title: Fission (biology)

text: Green algae can divide into more than two daughter cells. The exact number of daughter cells depends on the species of algae and is an effect of temperature and light.


title: Fission (biology)

text: Most species of bacteria primarily undergo binary reproduction. Some species and groups of bacteria may undergo multiple fission as well, sometimes beginning or ending with the production of spores. The species "Metabacterium polyspora", a symbiont of guinea pigs, has been found to produce multiple endospores in each division. Some species of cyanobacteria have also been found to reproduce through multiple fission.


title: Fission (biology)

text: Some protozoans reproduce by yet another mechanism of fission called as plasmotomy. In this type of fission, a multinucleate adult parent undergoes cytokinesis to form two multinucleate (or coenocytic) daughter cells. The daughter cells so produced undergo further mitosis.


title: Fission (biology)

text: Fragmentation in multicellular or colonial organisms is a form of asexual reproduction or cloning, where an organism is split into fragments. Each of these fragments develop into mature, fully grown individuals that are clones of the original organism. In echinoderms, this method of reproduction is usually known as fissiparity.


title: Fission (biology)

text: Any splitting of a single population of individuals into discrete parts may be considered fission. A population may undergo fission process for a variety of reasons, including migration or geographic isolation. Since the fission leads to genetic variance in the newly isolated, smaller populations, population fission is a precursor to speciation.


title: Rapa Nui language

text: Rapa Nui or Rapanui (, Rapa Nui: , Spanish: ), also known as Pascuan () or Pascuense, is an Eastern Polynesian language of the Austronesian language family. It is spoken on the island of Rapa Nui, also known as "Easter Island".


title: Rapa Nui language

text: The island is home to a population of just under 6,000 and is a special territory of Chile. According to census data, there are 9,399 people (on both the island and the Chilean mainland) who identify as ethnically Rapa Nui. Census data does not exist on the primary known and spoken languages among these people. In 2008, the number of fluent speakers was reported as low as 800. Rapa Nui is a minority language and many of its adult speakers also speak Spanish. Most Rapa Nui children now grow up speaking Spanish and those who do learn Rapa Nui begin learning it later in life.


title: Rapa Nui language

text: The Rapa Nui language is isolated within Eastern Polynesian, which also includes the Marquesic and Tahitic languages. Within Eastern Polynesian, it is closest to Marquesan morphologically, although its phonology has more in common with New Zealand Māori, as both languages are relatively conservative in retaining consonants lost in other Eastern Polynesian languages.


title: Rapa Nui language

text: Like all Polynesian languages, Rapa Nui has relatively few consonants. Uniquely for an Eastern Polynesian language, Rapa Nui has preserved the original glottal stop of Proto-Polynesian. It is, or until recently was, a verb-initial language.


title: Rapa Nui language

text: One of the most important recent books written about the language of Rapa Nui is Verónica du Feu's "Rapanui (Descriptive Grammar)" ().


title: Rapa Nui language

text: Very little is known about the Rapa Nui language prior to European contact. The majority of Rapa Nui vocabulary is inherited directly from Proto–Eastern Polynesian. Due to extensive borrowing from Tahitian there now often exist two forms for what was the same word in the early language. For example, Rapa Nui has Tahitian alongside original for 'to see', both derived from Proto-Eastern Polynesian *kitea. There are also hybridized forms of words such as 'to teach', from native (causative prefix) and Tahitian .


title: Rapa Nui language

text: According to archaeologist José Miguel Ramírez "more than a dozen Mapuche - Rapa Nui cognates have been described", chiefly by Sebastian Englert. Among these are the Mapuche/Rapa Nui words "toki"/"toki" (axe), "kuri"/"uri" (black) and "piti"/"iti" (little).


title: Rapa Nui language

text: Spanish notes from a 1770 visit to the island record 94 words and terms. Many are clearly Polynesian, but several are not easily recognizable. For example, the numbers from one to ten seemingly have no relation to any known language. They are compared with contemporary Rapa Nui words, in parenthesis:


title: Rapa Nui language

text: It may be that the list is a misunderstanding, and the words not related to numbers at all. The Spanish may have shown Arabic numerals to the islanders who did not understand their meaning, and likened them to some other abstraction. For example, the "moroqui" for number eight would have actually been , a small fish that is used as a bait, since "8" can look like a simple drawing of a fish.


title: Rapa Nui language

text: Captain James Cook visited the island four years later, and had a Tahitian interpreter with him, who, while recognizing some Polynesian words (up to 17 were written down), was not able to converse with the islanders in general. The British also attempted to record the numerals and were able to record the correct Polynesian words.


title: Rapa Nui language

text: In the 1860s the Peruvian slave raids began, as Peruvians were experiencing labor shortages and came to regard the Pacific as a vast source of free labor. Slavers raided islands as far away as Micronesia, but Rapa Nui was much closer and became a prime target.


title: Rapa Nui language

text: In December 1862 eight Peruvian ships landed their crewmen and between bribery and outright violence they captured some 1,000 Rapanui, including the king, his son, and the ritual priests (one of the reasons for so many gaps in knowledge of the ancient ways). It has been estimated that 2,000 Rapanui were captured over a period of years. Those who survived to arrive in Peru were poorly treated, overworked, and exposed to diseases. Ninety percent of the Rapa Nui died within one or two years of capture.


title: Rapa Nui language

text: Eventually the Bishop of Tahiti caused a public outcry and an embarrassed Peru rounded up the few survivors to return them. A shipload headed to Rapa Nui, but smallpox broke out en route and only 15 arrived at the island. They were put ashore. The resulting smallpox epidemic nearly wiped out the remaining population.


title: Rapa Nui language

text: In the aftermath of the Peruvian slave deportations in the 1860s, Rapa Nui came under extensive outside influence from neighbouring Polynesian languages such as Tahitian. While the majority of the population that was taken to work as slaves in the Peruvian mines died of diseases and bad treatment in the 1860s, hundreds of other Islanders who left for Mangareva in the 1870s and 1880s to work as servants or labourers adopted the local form of Tahitian-Pidgin. Fischer argues that this pidgin became the basis for the modern Rapa Nui language when the surviving part of the Rapa Nui immigrants on Mangareva returned to their almost deserted home island.


title: Rapa Nui language

text: William J. Thomson, paymaster on the USS "Mohican", spent twelve days on Rapa Nui from 19 to 30 December 1886. Among the data Thomson collected was the Rapa Nui calendar.


title: Rapa Nui language

text: Father Sebastian Englert, a German missionary living on Easter Island during 1935–1969, published a partial Rapa Nui–Spanish dictionary in his "La Tierra de Hotu Matua" in 1948, trying to save what was left of the old language. Despite the many typographical mistakes, the dictionary is valuable, because it provides a wealth of examples which all appear drawn from a real corpus, part oral traditions and legends, part actual conversations.


title: Rapa Nui language

text: Englert recorded vowel length, stress, and glottal stop, but was not always consistent, or perhaps the misprints make it seem so. He indicated vowel length with a circumflex, and stress with an acute accent, but only when it does not occur where expected. The glottal stop is written as an apostrophe, but is often omitted. The velar nasal is sometimes transcribed with a , but sometimes with a Greek eta, , as a graphic approximation of .


title: Rapa Nui language

text: It is assumed that rongorongo, the undeciphered script of Rapa Nui, represents the old Rapa Nui language. The script is extremely unusual, as that is, the reader starts at the bottom left corner, reads a line from left to right, then rotates the table 180°, reads another line from left to right, and then rotates it again.


title: Rapa Nui language

text: The island is under the jurisdiction of Chile since 1888 and is now home to a number of Chilean continentals. The influence of the Spanish language is noticeable in modern Rapa Nui speech. As fewer children learn to speak Rapa Nui at an early age, their superior knowledge of Spanish affects the 'passive knowledge' they have of Rapa Nui. A version of Rapanui interspersed with Spanish nouns, verbs and adjectives has become a popular form of casual speech. The most well integrated borrowings are the Spanish conjunctions (or), (but) and "y" (and). Spanish words such as "problema" (problem), which was once rendered as "poroporema", are now often integrated with minimal or no change.


title: Rapa Nui language

text: Spanish words are still often used within Rapanui grammatical rules, though some word order changes are occurring and it is argued that Rapanui may be undergoing a shift from VSO to the Spanish SVO. This example sentence was recorded first in 1948 and again in 2001 and its expression has changed from VSO to SVO.


title: Rapa Nui language

text: Rapa Nui's indigenous Rapanui toponymy has survived with few Spanish additions or replacements, a fact that has been attributed in part to the survival of the Rapa Nui language. This contrasts with the toponymy of continental Chile, which has lost many of its indigenous names.


title: Rapa Nui language

text: As present generation Rapa Nui speak Spanish as their first language in younger years and learn Rapa Nui later in life, flap in word-initial position can be pronounced alveolar trill .


title: Rapa Nui language

text: All vowels can be either long or short and are always long when they are stressed in the final position of a word. Most vowel sequences are present, with the exception of "*uo". The only sequence of three identical vowels is , also spelled ('yes').


title: Rapa Nui language

text: The nasal velar consonant is generally written with the Latin letter , but occasionally as . In electronic texts, the glottal plosive may be written with a (always lower-case) saltillo to avoid the problems of using the punctuation mark . A special letter, , is sometimes used to distinguish the Spanish , occurring in introduced terms, from the Rapa Nui . Similarly, has been written to distinguish it from Spanish "g". The IPA letter is now also coming into use.


title: Rapa Nui language

text: Syllables in Rapa Nui are CV (consonant-vowel) or V (vowel). There are no consonant clusters or word-final consonants.


title: Rapa Nui language

text: The reduplication of whole nouns or syllable parts performs a variety of different functions within Rapa Nui. To describe colours for which there is not a predefined word, the noun for an object of a like colour is duplicated to form an adjective. For example:


title: Rapa Nui language

text: Besides forming adjectives from nouns, the reduplication of whole words can indicate a multiple or intensified action. For example:


title: Rapa Nui language

text: The reduplication of the initial syllable in verbs can indicate plurality of subject or object. In this example the bolded section represents the reduplication of a syllable which indicates the plurality of the subject of a transitive verb:


title: Rapa Nui language

text: The reduplication of the final two syllables of a verb indicates plurality or intensity. In this example the bolded section represents the reduplication of two final syllables, indicating intensity or emphasis:


title: Rapa Nui language

text: Rapa Nui incorporates a number of borrowed words in which constructions such as consonant clusters or word-final consonants occur, though they do not occur naturally in the language. Historically, the practice was to transliterate unfamiliar consonants, insert vowels between clustered consonants and append word-final vowels where necessary.


title: Rapa Nui language

text: More recently, loanwords – which come primarily from Spanish – retain their consonant clusters. For example, ""litro"" (litre).


title: Rapa Nui language

text: Rapa Nui can be said to have a basic two-way distinction in its words, much like other Polynesian languages. That is between full words, and particles. Full words occur in the head of the phrase and are mostly open classes (exceptions like locationals exist). Particles occur in fixed positions before or after the head, and have a high frequency. There also exists an intermediate category, Pro-Forms, which occur in the head of a phrase, and can be preceded or followed by a particle. Unlike full words, they do not have lexical meaning, and like particles, form a closed class. Pro-forms include personal, possessive and benefactive pronouns, as well as interrogative words. Additionally, two other intermediate categories are the negator ("ina") and the numerals. While both of them form a closed class, they are able to function as phrase nuclei.


title: Rapa Nui language

text: Rapa Nui doesn't have one class of demonstratives, instead it has four classes of particles with demonstrative functions. Each class is made up of three particles of different degrees of distance; proximal, medial, or distal. This is a three-way distinction, similar to Samoan and Māori, two closely related languages from the same language family. Tongan, by contrast, has a two-way contrast.


title: Rapa Nui language

text: Rapa Nui speakers hence distinguish between entities that are close to the speaker (proximal), something at a medium distance or close to the hearer (medial), and something far away, removed from both the speaker and hearer (distal). This is called a person-oriented system, in which one of the demonstratives denotes a referent in proximity of the hearer. For Rapa Nui speakers, that is the medial distinction, "//". This system of spatial contrasts and directions is known as spatial deixis, and Rapa Nui is full of ways to express this, be it through locationals, postverbal or postnominal demonstratives, or directionals.


title: Rapa Nui language

text: These four classes that function as demonstratives are similar in form, but differ in syntactic status and have certain differences in functions.


title: Rapa Nui language

text: The postnominal demonstratives are used to indicate different degrees of distance. They always occur on the right periphery of the noun phrase.


title: Rapa Nui language

text: Postnominal demonstratives are obligatory when following a t-demonstrative ("tau/tou/tū") unless the noun phrase contains the identity marker "ā/ ana". They can also co-occur with other determiners, like articles in this example:


title: Rapa Nui language

text: Postnominal demonstratives can be used deictically or anaphorically. As deictic markers they are used to point at something visible, while as anaphoric markers they refer to entities in discourse context (entities which have been discussed before or are known by other means). In practice, the anaphoric use is much more common.


title: Rapa Nui language

text: However, it's more common to see used anaphorically, as a general purpose demonstrative. is often found co-occurring with the neutral t-demonstrative determiner, as the general form "tau/tou/tū (N) era", and this combination doubles as a common strategy to refer to a participant mentioned earlier in the discourse. So common, that "era" is the seventh most common word overall in the text corpus.


title: Rapa Nui language

text: For example, the two main characters in this story are simply referred to as "tau taŋata era" 'that man' and "tau vi e era" 'that woman'.


title: Rapa Nui language

text: "era" is also used in combination anaphorically with "te", a more conventional determiner instead of a demonstrative determiner. Rapa Nui uses this combination to refer to something which is known to both speaker and hearer, regardless of whether it has been mentioned in the discourse. This means the ""te N era"" construction (Where N is a noun), indicates definiteness, making it the closest equivalent to English (or Spanish) definite article, rather than a demonstrative.


title: Rapa Nui language

text: "Te N era" can also be used to refer to entities which are generally known, or presumed to be present in context. In the example, the cliffs refer to the cliffs in general, which can be presumed to be known by all Rapa Nui speakers on Rapa Nui with the coastline being a familiar feature. No specific cliff is meant.


title: Rapa Nui language

text: Deictic locationals utilize the same form as demonstrative determiners ("nei, nā" and "rā"). They can be the head of a phrase as they are locationals, and like other locationals they can be preceded by a preposition, but not by a determiner. They indicate distance with respect to the origo, which is either the speaker or the discourse situation.


title: Rapa Nui language

text: Pronouns are usually marked for number: in Rapa Nui there are markers for first, second and third personal singular and plural; however, there is only a marker for dual in the first person. The first person dual and plural can mark for exclusive and inclusive. The pronouns are always ahead of the person singular (PRS) "a" and relational particle (RLT) "i" or dative (DAT) "ki". However, in some examples, they do not have PRS, RLT and DAT.


title: Rapa Nui language

text: There is only one paradigm of pronouns for Rapa Nui. They function the same in both subject and object cases.


title: Rapa Nui language

text: Yes/no questions are distinguished from statements chiefly by a particular pattern of intonation. Where there is no expectation of a particular answer, the form remains the same as a statement. A question expecting an agreement is preceded by .


title: Rapa Nui language

text: Original Rapa Nui has no conjunctive particles. Copulative, adversative and disjunctive notions are typically communicated by context or clause order. Modern Rapa Nui has almost completely adopted Spanish conjunctions rather than rely on this.


title: Rapa Nui language

text: In the Rapa Nui, there are alienable and inalienable possession. Lichtemberk described alienable possession as the possessed noun being contingently associated with the possessor, and on the other hand inalienable possession as the possessed noun being necessarily associated with the possessor. The distinction is marked by a possessive suffix inserted before the relevant pronoun.


title: Rapa Nui language

text: Alienable possession is used to refer to a person's spouse, children, food, books, work, all animals (except horses), all tools and gadgets (including refrigerators), and some illnesses.


title: Rapa Nui language

text: It is used with parents, siblings, house, furniture, transports (including carts, cars, scooters, boats, airplanes), clothes, feeling, native land, parts of the body (including mind), horses, and their bridles.


title: Rapa Nui language

text: Inalienable possession "o" is used in this example, therefore "ooku" instead of "aaku" is used. It is talking about the speaker's brother, which is an inalienable relation.


title: Rapa Nui language

text: There are no markers to distinguish between temporary or permanent possession; the nature of objects possessed; or between past, present or future possession.


title: Rapa Nui language

text: A and O possession refer to alienable and inalienable possession in Rapa Nui. marks for alienable possession and marks for inalienable possession. "a "and "o" are marked as suffixes of the possessive pronouns; however, they are only marked when the possessive pronoun is in the first, second or third person singular. In (2) above, "taina" 'sibling' is inalienable and the possessor is first person singular "ooku" 'my'. However, for all the other situations, a and o are not marked as a suffix of the possessor.


title: Rapa Nui language

text: In the above example, the possessor "mee" 'those' is not a possessive pronoun of the first, second or third person singular. Therefore, "o" is marked not as a suffix of the possessor but a separate word in the sentence.


title: Rapa Nui language

text: Additionally there are also two additional particles/ morphemes which also contribute to negation in Rapa Nui:


title: Rapa Nui language

text: Negation occurs as preverbal particles in the verb phrase, with the clausal negator "kai" and "(e)ko" occurring in first position in the verbal phrase, while the constituent negator ("tae") occurs in second position in the verbal phrase. Clausal negators occur in the same position as aspect markers and subordinators—this means it is impossible for these elements to co-occur. As a result, negative clauses tend to have fewer aspectual distinctions. "Hia" occurs in eighth position as a post-verbal marker. Verbal negators precede adjectives. The table below roughly depicts the positions of negators in the Verb Phrase:


title: Rapa Nui language

text: "Ina" is the neutral negator (regarding aspect). It has the widest range of use in a variety of contexts. It usually occurs in imperfective contexts, as well as habitual clauses and narrative contexts, and is used to negate actions and states. It almost always occurs clause initially and is always followed by the neutral aspectual "he" + noun or "he" + verb.


title: Rapa Nui language

text: In addition to negating verbal and nominal clauses, it also functions as the term ꞌnoꞌas shown below:


title: Rapa Nui language

text: Unlike the other two clausal negators (which are preverbal particles), "ina" is a phrase head, thus it can form a constituent of its own.


title: Rapa Nui language

text: It is used to negate past events and narrative events, and is usually combined with "ina". It is also used to negate stative verbs, and a verb phrase marked with "kai" may contain various post-verbal particles such as the continuity marker "â" / "ana". This marker occurs when the clause has perfect aspect (often obligatory with the perfect marker "ko"). When combined with "kai", it indicates that the negative state continues.


title: Rapa Nui language

text: "(E)ko" is the imperfective negator, which (like "kai") replaces the aspectual marker in front of the verb, and which can occur with the negator "ina".


title: Rapa Nui language

text: It marks negative commands in imperatives (usually with "ina") with the "e" often excluded in imperatives.


title: Rapa Nui language

text: "Tae" is a constituent negator used to negate anything other than a main clause. This can be subordinate clauses, prepositional phrases, possessive predicates and other non-verbal clauses. It also negates nominalised verbs and sub-constituents such as adjectives and quantifiers. It does not negate nouns (this is done by the noun negator "kore"). It is also used to negate locative phrases, actor emphasis constructions, and is also used to reinforce the preposition "mai".


title: Rapa Nui language

text: "Tae" is an indicator for subordinate clauses, as it can also negate subordinate clauses without subordinate markers (in which case it usually occurs with an aspect marker).


title: Rapa Nui language

text: It also occurs in main clauses with main clause negators and aspect markers "i" and "e", when the clause has a feature of a subordinate clause such as oblique constituents


title: Rapa Nui language

text: It immediately follows the noun in the adjective position, and is used to indicate that the entity expressed by the noun or noun modifier does not exist or is lacking in the given context.


title: Rapa Nui language

text: "Hia" / "ia" is a morpheme used immediately after negated verbs and co-occurs with a negator to indicate actions or events which are interrupted or are yet to happen.


title: Rapa Nui language

text: In Rapa Nui, double negation is more frequent than single negation (with the negator "ina" often co-occurring with another clause negator most of the time). It is often used as a slight reinforcement or emphasis.


title: Rapa Nui language

text: When "tae" occurs in double negation, if the other negator is "kai" or "(e)ko", the negative polarity is cancelled out.


title: Rapa Nui language

text: "Ina" only negates main clauses so it never combines with the negator "tae", which is a subordinate clause negator. When occurring with "ina", negation may be reinforced.


title: Rapa Nui language

text: There is a system for the numerals 1–10 in both Rapa Nui and Tahitian, both of which are used, though all numbers higher than ten are expressed in Tahitian. When counting, all numerals whether Tahitian or Rapanui are preceded by "ka". This is not used however, when using a number in a sentence.


title: Rapa Nui language

text: Rapa Nui is a VSO (verb–subject–object) language. Except where verbs of sensing are used, the object of a verb is marked by the relational particle .


title: Rapa Nui language

text: Spatial deictics is also present in Rapa Nui, in the form of two directionals: "mai" and "atu". They indicate direction with respect to a specific deictic centre or locus.


title: Rapa Nui language

text: The postverbal demonstratives (PVDs) have the same form as the postnominal demonstratives, and they have the same meaning:


title: Rapa Nui language

text: How they differ from postnominal demonstratives is their function/where they can appear, as it is quite limited. They can only appear in certain syntactic contexts, listed here:


title: Rapa Nui language

text: Overall, their main function is to provide nuance to the aspectual marker they are being used alongside.


title: Red Headed Stranger

text: Red Headed Stranger is the 18th studio album by American outlaw country singer Willie Nelson, released in 1975. Following the success of his recordings with Atlantic Records, coupled with the negotiating skills of his manager, Neil Reshen, Nelson signed a contract with Columbia Records, the label that gave him total creative control over his works. The concept for the album was inspired by the "Tale of the Red Headed Stranger", a song that Nelson used to play as a disc jockey on his program in Fort Worth, Texas. After signing with Columbia, he decided to record the song, and arranged the details during his return to Austin, Texas, from a trip to Colorado. It was recorded at low cost at Autumn Sound Studios in Garland, Texas. The songs featured sparse arrangements, largely limited to Nelson's guitar, piano, and drums. Nelson presented the finished material to Columbia executives, who were dubious about releasing an album that they at first thought was a demo. However, Nelson had creative control, so no further production was added.


title: Red Headed Stranger

text: A concept album, "Red Headed Stranger" is about a fugitive on the run from the law after killing his wife and her lover. The content consists of songs with brief poetic lyrics and arrangements of older material such as Fred Rose's "Blue Eyes Crying in the Rain", Wolfe Gilbert's "Down Yonder", and Juventino Rosas' "O'er the Waves". Despite Columbia's doubts and the limited instrumentation, "Red Headed Stranger" was a blockbuster among country music and mainstream audiences. It was certified multiple-platinum, and made Nelson one of the most recognized artists in country music. The cover of "Blue Eyes Crying in the Rain", released as a single before the album, became Nelson's first number-one hit. The title of the album became a lasting nickname for Nelson. It was ranked number 183 on "Rolling Stone"s list of the 500 Greatest Albums of All Time, and number one on CMT's "40 Greatest Albums in Country Music". In 2010, it was inducted to the National Recording Registry.


title: Red Headed Stranger

text: In 1986, Nelson starred as the Red Headed Stranger in a movie of the same name, based on the story of the album. The album has had a strong cultural impact; the song "Time of the Preacher" was used often in the British television miniseries "Edge of Darkness", and its lyrics were used in the first issue of the comic "Preacher".


title: Red Headed Stranger

text: Nelson first achieved fame as a songwriter in Nashville after writing hits such as "Hello Walls", "Night Life", "Funny How Time Slips Away", "Pretty Paper", and "Crazy". After recording two albums for Liberty, he moved to RCA and recorded over a dozen albums, many produced by Chet Atkins, but his recordings were given the Nashville Sound treatment, orchestration that Nelson felt was largely unnecessary. In 1973, he signed to Atlantic Records by Jerry Wexler, who accepted Nelson's desire to use his own band in the studio and eschew commercial concerns, for US$25,000 per year, he became first country artist signed by the label. His first album with Atlantic was the critically acclaimed "Shotgun Willie", which was followed by one of the first concept albums in country music, "Phases and Stages". Following the success of these recordings, Nelson signed with Columbia Records, and was given complete creative control.


title: Red Headed Stranger

text: During his return to Austin, Texas, after a ski trip in Colorado, Nelson was inspired by his then-wife Connie Koepke to write a western concept album. Koepke suggested the inclusion of Arthur "Guitar Boogie" Smith's "Tale of the Red Headed Stranger", which Nelson sang during his radio shows on KCNC in Fort Worth, Texas, and previously, to his children at bedtime. Nelson decided to write a complete story that included details of events before the ones described in the song. As he spontaneously composed the songs, Koepke recorded the lyrics. With his original writings, Nelson included in the story, Fred Rose's "Blue Eyes Crying in the Rain", Wolfe Gilbert's "Down Yonder", Juventino Rosas' ""Sobre las Olas" (O'er the Waves)", Hank Cochran's "Can I Sleep in Your Arms?", Eddy Arnold's "I Couldn't Believe It Was True", and Billy Callery's "Hands on the Wheel". When he arrived in Austin, Nelson recorded a demo of the songs on a tape recorder accompanied with his guitar at his ranch on Fitzhugh Road.


title: Red Headed Stranger

text: Nelson started to look for a studio in Texas to record his new material to avoid the modifications that they did to his recordings in his previous sessions. Engineer Phil York, who was hired freelance by the recently opened Autumn Sound Studios in Garland, Texas, heard about his need. York, an acquaintance of Nelson's harmonicist Mickey Raphael, offered Nelson a day of free recording to boost the popularity of the studio. Autumn's studio, a quiet room with cypress wood paneling, featured the first 24-track studio console in Texas, and came equipped with a Bosendorfer concert grand piano, a 92-key instrument made in Vienna with four extra bass notes that retailed for $25,000. Nelson and his band went to the trial session during January, and recorded five songs. Later, Raphael called back York, announcing that Nelson would record the entire album there. After hearing the tapes by Nelson, the band started to improvise to the song "Blue Eyes Crying in the Rain". Disliking the result, Nelson decided to strip down the instrumentation. Nelson also instructed York to undo the equalization he performed on the tracks, remarking that it was the method his producers used in Nashville. The recording took five days, with an additional day for the mixing, that summed up to US$4,000 in studio costs. The additional costs took the total to US$20,000. Nelson featured arrangements of acoustic guitar, accompanied by piano, played by his sister Bobbie, as well complementary arrangements of drums, harmonica, and mandolin.


title: Red Headed Stranger

text: The title track of the album was written by Edith Lindeman Calisch and Carl Stutz, and made popular by Arthur "Guitar Boogie" Smith. It had previously had been recorded by John D. Loudermilk and Eddy Arnold. While the album initially was inspired by "The Tale of the Red Headed Stranger", Nelson later insisted the story came together quickly after he penned the opening track "Time of the Preacher": "I took my time, all the while staying focused on the preacher's feelings ... Hank Cochran's 'Can I Sleep in Your Arms' was the kind of tune the preacher would use to sing himself to sleep. I could also hear the preacher doing a beautiful old ballad by Fred Rose, 'Blue Eyes Crying in the Rain', that had been sung by everyone from Hank Williams to Gene Autry to Conway Twitty. It was another song about lost love whose mantra – 'Love is like a dying ember and only memories remain' – expressed the overall theme and tied all the loose ends together". Author Michael Streissguth considered it Nelson's "first true concept album", composed of new songs and old, arranged in a sequence that formed a story. In Chet Flippo's essay for the 2000 reissue of the album, Nelson commented "I wanted it to be real sparse. I had in mind, I remember, some of my favorite records: Eddy Arnold with just his guitar; Ernest Tubb with just his guitar; so I wanted to have that kind of feel with maybe just some help along the way to keep it from getting too, you know, obnoxious. Or monotonous."


title: Red Headed Stranger

text: The story begins with "Time of the Preacher", where the character evokes his love for his wife, whom he suspects is unfaithful. In the following song, "I Couldn't Believe It Was True", the infidelity is revealed. This leads to a short version of "Time of the Preacher", wherein the singer ends with the line "Now the lesson is over, and the killing's begun". The reaction of the husband is depicted by Nelson in a medley of "Blue Rock, Montana" and "Red Headed Stranger". The first song describes the double murder of the unfaithful woman and her lover by the Stranger, who states, "And they died with a smile on their faces". This leads to the second song of the medley, which describes the grief of the Stranger. This section is followed by Nelson's cover of the 1947 Fred Rose song "Blue Eyes Crying in the Rain", where the fugitive laments the loss of his wife. In "Red Headed Stranger", the protagonist commits a subsequent murder—he kills a woman who merely reaches out to touch one of his horses. The horse "means more to him than life" because it had belonged to his wife, but the Stranger goes free because it was determined that "you can't hang a man for killin' a woman who's tryin' to steal your horse".


title: Red Headed Stranger

text: The story continues with the Stranger traveling south. In the song "Denver", the character falls in love with a woman he meets in a bar in town. One of the lines from "Blue Rock, Montana" is repeated, with a variation: "And they danced with a smile on their faces". The following song "Can I Sleep in Your Arms?" shows the Stranger's desire for redemption and love. Next is "Remember Me", where he announces that his vows to his deceased wife are broken and he is free to love. The story ends with "Hands on the Wheel", which depicts the Stranger as an old man who is accompanied by a child, presumably his grandson, and his new love. The song marks the end of the sorrow of the Stranger, and his redemption years later. The album ends with the instrumental song "Bandera".


title: Red Headed Stranger

text: Initially, Columbia Records was not satisfied with the finished product; the sparsely instrumented acoustic arrangements caused the label's directors to doubt releasing the album as presented, feeling it was under-produced and no more than a demo. Nelson later remembered that "when the chief Columbia bigwig heard the tracks, he said, 'Why are you turning in a demo?' 'Ain't no demo', I explained. 'This is the finished product.'" When Nelson asked the Columbia executive what a finished record was supposed to sound like, the executive replied "Anything but this. The songs feel disconnected. The mood is too down. And the sound is far too flat. You need to go back in and polish it." Nelson's manager Neil Reshen and Waylon Jennings then traveled to New York City to play the album for Columbia president Bruce Lundvall. Lundvall had suggested that the album be sent to Nashville producer Billy Sherrill for further overdubbing. An infuriated Jennings called Lundvall a "tone-deaf, tin-eared sonofabitch". When he first heard it, Sherrill asked, "Did he make this in his living room? It's a piece of shit! It sounds like he did this for about two bucks. It's not produced." However, Nelson had complete creative control, and it was released without any further modifications. Reflecting on the album's success, Columbia executive Rick Blackburn later commented ""Red Headed Stranger" was a hit for all the wrong reasons. It didn't follow the formula, the fashionable mix of the day. There were 1,000 reasons that record should not be a hit. But the "Red Headed Stranger" project took on Willie's personality and became a hit for the right reasons – because it was Willie Nelson. It was Willie's statement."


title: Red Headed Stranger

text: "Red Headed Stranger" reached number one on the "Billboard" chart for Top Country Albums, and number 28 during a 43-week stay in the Top LPs & Tapes chart. On March 11, 1976, it was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America, and on November 21, 1986, it was certified double-platinum.


title: Red Headed Stranger

text: "Rolling Stone" writer Paul Nelson considered ""Red Headed Stranger" "extraordinarily ambitious, cool, tightly controlled". The reviewer remarked that the album "ties precise, evocative lyrics", and called the result "haunting yet utterly unsentimental"." Meanwhile, critic Robert Christgau wrote, "Some of the individual pieces are quite nice, but the gestalt is the concept album at its most counterproductive—the lyrics render the nostalgic instrumental parts unnecessarily ironic and lose additional charm in narrative context."


title: Red Headed Stranger

text: Music critic Chet Flippo wrote an article in "Texas Monthly" that was titled "Mathew, Mark, Luke and Willie: Willie Nelson's latest album is more than a good country music; it's almost Gospel": "The difference between Nelson's "Red Headed Stranger" and any current C&W album, and especially what passes for a soundtrack for Nashville, is astounding. What Nelson has done is simply unclassifiable; it is the only record I have heard that strikes me as otherworldly. "Red Headed Stranger" conjures up such strange emotions and works on so many levels that listening to it becomes totally obsessing". "Billboard" described the album as "lots of instrumental work, with particularly fine piano by Bobbie Nelson, and the usual highly stylized Willie Nelson vocals". In "Mother Jones" Joe Nick Patoski wrote: "Texans have known for 15 years what "Red Headed Stranger" finally revealed to the world – that Nelson is simply too brilliant a songwriter, interpreter, and singer – just too damn universal – to be defined as merely a country artist".


title: Red Headed Stranger

text: The "Fort Worth Star-Telegram" noted the use of Nelson's usual backing band instead of session musicians. The review praised Mickey Raphael's playing on "Hands on the Wheel" and Bobbie Nelson's on "Bandera", while it also remarked that the style of the album reflected "the Nelson of several years ago" with its "aura of quiet intensity". John Edminston, from "The Paris News", declared: ""Red Headed Stranger", if nothing else, will bring Willie to the forefront as one of the nation's top country-western recording artists. And that's where he belongs".


title: Red Headed Stranger

text: "Red Headed Stranger"s critical success cemented Nelson's outlaw image, and made him one of the most recognized artists in country music. The title of the album became a nickname for Nelson. The cover of Fred Rose's 1945 song "Blue Eyes Crying in the Rain", that had been released as a single previous to the album, became his first number one hit as a singer.


title: Red Headed Stranger

text: Nelson met publisher and screenwriter William D. Wittliff in 1977 at a Mexican restaurant in Austin through writer Bud Shrake. Because of the success of the album, Wittliff decided to write a script for Nelson based on the story of the Red Headed Stranger. In 1979, Wittliff finished a draft of the project, which was turned over to Universal Studios. The studio budgeted the film at $14 million and sent the script to Robert Redford, who turned it down. The movie project was tabled, and Wittliff and Nelson had to buy the script back from Universal. The script then went to HBO, who assigned the project a budget of $5 million, but this project was not completed either. Finally, Nelson and Wittliff decided to finance the film themselves. In "Red Headed Stranger", Nelson portrayed the role of the stranger, and the movie was released in 1986.


title: Red Headed Stranger

text: In 2000, "Red Headed Stranger" was reissued on CD. The new released included the bonus tracks "Bach Minuet In G", "I Can't Help It (If I'm Still In Love With You)", "A Maiden's Prayer" and "Bonaparte's Retreat". In 2003, the album was ranked at number 184 on "Rolling Stone"s list of the 500 Greatest Albums of All Time, maintaining the rating in a 2012 revised list, before dropping to number 237 in a 2020 revised list. In 2006, it was ranked number one in Country Music Television's 40 Greatest Albums in Country Music. In 2009, "Red Headed Stranger" was added to the National Recording Registry as it was considered that it was "culturally, historically, or aesthetically important, and/or informs or reflects life in the United States". In 2020, Legacy Recordings reissued "Red Headed Stranger" on its original LP format.


title: Red Headed Stranger

text: In 1996, Nell Zink wrote in "CMJ New Music Monthly": "His "Red Headed Stranger" was the "Sgt. Pepper's" of country music, the first record to follow a coherent theme instead of merely compiling radio singles". Stephen Thomas Erlewine in AllMusic described "Red Headed Stranger" as "really elusive, as the themes get a little muddled and the tunes themselves are a bit bare. It's undoubtedly distinctive – and it sounds more distinctive with each passing year – but it's strictly an intellectual triumph and, after a pair of albums that were musically and intellectually sound, it's a bit of a letdown, no matter how successful it was". In 2003, it was included among the top 1,000 albums of "Zagat Survey" magazine, and was rated five stars out of five. The magazine wrote "Supporters (of the album) spread the gospel that it's just a quintessential outlaw recording, but perhaps the greatest country album ever with a spare style that changed the way C&W was played".


title: Red Headed Stranger

text: "Sputnikmusic" wrote: "The "Red Headed Stranger" is simple and bare. Following the story of a preacher man that kills his cheating wife and her lover, ol' Willie spins the tale with a laid back nonchalance that just seems to ooze out of him, his aching chords and somber melodies encapsulating the futility and pain of his character's situation [...] The "Red Headed Stranger" is timeless. Willie Nelson's captivating story telling, and the minimalist majesty of his music fills a well worn grove in the hearts of those that enjoy the folk roots of the United States." Writing for "Pitchfork", Rebecca Bengal deemed it "a big and beautiful dream made real by simple and spare music", noting Nelson's "uncanny ability to bend the listener’s perception of time". The "Encyclopedia of Popular Music" defined it as a "country classic"


title: Red Headed Stranger

text: The first track, "Time of the Preacher", was used in Bob Dylan's 1978 film "Renaldo and Clara" and episodes of the 1985 television drama "Edge of Darkness". The lyrics to "Time of the Preacher" were used in the opening pages of the first issue of the Vertigo comic book "Preacher", with the song being used in the opening of the premiere of the TV series based on the comic. A 2002 episode of the TV series "Monk", "Mr. Monk and the Red-Headed Stranger", guest-stars Willie Nelson. In the episode, Nelson is accused of murder. The complete album was performed and recorded by Carla Bozulich in 2003. "The Red Headed Stranger" included a guest appearance by Nelson.


title: Bunny DeBarge

text: Etterlene "Bunny" DeBarge (born March 10, 1955) is an American soul singer–songwriter and the lone female sibling of the Motown family group DeBarge. She was the lead vocalist on the R&B ballad "A Dream", from the group's "In a Special Way" album, and is also the co-writer of the group's 1982 breakthrough hit, "I Like It" and the number-one hit, "Time Will Reveal".


title: Bunny DeBarge

text: Etterlene "Bunny" DeBarge is the eldest of 10 children, born to Etterlene (née) Abney and Robert DeBarge, Sr. While spending her initial childhood in Detroit, her family moved to Grand Rapids when she was 16. Bunny would later recall years of physical and sexual abuse at the hands of her father, stating that he had started molesting her when she was seven and this carried on until she was 13. Bunny also detailed troubles in public school where she and her brothers were constantly bullied and taunted by black schoolmates for their multiracial ethnicity.


title: Bunny DeBarge

text: Bunny found solace in music, singing in her uncle's church as a child. She and her brothers soon participated in several groups together in various times. In 1972, DeBarge dropped out of school and married her first husband, for whom she'd be the mother of two children (they later divorced). Since she wasn't into instruments like her brothers were, Bunny taught herself how to write songs and compose melodies, which later paid off as she got older.


title: Bunny DeBarge

text: In 1979, after a couple years watching her brothers Bobby and Tommy ride to musical stardom as members of the band Switch, Bunny teamed up with her three brothers Randy, Mark and El and became DeBarge. They signed with Motown after their demo tape was passed off by Switch's Gregory Williams to Motown CEO Berry Gordy, who was left impressed by the siblings and soon put the band on a salary.


title: Bunny DeBarge

text: Between 1979 and 1981, Bunny and her brothers worked behind the scenes mainly on the works of Switch, with Bunny in particular collaborating with her brother Bobby on songs such as "Hold On to My Love", "Love Over and Over Again" and "My Friend in the Sky". In 1981, Bunny co-produced the DeBarges' self-titled debut album and was featured on lead vocals alongside brother El on "Share My World" which they wrote. A year later, in 1982, the group brought along their teenage brother James, and shortened their name to just DeBarge. That year, they released their second album, "All This Love", with which the siblings found musical success, particularly with "I Like It", for which Bunny wrote parts of the lyrics, alongside her brothers Randy and El.


title: Bunny DeBarge

text: The group followed up this success with their third album, "In A Special Way", in 1983. The album yielded another hit with Bunny as a lyricist, with the gospel-influenced "Time Will Reveal". The album also included several more highlights including two more Bunny-composed ballads, "Stay with Me" and "A Dream", the last song Bunny took lead vocals on. Like "All This Love" before it, "In a Special Way" went gold, paving the way for the group's biggest success in 1985 with the "Rhythm of the Night" album, with the title track becoming a top five crossover hit.


title: Bunny DeBarge

text: Bunny DeBarge has been married twice. In several of DeBarge's albums, she is listed as Etterlene Jordan and is sometimes referred to as either Etterlene Jordan-Knight or Etterlene DeBarge Knight. Bunny is the mother of four children and a grandmother of fifteen and still lives in Michigan, having moved back to Grand Rapids after years living in California. Much like her brothers, Bunny DeBarge has dealt with drug issues, going back to her teen years, which started with marijuana and moving up to prescription medication during her heyday with DeBarge. It soon escalated to usage of cocaine.


title: Bunny DeBarge

text: Bunny entered rehab several times to kick her habit. In 2008, she broke her silence issuing her autobiography, "The Kept Ones", in which she talked about her father's abuse towards her and her siblings and her dealings with substance abuse. That year she appeared on the debut episode of the TV One series, "Unsung", in which she talked about her childhood and her time with DeBarge, along with brothers Randy and James. The trio again appeared on TV three years later in September 2011, on the show "Lifechangers" alongside Bunny's daughter Janae. James entered the rehabilitation program but left a few hours later. Randy left a few days later. Bunny entered the rehabilitation program and completed her entire experience. After leaving the rehabilitation program in West Hollywood, California, Bunny has been touring and focusing on her new album.


title: Seat configurations of Airbus A380

text: The Airbus A380 has two full-length decks of , though the upper deck has a slightly reduced usable length of due to the curvature of the front fuselage and the front staircase. The widths of the main deck and upper deck measure and respectively.


title: Seat configurations of Airbus A380

text: Passenger capacity varies with the seat configuration chosen by the operating airline. While the A380-800 is certified for up to 840 passengers in a one-class configuration (538 on the main deck and 330 on the upper), Airbus references a "comfortable three-class" 544-passenger configuration in their marketing material. However, only Air France has come close to that number in a three-class configuration, with 538 seats (9 First, 80 Business and 449 Economy).


title: Seat configurations of Airbus A380

text: Of the planes currently in service, the passenger capacity ranges from 379 (4-class layout in Singapore Airlines) to 615 passengers (2-class layout in Emirates). From late 2015, Emirates started operating planes seating 615 passengers in two classes for the Copenhagen route, the most ever seen, replacing the smaller Boeing 777. In all, 15 aircraft will use this configuration. Airbus offers 11-abreast seats for delivery in 2017.


title: Seat configurations of Airbus A380

text: Some airlines have speculated configuring the planes for higher seat numbers, including a one-class layout seating 840 people.


title: Burping

text: Burping (also called belching and eructation) is the release of gas from the upper digestive tract (esophagus and stomach) of animals through the mouth. It is usually audible.


title: Burping

text: In humans, burping can be caused by normal eating processes, or as a side effect of other medical conditions. There is a range of levels of social acceptance for burping: within certain context and cultures, burping is acceptable, while in others it is offensive or unacceptable. Failure to burp can cause pain or other negative effects.


title: Burping

text: Humans are not the only animals that burp: it is very common among other mammals. In particular, burping by domesticated ruminants, such as cows or sheep, is a major contributor of methane emissions which cause climate change and have a negative effect on the environment. Significant research is being done to find mitigation strategies for ruminant burping, i.e. modifying the animals' diets with "Asparagopsis taxiformis" (red seaweed).


title: Burping

text: In microgravity environments, burping is frequently associated with regurgitation. With reduced gravity, the stomach contents are more likely to rise up into the esophagus when the gastroesophageal sphincter is relaxed, along with the expelled air.


title: Burping

text: Some South Asian cultures view burping as acceptable in particular situations. For example, a burping guest can be a sign to the host that the meal satisfied them and they are full.


title: Burping

text: In Japan, burping during a meal is considered bad manners. Burping during a meal is also considered unacceptable in Western cultures, such as North America and Europe. In Middle Eastern countries, it is not acceptable to burp out loud in public, and one should silence one's burp, or at least attempt to do so.


title: Burping

text: Despite virtually no scientific research on the subject, small online communities exist for burping as a sexual fetish. Online, both men and women of any sexual orientation anecdotally report some attraction to burping, with what appears to be psychological and/or behavioural overlaps with other sexual fetishes including body inflation, feederism, vorarephilia, and farting fetishes. Anecdotally, the 'loudness' aspect appears to be an important element to burp fetishists. Despite being a rather uncommon fetish, it continues to follow a general well-known pattern of sexual behaviour where hearing influences sexual arousal and response, noting that "it is the noise made rather than the action itself that appears to be what is sexualized and/or interpreted by the fetishist as sexually pleasurable and arousing".


title: Burping

text: Babies are likely to accumulate gas in the stomach while feeding and experience considerable discomfort (and agitation) until assisted. Burping an infant involves placing the child in a position conducive to gas expulsion (for example against the adult's shoulder, with the infant's stomach resting on the adult's chest) and then lightly patting the lower back. Because burping can cause vomiting, a "burp cloth" or "burp pad" is sometimes employed on the shoulder to protect clothing.


title: Burping

text: The Guinness World Record for the loudest burp is 109.9 dB, set by Paul Hunn at Butlins Bognor Regis, United Kingdom, on 23 August 2009. This is louder than a jackhammer at a distance of .


title: Burping

text: It is possible to voluntarily induce burping through swallowing air and then expelling it, and by manipulation of the vocal tract produce burped speech.


title: Burping

text: While this is often employed as a means of entertainment or competition, it can also act as an alternative means of vocalisation for people who have undergone a laryngectomy, with the burp replacing laryngeal phonation. This is known as esophageal speech.


title: Burping

text: Much of the gas expelled is produced as a byproduct of the ruminant's digestive process. These gases notably include a large volume of methane, produced exclusively by a narrow cohort of methanogenic archaea in the animal's gut; "Escherichia coli" ("E. coli") and other bacteria lack the enzymes and cofactors required for methane production. A lactating cow produces about 322g of methane per day, "i.e." more than 117 kg per year through burping and exhalation, making commercially farmed cows a major (37%) contributor to anthropogenic methane emissions, and hence to the greenhouse effect. 95% of this gas (wind) is emitted through burping. This has led scientists at the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation of Perth, Australia, to develop an anti-methanogen vaccine to minimize methane in cow burps.


title: Burping

text: One reason why cows burp so much is that they are often fed foods that their digestive systems cannot fully process, such as corn and soy. Some farmers have reduced burping in their cows by feeding them alfalfa and flaxseed, which are closer to the grasses that they had eaten in the wild before they were domesticated.


title: Burping

text: The failure to burp successfully can be fatal. This is particularly common among domesticated ruminants that are allowed to gorge themselves on spring clover or alfalfa. The condition, known as ruminal tympany, is a high-pressure buildup of gas in the stomach(s) and requires immediate treatment to expel the gas, usually the insertion of a flexible rubber hose down the esophagus, or in extreme cases the lancing of the animal's side with a trochar and cannula.


title: Burping

text: There is no documented evidence that birds burp, though ornithologists believe that there is nothing which physiologically prevents them from doing so. However, since the microbiota of birds do not include the same set of gas-producing bacteria that mammals have to aid in digestion, gas hardly builds up in the gastrointestinal tracts of birds.


title: The Turn of a Friendly Card

text: The Turn of a Friendly Card is the fifth studio album by the British progressive rock band The Alan Parsons Project, released in 1980 by Arista Records. The title piece, which appears on side 2 of the LP, is a 16-minute suite broken up into five tracks. "The Turn of a Friendly Card" spawned the hits "Games People Play" and "Time", the latter of which was Eric Woolfson's first lead vocal appearance.


title: The Turn of a Friendly Card

text: Up to this album, all Alan Parsons Project albums had been packaged in gatefold sleeves. Increasing budgetary constraints of record companies made The Turn of a Friendly Card the beginning of all subsequently released Alan Parsons Project albums to be single sleeve packaged.


title: The Turn of a Friendly Card

text: The album was recorded in a record short time of two weeks in Paris. Usually the Alan Parsons Project would take many months to record an album.


title: The Turn of a Friendly Card

text: Though numbered as a single work, "The Turn of a Friendly Card" is split into five tracks on most compact disc and all digital and streaming releases.


title: The Turn of a Friendly Card

text: In 2015, a "deluxe anniversary edition" was released on double CD. This featured a new remaster of the album, the bonus tracks of the 2008 edition on disc 1 and an additional disc including excerpts from Eric Woolfson's songwriting demos, rough mixes and the three single edits. On this new remaster, Parsons corrected a persisting speed mistake which was present in all earlier CD editions, from the very first (1987) up to the 2008 remaster, caused by the original master tape running slow during the CD mastering process and thus altering the pitch of the entire recording.


title: The Turn of a Friendly Card

text: "The Gold Bug", which references the same-titled short story by Edgar Allan Poe, includes a whistling part by Parsons and wordless vocals by Rainbow, while the main theme is played on an alto saxophone. The saxophone player, originally credited as Mel Collins, is instead credited on the liner notes for the remastered edition as "A session player in Paris whose name escapes us"; this refers to the fact that the saxophone part is a composite of several separate takes. Similarly, the accordion part on "Nothing Left to Lose" is credited in the liner notes to "An unidentified Parisian session player". Also on "The Gold Bug", the newer liner notes credit a "Harmonized Rotating Triangle" to drummer Stuart Elliott. This refers to the phasing sound effects heard throughout the rhythm-free introduction to the piece.


title: The Turn of a Friendly Card

text: The album's title track was covered by German funeral doom metal band Ahab for their album "The Boats of the "Glen Carrig"" in 2015.


title: Courtney Cox (musician)

text: A native of Philadelphia, Courtney Cox first started playing guitar around the age of 13. When she turned 15, she enrolled at The Paul Green School of Rock Music. During her tenure there, she performed in various U.S tours with established acts such as Jon Anderson and Adrian Belew. She shared the stage with other performers such as George Lynch and Perry Farrell. During that time, Cox co-founded an all-female tribute band called "Queen Diamond" (tribute band to King Diamond).


title: Courtney Cox (musician)

text: At age 19, Courtney said farewell to her musical projects and touring on the east coast and moved to Los Angeles. In December 2008 after lending her guitar work to a few other tribute bands to support her new life in California,she was invited as a guest performer with the Iron Maidens, after which she officially became a member of the band. As a member of the Maidens, Cox's stage name is "Adriana Smith", a female version of Iron Maiden guitarist Adrian Smith. She has also performed several concert tours in the U.S. and in Japan.


title: Courtney Cox (musician)

text: Courtney is the first female artist for Caparison Guitars and recently released her own signature model the ”Horus-M3 CC”. She is also currently working on her first solo album release.


title: Courtney Cox (musician)

text: Cox performed with members of Phantom Blue at the Michelle Meldrum Memorial Concert in May 2009 at the Whisky a Go Go in Hollywood, California. In 2010, she placed runner-up in "Guitar World"s Buyer's Guide Model Search.


title: Zwickau

text: Zwickau (; is, with around 87,500 inhabitants (2020), the fourth-largest city of Saxony after Leipzig, Dresden and Chemnitz and it is the seat of the Zwickau District. The West Saxon city is situated in the valley of the Zwickau Mulde (German: "Zwickauer Mulde"; progression: ), and lies in a string of cities sitting in the densely populated foreland of the Elster and Ore Mountains stretching from Plauen in the southwest via Zwickau, Chemnitz and Freiberg to Dresden in the northeast. From 1834 until 1952, Zwickau was the seat of the government of the south-western region of Saxony.


title: Zwickau

text: The name of the city is of Sorbian origin and may refer to Svarog, the Slavic god of fire and of the sun. Zwickau is the seat of the West Saxon University of Zwickau (German: "Westsächsische Hochschule Zwickau") with campuses in Zwickau, Markneukirchen, Reichenbach im Vogtland and Schneeberg (Erzgebirge). The city is the birthplace of composer Robert Schumann.


title: Zwickau

text: As cradle of Audi's forerunner Horch and as seat of the Sachsenring company which produced (then still as "VEB Sachsenring Automobilwerke Zwickau") East Germany's most popular car, the Trabant, Zwickau has historically been one of the centres of the German automotive industry, with a tradition over one hundred years old, including other car makers like Auto Union and Volkswagen.


title: Zwickau

text: The valley of the long Zwickau Mulde River stretches from the Vogtland to Colditz Castle at the other end. The Silver Road, Saxony's longest tourist route, connects Dresden with Zwickau.


title: Zwickau

text: Zwickau can be reached by car via the nearby "Autobahn"s A4 and A72, the main railway station (Zwickau Hauptbahnhof), via a public airfield which takes light aircraft, and by bike along river the Zwickau Mulde River on the so-called Mulderadweg.


title: Zwickau

text: The region around Zwickau was settled by Sorbs as early as the 7th century AD. The name Zwickau is probably a Germanization of the Sorbian toponym "Šwikawa", which derives from Svarozič, the Slavic Sun and fire god. In the 10th century, German settlers began arriving and the native Slavs were Germanized. A trading place known as "terretorio Zcwickaw" (in Medieval Latin) was mentioned in 1118. The settlement received a town charter in 1212, and hosted Franciscans and Cistercians during the 13th century. Zwickau was a free imperial city from 1290 to 1323, but was subsequently granted to the Margraviate of Meissen. Although regional mining began in 1316, extensive mining increased with the discovery of silver in the Schneeberg in 1470. Because of the silver ore deposits in the Erzgebirge, Zwickau developed in the 15th and 16th centuries and grew to be an important economic and cultural centre of Saxony.


title: Zwickau

text: Its nine churches include the Gothic church of St. Mary (1451–1536), with a spire high and a bell weighing 51 tons. The church contains an altar with wood carvings, eight paintings by Michael Wohlgemuth and a pietà in carved and painted wood by Peter Breuer.


title: Zwickau

text: The late Gothic church of St. Catharine has an altar piece ascribed to Lucas Cranach the elder, and is remembered because Thomas Müntzer was once pastor there (1520–22). The city hall was begun in 1404 and rebuilt many times since. The municipal archives include documents dating back to the 13th century.


title: Zwickau

text: Early printed books from the Middle Ages, historical documents, letters and books are kept in the City Archives (e.g. Meister Singer volumes by Hans Sachs (1494–1576)), and in the School Library founded by scholars and by the city clerk Stephan Roth during the Reformation.


title: Zwickau

text: In 1520 Martin Luther dedicated his treatise "On the Freedom of the Christian Man" to his friend Hermann Muehlpfort, the Lord Mayor of Zwickau. The Anabaptist movement of 1525 began at Zwickau under the inspiration of the "Zwickau prophets". After Wittenberg, it became the first city in Europe to join the Lutheran Reformation. The late Gothic Gewandhaus (cloth merchants' hall), was built in 1522–24 and is now converted into a theatre. The city was seriously damaged during the Thirty Years' War.


title: Zwickau

text: The old city of Zwickau, perched on a hill, is surrounded by heights with extensive forests and a municipal park. Near the city are the Hartenstein area, for example, with Stein and Wolfsbrunn castles and the Prinzenhöhle cave, as well as the Auersberg peak (1019 meters) and the winter sports areas around Johanngeorgenstadt and the Vogtland.


title: Zwickau

text: In the Old Town the Cathedral and the "Gewandhaus" (cloth merchants' hall) originate in the 16th century and when Schneeberg silver was traded. In the 19th century the city's economy was driven by industrial coal mining and later by automobile manufacturing.


title: Zwickau

text: During World War II, in 1942, a Nazi show trial of the members of the Polish underground resistance organization from Gostyń was held in Zwickau, after which 12 members were executed in Dresden, and several dozen were imprisoned in Nazi concentration camps, where 37 of them died. In May 1942, five Polish students of the Salesian Oratory in Poznań, known as the "" or five of the 108 Blessed Polish Martyrs of World War II, were imprisoned in Zwickau, before being executed in Dresden. A subcamp of the Flossenbürg concentration camp was located in Zwickau, whose prisoners were mostly Poles and Russians, but also Italians, French, Hungarians, Jews, Czechs, Germans and others.


title: Zwickau

text: On 17 April 1945, US troops entered the city. They withdrew on 30 June 1945 and handed Zwickau to the Soviet Red Army. Between 1944 and 2003, the city had a population of over 100,000.


title: Zwickau

text: A major employer is Volkswagen which assembles its ID.3, ID.4 and ID.5 models, as well as Audi and Cupra EV's in the Zwickau-Mosel vehicle plant.


title: Zwickau

text: Coal mining is mentioned as early as 1348. However, mining on an industrial scale first started in the early 19th century. The coal mines of Zwickau and the neighbouring Oelsnitz-Lugau coalfield contributed significantly to the industrialisation of the region and the city.


title: Zwickau

text: In 1885 Carl Wolf invented an improved gas-detecting safety mining-lamp. He held the first world patent for it. Together with his business partner Friemann he founded the "Friemann & Wolf" factory. Coal mining ceased in 1978. About 230 million tonnes had been mined to a depth of over 1,000 metres. In 1992 Zwickau's last coke oven plant was closed.


title: Zwickau

text: Many industrial branches developed in the city in the wake of the coal mining industry: mining equipment, iron and steel works, textile, machinery in addition to chemical, porcelain, paper, glass, dyestuffs, wire goods, tinware, stockings, and curtains. There were also steam saw-mills, diamond and glass polishing works, iron-foundries, and breweries.


title: Zwickau

text: In 1904 the Horch automobile plant was founded, followed by the Audi factory in 1909. In 1932 both brands were incorporated into Auto Union but retained their independent trademarks. The Auto Union racing cars, developed by Ferdinand Porsche and Robert Eberan von Eberhorst, driven by Bernd Rosemeyer, Hans Stuck, Tazio Nuvolari, Ernst von Delius, became well known all over the world. During World War II, the Nazi government operated a satellite camp of the Flossenbürg concentration camp in Zwickau which was sited near the Horch Auto Union plant. The Nazi administration built a hard labour prison camp at Osterstein Castle. Both camps were liberated by the US Army in 1945. On 1 August 1945 military administration was handed over to the Soviet Army. The Auto Union factories of Horch and Audi were dismantled by the Soviets; Auto Union relocated to Ingolstadt, Bavaria, evolving into the present day Audi company. In 1948 all large companies were seized by the East German government.


title: Zwickau

text: With the founding of the German Democratic Republic in 1949 in East Germany, post-war reconstruction began. In 1958 the Horch and Audi factories were merged into the Sachsenring plant. At the Sachsenring automotive plant the compact "Trabant" cars were manufactured. These small cars had a two-cylinder, two-stroke engine. The car was the first vehicle in the world to be industrially manufactured with a plastic car body. The former VEB Sachsenring manufacturing site was acquired by Volkswagen in 1990 and has since been redeveloped as an engine and transmission manufacturing facility.


title: Zwickau

text: Two major industrial facilities of the Soviet SDAG Wismut were situated in the city: the uranium mill in Zwickau-Crossen, producing uranium concentrate from ores mined in the Erzgebirge and Thuringia, and the machine building plant in Zwickau-Cainsdorf producing equipment for the uranium mines and mills of East Germany. Uranium milling ended in 1989, and after the unification the Wismut machine building plant was sold to a private investor.


title: Zwickau

text: Zwickau is bounded by Mülsen, Reinsdorf, Wilkau-Hasslau, Hirschfeld (Verwaltungsgemeinschaft Kirchberg), Lichtentanne, Werdau, Neukirchen, Crimmitschau, Dennheritz (Verwaltungsgemeinschaft Crimmitschau) and the city of Glauchau.


title: Zwickau

text: The production of the Trabant was discontinued after German reunification, but Volkswagen built a new factory, and Sachsenring is now a supplier for the automobile industry. Nowadays the headquarters of the Volkswagen-Saxony Ltd. (a VW subsidiary) is in the northern part of Zwickau.


title: Zwickau

text: Zwickau is home to the University of Applied Sciences Zwickau with about 4700 students and two campuses within the boundaries of Zwickau.


title: Zwickau

text: Dr. Martin Luther School (German: Dr. Martin Luther Schule) is a grade 1-4 school of the Evangelical Lutheran Free Church in Zwickau.


title: Zwickau

text: The first freely elected mayor after German reunification was Rainer Eichhorn of the Christian Democratic Union (CDU), who served from 1990 to 2001. The mayor was originally chosen by the city council, but since 1994 has been directly elected. Dietmar Vettermann, also of the CDU, served from 2001 until 2008. He was succeeded by Pia Findeiß of the Social Democratic Party (SPD), who was in office until 2020. The most recent mayoral election was held on 20 September 2020, with a runoff held on 11 October, at which Constance Arndt (Bürger für Zwickau) was elected.


title: Zwickau

text: Zwickau Hauptbahnhof is on the Dresden–Werdau line, part of the Saxon-Franconian trunk line, connecting Nuremberg and Dresden. There are further railway connections to Leipzig as well as Karlovy Vary and Cheb in the Czech Republic. The core element of Zwickau's urban public transport system is the Zwickau tramway network; the system is also the prototype of the so-called Zwickau Model for such systems.


title: Zwickau

text: The closest airport is Leipzig-Altenburg, which has no scheduled commercial flights. The nearest major airports are Leipzig/Halle Airport and Dresden Airport, both of which offer a large number of national and international flights.


title: Zwickau

text: In the city centre there are three museums: an art museum from the 19th century and the houses of priests from 13th century, both located next to St. Mary's church. Just around the corner there is the Robert-Schumann museum. The museums offer different collections dedicated to the history of the city, as well as art and a mineralogical, palaeontological and geological collection with many specimens from the city and the nearby Ore Mountains.


title: Zwickau

text: Zwickau is the birthplace of the composer Robert Schumann. The house where he was born in 1810 still stands in the marketplace. This is now called Robert Schumann House and is a museum dedicated to him.


title: Zwickau

text: The histories of the Audi and Horch automobile factories are presented at the "August Horch Museum Zwickau". The museum is an "Anchor Point" of the European Route of Industrial Heritage (EIRH).


title: Anne Dudley

text: Anne Jennifer Dudley (née Beckingham; born 7 May 1956) is an English composer, keyboardist, conductor and pop musician. She was the first BBC Concert Orchestra's Composer in Association in 2001. She has worked in the classical and pop genres, as a film composer, and was one of the core members of the Synth-pop band Art of Noise. In 1998, Dudley won an Oscar for Best Original Musical or Comedy Score for "The Full Monty". In addition to over twenty other film scores, in 2012 she served as music producer for the film version of "Les Misérables", also acting as arranger and composing some new additional music.


title: Anne Dudley

text: Dudley was born in Beckenham, Kent. She graduated with a master's in music from King's College London in 1978. Trained as a classical performer, she moved into the competitive commercial field as a session musician, where her professional relationship with Trevor Horn began. In 1982, Dudley made significant contributions to the Horn-produced "The Lexicon of Love" album by ABC. She went from fleshing-out keyboard parts to scoring the album's orchestrations (which were, according to Horn, her first-ever string arrangements) and also co-writing some of the songs.


title: Anne Dudley

text: Dudley was a founding member of the successful band Art of Noise in 1983, which helped pioneer the use of sampling within the pop genre. Their stand-out hits include "Beat Box" (1984), "Moments in Love" (1985), "Close (to the Edit)" (1984), "Paranoimia" (1986), which featured a monologue about insomnia by the artificial intelligence character, Max Headroom (who fitted in well with the group's futuristic anonymity), and, with Tom Jones, "Kiss", a Top 10 in 1988. Art of Noise also produced the theme tune to the ITV game show "The Krypton Factor" which was used between 1986 and 1993 and is arguably its most recognised theme. "(Theme From) The Krypton Factor" was composed and recorded in 1986 and was reworked as "Crusoe" on their 1987 album.


title: Anne Dudley

text: Dudley's association with Trevor Horn and Art of Noise led on to working with artists such as Frankie Goes to Hollywood, Seal, Marc Almond, Rod Stewart, Robbie Williams and, more recently, Siphiwo. She has co-written songs with Malcolm McLaren ("Buffalo Gals"), Cathy Dennis ("Too Many Walls"), and a 1930s-inspired song with Sting called "This Was Never Meant to Be".


title: Anne Dudley

text: She produced the Tom Jones hit "You Can Leave Your Hat On" (1988) and a Debbie Harry single "Strike Me Pink" (1993).


title: Anne Dudley

text: In 1989, Dudley produced and conducted the string arrangements for the eponymous debut album by Welsh sophisti-pop duo Waterfront. Her intricate production is demonstrated most notably on the song "Nature of Love", which was released as a single in both the UK and US. Another collaboration in 1989 was with Neil Tennant from Pet Shop Boys and Bernard Sumner of New Order; Dudley contributed the lush string arrangements on their debut Electronic release, "Getting Away with It", which peaked at #12 in the UK in December 1989, and #38 in the US in 1990.


title: Anne Dudley

text: Dudley produced two tracks on the 2002 Opera Babes album "Beyond Imagination" (ranking No. 1 on the UK classical charts for 11 weeks, and No. 4 on the US "Billboard" charts). In 2004, she produced the album "Voice" for Alison Moyet. The album, an eclectic collection of cover versions, reached No. 7 on the UK Albums Chart.


title: Anne Dudley

text: Her works for orchestra include "Northern Lights", a 14-minute reflection of Norway's Aurora Borealis for full orchestra, performed in 2005 and 2006 at the Royal Festival Hall and broadcast on BBC Radio 3's "Late Junction" programme in May 2005. Her first commission as Composer in Association with the BBC Concert Orchestra was "Music and Silence", inspired by the novel of the same name by Rose Tremain and first performed at The Royal Festival Hall in 2002. Dudley arranged Bach's Chaconne from Partita in D minor for piano trio, and a recording by the Eroica Trio appears on their "Baroque" album. Her album "Ancient and Modern", with modern versions of some traditional hymns and Bach chorales, was released in 1999. She was the musical director for "Bill Bailey's Remarkable Guide to the Orchestra", first performed in Brighton then at the Royal Albert Hall in 2008, which was recorded and released as a DVD in December 2009. The show was toured in 2009 with eight different regional orchestras participating. It involved the orchestra playing the Nokia theme tune and a french horn concerto evolving into the theme from "Coronation Street".


title: Anne Dudley

text: Dudley collaborated with Sam Taylor-Wood in producing the sound and video installation "Sigh" at the White Cube in 2008. This work featured the BBC Concert Orchestra on eight large projected screens, miming to Dudley's score.


title: Anne Dudley

text: Dudley has worked as a session musician for many artists, and her string and orchestral arrangements appear on a diverse array of albums. These include:


title: Anne Dudley

text: In addition to Dudley's Academy Award for "The Full Monty", she has received a number of awards and nominations.


title: Heckscher–Ohlin model

text: The Heckscher–Ohlin model (, H–O model) is a general equilibrium mathematical model of international trade, developed by Eli Heckscher and Bertil Ohlin at the Stockholm School of Economics. It builds on David Ricardo's theory of comparative advantage by predicting patterns of commerce and production based on the factor endowments of a trading region. The model essentially says that countries export the products which use their relatively abundant and cheap factors of production, and import the products which use the countries' relatively scarce factors.


title: Heckscher–Ohlin model

text: Relative endowments of the factors of production (land, labor, and capital) determine a country's comparative advantage. Countries have comparative advantages in those goods for which the required factors of production are relatively abundant locally. This is because the profitability of goods is determined by input costs. Goods that require locally abundant inputs are cheaper to produce than those goods that require locally scarce inputs.


title: Heckscher–Ohlin model

text: For example, a country where capital and land are abundant but labor is scarce has a comparative advantage in goods that require lots of capital and land, but little labor — such as grains. If capital and land are abundant, their prices are low. As they are the main factors in the production of grain, the price of grain is also low—and thus attractive for both local consumption and export. Labor-intensive goods, on the other hand, are very expensive to produce since labor is scarce and its price is high. Therefore, the country is better off importing those goods.


title: Heckscher–Ohlin model

text: While still building on traditional models such as the Ricardian framework, the mid 1900s bring forth innovation in international trade theory with the introduction of the Heckscher-Ohlin (H-O) model, developed by Swedish economists Eli Heckscher and Bertil Ohlin from the Stockholm School of Economics. The H-O model advances international trade theory by introducing the concept of factor endowments within a country as well as the underlying causes for differences in comparative costs between countries, while assuming countries will have identical production technologies. The H-O framework finds that countries have differing comparative costs even though they have the same production technologies due to differences in factors of production, such as the geographical abundance of natural resources or population size. Furthermore, what the H-O model concludes is that traded commodities are essentially bundles of factors (land, labor, and capital) and therefore the international trade of commodities is indirect factor arbitrage (Leamer 1995).The H-O model more accurately describes international trade patterns in modern times (post WWII) due to the increased ability of transferring knowledge/ production technologies between countries, mainly focusing on factorial differences such as labor force and resource allocation as to why countries trade with each other.The Ricardian model of comparative advantage has trade ultimately motivated by differences in labour productivity using different "technologies". Heckscher and Ohlin did not require production technology to vary between countries, so (in the interests of simplicity) the "H–O model has identical production technology everywhere". Ricardo considered a single factor of production (labour) and would not have been able to produce comparative advantage without technological differences between countries (all nations would become autarkic at various stages of growth, with no reason to trade with each other). The H–O model removed technology variations but introduced variable capital endowments, recreating endogenously the inter-country variation of labour productivity that Ricardo had imposed exogenously. With international variations in the capital endowment like infrastructure and goods requiring different factor "proportions", Ricardo's comparative advantage emerges as a profit-maximizing solution of capitalist's choices from "within" the model's equations. The decision that capital owners are faced with is between investments in differing production technologies; the H–O model assumes capital is privately held.


title: Heckscher–Ohlin model

text: Bertil Ohlin first explained the theory in a book published in 1933. Ohlin wrote the book alone, but he credited Heckscher as co-developer of the model because of his earlier work on the problem, and because many of the ideas in the final model came from Ohlin's doctoral thesis, supervised by Heckscher.


title: Heckscher–Ohlin model

text: "Interregional and International Trade" itself was verbose, rather than being pared down to the mathematical, and appealed because of its new insights.


title: Heckscher–Ohlin model

text: The original H–O model assumed that the only difference between countries was the relative abundances of labour and capital. The original Heckscher–Ohlin model contained two countries, and had two commodities that could be produced. Since there are two (homogeneous) factors of production this model is sometimes called the "2×2×2 model".


title: Heckscher–Ohlin model

text: The model has "variable factor proportions" between countries—highly developed countries have a comparatively high capital-to-labor ratio compared to developing countries. This makes the developed country capital-abundant relative to the developing country, and the developing nation labor-abundant in relation to the developed country.


title: Heckscher–Ohlin model

text: With this single difference, Ohlin was able to discuss the new mechanism of comparative advantage, using just two goods and two technologies to produce them. One technology would be a capital-intensive industry, the other a labor-intensive business—see "assumptions" below.


title: Heckscher–Ohlin model

text: The model has been extended since the 1930s by many economists. These developments did not change the fundamental role of variable factor proportions in driving international trade, but added to the model various real-world considerations (such as tariffs) in the hopes of increasing the model's predictive power, or as a mathematical way of discussing macroeconomic policy options.


title: Heckscher–Ohlin model

text: Notable contributions came from Paul Samuelson, Ronald Jones, and Jaroslav Vanek, so that variations of the model are sometimes called the Heckscher–Ohlin–Samuelson model (HOS) or the Heckscher–Ohlin–Vanek model in the neo-classical economics.


title: Heckscher–Ohlin model

text: The original, 2×2×2 model was derived with restrictive assumptions, partly for the sake of mathematical simplicity. Some of these have been relaxed for the sake of development. These assumptions and developments are listed here.


title: Heckscher–Ohlin model

text: This assumption means that producing the same output of either commodity "could" be done with the same level of capital and labour in either country. Actually, it would be inefficient to use the same balance in either country (because of the relative availability of either input factor) but, in principle this would be possible. Another way of saying this is that the per-capita productivity is the same in both countries in the same technology with identical amounts of capital.


title: Heckscher–Ohlin model

text: Countries have natural advantages in the production of various commodities in relation to one another, so this is an "unrealistic" simplification designed to highlight the effect of variable factors. This meant that the original H–O model produced an alternative explanation for free trade to Ricardo's, rather than a complementary one; in reality, both effects may occur due to differences in technology and factor abundances.


title: Heckscher–Ohlin model

text: In addition to natural advantages in the production of one sort of output over another (wine vs. rice, say) the infrastructure, education, culture, and "know-how" of countries differ so dramatically that the idea of identical technologies is a theoretical notion. Ohlin said that the H–O model was a long-run model, and that the conditions of industrial production are "everywhere the same" in the long run.


title: Heckscher–Ohlin model

text: In a simple model, both countries produce two commodities. Each commodity in turn is made using two factors of production. The production of each commodity requires input from both factors of production—capital (K) and labor (L). The technologies of each commodity is assumed to exhibit constant returns to scale (CRS). CRS technologies implies that when inputs of both capital and labor is multiplied by a factor of "k", the output also multiplies by a factor of "k". For example, if both capital and labor inputs are doubled, output of the commodities is doubled. In other terms the production function of both commodities is "homogeneous of degree 1".


title: Heckscher–Ohlin model

text: The assumption of constant returns to scale CRS is useful because it exhibits a diminishing returns in a factor. Under constant returns to scale, doubling both capital and labor leads to a doubling of the output. Since outputs are increasing in both factors of production, doubling capital while holding labor constant leads to less than doubling of an output. Diminishing returns to capital and diminishing returns to labor are crucial to the Stolper–Samuelson theorem.


title: Heckscher–Ohlin model

text: The CRS production functions must differ to make trade worthwhile in this model. For instance if the functions are Cobb–Douglas technologies the parameters applied to the inputs must vary. An example would be:


title: Heckscher–Ohlin model

text: where "A" is the output in arable production, "F" is the output in fish production, and "K", "L" are capital and labor in both cases.


title: Heckscher–Ohlin model

text: In this example, the marginal return to an extra unit of capital is higher in the fishing industry, assuming units of fish ("F") and arable output ("A") have equal value. The more capital-abundant country may gain by developing its fishing fleet at the expense of its arable farms. Conversely, the workers available in the relatively labor-abundant country can be employed relatively more efficiently in arable farming.


title: Heckscher–Ohlin model

text: Within countries, capital and labor can be reinvested and reemployed to produce different outputs. Similar to Ricardo's comparative advantage argument, this is assumed to happen without cost. If the two production technologies are the arable industry and the fishing industry it is assumed that farmers can shift to work as fishermen with no cost and vice versa.


title: Heckscher–Ohlin model

text: It is further assumed that capital can shift easily into either technology, so that the industrial mix can change without adjustment costs between the two types of production. For instance, if the two industries are farming and fishing it is assumed that farms can be sold to pay for the construction of fishing boats with no transaction costs.


title: Heckscher–Ohlin model

text: The basic Heckscher–Ohlin model depends upon the relative availability of capital and labor differing internationally, but if capital can be freely invested anywhere, competition (for investment) makes relative abundances identical throughout the world. Essentially, free trade in capital provides a single worldwide investment pool.


title: Heckscher–Ohlin model

text: Differences in labour abundance would not produce a difference in "relative" factor abundance (in relation to mobile capital) because the labour/capital ratio would be identical everywhere. (A large country would receive twice as much investment as a small one, for instance, maximizing capitalist's return on investment).


title: Heckscher–Ohlin model

text: As capital controls are reduced, the modern world has begun to look a lot less like the world modelled by Heckscher and Ohlin. It has been argued that capital mobility undermines the case for free trade itself, see: Capital mobility and comparative advantage Free trade critique.


title: Heckscher–Ohlin model

text: Like capital, labor movements are not permitted in the Heckscher–Ohlin world, since this would drive an equalization of relative abundances of the two production factors, just as in the case of capital immobility. This condition is more defensible as a description of the modern world than the assumption that capital is confined to a single country.


title: Heckscher–Ohlin model

text: The 2x2x2 model originally placed no barriers to trade, had no tariffs, and no exchange controls (capital was immobile, but repatriation of foreign sales was costless). It was also free of transportation costs between the countries, or any other savings that would favor procuring a local supply.


title: Heckscher–Ohlin model

text: If the two countries have separate currencies, this does not affect the model in any way—purchasing power parity applies. Since there are no transaction costs or currency issues the law of one price applies to both commodities, and consumers in either country pay exactly the same price for either good.


title: Heckscher–Ohlin model

text: In Ohlin's day this assumption was a fairly neutral simplification, but economic changes and econometric research since the 1950s have shown that the local prices of goods tend to correlate with incomes when both are converted at money prices (though this is less true with traded commodities). See: Penn effect.


title: Heckscher–Ohlin model

text: Neither labor nor capital has the power to affect prices or factor rates by constraining supply; a state of perfect competition exists.


title: Heckscher–Ohlin model

text: The results of this work has been the formulation of certain named conclusions arising from the assumptions inherent in the model.


title: Heckscher–Ohlin model

text: Exports of a capital-abundant country come from capital-intensive industries, and labour-abundant countries import such goods, exporting labour-intensive goods in return. Competitive pressures within the H–O model produce this prediction fairly straightforwardly. Conveniently, this is an easily testable hypothesis.


title: Heckscher–Ohlin model

text: When the amount of one factor of production increases, the production of the good that uses that particular production factor intensively increases relative to the increase in the factor of production, as the H–O model assumes perfect competition where price is equal to the costs of factors of production. This theorem is useful in explaining the effects of immigration, emigration, and foreign capital investment. However, Rybczynski suggests that a fixed quantity of the two factors of production are required. This could be expanded to consider factor substitution, in which case the increase in production is more than proportional.


title: Heckscher–Ohlin model

text: Relative changes in output goods prices drive the relative prices of the factors used to produce them. If the world price of capital-intensive goods increases, it increases the relative rental rate and decreases the relative wage rate (the return on capital as against the return to labor). Also, if the price of labor-intensive goods increases, it increases the relative wage rate and decreases the relative rental rate.


title: Heckscher–Ohlin model

text: Free and competitive trade makes factor prices converge along with traded goods prices. The FPE theorem is the most significant conclusion of the H–O model, but also has found the least agreement with the economic evidence. Neither the rental return to capital, nor the wage rates seem to consistently converge between trading partners at different levels of development.


title: Heckscher–Ohlin model

text: The "Stolper–Samuelson theorem" concerns nominal rents and wages. The Magnification effect on prices considers the effect of output-goods price-changes on the real return to capital and labor. This is done by dividing the nominal rates with a price index, but took thirty years to develop completely because of the theoretical complexity involved.


title: Heckscher–Ohlin model

text: Heckscher and Ohlin considered the Factor-Price Equalization theorem an econometric success because the large volume of international trade in the late 19th and early 20th centuries coincided with the convergence of commodity "and" factor prices worldwide.


title: Heckscher–Ohlin model

text: Modern econometric estimates have shown the model to perform poorly, however, and adjustments have been suggested, most importantly the assumption that technology is not the same everywhere. This change would mean abandoning the pure H–O model.


title: Heckscher–Ohlin model

text: In 1954 an econometric test by Wassily W. Leontief of the H–O model found that the United States, despite having a relative abundance of capital, tended to export labor-intensive goods and import capital-intensive goods. This problem became known as the Leontief paradox. Alternative trade models and various explanations for the paradox have emerged as a result of the paradox. One such trade model, the Linder hypothesis, suggests that goods are traded based on similar demand rather than differences in supply side factors (i.e., H–O's factor endowments).


title: Heckscher–Ohlin model

text: Various attempts in the 1960s and 1970s have been made to "solve" the Leontief paradox and save the Heckscher–Ohlin model from failing. From the 1980s a new series of statistical tests had been tried. The new tests depended on Vanek's formula. It takes a simple form


title: Heckscher–Ohlin model

text: where formula_4 is the net trade of factor service vector for country formula_5, formula_6 the factor endowment vector for country formula_5, and formula_8 the country formula_5's share of the world consumption and formula_10 the world total endowment vector of factors. For many countries and many factors, it is possible to estimate the left hand sides and right hand sides independently. To put it another way, the left hand side tells the direction of factor service trade. Thus it is possible to ask how this system of equations holds. The results obtained by Bowen, Leamer and Sveiskaus (1987) were disastrous. They examined the cases of 12 factors and 27 countries for the year 1967. They found that the two sides of the equations had the same sign only for 61% of 324 cases. For the year 1983, the result was more disastrous. Both sides had the same sign only for 148 cases out of 297 cases (or the rate of correct predictions was 49.8%). The results of Bowen, Leamer, and Sveiskaus (1987) mean that the Heckscher–Ohlin–Vanek (HOV) theory has no predictive power concerning the direction of trade.


title: Heckscher–Ohlin model

text: The critical assumption of the Heckscher–Ohlin model is that the two countries are identical, except for the difference in resource endowments. This also implies that the aggregate preferences are the same. The relative abundance in capital leads the capital-abundant country to produce the capital-intensive good cheaper than the labor-abundant country, and vice versa.


title: Heckscher–Ohlin model

text: Initially, when the countries are not trading: The price of the capital-intensive good in the capital-abundant country will be bid down relative to the price of the good in the other country, the price of the labor-intensive good in the labor-abundant country will be bid down relative to the price of the good in the other country. Once trade is allowed, profit-seeking firms move their products to the markets that have (temporary) higher prices.


title: Heckscher–Ohlin model

text: As a result: the capital-abundant country will export the capital-intensive good, the labor-abundant country will export the labor-intensive good.


title: Heckscher–Ohlin model

text: The original Heckscher–Ohlin model and extended model such as the Vanek model performs poorly, as it is shown in the section "Econometric testing of H–O model theorems". Daniel Trefler and Susan Chun Zhu summarizes their paper that "It is hard to believe that factor endowments theory [editor's note: in other words, Heckscher–Ohlin–Vanek Model] could offer an adequate explanation of international trade patterns".