded in 1942 by Frances and Kenton Kilmer, the School was relocated to the Windsor Heights area of Vienna in 1955.


title: Vienna, Virginia

text: Vienna also has one independent Catholic school, Oakcrest School, which was founded in 1976 and moved to its permanent campus in Vienna in 2017, and two Catholic elementary schools: St. Mark Catholic School and Our Lady of Good Counsel Catholic School.


title: Vienna, Virginia

text: The music program at James Madison High School includes a marching band, "The Pride of Vienna", and color guard, two symphonic bands, jazz band, orchestra, and chorus. The Crew team at James Madison has won many awards. The novice team has won states three years in a row In addition, the Women's Junior Eight of 2010 won second in the nation as well as Virginia States. Their Team sent all their boats but two, to the nationals in Saratoga. Their Varsity Baseball team has won 26 District titles, 6 Region titles, and 4 State titles (1968, 1971, 2002, 2015), led by Coach Mark "Pudge" Gjormand's 20-year run which produced 19 of the 36 titles (14 district, 3 region, and 2 state). A water tower stating "Home of the Warhawks" can be seen towering over the school. Also, more recently, the Madison Men's Lacrosse team, coached by coach of the year, Arron Solomon, won the District, Regional, and State championship in the spring of 2019. The 2019 lacrosse team was the first team at James Madison to win a state championship and did so without any players committed to a college team.


title: Vienna, Virginia

text: Thoreau Middle School shares a class with Joyce Kilmer Middle School (also located in Vienna) and Longfellow Middle School (located in Falls Church). Kilmer had accelerated programs for students that have passed certain aptitude tests, known as the Advanced Academic Program (AAP) program. This program has also been introduced into Luther Jackson Middle School. Kilmer also has a band and orchestra program, and recently started up a Science Olympiad and Chess Club program.


title: Vienna, Virginia

text: Close to Madison sit the seven elementary schools: Flint Hill Elementary (not to be confused with Flint Hill School, a private school in neighboring Oakton, Virginia), Louise Archer (which also has an AAP program), Marshall Road, Oakton Elementary (a feeder school into Oakton and Madison High Schools), Vienna Elementary, Wolftrap, and Cunningham Park. Each of these schools send graduates into Thoreau, Kilmer, Luther Jackson Middle School or Longfellow, and afterwards James Madison High School, Oakton High School (just outside Vienna on the border with Oakton, with a Vienna address), George C. Marshall High School (in the Falls Church area of Fairfax County), Falls Church High School (just outside Vienna in Merrifield) or McLean High School. Freedom Hill Elementary, which recently started an Advanced Academic program, sends graduates to Kilmer, and afterward to Thomas Jefferson High School for Science and Technology or Marshall High School. Residents of Vienna who live along the town's border with Great Falls, VA also send graduates into Langley High School via Cooper Middle School. Because of the large influx of new residents in the last decade, the classes of '09, '10, and '11 at these regional high schools are expected to be the largest over the next ten years.


title: Vienna, Virginia

text: Interstate 66 is the main highway serving Vienna. Access is provided via Exit 62 and Virginia State Route 243. In addition, Virginia State Route 123 runs through downtown Vienna.


title: Vienna, Virginia

text: MAE-East is located within the Vienna postal area in Tysons Corner CDP. This served as one of two locations (in addition to MAE-West) where all Internet traffic was exchanged between one ISP and other private, government, and academic Internet networks and served as a magnet for telecom and other high-tech companies focused on the Internet. In 1995 America Online (AOL) was headquartered at 8619 Westwood Center Drive in Tysons Corner CDP in unincorporated Fairfax County, near Vienna.


title: Vienna, Virginia

text: According to the Town's 2020 Comprehensive Annual Financial Report, the top employers in the town are:


title: Vienna, Virginia

text: The W&OD Trail crosses through downtown Vienna. Several parks are located near the town, including Meadowlark Botanical Gardens and Wolf Trap National Park for the Performing Arts. The town green and Jammin' Java coffeehouse and music club serve as areas for theatre and musical performances.


title: Greens–European Free Alliance

text: The Greens/European Free Alliance (Greens/EFA) is a political group of the European Parliament composed primarily of green and regionalist political parties.


title: Greens–European Free Alliance

text: Formed following the 1999 European elections for the 5th European Parliament, the Greens/EFA group now consists of five distinct European political parties, namely the larger European Green Party (EGP) and part of the European Free Alliance (EFA) and the smaller European Pirate Party (PPEU), Volt Europa (Volt), and part of Animal Politics EU (APEU). The EFA consists of parties representing stateless nations, regionalist and minority political interests. The group has generally limited its membership to progressive parties. These European parties are joined by MEPs from non-aligned national parties, which have included the Dutch Europe Transparent (2004–2009) and the Swedish (2009–2014), German (2014–) and Czech (2019–) Pirate Parties.


title: Seine fishing

text: Seine fishing (or seine-haul fishing; ) is a method of fishing that employs a surrounding net, called a seine, that hangs vertically in the water with its bottom edge held down by weights and its top edge buoyed by floats. Seine nets can be deployed from the shore as a beach seine, or from a boat.


title: Seine fishing

text: Boats deploying seine nets are known as seiners. Two main types of seine net are deployed from seiners: "purse seines" and "Danish seines". A seine differs from a gillnet, in that a seine encloses fish, where a gillnet directly snares fish.


title: Seine fishing

text: The word "seine" has its origins in the Old English "segne", which entered the language via Latin "sagena", from the original Greek σαγήνη "sagēnē" (a drag-net).


title: Seine fishing

text: Seines have been used widely in the past, including by Stone Age societies. For example, the Māori used large canoes to deploy seine nets which could be over a kilometer long. The nets were woven from green flax, with stone weights and light wood or gourd floats, and could require hundreds of men to haul.


title: Seine fishing

text: Native Americans on the Columbia River wove seine nets from spruce root fibers or wild grass, again using stones as weights. For floats they used sticks made of cedar which moved in a way which frightened the fish and helped keep them together.


title: Seine fishing

text: Seine nets are also well documented in ancient cultures in the Mediterranean region. They appear in Egyptian tomb paintings from 3000 BC. In ancient Roman literature, the poet Ovid makes many references to seine nets, including the use of cork floats and lead weights.


title: Seine fishing

text: A common type of seine is a purse seine, named such because along the bottom are a number of rings. A line (referred to as a purse-line) passes through all the rings, and when pulled, draws the rings close to one another, preventing the fish from "sounding", or swimming down to escape the net. This operation is similar to a traditional style purse, which has a drawstring.


title: Seine fishing

text: The purse seine is a preferred technique for capturing fish species which school, or aggregate, close to the surface: sardines, mackerel, anchovies, herring, and certain species of tuna (schooling); and salmon soon before they swim up rivers and streams to spawn (aggregation). Boats equipped with purse seines are called purse seiners.


title: Seine fishing

text: Purse seine fishing can result in smaller amounts of by-catch (unintentionally caught fish), especially when used to catch large species of fish (like herring or mackerel) that shoal tightly together. When used to catch fish that shoal together with other species, or when used in parallel with fish aggregating devices, the percentage of by-catch greatly increases.


title: Seine fishing

text: Use of purse seines is regulated by many countries; in Sri Lanka, for example, using this type of net within of the shore is illegal. However, they can be used in the deep sea, after obtaining permission from authorities. Purse seine fishing can have negative impacts on fish stocks because it can involve the bycatch of non-target species and it can put too much pressure on fish stocks.


title: Seine fishing

text: The power block is a mechanized pulley used on some seiners to haul in the nets. According to the UN Food and Agriculture Organization, no single invention has contributed more to the effectiveness of purse seine net hauling than the power block.


title: Seine fishing

text: The Puretic power block line was introduced in the 1950s and was the key factor in the mechanization of purse seining. The combination of these blocks with advances in fluid hydraulics and the new large synthetic nets changed the character of purse seine fishing. The original Puretic power block was driven by an endless rope from the warping head of a winch. Nowadays, power blocks are usually driven by hydraulic pumps powered by the main or auxiliary engine. Their rpm, pull and direction can be controlled remotely.


title: Seine fishing

text: A minimum of three people are required for power block seining; the skipper, skiff operator, and corkline stacker. In many operations a fourth person stacks the leadline, and often a fifth person stacks the web.


title: Seine fishing

text: In certain parts of the western United States as well as Canada, specifically on the coast of British Columbia, drum seining is a method of seine fishing which was adopted in the late 1950s and is used exclusively in that region.


title: Seine fishing

text: The drum seine uses a horizontally mounted drum to haul and store the net instead of a power block. The net is pulled in over a roller, which spans the stern, and then passes through a spooling gear with upright rollers. The spooling gear is moved from side to side across the stern which allows the net to be guided and wound tightly on the drum.


title: Seine fishing

text: There are several advantages to the drum seine over the power block. The net can be hauled very quickly - at more than twice the speed of using a power block, the net does not require overhead handling, and the process is therefore safer. The most important advantage is that the drum system can be operated with fewer deckhands. However, it is illegal to use a seine drum in the state of Alaska.


title: Seine fishing

text: A Danish seine, also occasionally called an anchor seine, consists of a conical net with two long wings with a bag where the fish collect. Drag lines extend from the wings, and are long so they can surround an area.


title: Seine fishing

text: A Danish seine is similar to a small trawl net, but the wire warps are much longer and there are no otter boards. The seine boat drags the warps and the net in a circle around the fish. The motion of the warps herds the fish into the central net.


title: Seine fishing

text: Danish seiner vessels are usually larger than purse seiners, though they are often accompanied by a smaller vessel. The drag lines are often stored on drums or coiled onto the deck by a coiling machine. A brightly coloured buoy, anchored as a "marker", serves as a fixed point when hauling the seine. A power block, usually mounted on a boom or a slewing deck crane, hauls the seine net.


title: Seine fishing

text: scattered on or close to the bottom of the sea, or are aggregated (schooling). They are used when there are flat but rough seabeds which are not trawlable. It is especially useful in northern regions, but not much in tropical to sub-tropical areas.


title: Seine fishing

text: The net is deployed, with one end attached to an anchored dan (marker) buoy, by the main vessel, the seiner, or by a smaller auxiliary boat. A drag line is paid out, followed by a net wing. As the seiner sweeps in a big circle returning to the buoy, the deployment continues with the seine bag and the remaining wing, finishing with the remaining drag line. In this way a large area can be surrounded. Next the drag lines are hauled in using rope-coiling machines until the catch bag can be secured.


title: Seine fishing

text: The seine netting method developed in Denmark. Scottish seining ("fly dragging") was a later modification. The original procedure is much the same as fly dragging except for the use of an anchored marker buoy when hauling, and closing the net and warps and net by winch.


title: Cornelius Vanderbilt II House

text: The Cornelius Vanderbilt II House was a large mansion built in 1883 at 1 West 57th Street in Manhattan, New York City. It occupied the frontage along the west side of Fifth Avenue from West 57th Street up to West 58th Street at Grand Army Plaza. The home was sold in 1926 and demolished to make way for the Bergdorf Goodman department store.


title: Cornelius Vanderbilt II House

text: The Châteauesque mansion, occupying the northwest corner of Fifth Avenue and West 57th Street, was constructed in 1883 for Cornelius Vanderbilt II, the eldest grandson of Commodore Cornelius Vanderbilt, founder of the family fortune. The ground level contained a drawing room, a dining room (which doubled as the art gallery), and a reception room. The second floor housed a salon, a music room, and a conservatory; the family bedrooms were on the remaining floors.


title: Cornelius Vanderbilt II House

text: Cornelius, feeling that others were trying to outdo his house, bought all of the property on the Fifth Avenue block. He then hired George B. Post and Richard Morris Hunt to construct a much larger mansion, filling the entire block front. The interiors were done by the French design firm of Jules Allard and Sons, with many pieces in the house being imported from Europe.


title: Cornelius Vanderbilt II House

text: The house was six stories tall, not including the basement, and also had a stable and a private garden next door. The first floor featured a five-story Caen stone entrance hall leading to the library, a small salon, a grand salon, a watercolor room, a two-story ballroom, and a two-story dining room that doubled as an art gallery. Also on the first floor were a two-story Moorish-inspired smoking room, a den, an office, a breakfast room, and a pantry. On the second floor were Mrs. Vanderbilt's bedroom, boudoir, bath, closet, and dressing room. Mr. Vanderbilt's bedroom was also on the second floor, as well as his bathroom, dressing room, closet, and private study.


title: Cornelius Vanderbilt II House

text: The mansion was, and remains, the largest private residence ever built in New York City. Thirteen years after moving into his new home (he also lived at The Breakers, a 125,000 sq. ft. summer "cottage" in Newport, Rhode Island), Cornelius suffered a stroke that left him confined to a wheelchair for the remaining three years of his life. In his will, he left his wife Alice Claypoole Vanderbilt a $7,000,000 trust fund and the use of 1 West 57th Street and The Breakers.


title: Cornelius Vanderbilt II House

text: After Cornelius died, Alice never remarried and continued to live in the mansion and in Newport. However, the house was never opened again to friends, and the only functions that are known to have happened there were the funerals of her two sons. Subsequently, it was just Alice and the 37 servants needed to run the mansion. As with the rest of the residences on Fifth Avenue, the mansion at 1 West 57th Street began to be encroached on by commercial skyscrapers, but Alice remained.


title: Cornelius Vanderbilt II House

text: The trust fund that Cornelius had left his wife produced a yearly income of $250,000, which was just enough to maintain both houses. Alice held on as long as she could, but she was forced to sell it in 1926. She had no hope for the house's preservation because she knew that developers, Braisted Realty Corporation (led by real estate developer Frederick Brown), had paid a hefty $7,000,000 for the land, and not for the house that stood on it.


title: Cornelius Vanderbilt II House

text: A week before the wrecking ball was scheduled to demolish the 43-year-old home, Mrs. Vanderbilt arranged to have it opened to the public for fifty cents admission, which would be donated to charity. Before selling it, she donated as many elements from the interiors as she could, including the baronial Augustus Saint-Gaudens-designed fireplace and the Moorish ceiling piece from the smoking room. She also donated the 10-foot-tall metal front entryway gates.


title: Cornelius Vanderbilt II House

text: Once the mansion was demolished, it was replaced by the Bergdorf Goodman department store. After selling the home for $7,000,000, she bought the George J. Gould House for $800,000.


title: Mikoyan LMFS

text: The Mikoyan LMFS () Liogkiy Mnogofunktsionalniy Frontovoi Samolyet (LMFS)—or Light Multi-Function Frontline Aircraft, also known as the MiG-XX, was a proposed light Russian single-seat all-weather stealth multirole combat aircraft. The design is derived from the company’s PAK FA proposal, which was rejected in favor of Sukhoi's, along with lessons learned from the cancelled Mikoyan MiG-1.42/1.44. It was supposed to replace the Mikoyan MiG-29 and MiG-35 and be a more affordable complement to the PAK FA, which became the Sukhoi Su-57. However, by 2021, the project was no longer under development, while Sukhoi unveiled its own LTS medium-weight single-engine stealth fifth-generation fighter.


title: Mikoyan LMFS

text: In the 1990s, the end of the Cold War and the collapse of the Soviet Union resulted in severe disruptions in funding for Russia’s MFI (, ) fifth-generation fighter programme, which was being developed as the Mikoyan Project 1.42/1.44. Owing to high costs, the MFI was cancelled and a new programme for a more affordable multirole fifth-generation fighter, the PAK FA (, ), was initiated in April 2001 to replace the MiG-29 and Su-27. Mikoyan and Sukhoi submitted proposals, and the two companies differed in their design approach; Mikoyan’s E-721 proposal was smaller at a normal takeoff weight of 16–17 tonnes (35,000–37,000 lb) and powered by a pair of 10–11 tonne (98.1–108 kN, 22,000–24,300 lbf) thrust Klimov VK-10M engines, while Sukhoi's T-50 would be comparatively larger and more capable, with normal takeoff weight goal of 22–23 tonnes (49,000–51,000 lb) and powered by a pair of 14.5-tonne (142 kN, 32,000 lbf) thrust Lyulka-Saturn AL-41F1 engines. The Russian Defence Ministry selected Sukhoi’s proposal in April 2002. Despite not being selected, Mikoyan continued to develop its own proposal as the LMFS (, ) with its own funds.


title: Mikoyan LMFS

text: The aircraft was developed from Mikoyan's E-721. Developed by the United Aircraft Corporation (OAK), this light fighter was believed to incorporate an 11-ton thrust VK-10M engine based on the RD-33MK-35 engine used by the MiG-35. This new updated engine would be manufactured at the Klimov factory. The engine is supposed to be fifth generation, utilizing the latest advancements in turbine and combustion chamber technology, and receiving only minor changes to the fan blades. The aircraft could have canard wings, internal weapons bays and an empty weight of roughly 33,000 lbs and a maximum takeoff weight of 55,000 lbs. It was possible that Mikoyan may revise the design into a single-engine configuration by using the Sukhoi Su-57's next-generation izdeliye 30 engines, even though the latest wind tunnel mock up of the plane shows a twin-engine aircraft .


title: Mikoyan LMFS

text: United Aircraft Corporation was developing the MiG LMFS out of its own funds, the Russian MoD preferring to wait for the Su-57 to enter serial production before starting to finance the construction of another smaller stealth fighter. Indeed, Alexei Fedorov, President of Irkut, said that any decision on applying fifth-generation technologies to produce a smaller fighter, such as the MiG LMFS, must wait until after the heavy fighter Sukhoi Su-57 enters full production, which is due to happen in 2020. Since the MiG LMFS is not included in the Russia's state armament programme 2020–2027, UAC hoped that the export sales of MiG-35 and MiG-29 would be enough to help sustain the development of a new aircraft.


title: Mikoyan LMFS

text: In 2018, it was reported that, with the US decision not to export F-35 stealth fighters to Turkey anymore, Turkish authorities might decide to acquire instead the Russian Su-57 with Russia possibly sharing some of its technology to Turkey. If this happens, according to defence journalists, Turkey would perhaps in exchange share some of its TAI TF-X stealth light fighter technology to MiG, which might be used to help advance the development of the LMFS; the funds of a foreign co-investor being beneficial.


title: Mikoyan LMFS

text: On April 16, 2020, after a long hiatus, United Aircraft Corporation announced on Twitter that MiG had restarted their research on a light fifth-generation stealth jet fighter. This new fighter is likely to support the Su-57 during missions. At the end of 2019, MiG placed an order for the aerodynamic calculation of a light multi-functional front-line twin-engine aircraft, comparable with foreign analogues, for the period 2020–25. The cost of work is estimated at 4 million rubles. The CEO of MiG, as well as Alexander Vatagin, the general manager of the engine manufacturer Klimov, have said that the engines of this new MiG jet would be more powerful than those of the Mikoyan MiG-35.


title: Mikoyan LMFS

text: On December 20, 2020, the Head of the Rostec State Corporation (which owns both Mikoyan and Sukhoi) has announced that they were currently working ″to develop a combat aviation system of the future in its light and medium classes.″ He also stated that the company is currently working on the concept and the operational requirements of the plane, and that Rostec is doing this on their own initiative so far, without state budget funds. This advanced fifth-generation fighter is stated to be single-engine, with the option of being either crewed or uncrewed. That new aircraft, dubbed Sukhoi LTS "Checkmate", was later learned to be a new platform manufactured by Sukhoi with the support of Mikoyan and was unveiled at the MAKS 2021 Air Show.


title: Mikoyan LMFS

text: In July 2021, it was revealed that the MiG LMFS was not in development anymore, but that a new medium-weight single-engine stealth fifth-generation fighter, known as Sukhoi Su-75 Checkmate, and based on years of research on the MiG LMFS and encompassing a lot of technologies from the Sukhoi Su-57, was in development. It was unveiled at the MAKS 2021 Air Show.


title: Ryan Miller

text: Ryan Dean Miller (born July 17, 1980) is an American former ice hockey goaltender who played 18 seasons in the National Hockey League (NHL) mostly for the Buffalo Sabres. Miller was drafted 138th overall by the Buffalo Sabres in the 1999 NHL Entry Draft. In 2010, he won the Vezina Trophy as the league's best goaltender. On February 17, 2019, Miller became the winningest American-born goaltender in NHL history, surpassing John Vanbiesbrouck.


title: Ryan Miller

text: He was selected to play for the United States in the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver as the team's starting goaltender. He won a silver medal with the team and was named most valuable player of the tournament. Four years later, he was selected for the 2014 Winter Olympics. Miller is one of 39 goaltenders in NHL history to win 300 games in his career.


title: Ryan Miller

text: Miller, known for his hybrid style of goaltending, is the older brother of former NHL forward Drew Miller.


title: Ryan Miller

text: Miller grew up in East Lansing, Michigan. He started playing youth hockey in California. In youth hockey, Miller originally played as a forward, however, Miller became frustrated with the poor play of his team's goaltender, so he begged his coach as well as his father, Dean Miller, to let him try it out. His father told him that if he could get two goals and three assists the next game he would buy Ryan a catching glove. Miller finished the game with two goals and three assists in the win. His brother Drew and cousins Kelly, Kevin and Kip all played in the NHL. All five attended Michigan State University, where Ryan Miller played goaltender for three years.


title: Ryan Miller

text: As a college player for the Michigan State University Spartans, Miller set a National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) record with 26 career shutouts and was the winner of the Hobey Baker Award in 2001, when he led the country in wins, winning percentage, save percentage (an NCAA record .950 mark), goals against average (GAA) and shutouts (an NCAA record 10).


title: Ryan Miller

text: Miller played outdoors in the Cold War – a game between Michigan and Michigan State held in 2001. Miller was selected as the 2001 Big Ten-Jesse Owens Men's Athlete of the Year.


title: Ryan Miller

text: Miller was the CCHA's Goaltender of the Year all three of his seasons in East Lansing, and was the league's overall MVP twice. Ten members of Miller's family, including his grandfather, father, uncle, five cousins (including Kelly, Kevin and Kip Miller), and his younger brother Drew, have played college hockey for the Spartans. His cousin Kip Miller won the Hobey Baker Award in 1990. Miller was a close friend of Buffalo Bills fullback and fellow MSU alumnus Jehuu Caulcrick.


title: Ryan Miller

text: After three seasons with Michigan State, Miller moved to the American Hockey League (AHL), where he played for the Buffalo Sabres' affiliate, the Rochester Americans, from the 2002–03 season until the 2004–05 season. During the 2002–03 season, he played 15 regular season games for Buffalo. In the 2004–05 season, with the NHL not playing due to a lockout, he won 41 games for the Americans, tying Gerry Cheevers' record. He finished the season with a 2.45 GAA.


title: Ryan Miller

text: In 2004–05, the Americans were the North Division and Regular Season champions in the AHL. They lost in the division finals, however, to the Manitoba Moose.


title: Ryan Miller

text: Miller finished the 2005–06 season by establishing himself as the starting goaltender for the Sabres. He ranked 11th among NHL goaltenders with a 2.60 GAA and ninth in a save percentage, with .914. Miller led the Sabres to a surprise season, winning 30 games and advancing to the conference finals.


title: Ryan Miller

text: After the 2005–06 season, Miller became a restricted free agent and waived his right to arbitration. Mike Liut, Miller's agent, continued to negotiate with the Sabres through the summer. On September 8, 2006, the Sabres announced that they had re-signed Miller to a three-year contract.


title: Ryan Miller

text: The 2006–07 season would prove a successful one. In his first season starting with the number one job, Miller and his team won the first 10 games in a row. Miller was voted the starting goaltender for the Eastern Conference of the 2007 NHL All-Star Game. In a 12–9 loss, Miller played the first period and allowed three goals. Miller also gained a reputation of a shootout specialist with his technique of challenging the shooter outside the crease. That season he was 10–4 in shootouts, with Martin Brodeur of the New Jersey Devils being his closest rival at 10 wins and 6 losses. In 63 games played that season, Miller posted a .911 save percentage and a 2.72 GAA backing a more offensively-oriented team.


title: Ryan Miller

text: In the post-season of that year, the Sabres advanced to their second conference finals in as many years, losing to the Ottawa Senators in five games. Miller posted a .922 save percentage and 2.22 GAA in the playoffs.


title: Ryan Miller

text: On October 11, the Sabres won their second home game of the 2007–08 season with a 6–0 win over the Atlanta Thrashers. Miller earned a shutout, stopping 20 shots in a game following the death of his 18-year-old cousin, Matt, who had died the Monday before of a complication with a bone-marrow transplant. At the close of the game, Miller raised his stick to the home crowd in tribute and received star honors for his effort in net.


title: Ryan Miller

text: On January 1, 2008, Miller played with the Sabres in the AMP Energy NHL Winter Classic, which was the first outdoor NHL game to be held in the United States. The game was played at Ralph Wilson Stadium, home to National Football League's Buffalo Bills, in Orchard Park, New York. The Sabres lost in a shoot-out to the Pittsburgh Penguins, but Miller only allowed one goal (out of 25 shots) in regulation. On March 28, Miller played in his 73rd game of the season, breaking the Sabres franchise record for most games played in a season, passing Grant Fuhr, Dominik Hašek and Martin Biron. Miller finished the season with 76 games played, recording a 2.64 GAA and a .906 save percentage.


title: Ryan Miller

text: On July 18, 2008, Miller signed a five-year contract extension worth $31.25 million with the Sabres. The contract took effect at the start of the 2009–10 season. Miller suffered a high-end ankle sprain on February 22, 2009, in a game against the New York Rangers, which kept him out of action until late March. Despite Miller's strong 34–18–6 record during the 2008–09 season, the Sabres narrowly missed out on qualifying for a playoff berth.


title: Ryan Miller

text: Miller's popularity in both Buffalo and for American hockey has spawned several nicknames, including "Miller Time" (after the Miller brewing company's advertising slogan), while the Toronto media has nicknamed him the "Leaf Killer: Ryan Miller" for his excellent success against one of the Sabres top rivals, the Toronto Maple Leafs.


title: Ryan Miller

text: In the 2009–10 season, Miller played exceptionally, with a GAA of under 2.00 before the Olympic break. He finished the season with a 2.22 GAA and a .929 save percentage. He led the Buffalo Sabres to a Northeast Division title and posted 41 wins, breaking his former record of 40 wins posted in 2006–07. His play became even more popular around the U.S after being nominated for the Vezina Trophy for the league's best goaltender. On June 23, 2010, in Las Vegas, Nevada, at the 2010 NHL Award Ceremony, Miller was announced as the winner of the 2010 Vezina Trophy, beating New Jersey Devils goaltender Martin Brodeur and Phoenix Coyotes goaltender Ilya Bryzgalov. That same night, Miller also became the first American player to win the NHL Foundation Player Award.


title: Ryan Miller

text: Late in the 2010–11 season, on March 29, 2011, during a game against the Toronto Maple Leafs, despite finishing the game in a 4–3 losing cause, Miller suffered what was later reported to be an "upper body injury." Initial speculation on the specifics of Miller's injury ranged from a concussion resulting from a Brian Rolston shot that rang off his mask, to a bruised collarbone from a Dion Phaneuf shot.


title: Ryan Miller

text: On February 4, 2012, Miller surpassed Dominik Hašek as the franchise leader in career wins with 235 in a 4–3 shootout win against the New York Islanders at Nassau Coliseum. Miller accomplished this feat in six-and-a-half years as the starting goaltender for Buffalo, while it took Hašek nine years.


title: Ryan Miller

text: The 2012–13 NHL season did not go well for the Sabres, as they finished 12th in the Eastern Conference and failed to qualify for the playoffs for the second consecutive year. Miller finished the season with a 2.81 GAA and a .915 save percentage.


title: Ryan Miller

text: On February 28, 2014, Miller and forward Steve Ott were traded from the Sabres to the St. Louis Blues in exchange for Jaroslav Halák, Chris Stewart, William Carrier and two future draft picks. He would make his Blues debut along with Ott on March 3, stopping 23 shots in a 4–2 victory over the Phoenix Coyotes. Miller and the Blues lost in the first round of the 2014 Stanley Cup playoffs to the defending 2013 Stanley Cup champions, the Chicago Blackhawks.


title: Ryan Miller

text: On May 19, the Blues signed Brian Elliott to a three-year contract and Blues General Manager Doug Armstrong announced that Elliott would join Jake Allen to form their goaltending tandem. Miller was not re-signed.


title: Ryan Miller

text: Miller became an unrestricted free agent on July 1, 2014, and signed a three-year, $18 million contract to become the starting goaltender with the Vancouver Canucks. On October 28, Miller became the 30th goaltender in NHL history to reach 300 career wins. He made 29 saves as the Canucks beat the Carolina Hurricanes 4–1. On January 30, 2015, after beating his former team, the Buffalo Sabres, 5–2, Miller has beaten every team in the NHL at least once. However, on February 22, Miller was injured after Jannik Hansen crashed into him, ending his night as he and Eddie Lack combined for a shutout over the New York Islanders. He would miss the next 21 games. After 22 games of not being on ice, Miller returned to start the last game of the regular season as the Canucks beat the Edmonton Oilers, 6–5.


title: Ryan Miller

text: After concluding his three-year contract with the Canucks, Miller left as a free agent and signed a two-year, $4 million contract with the Anaheim Ducks on July 1, 2017. He began the 2017–18 season on the injured-reserve list due to a lingering wrist injury. In his return to health, Miller was able to make his debut with the Ducks in a 4–3 shootout victory over the Carolina Hurricanes on October 29, 2017.


title: Ryan Miller

text: On June 20, 2019, Miller was re-signed by the Ducks to return for a third season with the club, agreeing to a one-year $2.235 million contract extension. On December 23, 2020, Miller was re-signed to a one-year contract by the Ducks.


title: Ryan Miller

text: On April 29, 2021, Miller announced he would retire from the NHL at the end of the 2020–21 season. Miller played his final NHL game, a 4–3 overtime loss to the Minnesota Wild in which Victor Rask scored the game winning goal 2:46 into the overtime period on May 8, 2021. After his announcement of retiring, the Buffalo Sabres will retire his number on January 19, 2023. On September 8, 2022, it was announced that Ryan Miller would be inducted into the U.S. Hockey Hall of Fame.


title: Ryan Miller

text: Miller was made a reserve for the United States at the 2006 Winter Olympics in Turin, but he did not play.


title: Ryan Miller

text: Miller was selected as starting goaltender for the US in the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver. He led the team to a perfect 5–0 start, including a 5–3 win over gold-medal favorite Canada in the preliminary round, stopping 42 of 45 shots. The five wins, including victories over Switzerland and Finland in the quarter-finals and semi-finals, respectively, brought the US to the gold medal game, where they faced Canada for the second time. In the gold medal game, the U.S. lost 3–2 in overtime despite Miller's 36 saves, as Sidney Crosby scored the game-winner in his second scoring attempt, after his first was saved by Miller. The US, however, won the silver medal in large part due to Miller's 5–0–1 record, and Miller was named the most valuable player of the tournament. Miller finished with a save percentage of .946 and a GAA of 1.35, both American Olympic records. Miller also won International Ice Hockey Federation (IIHF) best goaltender honors and was named to the All-Star team.


title: Ryan Miller

text: After his selection to the US roster for the 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi, head coach Dan Bylsma named Jonathan Quick the team's starting goaltender over Miller and fellow Olympic teammate Jimmy Howard. Miller would go on to start and play in one of the US's six games. (Quick played in the other five.) In his one and only game, Miller made 17 saves in a 5–1 win against Slovenia. The US, however, did not medal in Sochi, and Miller finished the tournament with a 1–0 record, a 1.00 GAA, and a .944 save percentage.


title: Ryan Miller

text: Miller married actress Noureen DeWulf on September 3, 2011. On September 11, 2014, it was announced that the couple were expecting their first child. Their son was born in March 2015, in Vancouver, British Columbia. Their daughter was born in April 2022 in Los Angeles, California.


title: Ryan Miller

text: In 2006, Miller, along with his father Dean, started the Steadfast Foundation which supports cancer patients and their families. Miller began the foundation after his cousin was diagnosed with leukaemia.


title: Skol, Vikings

text: "Skol, Vikings" (IPA: , ) is the fight song of the Minnesota Vikings of the National Football League. It was introduced around the time the team was founded in 1961. The words and music are attributed to James "Red" McLeod, a composer from Edina, Minnesota.


title: Skol, Vikings

text: The old recording is usually played whenever the team scores, accompanied by cheerleaders carrying flags that spell out the team's name, as in the lyrics. It is also played at the end of the game, after a victory.


title: Skol, Vikings

text: "Skol" (written "skål" in Danish, Norwegian, and Swedish and "skál" in Faroese and Icelandic or "skaal" in archaic spellings or transliteration of any of those languages) is the Danish-Norwegian-Swedish-Icelandic-Faroese word for "cheers", or "good health", a salute or a toast, as to an admired person or group.


title: Skol, Vikings

text: When the Vikings moved into U.S. Bank Stadium in 2016, they started a new tradition at home games, called the "Skol Chant." At various points during the game, Viking fans raise their hands and clap to the beat of a drum before yelling, "Skol!" It was borrowed from the "Viking war chant" made famous by supporters of the Iceland national football team during their Cinderella run at Euro 2016. The Vikings joined up with Iceland’s Aron Gunnarsson and Iceland native Hafþór Júlíus Björnsson to introduce the chant. In turn, Iceland's supporters borrowed it from Scotland's Motherwell F.C.


title: Skol, Vikings

text: The spelling-out of the team name echoes the style of the "Minnesota Rouser", the fight song of the University of Minnesota.


title: Skol, Vikings

text: Many of the University of Minnesota's fight songs were also written and/or arranged by McLeod. To honor this connection, the University pep bands often perform a rendition of the song, retitled "Skol, Gophers", with "G-O-P-H-E-R-S" replacing the spell-out and sometimes other specific sport-related changes.


title: Nick Jr. (TV programming block)

text: Nick Jr. is an American morning programming block that airs on Nickelodeon (specifically for weekday mornings, and often shortened on holidays and weekends). It was launched on January 4, 1988. Nick Jr. features a lineup of shows aimed at children under six.


title: Nick Jr. (TV programming block)

text: In 2009, Nickelodeon launched a separate channel named after the Nick Jr. block. To differentiate the two services, the channel is known on air as the "Nick Jr. Channel."


title: Nick Jr. (TV programming block)

text: Since its launch on April 1, 1979, and throughout the 1980s, Nickelodeon aired programs for preschoolers (most prominently "Pinwheel" and "Today's Special") on weekdays (from 8:00am – 2:00pm) and weekend mornings. After Nickelodeon's preschool block premiered a slew of new shows in 1987, it began using the "Nick Junior" branding on , coinciding with the premiere of the European program "The World of David the Gnome". A new rebrand for the block that abbreviated its name to "Nick Jr." was gradually unveiled between September 1988 and mid-1989. Nick Jr.'s new logo was orange for 'Nick' and blue for 'Jr.', and it varied in the shape or species (e.g.: two gears, trains, robots, planets, insects, comets, or elephants). Like with Nickelodeon, Nick Jr.'s network IDs featured the block's logo in different shapes and styles. At launch, the block aired from 8:30am - 2:30pm. On weekends, preschoolers' programs went unbranded and aired at earlier hours of the day.


title: Nick Jr. (TV programming block)

text: Until June 29, 1990, "Pinwheel" was featured, originally for three hours (two in the morning and one at noon), then for one hour starting in Spring 1989. When Nick Jr.'s original series "Eureeka's Castle" premiered in September, "Pinwheel" was split into two separate half hours in the morning and afternoon, where it remained until June 29, 1990, after which the block was truncated to start at 9:30am. Much of Nick Jr.'s other programs at the time were of Japanese or foreign origin (including "Fred Penner's Place", "Sharon, Lois & Bram's Elephant Show", "Adventures of the Little Koala", "Noozles", "Maya the Bee", and "The Littl' Bits").


title: Nick Jr. (TV programming block)

text: On , Nick Jr. premiered a new series, "Cappelli & Company", and received a new rebrand which prominently featured a new Nick Jr. logo consisting of an orange parent and a blue child, and the slogan "Grow, Learn, and Play". The block's timing was solidified as 9:00am - 2:00pm. Several Nick Jr. promos and bumpers featured kids playing near the Nick Jr. logo and a theme song with the slogan sung to the melody of "London Bridge", and a few featured "Cappelli & Company" mascot Frank Cappelli. Nick Jr. also started using a female announcer (who was replaced by a different one in 1994, 1998 and 2003) in its promos and bumpers. Nick Jr. began to invest more into producing original interstitial series (including 1994's "Muppet Time", forty two-minute shorts from The Jim Henson Company) in order to stay within a self-imposed limit of five minutes of commercials per hour.


title: Nick Jr. (TV programming block)

text: On April 4, 1994, the "Jim Henson's Muppet Hour" sub-block was created by pairing "Muppet Babies" reruns with the new acquisition "The Muppet Show". Due to Nick Jr.'s declining ratings as well as competition from PTV from PBS and Ready Set Learn from TLC, Nickelodeon spent $30 million revamping the Nick Jr. block over the next three years. On June 13, older-skewing Nickelodeon series "Rugrats", "The Alvin Show", "Dennis the Menace", and "Lassie" joined Nick Jr.'s lineup, as the block's branding was temporarily de-emphasized in favor of regular Nickelodeon branding until September 2.


title: Nick Jr. (TV programming block)

text: On , Nick Jr. rebranded and introduced Face, an animated mascot that introduced shows and interstitials and led into commercial breaks. In the context of his segments, Face was capable of materializing objects such as an astronaut, a robot, a clown, a window, a traffic light, stars, and even wood. He was also capable of creating a number of foley sound effects and voices including an iconic signature three-note trumpet noise usually following the name "Nick Jr." at the end of almost every bumper. Also, he changed colors, moods, and feelings. Face was voiced by Chris Phillips, who also narrated several Nickelodeon and Nick Jr. promos. The original Face promos were produced by Nick Digital (from 1994 to 1996 and from 2000 to 2003; the later promos featured a redesigned Face) and DMA Animation (from 1996 to 2000). On October 24, Nick Jr. premiered two new original series, "Gullah Gullah Island" and "Allegra's Window", resulting in 50% rating gains for the block.


title: Nick Jr. (TV programming block)

text: In 1995, Nick Jr. acquired broadcast rights to "The Busy World of Richard Scarry" from sister network Showtime, and later premiered "Rupert" on September 12, and "Little Bear" on November 6 (both were produced by the Canadian animation studio Nelvana). Nick Jr. also occasionally aired "The Adventures of Timmy the Tooth" from the day Little Bear premiered to May 17, 1996 as part of a marketing campaign.


title: Nick Jr. (TV programming block)

text: On , the first episode of "Blue's Clues" premiered in primetime on Nick at Nite, then aired on Nick Jr. the next day. Nick Jr. also premiered four new interstitial series and received a new rebrand produced by Pittard Sullivan. "Blue's Clues" quickly deposed "Gullah Gullah Island" as Nick Jr.'s most popular series. "Rugrats" was pushed out of Nick Jr.'s lineup after May 2, 1997 to make room for second showings of "Little Bear" and "Blue's Clues". On March 16, 1998, the "nickjr.com" website was launched. Later that year, Nick Jr. rebranded again and introduced the "Just for Me" slogan.


title: Nick Jr. (TV programming block)

text: In Q1 1999, Nick Jr. premiered three new series based on books, "Franklin" on January 11, "Kipper" on February 8, and "Maisy" on the 11 of the same month, which helped increase the block's ratings. Later in 1999, "Little Bill" premiered on November 28; the series' first episodes premiered on Nickelodeon Sunday nights before airing on Nick Jr. the next day. Nick Jr. briefly aired reruns of "Shining Time Station" on June 5, 2000 ("Maggie and the Ferocious Beast" premiered on the same day that show premiered) to promote the film, "Thomas and the Magic Railroad", before replacing it with "Dora the Explorer" on August 14, which became one of Nick Jr.'s most successful series.


title: Nick Jr. (TV programming block)

text: The US dub of "Bob the Builder" premiered on Nick Jr. on January 13, 2001, and "Oswald" premiered on August 20. On , Nick Jr. received a new rebrand produced by AdamsMorioka (who had previously rebranded Nickelodeon and Nick at Nite) and Editional Effects, intended to have a greater appeal towards parents. In the spring of 2002, Nick Jr. altered the format of its commercial breaks, resulting in the removal of network IDs dating back to 1994. On April 7, 2003, the day sister network Noggin rebranded and introduced Moose and Zee, Nick Jr. aired Noggin's three new original series "Oobi", "Tweenies", and "Miffy and Friends"; Nick Jr. continued to air "Tweenies" from July to September 25.


title: Nick Jr. (TV programming block)

text: On , Nick Jr. received a rebrand that introduced more than a dozen new logos; British program "Rubbadubbers" premiered the next day. A new interstitial series called "Nick Jr. Play Along" was introduced, hosted by two fun live-action mascots: Robin (played by actress Hillary Hawkins) and Zack (played by actor Travis Guba). Along with Robin and Zack were two sock puppets called the Feetbeats. Face was given a brand new look which added eyebrows and a chin and straightened his eyes by inverting their colors from white dots on black eyes to actual-looking eyes, and was voiced by Nick on CBS announcer Babi Floyd. The new Face promos were produced by Vee-Pee Cartoons.


title: Nick Jr. (TV programming block)

text: On October 8, 2004, the new Face interstitials and most of Nick Jr.'s other interstitial series ended their 1–year-run.


title: Nick Jr. (TV programming block)

text: On , Nick Jr. received another rebrand containing interstitials co-produced by Little Airplane Productions featuring the block's new mascot Piper O'Possum (voiced by Ali Brustofski and created by Josh Selig), and the new slogan "Love to Play!". Nick Jr.'s female announcer was replaced with Kobie Powell and Chris Phillips. Nick Jr. used its new on-screen bug to promote its website until , when the FCC forbaded that. "LazyTown", "Miss Spider's Sunny Patch Friends", and "The Backyardigans" (the latter of which premiering alongside the rebrand) premiered on Nick Jr. in 2004; they were briefly shown on Noggin during Thanksgiving week before joining Noggin's regular schedule later. Between 2004 and 2007, Nick Jr. reduced its reliance on interstitial series and increased the amount of commercials it aired.


title: Nick Jr. (TV programming block)

text: On November 10, 2006, the "SpongeBob SquarePants" "Best Day Ever" marathon on Nickelodeon pre-empted the Nick Jr. block.


title: Nick Jr. (TV programming block)

text: On , Nick Jr. received yet another rebrand. A new slogan, "Play with Us!", was included. Nick Jr.'s bumpers encouraged preschoolers to play along and featured the Nick Jr. logo in the form of two stop-motion stuffed animals. This marks the first time that Nick Jr. had no mascot since 1994. Starting on , Nick Jr. began its broadcast at 8:30 am.


title: Nick Jr. (TV programming block)

text: On January 30, 2009, the original Nick Jr. block ended its 21–year run with Ni Hao, Kai-Lan being its last show. That same day, the "Play with Us!" interstitials ended their almost 2–year-run.


title: Nick Jr. (TV programming block)

text: On , the original Nick Jr. block rebranded as "Nickelodeon’s Play Date". The block's branding was based on Noggin's branding, and many bumpers featured drawings, finger puppets or cupcakes. The bumpers' music was a choir of kids vocalizing, and Nicolette Pierini was the announcer of each bumper. With this new branding, their Nick Jr. graphic bugs have been replaced with the bug used for regular Nickelodeon programing. Despite now being known as "Nickelodeon's Play Date", some bumpers still contained the Nick Jr. stop motion animal bumpers from the previous branding, but only until May, when they have been removed, remade to have the Nickelodeon logo. From February 2 to early June of that same year, "Nickelodeon’s Play Date" used the Nick Jr. split-screen credits from 2007, only with the Nickelodeon splat logo in place. Starting in June of that year, the split-screen credits were changed to match the branding. On September 28 of that year, the Nick Jr. channel was launched replacing Noggin. That same day, the block became simply known as "Nick’s Play Date". Starting in the summer of 2010, the block started to air at 7:00am.


title: Nick Jr. (TV programming block)

text: In 2011, "Nick’s Play Date" received a new rebrand featuring characters from the block's shows. That same year, "Nick’s Play Date" stopped using the branding’s split-screen credits, and started using Nickelodeon’s split-screen credits template. The following year, the "Play Date" branding was replaced with a modified version of the Nick Jr. channel's new branding known as "Nick: The Smart Place to Play". Despite Nickelodeon displaying its shows credits during the last 30 seconds before it since 2012, the branding retained the split-screen credits for Nick Jr. shows airing on the block until .


title: Nick Jr. (TV programming block)

text: On , "Nick: The Smart Place to Play" rebranded back to Nick Jr. while still using the Nickelodeon name for the screen bug. When aired on the Nick Jr. channel, commercials for programs broadcast on Nickelodeon's Nick Jr. block usually end with "Only on Nick" or "Only on Nickelodeon" to differentiate the titles. On the same day, the Nick Jr. block also began to use Nickelodeon's on-screen credits to include more commercials (now 12 minutes per hour). On , the Nick Jr. website was fully redesigned to match up with the Nick Jr. app.


title: Nick Jr. (TV programming block)

text: On , the Nick Jr. block began calling itself "Nick Jr. on Nick", refreshing its imaging with new bumpers and curriculum boards. On November 12 of that same year, the block reverted to using the Nickelodeon name for the screen bug and later in advertisements, phasing out of the Nick Jr. name once again since 2009. However, the Nick Jr. name is retained in the refreshed bumpers and curriculum boards. Starting in the fall of 2020, the block started to air at 7:00am once again for the first time since 2010. As of fall 2022, the Nick Jr. block has been extended to sign off at 3:00pm.


title: Nick Jr. (TV programming block)

text: From 2000 to 2002 and from 2004 to 2006, Nick Jr. programs and interstitial segments appeared as a Saturday morning block on CBS entitled " Nick Jr. on CBS". From 2002 to 2004, it was part of the general "Nick on CBS" block, which also included programming from the main Nickelodeon channel. It ended after Viacom and CBS Corporation were separated at the start at 2006 (but re-merged in later years) and was replaced by the "KOL Secret Slumber Party" block on September 16, 2006.


title: Nick Jr. (TV programming block)

text: From 2003 to 2009 there was also a Nick Jr. on "Noggin" that aired shows including Bob the Builder, Gullah Gullah Island, Dora the Explorer, Blue's Clues, Maggie and the Ferocious Beast, and Little Bear. In late 2004 and 2005, it got these shows: Miss Spider's Sunny Patch Friends, The Backyardigans, LazyTown, and Go, Diego, Go!


title: Nick Jr. (TV programming block)

text: Spanish-language US network Telemundo has aired "Blue's Clues" (from 1998 to 2000, as part of the "Nickelodeon en Telemundo" block) and "Dora the Explorer" (from 2005 to 2006, as part of the "Telemundo Kids" block) in Spanish. On April 5, 2008, competing Spanish network Univision added Spanish-dubbed versions of "Dora the Explorer" and its spin-off "Go, Diego, Go!" to their Saturday morning "Planeta U" line-up. A Spanish-dubbed version of "The Backyardigans" was later added to the lineup on January 8, 2011.


title: Nick Jr. (TV programming block)

text: For a brief time in summer 2010, Tr3s, a sister network to Nickelodeon, aired a daily block of Spanish-dubbed Nick Jr. programs under the name "Tr3s Jr." to meet E/I requirements for its broadcast affiliates. Shows like "Pistas de Blue" (the Spanish version of "Blue's Clues") and "Wonder Pets!" were featured in the block.


title: Nick Jr. (TV programming block)

text: Face (1990s) made an appearance during the 2012 New Year edition of The '90s Are All That, TeenNick's former 1990s-oriented late-night block. Face's appearances consisted of out-of-context clips that make him appear to be drunk or making adult comments (e.g.: "Yeah, grow a pair!").


title: Nick Jr. (TV programming block)

text: In October 2015 for the Halloween/Nick or Treat season, the "Face the Monster" bumper would play on the block as a transition of introducing episodes of "Aaahh!!! Real Monsters". The same bumper would be used on the block as an April Fools' Day prank on April 1, 2017.


title: Nick Jr. (TV programming block)

text: Face also appeared in an Easter promo for The Splat, The '90s Are All That's successor, in 2016, encouraging viewers to look for the Easter bunny in 1990s Nickelodeon shows.


title: PC Music

text: PC Music is a record label and art collective based in London and run by producer A. G. Cook. It was founded in 2013, making its music available on SoundCloud that year. Artists on its roster have included Hannah Diamond, GFOTY, Danny L Harle, EASYFUN, Namasenda, and Planet 1999. The label's releases have been showcased on the compilations "PC Music Volume 1" (2015), "Volume 2" (2016), and "Volume 3" (2022).


title: PC Music

text: The label is known for its surreal or exaggerated take on pop music tropes from the 1990s and 2000s, often featuring pitch-shifted, feminine vocals and bright, synthetic textures. PC Music has been characterized as embracing the aesthetics of advertising, consumerism, and corporate branding. Its artists often present devised personas inspired by cyberculture. The label has inspired both praise and criticism from journalists, and has been called "polarizing".


title: PC Music

text: The label functions as a collective in which acts frequently collaborate with each other. Many of the acts are aliases, obscuring the identities and number of artists on the label. Early on, the label kept tight control over its branding and limited its interaction with journalists, and as its profile grew, Cook declined to engage with press, described as a sort of Berry Gordy figure within the group. "Vice" magazine said that PC Music's acts are best understood not as living people but as "meticulously planned and considered long-running art pieces…living installations who put out music." Cook mentioned preference for "recording people who don't normally make music and treating them as if they're a major label artist." Rather than engaging in extended promotional campaigns, the label continually announces new acts. Each develops a persona that is conveyed through Internet slang and cartoon imagery.


title: PC Music

text: Cook had previously worked on Gamsonite, a "pseudo-label" and blog collecting his early collaborations, among other projects while studying music at Goldsmiths, University of London. He founded PC Music in August 2013, as a way of embracing an A&R role. Within a year the label had published 40 songs on SoundCloud where, as of September 2014, some of its songs had accumulated over 100,000 listens. It had not released a physical single, and its first paid download did not come until the November 2014 release of Hannah Diamond's "Every Night". QT's "Hey QT" single was also released in 2014, on XL Recordings, with production from Cook and PC Music-affiliate Sophie.


title: PC Music

text: In March 2014, the label made their live debut in the United States when Cook, Sophie and QT performed at Hype Machine's Hype Hotel during South by Southwest. The following year, in March 2015, several members of the collective appeared at a label showcase at South by Southwest. Cook described it as a "rebirth moment" for the group, moving toward functioning as a real record label. Shortly after, they released their first official compilation album, titled "PC Music Volume 1". On 8 May 2015, PC Music artists performed at BRIC House in Brooklyn, New York as part of the Red Bull Music Academy Festival, to premiere Pop Cube, "a multimedia reality network".


title: PC Music

text: On 21 October 2015, the label announced on Facebook a partnership with major record label Columbia Records. The first release through this partnership was an EP from Danny L Harle. In December 2015 PC Music released the single "Only You", a collaboration between A. G. Cook and the Chinese pop star Chris Lee, with a music video directed by Kinga Burza.


title: PC Music

text: On 18 November 2016, PC Music released "PC Music Volume 2," a compilation featuring most of the label's roster. A review in "The Guardian" praised it for being "more beautiful and progressive than ever before" and proof that "Cook and his gang are the cleverest, most thoughtful people in British pop".


title: PC Music

text: On 16 February 2018, PC Music released a limited dual-vinyl compilation of both "PC Music Volumes 1" and "2" and in December 2018, PC Music announced new vinyl and CD reissues of "PC Music Volumes 1" and "2", as well as the first physical release of the label's "Month of Mayhem" compilation. GFOTY also announced her departure from the label at this time. She has since signed with a new label, "Pretty Wavvy."


title: PC Music

text: The label has released music with a consistent sound that Clive Martin, writing for "Vice", described as "A playful composite of disregarded sounds and genres". Lanre Bakare, writing for "The Guardian", identified the music's elements as "the huge synth blasts favoured by Eurodance chart-botherers such as Cascada, grime's sub-bass, and happy hardcore's high-pitched vocal range". The styles and influences of music incorporated include bubblegum dance, Balearic trance, wonky and electro house. Cook cites Korean & Japanese pop music and gyaru culture, as well as the production work of Max Martin and Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis. His production involves layering discordant sounds on top of each other to produce chaotic mixes, similar to the techniques used in black MIDI music. Abrupt shifts in timbre and rhythm are used to create multiple perspectives of a personality. Cook also indirectly cites American musician Conlon Nancarrow as a source of inspiration in the PC Music Pop Cube Trailer 1.


title: PC Music

text: PC Music's songwriting often deals with consumerism as a theme. In their take on haul videos, Lipgloss Twins include references to fashion and makeup brands. Vocals on the label's mix for "DIS Magazine" reflect various forms of marketing: producer ID tags, film trailers, and product placement for a sponsor. The label brings in inexperienced singers to record its songs. It thoroughly processes the vocals, shifting the pitch upward or chopping it to use as a rhythmic element. These distortions create a post-ironic representation of consumerism, money, and sex.


title: PC Music

text: PC Music's aesthetic combines elements of cuteness, camp, and kawaii, though often, as music critic Maurice Marion points out for "Rare Candy", with a sinister, Lynchian undertone achieved by dissonant inversions and caustic harmonization. Critics likened the label to Ryan Trecartin in its irregular pacing, "feminine appropriation", and valley girl slang. In a piece for "Vice", Ryan Bassil suggested that PC Music's style allows for a more candid expression of emotions.


title: PC Music

text: PC Music has been described as less "macho" take on the "house revival", bringing "playfulness and femininity" to dance music subculture. The availability of music software has allowed for the spread of high-production dance music by independent musicians, particularly on SoundCloud. PC Music often exaggerates the homogenised, high-fidelity aesthetics of these songs. "Vogue" deputy editor Alex Frank commented that the overt manipulation of cultural references showcased a cynical sense of humour, creating an insular approach to making dance music during a period of house revival.


title: PC Music

text: In the late 2010s, the term "hyperpop" began to be used as a microgenre referring to music associated with the PC Music label and the artists it influenced.


title: PC Music

text: As PC Music became more prominent in 2014, the reaction to it was often described as "divisive". Joe Moynihan, writing in "Fact", remarked that "PC Music have, in just over a year, released some of the most compelling pop music in recent memory." Some critics have found its high-tempo trance sound artless or aggravating.


title: PC Music

text: PC Music received accolades in several 2014 year-end summaries. "Dazed" included A. G. Cook at number 12 in their "Dazed 100"; "Fact" named PC Music the best label of 2014; "The Huffington Post" included PC Music at number 3 in their "Underrated Albums - 2014"; "Resident Advisor" included PC Music at number 4 in their "Top Labels of The Year" in 2014; and Tiny Mix Tapes included it in their "Favorite 15 Labels of 2014". "Spin" magazine named PC Music its "Trend of the Year" for 2014. In 2021, The Forty-Five named several PC Music artists – including A.G. Cook, umru and Hannah Diamond – in their list of the best hyperpop songs of all time.


title: PC Music

text: PC Music have produced a number of label focused showcases since their inception. After a brief showcase at SXSW in 2015, on 8 May 2015, PC Music launched a "multimedia reality network" called 'Pop Cube'. An event in conjunction with the network was created and became part of the Red Bull Music Academy Festival in New York, which quickly sold out. In May 2016, PC Music presented 'Pop Cosmos' at the Scala in London, featuring Danny L Harle, Hannah Diamond, GFOTY, A. G. Cook, Felicita, Easyfun and Spinee. In July 2016 PC Music held a new one-off event called 'Pop City' at Create in Los Angeles. As well as scheduled performances from PC Music performers, the show featured guests, including Carly Rae Jepsen, Charli XCX, and QT. On the "405" webzine, PC Music’s live shows have been described as being surrounded by a care-less authentic aura and have been recognised for their "forward-thinking fearlessness to push pop music into new and daring areas".


title: History of coins

text: The history of coins stretches back to the first millennium BC/BCE. Notable examples of coins include the Lydian Lion coins, Persian daric and siglos, Tong Bei, the dirham and gold dinar.


title: History of coins

text: Coins are the major archaeological source of history. These small coins have a lot to portray. Coins help in knowing the information about the kingdom, language, administration, religion and economic condition and also the title of the ruler who minted those coins.


title: History of coins

text: Coins were first made of scraps of metal by hitting a hammer positioned over an anvil. The Chinese produced primarily cast coinage, and this spread to South-East Asia and Japan. Although few non-Chinese cast coins were produced by governments, it was a common practice amongst counterfeiters.


title: History of coins

text: Ephesus' great temple of Artemis has provided evidence for the earliest coins yet known from the ancient world. The first structures in the sanctuary, buried deep under the later temples, date back to the eighth century BCE, and from that time on precious objects were used in the cult or dedicated to the goddess by her worshippers.


title: History of coins

text: The Lydian Lion coins were made of electrum, a naturally occurring alloy of gold and silver but of variable precious metal value. The royal lion symbol stamped on the coin, similar to a seal, was a declaration of the value of the contents. These directly preceded ancient Greek coinage, through which Rome begot all Western coinage, and through which the Seleucids, Parthians, and Sassanians begot all Islamic coinage. Indian coinage has largely been a product of Greek, Roman, and Islamic influences. Chinese coinage, though it probably developed independently, was succeeded by Western-style coinage in the late nineteenth century. Other countries in Asia, in Africa, and elsewhere have adopted the Western approach to coinage as well.


title: History of coins

text: The Lydian Lion was minted by Alyettes of Lydia, 610–560 BC. However, it took some time before ancient coins were used for commerce and trade. Even the smallest-denomination electrum coins, perhaps worth about a day's subsistence, would have been too valuable for buying a loaf of bread. The Trojan Horse had become synonymous with the name of Agamemnon and the symbolism of the horse was stamped on the coins from Cyme in Aeolia, presumably in reference to the power of their lineage. Indeed, the daughter of Agamemnon of Cyme, Hermodike II, is credited with inventing coined money by Julius Pollux after she married King Midas - famed for turning everything he touched into gold.


title: History of coins

text: The most rational explanation of this fable seems to be, that he encouraged his subjects to convert the produce of their agriculture, and other branches of industry, into money, by commerce, whence considerable wealth flowed into his own treasury... though it is more likely, that what the Greeks called invention, was rather the introduction of the knowledge of them [coins] from countries more advanced in civilization.


title: History of coins

text: However, as with all fables, there is a problem with the dates. A real King Mita of Phrygia lived in the 8th century BC but coins were not invented until well after the Phrygian kingdom collapsed. Aylettes’ association with the Midas mythology came about because Lydian electrum came from the river Pactolus in which King Midas supposedly washed away his ability to turn all he touched into gold. Aylettes’ tax revenue may be the real ‘Midas touch’ financing his and his son's, Croesus, conquests. There were some pre-coin types, with no recognisable image, used in the Ionian city of Miletus and the island of Samos but it is noteworthy that the coins from Cyme, when first circulated around 600-550 BC, utilised the symbol of the horse - tying them to the house of Agamemnon and the glory of the Greek victory over Troy. Cyme, being geographically and politically close to Lydia, took their invention of 'nobleman's tax-token' to the citizens - thus making Cyme's rough incuse horse head silver fractions, Hemiobols, a candidate for the title of the Second Oldest coins - and the first used for retailing on a large-scale basis by the Ionian Greeks, quickly spreading Market Economics through the rest of the world. For a timeline graphic showing the progression from pre-coin, to lion, to horsehead imagery on the earliest coins, see Basic Electrum Types.


title: History of coins

text: Since that time, coins have been the most universal embodiment of money. These first coins were made of electrum, a naturally occurring pale yellow mixture of gold and silver that was further alloyed with silver and copper.


title: History of coins

text: However, the Persian daric was the first gold coin which, along with a similar silver coin, the siglos, (From Ancient Greek σίγλος, Hebrew שֶׁקֶל (shékel)) represented the bimetallic monetary standard of the Achaemenid Persian Empire which has continued until today. Also, the Persian coins were very well known in the Persian and Sassanids era. Most notably, in Susa and in Ctesiphon.


title: History of coins

text: The Byzantine Empire minted many coins ("see Byzantine currency"), including very thin gold coins bearing the image of the Christian cross and various Byzantine emperors.


title: History of coins

text: A tomb of the Chinese Shang dynasty dating back to the 11th century BCE shows what may be the first cast copper money Tong Bei. Coinage was in widespread use by the Warring States period and the Han dynasty. Also a lot of coins in China had a hole through the center so they could be tied on to a string.


title: History of coins

text: Silver and gold coins are the most common and universally recognized throughout history, even today. Mints around the world still make millions of gold and silver coins, including the Canadian Silver Maple Leaf, the American Gold Eagle, and the Australian Nugget. Copper, nickel, and other metals are also common, but in lower denominations.


title: History of coins

text: Coins were first made of scraps of metal. Ancient coins were produced through a process of hitting a hammer positioned over an anvil. The rich iconography of the obverse of the early electrum coins contrasts with the dull appearance of their reverse which usually carries only punch marks. The shape and number of these punches varied according to their denomination and weight-standard.


title: History of coins

text: The Chinese produced primarily cast coinage, and this spread to South-East Asia and Japan. Relatively few non-Chinese cast coins were produced by governments, however it was a common practice amongst counterfeiters. Since the early 18th century and before, presses (normally referred to as mills in coin collecting circles) have been used in the west, beginning with screw presses and progressing in the 19th century towards steam driven presses. The first of these presses were developed in France and Germany, and quickly spread to Britain. Modern minting techniques use electric and hydraulic presses.


title: History of coins

text: The type of mintage method (being hammered, milled or cast) does limit the materials which can be used for the coin. For example, antimony coins, (which are very rare) are nearly always cast examples, because of the brittle nature of the metal, and thus it would break if deformed, which is a key part of the milling and hammering process.


title: Murder of Sierah Joughin

text: Sierah Joughin (February 11, 1996 – July 22, 2016) was an American woman who was abducted and murdered in Delta, Ohio. She disappeared on July 19, 2016, and was found dead three days later. Her assailant, James D. Worley, was convicted and sentenced to death for the murder and over twenty years in prison for the kidnapping, assault, and other related charges. His execution is currently scheduled for May 20, 2025.


title: Murder of Sierah Joughin

text: Worley had been previously convicted and imprisoned for the assault and attempted kidnapping of another woman under markedly similar circumstances but was released after three years and was not listed in any state or federal offender database at the time of Joughin's murder. Consequently, the killing prompted the creation of Ohio Senate Bill 231 ("Sierah's Law"), a statute that provides for a searchable database of felons living in the state, who are convicted of specific violent offenses. The statute was signed into law in December 2018.


title: Murder of Sierah Joughin

text: Sierah Catherine Joughin was born in Sylvania, Ohio on February 11, 1996, to parents Sheila Vaculik and Tom Joughin. Nicknamed "Ce" by friends and family, she graduated from Evergreen High School in 2014. At the time of her death, she was enrolled at University of Toledo's Junior College of Business, studying human resource management and interning at her uncle's metal stamping business.


title: Murder of Sierah Joughin

text: James Dean Worley (born April 8, 1959) was born in Tacoma, Washington and graduated from Evergreen High School in Metamora, Ohio in 1978. He worked various jobs in Toledo, Ohio, as a farmer in Delta, and as a grounds crew member for several county fairs. Regarding his education, Worley attributed his 1.59 grade-point average to being a frequent user and seller of marijuana from the age of 14.


title: Murder of Sierah Joughin

text: In July 1990, Worley ambushed a young woman, Robin Gardner, while she was riding her bike in Whitehouse, Ohio. He struck her with his truck, got out of the vehicle, struck her on the head, and placed her in handcuffs. He then held a screwdriver to her throat and stated, "I'll kill you if you don't stop screaming," and attempted to force her into the vehicle. Gardner was able to escape and was picked up by a passing motorist. Worley was ultimately arrested and convicted on abduction charges and sentenced to 4 – 10 years in prison, with the possibility of parole. He served three years in prison for the crime before he was released early by his own petition.


title: Murder of Sierah Joughin

text: Worley returned to prison in 2000 when he was convicted of cultivating marijuana plants and possessing weapons while on disability, both felonies at that time. He was released two years later, in 2002, again after petitioning for early release. After his second release from prison, he started a small business at his residence and was licensed as a trailer transporter.


title: Murder of Sierah Joughin

text: At approximately 6:45 PM on July 19, 2016, Joughin was riding her bicycle home from her boyfriend's house while he rode alongside her on his motorcycle. They parted ways near County Road 6 near Metamora, Ohio in Fulton County, as he turned around to return home, while she continued. When she did not arrive home that evening, and her boyfriend told her family that he couldn't reach her by cell phone, they contacted authorities. Later that evening, Joughin's bicycle was discovered several rows into a cornfield near where she was last seen, and the county sheriff noted signs of a struggle, along with motorcycle tracks through the corn. With the assistance of the FBI, authorities made efforts to track Joughin using her Fitbit activity tracker and smartphone, the latter of which returned a signal several miles from where her bicycle was located, but this did not produce any new leads. Rewards ranging from $25,000 to $100,000 were offered for any information leading to her safe recovery.


title: Murder of Sierah Joughin

text: Several items that did not belong to Joughin were discovered near her bicycle, including a pair of men's sunglasses (which tested positive for male DNA), a screwdriver, and a box of automotive fuses. A passing driver also recovered a motorcycle helmet with a bloody hand print on its surface. Joughin's boyfriend was not considered a person of interest as his helmet could quickly be accounted for. When officers were canvassing the neighborhood after Joughin's disappearance, Worley, who lived under 2 miles away, told them his motorcycle had broken down in the area and that he had lost items of the same description as those at the crime scene. He also stated that he had discovered two bicycles in the corn, one of which he took and that it would have his fingerprints on it. He commented that he "didn't steal anything or kill anyone." Another witness in the area described seeing a passenger van driving at a high speed through the area, and provided a license plate number to the authorities. The license plate was soon discovered to be registered to Worley, who had been convicted and sentenced in 1990 for assaulting and attempting to kidnap another woman, who he knocked off her bicycle. Based on this information, investigators obtained a search warrant for Worley's property.


title: Murder of Sierah Joughin

text: Upon searching a barn on Worley's property, authorities discovered a hidden room, where they found several pairs of women's underwear (on one of which blood was found), restraints, and a carpet-lined freezer stained with blood. They also found blood on Worley's motorcycle, as well as "zip-tie" restraints and a ski mask in his truck. Joughin's DNA was found on a piece of duct tape and on an inflatable mattress both found in the barn. Investigators found recording devices all over the property and concluded from cell phone records that Worley was at the scene of the abduction for nearly two hours during the time Joughin was missing. They also discovered that Worley had told a court-mandated therapist, after his previous conviction that he "learned from each abduction he had done and the next one he was going to bury." He was arrested on charges of abduction on July 22, three days after Joughin's disappearance. A spokesperson for the sheriff's office suggested that Worley fit the profile of a serial offender and that he could potentially have additional unknown victims, possibly kept at the property. Despite an exhaustive search, neither Joughin nor any human remains were found there.