title: Murder of Maria Ridulph

text: On December 4, investigators visited the Tessier home as part of their neighborhood search for Maria. According to Tessier's half-sisters Katherine Tessier (Caulfield) and Jeanne Tessier, their mother told the investigators that John Tessier had been home on the night of December 3, something that they later testified was not true. Shortly thereafter, before Maria's body was found, the FBI investigated Tessier as a possible suspect. Sources differ on whether the investigation was triggered by a tip from a local resident or by John Tessier's own parents seeking to clear their son, who they realized had the same name and general description as "Johnny".


title: Murder of Maria Ridulph

text: Tessier and his parents told FBI investigators that on December 3, 1957, Tessier was in Rockford, Illinois, approximately 40 miles northwest of Sycamore, to enlist in the Air Force. (This story differed from his mother's previous statement, as reported by her daughters, that Tessier had been home all night.) He said he had been in Chicago on December 2 and 3 undergoing physical examinations required for his enlistment. On the morning of December 3, he had visited the Chicago recruiting station (which was corroborated by records) and then spent the day sightseeing in Chicago before returning to Rockford by train that evening, arriving there at 6:45 pm. Upon his arrival in Rockford, he had called his parents to ask for a ride home to Sycamore, since he had taken the train to and from Chicago and left his own car at home. Telephone records were later found showing that a collect call was placed from the Rockford post office to the Tessier home at 6:57 pm that evening by someone who gave his name as "John Tassier" as written down by the operator. After making the call, Tessier then met with officers from the Rockford recruiting station to drop off paperwork relating to his enlistment. The officers confirmed that they spoke with Tessier around 7:15 pm that evening, although one officer also expressed some concerns about Tessier's credibility and conduct. Tessier was brought to the police station to take a lie detector test, which he passed. In view of his alibi and the lie detector test result, Tessier was taken off the suspect list, and the FBI closed out his report on December 10, 1957, noting: "No further investigation is being conducted regarding the above suspect." Kathy Sigman was never shown a photograph of him or asked to identify him. Tessier left Sycamore the next day to report for basic training at Lackland Air Force Base.


title: Murder of Maria Ridulph

text: Tessier served in the U.S. military for thirteen years and rose to the rank of captain. After leaving the service, he moved to Seattle, Washington, where he subsequently graduated from the King County Law Enforcement Academy in June 1974 and became a police officer in the small town of Lacey near Olympia. He later joined the police department in Milton, Washington where he clashed with the chief of police, who attempted to fire him and documented a long list of complaints about his work and conduct. In 1982, in Tacoma, Washington, Tessier took in a 15-year-old runaway, Michelle Weinman, and her friend, who knew Tessier as a Milton police officer. Weinman later testified that shortly after she began living with Tessier, he fondled her and then performed oral sex on her. Tessier was charged with statutory rape, a felony. After plea negotiations, he eventually pleaded guilty to communication with a minor for immoral purposes, a misdemeanor. He was sentenced to one year of formal probation and was terminated from the Milton Police Department on March 10, 1982.


title: Murder of Maria Ridulph

text: On April 27, 1994, John Tessier legally changed his name to Jack Daniel McCullough, saying that he wanted to honor his late mother. By 2011, McCullough, now in his early 70s, was living at a retirement community in northwest Seattle where he worked as a security guard.


title: Murder of Maria Ridulph

text: In 1997, Sycamore Police Lieutenant Patrick Solar closed the then-40-year-old Ridulph case, naming William Henry Redmond, a former truck driver and carnival worker from Nebraska who had died in 1992, as the man who had likely abducted and killed Maria Ridulph. Redmond had been charged in 1988 with the 1951 murder of an 8-year-old Pennsylvania girl, although that case was dismissed when a police officer refused to reveal the name of a confidential informant. Redmond was also a suspect in the 1951 disappearance of 10-year-old Beverly Potts in Ohio. According to Solar, Redmond told a fellow inmate that he committed a crime similar to the Ridulph abduction and murder. Solar also believed that Redmond's appearance and behavior matched that of "Johnny".


title: Murder of Maria Ridulph

text: Solar's report was criticized due to lack of supporting evidence and alleged political motivations. Solar himself acknowledged that the evidence against Redmond was circumstantial and that if Redmond had lived, it would have been difficult to convict him in the Ridulph case unless he confessed. For that reason, Solar called the Ridulph case "closed, but not solved", leaving open the possibility that a better suspect might later be found. When Jack McCullough was later tried in the Ridulph case, the trial judge ruled out any testimony about Redmond on the grounds that he was not a credible suspect.


title: Murder of Maria Ridulph

text: The case was reopened in 2008 based on new information from McCullough's half-sister Janet Tessier. According to Janet, their mother Eileen Tessier on her deathbed in January 1994 had said, "Those two little girls, and the one that disappeared, John did it. John did it, and you have to tell someone." Janet took the statement as meaning that her half-brother John Tessier (soon to rename himself Jack McCullough) had kidnapped and murdered Maria Ridulph; she had also heard from her older sisters (Katherine Tessier (Caulfield) and Jeanne Tessier) that Eileen had lied to investigators that he was home on the night of the crime. Another of McCullough's half-sisters, Mary Pat Tessier (Hunt), was also present when Eileen spoke to Janet, but later testified that she had only heard her mother say, "He did it." Nevertheless, Mary Pat testified that she had the same understanding as Janet and that her older sisters had suspected John Tessier of the murder for years. At the time, Eileen, a cancer patient, was on morphine and according to her doctor was "disoriented". McCullough, who allegedly had once threatened to kill Janet with a gun and sexually molested his half-sister Jeanne when she was a minor, was estranged from the Tessier family by the time of Eileen's death. He was told not to attend her funeral.


title: Murder of Maria Ridulph

text: Janet Tessier said that she made several fruitless attempts over the next fourteen years to get law enforcement, including the Sycamore police and the FBI (who referred her back to the Sycamore police), to look into her mother's statement. Patrick Solar, who during part of this time was a lieutenant with the Sycamore police and had identified William Henry Redmond as the most likely suspect in the Ridulph murder, told CNN that Janet had never spoken to him, but that he would not have suspected John Tessier (Jack McCullough) because he knew the Tessier family, Ralph Tessier had painted the Sycamore police cars, and John Tessier had been cleared by the FBI in 1957. In 2008, Janet e-mailed an Illinois State Police tip line, resulting in the state police cold case unit undertaking a lengthy investigation into McCullough's background and alibi.


title: Murder of Maria Ridulph

text: Janet's sisters Katherine and Jeanne told investigators of their suspicions, and Jeanne said that John had molested her as a child and other young girls. Another woman alleged that John Tessier had given her a piggyback ride as a child and refused to put her down until her father intervened. State police investigators reviewed evidence and developed a new timeline under which Tessier could have kidnapped Maria and driven to Rockford in time to make a telephone call at 6:57 pm and meet with recruiting officers at 7:15 pm. Under this new timeline, they determined that Maria would have been kidnapped no later than 6:20 pm. The police search for Maria was underway by 7 pm according to Katherine, who said she had returned home from a party at 7 pm to find the search in progress.


title: Murder of Maria Ridulph

text: Hoping to have Kathy Chapman (née Sigman) review a photographic lineup, police took five pictures from the 1957 Sycamore High School yearbook, but John Tessier's picture was not in the yearbook as he had been expelled. Police obtained a contemporary photo of him from his former girlfriend, which differed from the yearbook photos in that Tessier was wearing an open collar rather than a suit and the background was dark rather than light. Chapman identified the picture of Tessier.


title: Murder of Maria Ridulph

text: Along with the picture, Tessier's former girlfriend provided an unused, military-issued train ticket from Rockford to Chicago dated December 1957. The investigators took this to suggest that contrary to Tessier's alibi, Tessier had not taken the train on his trip to Chicago and had instead driven his car there, meaning that he could have driven back to Sycamore afternoon on December 3, kidnapped Maria, and driven to Rockford. The police located a high school friend of Tessier's who recalled seeing Tessier's distinctively painted car in Sycamore that afternoon and said that Tessier did not let anyone else drive his car.


title: Murder of Maria Ridulph

text: In July 2011 the Seattle Police Department, which had joined with the Illinois State Police in the investigation, brought McCullough in for questioning (using a professional interrogator due to McCullough's law enforcement experience). At first, McCullough spoke calmly and cooperated, but when faced with questions about the murder of Maria Ridulph and his whereabouts on the night of the crime, he became evasive and aggressive. After McCullough refused to answer any more questions, he was arrested for the kidnapping and murder of Maria Ridulph and extradited to Illinois.


title: Murder of Maria Ridulph

text: Maria's body was exhumed that same month to check for DNA evidence, but none could be found. However, a forensic anthropologist found that Maria had been stabbed in the throat at least three times by a long, sharp blade, pointing out nicks in her sternum and neck vertebrae, consistent with "at least three" slashes to her throat. Although stabbing was considered a likely cause of death, an appellate court later stated that the findings did not preclude other possible causes of death such as ligature strangulation, which could not be adequately investigated due to the decomposition of soft tissue.


title: Murder of Maria Ridulph

text: News of the arrest in a 54-year-old murder case drew national attention. The lead prosecutor, DeKalb County State's Attorney Clay Campbell, was reluctant to take the case due to its age and the lack of any physical evidence connecting McCullough to the crime. But, after being persuaded by the Ridulph and Tessier families, who all believed that McCullough was guilty, he formally charged McCullough with the kidnapping and murder of Maria.


title: Murder of Maria Ridulph

text: At the trial in September 2012, the prosecution contended that McCullough was attracted to Maria and decided to kidnap her, but instead ended up killing her, presenting new autopsy reports suggesting Maria was stabbed to death. Although the prosecutors suspected McCullough of molesting Maria, they were unable to prove it and never brought it up in court. Numerous witnesses testified for the prosecution, including Maria's family members, neighbors, law enforcement personnel and Kathy Sigman Chapman, who was the star witness and identified McCullough as "Johnny", the man who had walked up to her and Maria 50 years earlier. Another childhood friend of Maria's testified that she had also been offered a piggyback ride from "Johnny" and identified him as McCullough. Three inmates who were jailed with McCullough testified that he talked about killing Maria. However, their stories were both inconsistent and failed to match the evidence indicating Maria had been stabbed. One inmate said McCullough spoke of strangling Maria with a wire, and another said McCullough accidentally smothered her to stop her from screaming.


title: Murder of Maria Ridulph

text: The defense argued that the prosecutors and police were pressured by the Ridulph and Tessier families to solve the case and implicate McCullough, although there was no physical evidence, motive, or indication that McCullough was in the area when Maria was kidnapped. McCullough did not take the stand in his own defense on the advice of his attorneys.


title: Murder of Maria Ridulph

text: On September 14, 2012, McCullough was convicted of the kidnapping and murder of Maria Ridulph and received a life sentence with the possibility of parole after 20 years. He was 73 years old at the time of sentencing.


title: Murder of Maria Ridulph

text: McCullough appealed his convictions. On February 13, 2015, the Illinois Appellate Court (Second District) upheld his murder conviction, but vacated his convictions for kidnapping and abduction of an infant as being outside the three-year statute of limitations in effect for those crimes in 1957. The decision had no effect on McCullough's life sentence, as the sentencing court had provided that the sentences for kidnapping and abduction would "merge" into McCullough's life sentence for murder. Although the appellate court ruled that Eileen Tessier's deathbed statement should not have been admitted as evidence against McCullough, the court declined to overturn the murder conviction because Judge Hallock did not rely heavily upon the statement in issuing the conviction.


title: Murder of Maria Ridulph

text: In 2015, McCullough, acting pro se, filed a petition for post-conviction relief asking that his murder conviction be set aside. After McCullough's petition was initially dismissed by the court as "frivolous and without merit", the public defender who had originally represented McCullough at trial — and who had continued to investigate the case while staying in touch with McCullough, despite the fact that he was no longer appointed to defend McCullough — asked the court to reconsider the dismissal. McCullough filed a successive motion that could not be denied without a hearing from the State Attorney's Office.


title: Murder of Maria Ridulph

text: In response to the motions, DeKalb County State's Attorney Richard Schmack, who had replaced Clay Campbell in that position, conducted an extensive review of the evidence, which led Schmack to conclude that McCullough could not have committed the crime and was actually innocent. According to Schmack, evidence was kept out of the trial that clearly established McCullough's whereabouts on the evening of Maria Ridulph's abduction and supported his alibi. In particular, phone records from Illinois Bell showed that McCullough made a collect call to his mother that evening from a payphone in downtown Rockford rather than from Sycamore as alleged at his trial. Given the timing of the telephone call, the approximately 40-mile distance between Sycamore and Rockford, and icy road conditions, Schmack concluded that McCullough could not possibly have been in Sycamore at the time of Maria Ridulph's disappearance.


title: Murder of Maria Ridulph

text: Following a March 2016 court hearing, on April 15, 2016, Judge William P. Brady of the Illinois Circuit Court vacated McCullough's original conviction and sentence and ordered a new trial. McCullough, who remained charged with the crime, was released on bond that day pending the new trial. A week later, Judge Brady dismissed the charges against McCullough; however, the dismissal of the murder charge was without prejudice, meaning that McCullough could be tried again for the murder of Maria Ridulph should a prosecutor wish to do so. Brady postponed ruling on a request by Maria's brother Charles Ridulph, backed by the signatures of hundreds of Sycamore citizens including the city's mayor, that a special prosecutor be appointed to replace Schmack on McCullough's case. On August 5, 2016, Judge Brady denied the motion for a special prosecutor; Charles Ridulph then stated that he would not appeal the ruling.


title: Murder of Maria Ridulph

text: McCullough was declared actually innocent of the crime by the DeKalb County Circuit Court on April 12, 2017.


title: Murder of Maria Ridulph

text: On July 21, 2016, Porter, son-in-law of McCullough, filed a lawsuit (Case 2016-CH-09536 (Cook County, Illinois)) against the Illinois State Police and Sycamore Police Department for refusal to comply with a Freedom of Information Act request related to the investigation of the case. The FOIA request was prompted by Schmack's allegations of police misconduct on November 3, 2015.


title: Murder of Maria Ridulph

text: The "Maria Ridulph Memorial Map", an eight-foot-square map of Sycamore constructed of steel and porcelain, was mounted on the front exterior of the Sycamore Municipal Building in 1958, in commemoration of Maria Ridulph. The map was removed in 2002 and replaced with a bronze memorial plaque that was installed on a pedestal outside the Municipal Building.


title: Murder of Maria Ridulph

text: The Ridulph family also established a "Maria Ridulph Memorial Fund" that was originally used to pay for the memorial map and was later used as a scholarship, compassion and summer camp fund for local children in need. A portion of the proceeds from Charles Lachman's 2014 book about the case, "Footsteps in the Snow", was donated to the fund.


title: Murder of Maria Ridulph

text: At the time of McCullough's 2012 trial and conviction, the case was the subject of several news documentaries, including an episode of "48 Hours" and a CNN Interactive web feature entitled "Taken: The Coldest Case Ever Solved". A true crime book by Charles Lachman, "Footsteps in the Snow" (2014), also became the basis for a Lifetime Movie Network documentary of the same name. These works, which were published before McCullough's conviction was overturned, presumed that the case had been successfully solved. In contrast, Northern Illinois author Jeffrey Dean Doty self-published a non-fiction book, "Piggyback" (2014), in which he reviewed evidence and court filings in the case and examined whether McCullough had been wrongfully convicted.


title: Murder of Maria Ridulph

text: As part of his review of McCullough's case, State's Attorney Richard Schmack read "Taken", "Footsteps in the Snow", and "Piggyback", and cited to portions of "Taken" and "Footsteps" in his 2016 court filing supporting McCullough's innocence.


title: Sally Face

text: Sally Face is an indie adventure game created by Steve Gabry a.k.a. Portable Moose. The game follows the titular main character Sal Fisher (otherwise known as Sally Face), a boy with a prosthetic face, who investigates local murders with his friends. The game consists of 5 episodes that were released between 2016–2019. "Sally Face" was also released on Nintendo Switch in 2021 and later on Playstation 4 and 5 in 2022. "Sally Face" is an online game that includes characters such as Sal Fisher, Larry Johnson, Todd Morrison, Ashley Campbell, Travis Phelps and more.


title: Sally Face

text: Sally Face is a point-and-click adventure game that includes narrative, exploration, and puzzle-solving, combined with the direct control of the player via sidescrolling. Players are encouraged to talk to game characters and explore the environments to uncover hidden parts of the story and can return to environments in later timelines to see how things have changed. Each episode of "Sally Face" contains optional puzzles that reveal more of the story. The game also includes various minigames that break up the regular gameplay.


title: Sally Face

text: "Note: This summary is told linearly, in-game the main plot of the first four episodes are told as flashbacks recounted by an older Sal."


title: Sally Face

text: Sal Fisher, a 15-year-old boy with a prosthetic face moves with his father to the Addison Apartments building in the town of Nockfell. The day before their arrival one of the other residents, Mrs. Sanderson, was murdered. Sal explores and meets the other tenants, including Larry Johnson, who reveals he witnessed the murder. Sal helps Larry find evidence that the murderer was one of the other tenants, Charley Mansfield. They present the evidence to the police and he is arrested.


title: Sally Face

text: Several months later Larry tells Sal that he feels he has been cursed by a demon in the building. Sal promises to help him and goes to Todd Morrison, a tenant their age who creates gadgets. Todd modifies Sal's "Gear Boy" to be able to detect supernatural spots and the three of them explore the building. On the top floor, which is under renovation, Sal enters a secret room, where he encounters the demon. Larry steps in to save Sal and eliminates the demon with a gadget made by Todd.


title: Sally Face

text: More than a year later Sal and his friends decide to investigate the strange-tasting bologna at their school. After discovering that it is produced by the math teacher Mrs. Packerton, who lives in Addison Apartments, Sal and Larry decide to break into her apartment. Here they find that the bologna is being made of human meat. Their friend Ashley Campbell discovers a hidden trash chute but falls down it. Sal, Larry, and Todd find that the chute leads to an occult temple underneath the building, where they save Ashley.


title: Sally Face

text: Five years later a now-adult Sal lives with Todd in a house down the road from Addison Apartments, where they have spent the last years investigating the cult. Ashley comes to visit and she and Sal meet at a lake. That night Sal receives strange messages from Larry, upon which he rushes to the apartments, only to find that he has committed suicide. Sal and Larry's ghost together work their way through the apartment building, where it is shown in the otherworld that all the residents are overgrown with a strange growth. When Sal reaches Terrence Addison, the owner of the building who never leaves his room, he finds that a fleshy green mass has possessed him since he was a child. Sal defeats the mass but an apparition of Terrence tells him he must kill all the infected tenants to end the infestation for good. Reluctantly, Sal obliges and murders all the residents. In the Lobby, he finds Todd, who has been possessed by the demon. Ashley had arrived at the apartment complex moments before, and upon opening the door she unveils a covered-in-blood Sal and calls the authorities. Sal is immediately arrested as they come.


title: Sally Face

text: Two years later Sal is put on trial and, despite Ashley's best efforts, sentenced to death. Ashley later finds proof of Sal's story in the form of a picture of Larry's ghost but arrives too late to save Sal, witnessing his death.


title: Sally Face

text: After Sal's death, Ashley continues Todd's investigations of the cult. She places explosives in the main cult temple, however, she is unable to bring herself to detonate them. Believing Sal is destined to destroy the cult she begins a ritual to revive him, and sacrifices herself to become a physical host for his spirit, temporarily keeping her alive and giving her special abilities. They go to the temple, where Ashley, Sal's spirit, and the ghost of Larry defeat "The Endless", the core entity of the cult, saving Todd from the cult's possession. Larry's ghost vanishes, leaving the others to grieve him. Even after the group's best efforts to save the world from the cult, it is later revealed in the unlockable epilogue, that 33% of the planet's population had been consumed by darkness.


title: Sally Face

text: "Sally Face" was developed by the indie game studio Portable Moose, composed of solo developer Steve Gabry. The game took five years to develop. It was developed using the Unity game engine. While Steve first invented the concept and world of "Sally Face" around 2006/2007, development on the game didn't officially start until 2015. Steve cites 90s cartoons and personal nightmares as his main inspiration. In 2016, an Indiegogo crowdfunding campaign, netting the game $13,697, allowed Steve Gabry to start working on "Sally Face" full-time. Sally Face, Episode One: Strange Neighbors was released August 16, 2016, on itch.io and December 14 on Steam. Episode Two: The Wretched was released July 7, 2017. Episode Three: The Bologna Incident was released on February 10, 2018. Episode Four: The Trial was released on November 30, 2018. Episode Five: Memories and Dreams was the final episode and was released on December 13, 2019.


title: Sally Face

text: "Sally Face" has been overall positively received by critics. Gamers Decide website put "Sally Face" in their Top 10 Best Indie Narrative Games. Nerdvana called it "a psychological horror masterpiece" and praised the game for evoking strong emotions. Adventure Gamers critiques "Sally Face" for being convoluted and for hiding important story elements behind optional puzzles but ultimately said it's "is a worthwhile and wholly unique gaming experience that has to be played to be believed."


title: América de Cali

text: América de Cali S. A., best known as América de Cali or América, is a Colombian professional football club based in Cali. It competes in the Categoría Primera A, the top-flight league of Colombian football. The team plays its home games at the Estadio Olímpico Pascual Guerrero, one of the most important stadiums in the country.


title: América de Cali

text: The club is one of the oldest in Colombia; its foundation dates from 1927 and has its origins in the América Football Club, which was founded in 1918. It is also one of the most successful Colombian clubs, both nationally and internationally, being considered one of the strongest and most consistent clubs in the country. América has won 15 league titles and a second division tournament title, in addition to reaching the final of four Copa Libertadores (including three in a row from 1985 to 1987). Although it has never won the Copa Libertadores, it has won two international tournaments, the Copa Simón Bolívar in 1975 and the Copa Merconorte in 1999.


title: América de Cali

text: In 2011, América was relegated to Categoría Primera B, second division of Colombian football, for the first time in its history. They played there for five seasons, returning to the top flight after winning the Primera B championship in 2016.


title: América de Cali

text: América has a series of fierce rivalries, most notably with crosstown rivals Deportivo Cali. Matches between them are known as the "Clásico Vallecaucano". Other major rival clubs include Atlético Nacional, Millonarios and Independiente Santa Fe.


title: América de Cali

text: In 1996, América was ranked by IFFHS as the second best football club in the world, only surpassed by Juventus of Italy. It ranks 37th in the world ranking of the best clubs of all time according to the IFFHS, being the best-placed Colombian team in the list. It is also ranked as the best Colombian club of the 20th century and as the fifth best Colombian club so far in the 21st century. América is also credited as the second best Colombian team in CONMEBOL club tournaments and ranks 37th in the official CONMEBOL club ranking.


title: América de Cali

text: The origins of América de Cali date to 1918, when students from the Colegio Santa Librada formed a team called América FC, to compete with other schools. That club claimed one of the first championships in the history of Colombian football by winning the Copa Centenario Batalla de Boyacá in 1919. The team broke up not long afterwards.


title: América de Cali

text: Over the ensuing years, various clubs in Cali appeared with various names. The most notable was Racing Club, named for the Argentine team of the same name. That club wore light blue jerseys with white vertical stripes, identical to the Argentine club. However, when the club disintegrated in 1925, the uniforms went with them.


title: América de Cali

text: On 13 February 1927, a new club was officially formed, with Hernán Zamorano Isaacs as the first president of the club. They took América as their name and scarlet and white as their colors. There are various stories to explain the reason why, but both this name and those colors stuck, and América has been identified with scarlet ever since.


title: América de Cali

text: América won the 1930 Amateur Tournament, and arranged a playoff with local rivals Cali FC to determine who would enter Colombia's top league (then known as the Liga de Fútbol). Cali won 1–0 in controversial style, as two América goals were disallowed. This was part of the beginning of the birth of the fierce rivalry between América and what would become Deportivo Cali.


title: América de Cali

text: Unable to compete in the national tournament, América did set out on a long national tour in 1931, playing matches all over the country and establishing a national reputation. They spent the next decade and a half as one of Colombia's strongest national teams. One of their stars was Benjamin Urrea, also known as "Garabato" (the scribble, or the doodle) for his small size and speed.


title: América de Cali

text: In 1948, the Colombian league was moving towards professionalism. Garabato, whose career was drawing to an end, was an opponent of such a move. When América elected to join the league anyway, legend has it that Garabato cursed the club, declaring that they would never be champions. As it would happen, América struggled badly in the Colombian tournament, although there were more practical reasons for this than Garabato's curse.


title: América de Cali

text: Financially, the club lagged behind their league rivals. This especially showed during the El Dorado period (1949–54), when Colombian clubs aggressively signed foreign players from all over South America. Unable to do the same, América fell towards the bottom of the table. During the 1950s, the club finished no higher than sixth and even sat out of the 1953 tournament due to financial reasons. They almost fail to survive the decade, and only made it because another Cali club, Boca Juniors de Cali, folded instead. In 1960, desperate to make some sort of a splash, the club signed Adolfo Pedernera as manager Pedernera managed the club to a runner-up finish in 1961, the highest place in the history of "Los Diablos Rojos".


title: América de Cali

text: This season completely changed the dynamic of América. Although they did not contend for another championship for another six years, they were no longer in danger of folding. Towards the end of the decade, they began taking their place as one of the strongest sides in Colombia. In 1967, they enjoyed a twenty-two match unbeaten streak and finished third. In the 1968 Finalización tournament, the club finished second, and did so again in the 1969 Apertura tournament. That last season not only saw Hugo Lóndero set a Colombian record by scoring 24 goals but also qualified América for the Copa Libertadores for the first time (they were eliminated at the first group stage).


title: América de Cali

text: For most of the 1970s, the club remained a solidly mid-table side, with two runner-up finishes serving as the exception. The highlight came in 1976, when América won the Copa Simón Bolívar (an international tournament that included clubs from Venezuela, Bolivia, Ecuador, Peru, and Paraguay). However, they still had no Colombian championships. América got off to a slow start in the Colombian tournament, not achieving even the runner-up position until 1960 and not playing its first Copa Libertadores until 1969.


title: América de Cali

text: In 1979, two historic changes took place at América. First, the club reconciled with Garabato. He agreed to come to the stadium, where he attended a mass with the club's directors and signed a document "officially" lifting the curse. More practically, they hired Gabriel Ochoa Uribe to manage the club. Ochoa Uribe was one of the most recognizable names in Colombian management; he had won six championships at Millonarios, as well as another at Santa Fe. Over the course of his long stint at América (1979–91), he would transform the club into one of the dominant powers in Colombian football.


title: América de Cali

text: Inclined towards defensive football, Ochoa built his club around a solid back line, featuring captain Aurelio Pascuttini and Luis Eduardo Reyes. Juan Manuel Battaglia and Gerardo Gonzalez Aquino played in the midfield, while Jorge Ramón Cáceres and Alfonso Cañón led the attack up front. In the 1979 Apertura, América found itself in a neck and neck race with crosstown rivals Deportivo Cali. At the end of the season, the two clubs each had 34 points. A two-legged playoff followed, but both matches ended scoreless. The Apertura title was thus determined by goal average, being won by Deportivo Cali.


title: América de Cali

text: The year's second tournament, the Finalización, saw América top both the first and second phases, earning a place in the final round, a four-team round robin. The round robin came down to its final match; América needed to beat Unión Magdalena to wrap up the national championship. In front of an overflow crowd, "Los Escarlatas" prevailed 2–0, winning their first ever title on 19 December 1979, in what would become known as "Aquel 19" ("That 19th").


title: América de Cali

text: 1980 and 1981 were years of consolidation as the club finished third in consecutive years (while reaching the semi-finals of the 1980 Copa Libertadores). During that stretch, Ochoa was refreshing the team with new arrivals, like Argentine keeper Julio César Falcioni and strikers Roque Alfaro, Humberto Sierra and Antony de Ávila. Falcioni in particular would become an anchor of América for years to come, lasting with the team until 1991. De Ávila, meanwhile, would play with the club until 1987 and score a club record 201 goals.


title: América de Cali

text: 1982 saw all these acquisitions come together perfectly. Sierra led the league in scoring with 23 goals, while Alfaro added another 16. América won every Colombian competition that year—the Apertura, their Finalización group, and the octagonal playoff of the year's top eight teams to determine the national champion. They clinched the title on the season's final match by beating Millonarios in Bogotá.


title: América de Cali

text: América had won two championships with an impenetrable defense, but in the ensuing offseason, Ochoa completed an acquisition that would drastically change his side's character and strategy. Midfielder Willington Ortiz was one of the biggest stars in Colombian football, having helped Millonarios to two championships in the 1970s. By 1982, he was 30 years old, nicknamed "El Viejo Willy" (Old Willy), and still toiling away for Deportivo Cali. Although older, he had not lost a step, and was still a crafty midfield player capable of generating a sudden attack. Ochoa wanted him for his team, and in the 1982–83 offseason signed him for an unknown transfer fee.


title: América de Cali

text: Ortiz's arrival transformed América's style from total defense to rapid attack. They became known as "La Mechita" (The Fuse), and in 1983 Ortiz and Juan Manuel Battaglia combined for 40 goals. Their efforts paid off; América were able to successfully defend the title and also qualified for the semi-finals of the 1983 Copa Libertadores. And the best was still yet to come.


title: América de Cali

text: 1984 saw Ochoa strengthen his midfield by signing Peruvian César Cueto, a creative player nicknamed "The Left-Footed Poet" in his native country. Midfielder Álex Escobar also began regularly playing for the club. Originally a youth prospect with the club, Escobar would become a fixture in the club's midfield until 1996. With Cueto, Escobar, and Ortiz in the midfield, "La Mechita" marched to a third straight championship.


title: América de Cali

text: In 1985, as América set its sights on another title, Ochoa strengthened the squad again, this time by adding Paraguayan forward Roberto Cabañas and Argentine striker Ricardo Gareca. The season came down to its penultimate match, but América's late victory over Deportivo Cali clinched a fourth crown in a row. Even more memorable, though, was their thrilling run through the 1985 Copa Libertadores. "La Mechita" won their first round group with an undefeated record of two wins and four draws, then topped their semi-final group to earn a place in the championship round against Argentinos Juniors. The Argentine team won the first leg 1–0, but Willington Ortiz scored in the fourth minute of the second leg to power América to a 1–0 victory. This forced a decisive third match, played in Asunción. After a 1–1 tie, Argentinos won a penalty shootout to hoist the Copa Libertadores.


title: América de Cali

text: The 1986 season saw América set a Colombian record with an unprecedented fifth straight championship. It was another hard-fought race, but ultimately the club was able to hold off a late surge by Deportivo Cali and bring home the crown, clinching the title with a win over their crosstown rivals. Simultaneously, they were making another run through the 1986 Copa Libertadores. They topped their preliminary group (eliminating Deportivo Cali as they went) and survived a tough semi-finals group to reach the championship round for a second year in a row. There, they met Argentine powerhouse River Plate with the South American championship on the line. River won the first leg in Cali 2–1, then clinched their first Copa Libertadores title by winning 1–0 back in Buenos Aires.


title: América de Cali

text: 1987 saw the club's ultimate heartbreak in the Copa Libertadores. "Los Diablos Rojos" advanced to the final for the third time in a row, earning a shot at Uruguayan giants Peñarol. América won the first leg 2–0, and then took a 1–0 lead early in the second leg. It looked like the Copa Libertadores was at last coming to Cali. However, Peñarol rallied to win 2–1, then defeated América 1–0 in extra time in the ensuing playoff match in Santiago. It had been yet another near miss.


title: América de Cali

text: Back at home, América's grip on the domestic league finally slipped. Millonarios broke their string of five consecutive titles by winning the title in 1987, then repeating as champions in 1988. Early on, 1989 looked to be a titanic battle between the new champions and a revitalized América, but instead the season was interrupted by tragedy.


title: América de Cali

text: The 1989 season of the Colombian football league was cancelled halfway due to the murder of referee Álvaro Ortega. The Apertura tournament had been won by América and the team was standing in third place during the second tournament. In a key match against Independiente Medellín in Medellín, they battled to a scoreless draw. Rumors that referee Álvaro Ortega had unfairly favored América swirled. That night, Ortega was gunned down in the streets. After the match, a journalist received a call from a man claiming to be one of the murderers and blaming Ortega for the result of the game, saying "we and our patrons lost a lot of money (because of this)".


title: América de Cali

text: The new decade began with América in transition. The heart of the club that had won five straight championships was now gone. Aurelio Pascuttini had left in 1982, Cesar Cueto in 1985, Luis Eduardo Reyes in 1986, Roberto Cabañas in 1987, and Willington Ortiz, Ricardo Gareca, Roque Alfaro, and Humberto Sierra in 1988. After the 1989 season, Juan Manuel Battaglia retired and Julio Falcioni returned to Argentina. "La Mechita" was seemingly finished.


title: América de Cali

text: But they still had Ochoa as their manager and Alex Escobar in midfield and Antony de Ávila at the front. In 1990, De Ávila was joined up front by Sergio Angulo, who had previously starred with Deportivo Cali and Santa Fe, and Escobar was joined in the midfield by new acquisition Freddy Rincón, a starring midfielder on the national side. Spurred on by their near miss in the cancelled season of 1989, the club marched to the championship in 1990, winning the Apertura, the Finalización, and the playoff tournament in grand style. They were champions for the seventh time in club history.


title: América de Cali

text: 1991 was a year of near misses. Atlético Nacional knocked América out in the quarterfinals of the Copa Libertadores, then beat them to the title in the Colombian league. After the season, Gabriel Ochoa Uribe retired as manager, ending a career that had spanned fifteen years and seven league championships. América hired an equally high-profile manager to replace him: Francisco Maturana. Maturana had won the 1989 Copa Libertadores with Atlético Nacional and guided Colombia to the knockout stages of the 1990 World Cup, then managed Real Valladolid in Spain during the 1990–91 season. He was widely expected to continue his string of successes with América.


title: América de Cali

text: The club won the 1992 Finalización and dominated the playoff stages, hoisting their eight championship and second in three years. But the agony continued in the Copa Libertadores. 1992 saw them reach the semi-finals again, and earn a meeting with Newell's Old Boys of Argentina. Both legs ended in a 1–1 draw, and so the match went into penalties. After a marathon round of penalties, Newell's prevailed, 11–10.


title: América de Cali

text: In 1993, Maturana's final year with the club, the side slipped to fourth place domestically but still managed an impressive season in the Copa Libertadores. They became the first Colombian side to ever win at Brazil's legendary Maracanã Stadium and advanced all the way to the semi-finals. Once again, they were denied, losing out to a last minute goal by Chile's Universidad Católica.


title: América de Cali

text: After the season, Maturana left to focus on managing the Colombian national team. Nonetheless, the club's era of success continued. They remained near the top of the Colombian league in 1994, 1995, and 1996, and qualified for the 1996 Copa Libertadores. That year, America mounted another legendary run through the tournament, charging all the way to Copa finals, where they once again faced River Plate. Antony de Ávila scored the winning goal in the first leg, poking the ball into the net from a seemingly impossible angle. In Argentina, however, River Plate prevailed 2–1, thanks to two goals from Hernán Crespo. Crespo's second goal came when keeper Óscar Córdoba left his area to try and clear a ball, only to have it return right to the possession of River Plate.


title: América de Cali

text: Despite the Copa Libertadores disappointment, the 1996–97 season still brought some glory to América. Due to an upcoming change in format for the Colombian league, this was a marathon season, lasting sixteen months (it was the longest in Colombian history). Despite the length and complexity of the season, "Los Diablos Rojos" were nonetheless able to win their ninth championship, beating Atlético Bucaramanga in the finals. They continued their dominance of Colombia into the early 2000s, winning titles in 2000, 2001, and the 2002 Apertura with homegrown manager Jaime de la Pava. However, it was not long afterwards that the tide began to turn against them.


title: América de Cali

text: Although the 1990s had seen América win three more championships, it also saw a new development that would drastically undermine the foundation of the club's success. The new problem was a direct result of América's long rumored connections to drug cartel leader Miguel Rodríguez Orejuela. The cartels had been laundering their money in the United States, and in 1995 President Bill Clinton became engaged in a new effort to stop it. He signed Executive Order 12978, which compiled a list of suspected drug cartel fronts. Under the new law, it was illegal for any American business to engage in financial transactions with these fronts. In all, over 1,000 Colombian individuals and businesses were placed on the list.


title: América de Cali

text: One such business was América de Cali and its board members. Their lives were suddenly changed. Transfer fees now needed to be paid in cash. Visas for tours in the United States were denied and any assets that the club held in American banks were frozen. Sponsorships dried up. Even prize money from international tournaments could not be delivered to the club, which was now entirely dependent on ticket sales for revenue.


title: América de Cali

text: Unable to pay competitive salaries or acquire the top talent that they had acquired during the 1980s and 1990s, América was forced to sell off many of its stars and began fading as a force in Colombian football. By 2002, the players acquired back in the club's glory days were mostly gone, and the caliber of their replacements was nowhere near the same. Although the club managed to reach the semi-finals of the 2003 Copa Libertadores, the finals of the 2008 Apertura tournament, and win a championship in the 2008 Finalización tournament, these were merely a blip in a long, painful decline. Just a year after winning the league title, America found itself bottom of the aggregate table for the 2009 season, and finished second-to-last in the Finalizacion tournament. Things didn't improve in the Copa Libertadores either; the team finished bottom of its group and exited the tournament without winning a single game.


title: América de Cali

text: The club's problems finally bottomed out at the end of the 2011 season when América finished second-to-last in the relegation table and was forced to play a relegation play-off against Patriotas, which they lost on penalties after a 2–2 aggregate score and were relegated to the Categoría Primera B for the first time on 17 December 2011, after a string of 57 seasons in the top flight.


title: América de Cali

text: América was expected to achieve immediate promotion back to the top flight, and they dominated the 2012 Primera B season. They were undefeated at home and beat Unión Magdalena on penalties to win the Apertura tournament. However, they performed poorly in the Torneo Finalización and failed to reach the final, and then went on to lose the season finals to Alianza Petrolera on penalties. They were then defeated 5–3 on aggregate, including a 4–1 loss at home, in a promotion play-off against Cúcuta Deportivo.


title: América de Cali

text: In 2013, after years of battling, the club was finally removed from the Clinton List, having been on it since 1996. 2013 was nevertheless a disappointing year for the club on the sporting front: in both tournaments América topped the table as the first seed but failed to make the finals. In 2014, they made it to the final of the Apertura tournament, but lost to Jaguares 5–2 on aggregate. The Finalización tournament was even more disappointing, as the club finished eighth in the league table, barely making the semi-finals and finished last in their group.


title: América de Cali

text: In 2016, under the direction of Hernán Torres, América placed second in the first stage and qualified for the semi-finals, where they ended up in first place of their group and advanced to the finals, while also achieving promotion to the Categoría Primera A after five seasons in the second division. In the finals, América defeated Tigres on a 5–1 aggregate score, winning their first Primera B title.


title: América de Cali

text: In its first season back to the Primera A after being promoted, and despite being in danger of relegation for most of the season, América achieved a good performance that qualified them for the Copa Sudamericana, after several seasons without international participation. The team placed seventh in the Torneo Apertura, advancing to the knockout phase, where they were eliminated by crosstown rivals Deportivo Cali in the semi-finals. In the Torneo Finalización, the team placed sixth and were eliminated again in the semi-finals, this time by Millonarios, who would eventually win the tournament against Santa Fe. In their return to international competition, they were knocked out of the 2018 Copa Sudamericana in its first round by Argentine side Defensa y Justicia after winning 1–0 in Argentina and losing the second leg in Cali by a 3–0 score.


title: América de Cali

text: In both tournaments of the 2019 season, América displayed a solid performance. In the Apertura tournament, the team placed fourth in the first stage and third in their semi-final group, behind eventual runners-up Deportivo Pasto and tournament favourites Millonarios, whom they beat on the last matchday thus preventing them from advancing to the final. They eventually won their fourteenth domestic league title and first in 11 years in the Finalización tournament. Under the guidance of manager Alexandre Guimarães and led by strikers Michael Rangel and Duván Vergara, with the former becoming one of the tournament's top scorers, the team placed second in the first stage and topped their semi-final group ahead of crosstown rivals Deportivo Cali, Santa Fe, and Alianza Petrolera. In the final, "Los Diablos Rojos" faced Junior, whom they beat 2–0 on aggregate score over two legs to win the championship and secure a return to the Copa Libertadores for its 2020 edition after an 11-year absence.


title: América de Cali

text: The 2020 season began with the return to the club of veteran legend Adrián Ramos, as well as América's return to the Copa Libertadores, in which their campaign began with a loss to Grêmio at home and a 2–1 win in Santiago de Chile against Universidad Católica, when both the domestic league and international competition were suspended due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The club was unable to reach an agreement with Alexandre Guimarães and the manager left the club in June upon the expiration of his contract, being replaced by Juan Cruz Real for the remainder of the season. Activity resumed in September with América losing the 2020 Superliga Colombiana to Junior. The team would eventually also fail to advance from the group stage of the Copa Libertadores, tying 1–1 with Grêmio in Porto Alegre on the last matchday due to a last-minute penalty which also prevented them from dropping to the Copa Sudamericana as they ended in last place of their group. Even with the Copa Libertadores disappointment, América would make another great domestic league run, as they went on win their 15th league title and second in a row by beating Santa Fe in the finals with a 3–2 aggregate score over two legs.


title: América de Cali

text: In 2021, América de Cali were able to advance to the knockout stages of the Apertura tournament, losing to Millonarios in the quarter-finals over two legs, but failed to qualify for the round of 16 of the Copa Libertadores after ending in third place of a group with Cerro Porteño from Paraguay, Brazilian side Atlético Mineiro and Venezuelan champions Deportivo La Guaira as rivals, which cost Juan Cruz Real his post as "Escarlata" manager. Juan Carlos Osorio was hired as new manager for the Finalización tournament as well as the knockout stages of the Copa Sudamericana, where they were beaten by the eventual champions Athletico Paranaense in the round of 16. Domestic performance was uneven, as the team lost another Superliga, this time against Santa Fe, but qualified for the semi-finals of the Finalización tournament with a 5–1 away thrashing of Deportivo Pereira on the last day of the first stage which allowed them to advance in eighth place, and were eliminated from title contention in their semi-final group with one match to spare following a home loss to Deportes Tolima. However, the team's performance throughout the season was rewarded with qualification for the 2022 Copa Sudamericana thanks to their fifth place in the 2021 season's aggregate table. Juan Carlos Osorio continued as manager for the 2022 season, but he was eventually sacked after a few games in the 2022 Apertura tournament after displaying a poor performance throughout the competition, as well as personal rifts with the club's controlling shareholder, and elimination from the Copa Sudamericana at the hands of Independiente Medellín in the first round. Alexandre Guimarães returned to América following Osorio's dismissal, but the team failed to advance to the Apertura semi-finals and was also knocked out of the Copa Colombia by Unión Magdalena in the round of 16.


title: América de Cali

text: In its early years, América wore blue and white kits based on the colors of Argentinian side Racing Club. The club eventually switched to its iconic red and white colors, a switch that became permanent in 1931. According to club lore, the inspiration was a basketball game witnessed by club secretary Hernando Lenis, in which he was impressed by a basketball team nicknamed "The Red Devils". That game lives on in both the club's jersey and their nickname, "Los Diablos Rojos".


title: América de Cali

text: Throughout history, América de Cali has had several alternative uniforms, mostly white with red, although they have on occasion worn black or blue. Their best remembered alternative uniform featured red shorts with a white short. The club has also occasionally worn commemorative uniforms, such as in 1958, when they wore a similar uniform to Racing Club, in honor of their own first uniform.


title: América de Cali

text: The first crest of the club was known in the mid-30s, this crest was the map of South America in reference to the name of the team that was constituted as América F.C., it was used until 1939.


title: América de Cali

text: The devil first appeared on the crest in 1940 because of the popular belief that the players "played like devils" on the field. During Gabriel Ochoa Uribe's twelve years with the institution, the devil was always an inconvenience for him so it was removed for religious reasons. For this reason, the crest only carried the number of stars or titles obtained by the club.


title: América de Cali

text: In 1992, the devil was completely removed and was only used for the administrative aspects of the institution. As a celebration of the club's 70 years, the devil was put back on the uniforms. From this date forward, any malignant beliefs regarding the devil have been completely removed. In 2007, to commemorate the club's 80 years of existence, the devil was temporarily replaced with a logo that read ""80 años"" (80 years) and underneath "1927–2007"; above the crest are the 13 stars obtained by the club. In 2010, the devil returned to the crest, in the shirts made by Saeta, which was the kit sponsor at the time.


title: América de Cali

text: As of 2017, the institutional crest without stars is presented, following the international homologation in the global professional football industry. Teams only show their badges without graphic reference to their sporting achievements.


title: América de Cali

text: The mascot of América de Cali is a red devil, this is because different sports journalists commented that the club's players in the 1930s looked like red devils running, so this made the club take the devil as the emblem.


title: América de Cali

text: This game is known as "El Clásico Vallecaucano" (the Valle del Cauca derby). These teams are fierce, long-standing rivals for dominance in the city of Cali. The rivalry dates back to a local football tournament in 1931; Deportivo Cali prevailed 1–0 in a controversial game that saw two América goals disallowed. The club published a series of articles in protest and was banned from local tournaments for a year. The rivalry has only grown since then. The clubs have met 266 times, with Cali claiming 104 victories and América 86. 81 matches between the teams have been drawn.


title: América de Cali

text: Together, they have combined for 22 titles and played three title deciders (Deportivo Cali won one in 1969, while América won in 1986 and 1992). Typically, between 30,000 and 35,000 fans attend this match at the stadium.


title: América de Cali

text: This rivalry, known as the "Clásico Popular" ("People's Classic") since it involves the two Colombian clubs with the largest fanbases, gained importance starting from the decade of the 80s, when both América and Atlético Nacional began to stand out both in local competition and continental tournaments, and peaked between 1990 and 2002 when both teams consolidated their standing among the most powerful in Colombian football. During that stretch, the clubs met 15 times in championship finals, most recently in 2002. The clubs have also met 11 times in the Copa Libertadores and twice in the Copa Sudamericana. This is an extremely even rivalry, with América claiming 93 wins to Nacional's 96 (with 79 draws).


title: América de Cali

text: These two teams are among the most popular and successful in Colombia, combining for 30 league titles (15 apiece) and having some of the largest and best organized supporters groups. The rivalry peaked in the 1980s, when they combined for seven out of the nine contested championships. The two were also the main contenders in the cancelled 1989 season. Since then, the decline of América has cooled the rivalry somewhat.


title: América de Cali

text: This is a much more recent rivalry which began to emerge during the late 1980s and early 1990s. During that time period, América made a habit of purchasing Santa Fe's best players for very low prices, and then using them to win championships. Some Santa Fe players that transferred to América are Eduardo Niño, Wílmer Cabrera, and Sergio Angulo; all of these players were part of América's 1990 league title squad. This produced bad feelings between the two sets of supporters. The rivalry's competitive peak came in 1999, when América defeated Santa Fe over two legs in the Copa Merconorte finals.


title: América de Cali

text: Its lowest point came on 11 May 2005, when a fight between the supporters groups left one person dead. The game was called off with América ahead 5–2 at El Campin. The rivalry remains heated today, although it is felt more on the Santa Fe side of the rivalry.


title: Julie Adenuga

text: Julie Oluwatoyin Chidozie Adenuga (born 15 July 1988) is a British broadcaster, radio host and the creator of Don't Trust The Internet. She was one of the three lead DJs for Beats 1, Apple's 24/7 radio station as part of Apple Music.


title: Julie Adenuga

text: Adenuga, who is of British Nigerian descent, is from the London Borough of Haringey. Adenuga is the younger sister of Jme and Skepta, who are both London-based Grime artists and record producers, as well as co-founders of the Boy Better Know record label. She also has a younger brother: Jason Adenuga, an animator.


title: Julie Adenuga

text: Adenuga made her debut in the music industry in 2010, when she joined London community radio station Rinse FM and then went on to present the drive time show.


title: Julie Adenuga

text: In 2014, she created and hosted a music television show on Channel AKA and Dailymotion called Play It, which serves as a platform for UK rap and grime artists as well as singers and poets. Adenuga recently started a YouTube interview series, featuring artists such UK grime and rap artist Stormzy. As well as this, she hosted Vice Magazine's online offshoot, Noisey's, Grime Karaoke.


title: Julie Adenuga

text: As part of the 2015 Apple WWDC keynote, Adenuga was introduced as the London headline host of Beats 1 radio. Beats 1 is the global radio service from Apple Music.


title: Julie Adenuga

text: To add to her presenting accolades, Adenuga wrote and presented Skepta's 'Greatness Only' documentary for Noisey. Her talents have been noted and recognised with mentions in Forbes "30 under 30", NME's "500 Most Influential People in Britain" and in Debrett's "500 List: Music", with a feature in Fader quoting Apple dubbing Adenuga as "one of London's most vital tastemakers".


title: Julie Adenuga

text: In 2020, Julie launched Don't Trust the Internet (DTTI), a creative media house that produces shows such as "Julie's Top 5".


title: Julie Adenuga

text: In early 2021, she began co-hosting "MTV’s Catfish UK: The TV Show" the UK version of the , alongside Oobah Butler. Adenuga left the show after only one season.


title: Anakim

text: According to the Old Testament, the Anakim lived in the southern part of the land of Canaan, near Hebron (Gen. 23:2; Josh. 15:13). states that they inhabited the region later known as Edom and Moab in the days of Abraham. The name may come from a Hebrew root meaning "necklace" or "neck-chain".


title: Anakim

text: Their formidable appearance, as described by the Twelve Spies sent to search the land, filled the Israelites with terror. The Israelites seem to have identified them with the Nephilim, the giants (, ) of the antediluvian age. Joshua finally expelled them from the land, except for some who found a refuge in the Philistine cities of Gaza, Gath, and Ashdod (), thus the Philistine giants (Goliath) whom David encountered (2 Samuel 21:15-22) were descendants of the Anakim.


title: Anakim

text: The Septuagint translation of Jeremiah 47:5 refers to the descendants of the Anakim mourning after the destruction of Gaza.


title: Anakim

text: The Egyptian Execration texts of the Middle Kingdom (2055-1650 BC) mention a list of political enemies in Canaan, and among this list are a group called the "ly Anaq" or people of Anaq. The three rulers of ly Anaq were Erum, Abiyamimu, and Akirum.


title: Alexis S.F. Marshall

text: Alexis Stephen Francis Marshall (born March 22, 1980) is an American singer and songwriter. He is the lead vocalist of American noise rock band Daughters and was formerly the frontman of the mathcore/grindcore band As the Sun Sets.


title: Alexis S.F. Marshall

text: Marshall formed Daughters in 2002 following the disbandment of As the Sun Sets. Daughters disbanded in 2009 and reunited in 2013. Marshall released his debut solo album "House of Lull . House of When" on Sargent House in 2021.


title: Alexis S.F. Marshall

text: Alexis Stephen Francis Marshall was born on March 22, 1980 in the state of Massachusetts. He moved regularly before settling in Providence, Rhode Island for college alongside other extreme music acts from the same city such as Lightning Bolt and The Body.


title: Alexis S.F. Marshall

text: Rhode Island mathcore/grindcore act As the Sun Sets were formed in 1998 with Marshall as a founding member. After the band split up, Marshall formed Daughters with Brent Fantini, guitarist Nick Sadler and Samuel Walker in 2001. The band released their first EP in 2002. Their debut album, "Canada Songs", was released in 2003, followed by "Hell Songs" in 2006.


title: Alexis S.F. Marshall

text: In August 2009, several months after the band finished work on their self-titled album, "Daughters", the band had what Marshall later described in an early 2010 interview as a "big falling out". Bassist Samuel Walker and guitarist Nick Sadler departed, resulting in Marshall and drummer Jon Syverson being the only members remaining in the band.


title: Alexis S.F. Marshall

text: The band's hiatus meant that they did not tour to promote the album. Tensions between Sadler and Marshall contributed to the dissolution of the band, with Marshall feeling unhappy about the direction that Sadler wanted Daughters to take musically. In an interview Marshall explained, "Nick wrote a lot of the stuff on there, and he was really looking to make it accessible, and see how it fared... There are definitely parts of the record that were written to see how people will respond, which is kind of disappointing."


title: Alexis S.F. Marshall

text: Marshall also cited his commitment to sobriety as playing a role; in an interview with "Consequence", he said: "I assumed I wouldn’t be able to mix music … ‘cause, you know, there’s so much fuckin’ alcohol, drugs, and crazy people throwing shit at you."


title: Alexis S.F. Marshall

text: After Andy Low organized a meeting between Marshall and bandmate Nick Sadler, Daughters reformed, performing their first post-hiatus gig in 2013. The band released "Satan in the Wait", their first new song in eight years, in July 2018. In November, they released a new album, "You Won't Get What You Want", through Ipecac Recordings.


title: Alexis S.F. Marshall

text: In 2012, Marshall formed Fucking Invincible with a current member of Dropdead and Soul Control. In the same year, he collaborated with the Assembly of Light choir in their self titled EP.


title: Alexis S.F. Marshall

text: In 2017, Marshall published his first poetry book, "A Sea Above the Pains of Our Youth". He released another poetry collection in 2020 titled "Moving Windows".


title: Alexis S.F. Marshall

text: Marshall released his first solo single, "Nature in Three Movements", in 2020. The single was a standalone track and was not included on Marshall's solo album. In June 2021, Marshall released "Hounds in the Abyss", the debut single from his first solo album, "House of Lull . House of When." The album was released on July 23, 2021. It was produced by Seth Manchester. Collaborators on the album included Marshall's Daughters bandmate Jon Syverson. "Pitchfork" awarded the album a score of 7.2/10. "Kerrang!" gave the album a mixed review, writing that, "It's lacking the punchy impact you’d expect from Daughters, and there’s nothing in the way of catchy hooks to reel listeners in."


title: Alexis S.F. Marshall

text: In As the Sun Sets and early Daughters releases, his vocals were a mixture of high pitched screaming and death growls, but he has since abandoned both, as he uses a clean vocal style since Hell Songs. His clean vocals have been compared to those of Nick Cave and David Yow. Marshall is the chief vocalist and lyricist of Daughters. He has described himself as taking a narrative approach to song-writing. Daughters have been noted for their "confrontational live shows, where Marshall may endure “people spitting in my mouth, punching me, grabbing me, trying to pull my shirt off or whatever". He has cited Alice Cooper's early performances as an influence on his approach to live performances.


title: Alexis S.F. Marshall

text: Marshall was originally from Providence, Rhode Island, but currently lives in Pennsylvania. He has two children. Marshall has spoken about his struggles with alcoholism.


title: Alexis S.F. Marshall

text: During Daughters' first run, the band's live shows were infamous for Marshall's behavior. He often performed fully nude, drank his own urine, rubbed his penis on the microphone and bled himself. At a festival performance in Japan, Marshall vomited on the front row of the audience. In 2006, Marshall fled the stage in the middle of a concert at Los Angeles' Knitting Factory because the police arrived to arrest him for public indecency. He has admitted to "flossing" his buttocks with a microphone cable, inserting microphones into his anus and in Belgium, nearly starting a fight because he masturbated onto an object. Botch bassist Brian Cook recalled: "Women pulled at his briefs. Fans fondled and licked his exposed cock. A confessed 'sex addict', Lex would swap spit with both men and women mid-set and fuck fans in venue bathrooms." Marshall said this behavior was caused by both alcohol and his own boredom.


title: Alexis S.F. Marshall

text: Marshall was in a relationship with musician Kristin Hayter, who performs as Lingua Ignota, from July 2019 to June 2021. In December 2021, Hayter accused Marshall of domestic abuse and rape throughout their relationship. Marshall denied the allegations, releasing a statement that said "Kristin is a person that I loved and cared deeply for, however, our relationship was unhealthy for both of us. I can assure anyone reading this that I absolutely did not abuse her, mentally or physically. I am investigating legal options.” Sargent House, the record label which released Marshall's solo album in July 2021, soon revealed that it had privately terminated Marshall in August 2021 when Hayter first alerted the label of Marshall's abuse allegations, but waited to publicize their decision for Hayter's privacy.


title: Dizzy Up the Girl

text: Dizzy Up the Girl is the sixth studio album by American rock band the Goo Goo Dolls, released on September 22, 1998 through Warner Bros. Records. The album is often noted for being the album which propelled the Goo Goo Dolls into success, although they already enjoyed some recognition with the downbeat track "Name" in 1995. "Dizzy" features more upbeat compositions than they had previously recorded. It is also the band's first album to feature drummer Mike Malinin.


title: Dizzy Up the Girl

text: "Dizzy Up the Girl" is the Goo Goo Dolls' most successful album to date, selling over 4 million copies (4× platinum certified). The success of "Dizzy Up the Girl" can largely be attributed to the rock ballad "Iris", which was also included in the of the film "City of Angels". "Iris" immediately reached #1 on the Hot 100 Airplay chart upon its release in March from the "City of Angels" soundtrack, and stayed on top for 18 weeks, setting a record that still stands as of June 2017. The song also reached #1 on the Billboard Modern Rock chart, the Adult Top 40 and Mainstream Top 40 chart, along with several other charts in the U.S and U.K, and included 3 Grammy nominations. The album sold very well, with "Iris" and "Slide" being the 2 most successful singles, while the other 3 singles achieved modest success.


title: Dizzy Up the Girl

text: In addition to the huge success of "Iris" (US #9), "Dizzy Up the Girl" featured three additional top forty singles, with the songs "Slide" (US #8), "Broadway" (US #24), and "Black Balloon" (US #16). The album also produced the moderately popular song "Dizzy" (US #108), which has since become a fan favorite. Along with top forty single status, music videos for all five singles reached VH1's Top 20 Music Videos chart upon release.


title: Dizzy Up the Girl

text: Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic stated: "Like a less mannered and conflicted "Let Your Dim Light Shine"-era Soul Asylum, the trio balances hard rockers with ballads. The difference is, they enjoy the mainstreaming of their music and respond with one of their catchiest sets of songs. There's nothing new on the record apart from their willingness to polish their music so it reaches the widest audience. That will alienate whatever hardcore followers they have left, but that attitude will likely please anyone brought aboard with 'Name' and 'Iris'."


title: Environmental impact of pesticides

text: The environmental effects of pesticides describe the broad series of consequences of using pesticides. The unintended consequences of pesticides is one of the main drivers of the negative impact of modern industrial agriculture on the environment. Pesticides, because they are toxic chemicals meant to kill pest species, can affect non-target species, such as plants, animals and humans. Over 98% of sprayed insecticides and 95% of herbicides reach a destination other than their target species, because they are sprayed or spread across entire agricultural fields. Other agrochemicals, such as fertilizers, can also have negative effects on the environment.


title: Environmental impact of pesticides

text: The negative effects of pesticides are not just in the area of application. Runoff and pesticide drift can carry pesticides into distant aquatic environments or other fields, grazing areas, human settlements and undeveloped areas. Other problems emerge from poor production, transport, storage and disposal practices. Over time, repeat application of pesticides increases pest resistance, while its effects on other species can facilitate the pest's resurgence. Alternatives to heavy use of pesticides, such as integrated pest management, and sustainable agriculture techniques such as polyculture mitigate these consequences, without the harmful toxic chemical application.


title: Environmental impact of pesticides

text: Environmental modelling indicates that globally over 60% of global agricultural land (~24.5 million km²) is "at risk of pesticide pollution by more than one active ingredient", and that over 30% is at "high risk" of which a third are in high-biodiversity regions. Each pesticide or pesticide class comes with a specific set of environmental concerns. Such undesirable effects have led many pesticides to be banned, while regulations have limited and/or reduced the use of others. The global spread of pesticide use, including the use of older/obsolete pesticides that have been banned in some jurisdictions, has increased overall.


title: Environmental impact of pesticides

text: After the end of World War I, the United States shifted its industries from the wartime production of chemicals to synthetic agriculturally used pesticide creation, using pyrethrum, rotenone, nicotine, sabadilla, and quassin as precursors to the expansive usage of pesticides in place today. Synthetic pesticides proved cheap and effective in killing insects, but garnered criticism from NGOs concerned about their effect on human health. In the years directly following World War II rose the creation and use of Aldrin (now banned in most countries), "dichlorodiphenyl trichloroethane (DDT) in 1939, Dieldrin, β-Benzene Hexachloride (BHC), 2,4- Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D), Chlordane and Endrin".


title: Environmental impact of pesticides

text: While concern for ecotoxicology began with acute poisoning events in the late 19th century; public concern over the undesirable environmental effects of chemicals arose in the early 1960s with the publication of Rachel Carson′s book, "Silent Spring". Shortly thereafter, DDT, originally used to combat malaria, and its metabolites were shown to cause population-level effects in raptorial birds. Initial studies in industrialized countries focused on acute mortality effects mostly involving birds or fish.


title: Environmental impact of pesticides

text: However, true data on pesticide usage remain scattered and/or not publicly available, especially worldwide (3). Some scholars argue the common practice of incident registration is inadequate for understanding the entirety of effects.


title: Environmental impact of pesticides

text: Today, over 3.5 billion kilograms of synthetic pesticides are used for the world's agriculture in an over $45 billion industry. Current lead agrichemical producers include Syngenta (ChemChina), Bayer Crop Science, BASF, Dow AgroSciences, FMC, ADAMA, Nufarm, Corteva, Sumitomo Chemical, UPL, and Huapont Life Sciences. Bayer CropScience and its acquisition of Monsanto led it to record profits in 2019 of over $10 billion in sales, which herbicide shares growing by 22%, followed closely by Syngenta.


title: Environmental impact of pesticides

text: In 2016, the United States consumed 322 million pounds [CONVERT] of pesticides banned in the EU, 26 million pounds [CONVERT] of pesticides banned in Brazil and 40 million pounds of pesticides banned in China, with most of banned pesticides banned staying constant or increasing in the United States over the past 25 years according to studies.


title: Environmental impact of pesticides

text: Since 1990, research interest has shifted from documenting incidents and quantifying chemical exposure to studies aimed at linking laboratory, mesocosm and field experiments. The proportion of effect-related publications has increased. Animal studies mostly focus on fish, insects, birds, amphibians and arachnids.


title: Environmental impact of pesticides

text: Since 1993, the United States and the European Union have updated pesticide risk assessments, ending the use of acutely toxic organophosphate and carbamate insecticides. Newer pesticides aim at efficiency in target and minimum side effects in nontarget organisms. The phylogenetic proximity of beneficial and pest species complicates the project.


title: Environmental impact of pesticides

text: One of the major challenges is to link the results from cellular studies through many levels of increasing complexity to ecosystems.


title: Environmental impact of pesticides

text: The concept (borrowed from nuclear physics) of a half-life has been used for pesticides in plants, and certain authors maintain that pesticide risk and impact assessment models rely on and are sensitive to information describing dissipation from plants. Half-life for pesticides is explained in two NPIC fact sheets. Known degradation pathways are through: photolysis, chemical dissociation, sorption, bioaccumulation and plant or animal metabolism. A USDA fact sheet published in 1994 lists the soil adsorption coefficient and soil half-life for then-commonly used pesticides.


title: Environmental impact of pesticides

text: Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are compounds that resist degradation and thus remain in the environment for years. Some pesticides, including aldrin, chlordane, DDT, dieldrin, endrin, heptachlor, hexachlorobenzene, mirex and toxaphene, are considered POPs. Some POPs have the ability to volatilize and travel great distances through the atmosphere to become deposited in remote regions. Such chemicals may have the ability to bioaccumulate and biomagnify and can biomagnify (i.e. become more concentrated) up to 70,000 times their original concentrations. POPs can affect non-target organisms in the environment and increase risk to humans by disruption in the endocrine, reproductive, and respiratory systems.


title: Environmental impact of pesticides

text: Pesticides can contribute to air pollution. Pesticide drift occurs when pesticides suspended in the air as particles are carried by wind to other areas, potentially contaminating them. Pesticides that are applied to crops can volatilize and may be blown by winds into nearby areas, potentially posing a threat to wildlife. Weather conditions at the time of application as well as temperature and relative humidity change the spread of the pesticide in the air. As wind velocity increases so does the spray drift and exposure. Low relative humidity and high temperature result in more spray evaporating. The amount of inhalable pesticides in the outdoor environment is therefore often dependent on the season. Also, droplets of sprayed pesticides or particles from pesticides applied as dusts may travel on the wind to other areas, or pesticides may adhere to particles that blow in the wind, such as dust particles. Ground spraying produces less pesticide drift than aerial spraying does. Farmers can employ a buffer zone around their crop, consisting of empty land or non-crop plants such as Evergreen trees to serve as windbreaks and absorb the pesticides, preventing drift into other areas. Such windbreaks are legally required in the Netherlands.


title: Environmental impact of pesticides

text: Pesticides that are sprayed on to fields and used to fumigate soil can give off chemicals called volatile organic compounds, which can react with other chemicals and form a pollutant called ground level ozone. Pesticide use accounts for about 6 percent of total ground level ozone levels.


title: Environmental impact of pesticides

text: In the United States, pesticides were found to pollute every stream and over 90% of wells sampled in a study by the US Geological Survey. Pesticide residues have also been found in rain and groundwater. Studies by the UK government showed that pesticide concentrations exceeded those allowable for drinking water in some samples of river water and groundwater.


title: Environmental impact of pesticides

text: Pesticide impacts on aquatic systems are often studied using a hydrology transport model to study movement and fate of chemicals in rivers and streams. As early as the 1970s quantitative analysis of pesticide runoff was conducted to predict amounts of pesticide that would reach surface waters.


title: Environmental impact of pesticides

text: There are four major routes through which pesticides reach the water: it may drift outside of the intended area when it is sprayed, it may percolate, or leach through the soil, it may be carried to the water as runoff, or it may be spilled, for example accidentally or through neglect. They may also be carried to water by eroding soil. Factors that affect a pesticide's ability to contaminate water include its water solubility, the distance from an application site to a body of water, weather, soil type, presence of a growing crop, and the method used to apply the chemical.


title: Environmental impact of pesticides

text: In United States regulation , maximum limits of allowable conce ntrations for individual pesticides in drinking water are set by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) for public water systems. (There are no federal standards for private wells.) Ambient water quality standards for pesticide concentrations in water bodies are principally developed by state environmental agencies, with EPA oversight. These standards may be issued for individual water bodies, or may apply statewide.


title: Environmental impact of pesticides

text: The United Kingdom sets Environmental Quality Standards (EQS), or maximum allowable concentrations of some pesticides in bodies of water above which toxicity may occur.


title: Environmental impact of pesticides

text: The extensive use of pesticides in agricultural production can degrade and damage the community of microorganisms living in the soil, particularly when these chemicals are overused or misused as chemical compounds build up in the soil. The full impact of pesticides on soil microorganisms is still not entirely understood; many studies have found deleterious effects of pesticides on soil microorganisms and biochemical processes, while others have found that the residue of some pesticides can be degraded and assimilated by microorganisms. The effect of pesticides on soil microorganisms is impacted by the persistence, concentration, and toxicity of the applied pesticide, in addition to various environmental factors. This complex interaction of factors makes it difficult to draw definitive conclusions about the interaction of pesticides with the soil ecosystem. In general, long-term pesticide application can disturb the biochemical processes of nutrient cycling.


title: Environmental impact of pesticides

text: Many of the chemicals used in pesticides are persistent soil contaminants, whose impact may endure for decades and adversely affect soil conservation.


title: Environmental impact of pesticides

text: The use of pesticides decreases the general biodiversity in the soil. Not using the chemicals results in higher soil quality, with the additional effect that more organic matter in the soil allows for higher water retention. This helps increase yields for farms in drought years, when organic farms have had yields 20-40% higher than their conventional counterparts. A smaller content of organic matter in the soil increases the amount of pesticide that will leave the area of application, because organic matter binds to and helps break down pesticides.


title: Environmental impact of pesticides

text: Degradation and sorption are both factors which influence the persistence of pesticides in soil. Depending on the chemical nature of the pesticide, such processes control directly the transportation from soil to water, and in turn to air and our food. Breaking down organic substances, degradation, involves interactions among microorganisms in the soil. Sorption affects bioaccumulation of pesticides which are dependent on organic matter in the soil. Weak organic acids have been shown to be weakly sorbed by soil, because of pH and mostly acidic structure. Sorbed chemicals have been shown to be less accessible to microorganisms. Aging mechanisms are poorly understood but as residence times in soil increase, pesticide residues become more resistant to degradation and extraction as they lose biological activity.


title: Environmental impact of pesticides

text: Nitrogen fixation, which is required for the growth of higher plants, is hindered by pesticides in soil. The insecticides DDT, methyl parathion, and especially pentachlorophenol have been shown to interfere with legume-rhizobium chemical signaling. Reduction of this symbiotic chemical signaling results in reduced nitrogen fixation and thus reduced crop yields. Root nodule formation in these plants saves the world economy $10 billion in synthetic nitrogen fertilizer every year.


title: Environmental impact of pesticides

text: On the other side, pesticides have some direct harmful effect on plant including poor root hair development, shoot yellowing and reduced plant growth.


title: Environmental impact of pesticides

text: Pesticides can kill bees and are strongly implicated in pollinator decline, the loss of species that pollinate plants, including through the mechanism of Colony Collapse Disorder, in which worker bees from a beehive or western honey bee colony abruptly disappear. Application of pesticides to crops that are in bloom can kill honeybees, which act as pollinators. The USDA and USFWS estimate that US farmers lose at least $200 million a year from reduced crop pollination because pesticides applied to fields eliminate about a fifth of honeybee colonies in the US and harm an additional 15%.


title: Environmental impact of pesticides

text: Many kinds of animals are harmed by pesticides, leading many countries to regulate pesticide usage through Biodiversity Action Plans.


title: Environmental impact of pesticides

text: Animals including humans may be poisoned by pesticide residues that remain on food, for example when wild animals enter sprayed fields or nearby areas shortly after spraying.


title: Environmental impact of pesticides

text: Pesticides can eliminate some animals' essential food sources, causing the animals to relocate, change their diet or starve. Residues can travel up the food chain; for example, birds can be harmed when they eat insects and worms that have consumed pesticides. Earthworms digest organic matter and increase nutrient content in the top layer of soil. They protect human health by ingesting decomposing litter and serving as bioindicators of soil activity. Pesticides have had harmful effects on growth and reproduction on earthworms. Some pesticides can bioaccumulate, or build up to toxic levels in the bodies of organisms that consume them over time, a phenomenon that impacts species high on the food chain especially hard.


title: Environmental impact of pesticides

text: The US Fish and Wildlife Service estimates that 72 million birds are killed by pesticides in the United States each year. Bald eagles are common examples of nontarget organisms that are impacted by pesticide use. Rachel Carson's book "Silent Spring" uncovered the effects of bioaccumulation of the pesticide DDT in 1962.


title: Environmental impact of pesticides

text: Farmland birds are declining more rapidly than birds of any other biome in North America, a decline that is correlated with intensification and expansion of pesticide usage. In the farmland of the United Kingdom, populations of ten different bird species declined by 10 million breeding individuals between 1979 and 1999, allegedly from loss of plant and invertebrate species on which the birds feed. Throughout Europe, 116 species of birds were threatened as of 1999. Reductions in bird populations have been found to be associated with times and areas in which pesticides are used. DDE-induced egg shell thinning has especially affected European and North American bird populations. From 1990 to 2014 the number of common farmland birds has declined in the European Union as a whole and in France, Belgium and Sweden; in Germany, which relies more on organic farming and less on pesticides the decline has been slower; in Switzerland, which does not rely much on intensive agriculture, after a decline in the early 2000s the level has returned to the one of 1990.


title: Environmental impact of pesticides

text: In another example, some types of fungicides used in peanut farming are only slightly toxic to birds and mammals, but may kill earthworms, which can in turn reduce populations of the birds and mammals that feed on them.


title: Environmental impact of pesticides

text: Some pesticides come in granular form. Wildlife may eat the granules, mistaking them for grains of food. A few granules of a pesticide may be enough to kill a small bird. Herbicides may endanger bird populations by reducing their habitat. Furthermore, destruction of native habitat and conversion into other land-use types (e.g. agricultural, residential) contributes to the decline of these birds.


title: Environmental impact of pesticides

text: Fish and other aquatic biota may be harmed by pesticide-contaminated water. Pesticide surface runoff into rivers and streams can be highly lethal to aquatic life, sometimes killing all the fish in a particular stream.


title: Environmental impact of pesticides

text: Application of herbicides to bodies of water can cause fish kills when the dead plants decay and consume the water's oxygen, suffocating the fish. Herbicides such as copper sulfate that are applied to water to kill plants are toxic to fish and other water animals at concentrations similar to those used to kill the plants. Repeated exposure to sublethal doses of some pesticides can cause physiological and behavioral changes that reduce fish populations, such as abandonment of nests and broods, decreased immunity to disease and decreased predator avoidance.


title: Environmental impact of pesticides

text: Pesticides can accumulate in bodies of water to levels that kill off zooplankton, the main source of food for young fish. Pesticides can also kill off insects on which some fish feed, causing the fish to travel farther in search of food and exposing them to greater risk from predators.


title: Environmental impact of pesticides

text: The faster a given pesticide breaks down in the environment, the less threat it poses to aquatic life. Insecticides are typically more toxic to aquatic life than herbicides and fungicides.


title: Environmental impact of pesticides

text: In the past several decades, amphibian populations have declined across the world, for unexplained reasons which are thought to be varied but of which pesticides may be a part.


title: Environmental impact of pesticides

text: Pesticide mixtures appear to have a cumulative toxic effect on frogs. Tadpoles from ponds containing multiple pesticides take longer to metamorphose and are smaller when they do, decreasing their ability to catch prey and avoid predators. Exposing tadpoles to the organochloride endosulfan at levels likely to be found in habitats near fields sprayed with the chemical kills the tadpoles and causes behavioral and growth abnormalities.


title: Environmental impact of pesticides

text: The herbicide atrazine can turn male frogs into hermaphrodites, decreasing their ability to reproduce. Both reproductive and nonreproductive effects in aquatic reptiles and amphibians have been reported. Crocodiles, many turtle species and some lizards lack sex-distinct chromosomes until after fertilization during organogenesis, depending on temperature. Embryonic exposure in turtles to various PCBs causes a sex reversal. Across the United States and Canada disorders such as decreased hatching success, feminization, skin lesions, and other developmental abnormalities have been reported.


title: Environmental impact of pesticides

text: Pesticides can enter the body through inhalation of aerosols, dust and vapor that contain pesticides; through oral exposure by consuming food/water; and through skin exposure by direct contact. Pesticides secrete into soils and groundwater which can end up in drinking water, and pesticide spray can drift and pollute the air.


title: Environmental impact of pesticides

text: The effects of pesticides on human health depend on the toxicity of the chemical and the length and magnitude of exposure. Farm workers and their families experience the greatest exposure to agricultural pesticides through direct contact. Every human contains pesticides in their fat cells.


title: Environmental impact of pesticides

text: Children are more susceptible and sensitive to pesticides, because they are still developing and have a weaker immune system than adults. Children may be more exposed due to their closer proximity to the ground and tendency to put unfamiliar objects in their mouth. Hand to mouth contact depends on the child's age, much like lead exposure. Children under the age of six months are more apt to experience exposure from breast milk and inhalation of small particles. Pesticides tracked into the home from family members increase the risk of exposure. Toxic residue in food may contribute to a child's exposure. Epidemiological studies have reported adverse effects of certain pesticides at current levels of exposure on children's cognitive development. The chemicals can bioaccumulate in the body over time.


title: Environmental impact of pesticides

text: Exposure effects can range from mild skin irritation to birth defects, tumors, genetic changes, blood and nerve disorders, endocrine disruption, coma or death. Developmental effects have been associated with pesticides. Recent increases in childhood cancers in throughout North America, such as leukemia, may be a result of somatic cell mutations. Insecticides targeted to disrupt insects can have harmful effects on mammalian nervous systems. Both chronic and acute alterations have been observed in exposes. DDT and its breakdown product DDE disturb estrogenic activity and possibly lead to breast cancer. Fetal DDT exposure reduces male penis size in animals and can produce undescended testicles. Pesticide can affect fetuses in early stages of development, in utero and even if a parent was exposed before conception. Reproductive disruption has the potential to occur by chemical reactivity and through structural changes.


title: Environmental impact of pesticides

text: Non-target organisms can also be impacted by pesticides. In some cases, a pest insect that is controlled by a beneficial predator or parasite can flourish should an insecticide application kill both pest and beneficial populations. A study comparing biological pest control and pyrethroid insecticide for diamondback moths, a major cabbage family insect pest, showed that the pest population rebounded due to loss of insect predators, whereas the biocontrol did not show the same effect. Likewise, pesticides sprayed to control mosquitoes may temporarily depress mosquito populations, they may result in a larger population in the long run by damaging natural controls. This phenomenon, wherein the population of a pest species rebounds to equal or greater numbers than it had before pesticide use, is called pest resurgence and can be linked to elimination of its predators and other natural enemies.


title: Environmental impact of pesticides

text: Loss of predator species can also lead to a related phenomenon called secondary pest outbreaks, an increase in problems from species that were not originally a problem due to loss of their predators or parasites. An estimated third of the 300 most damaging insects in the US were originally secondary pests and only became a major problem after the use of pesticides. In both pest resurgence and secondary outbreaks, their natural enemies were more susceptible to the pesticides than the pests themselves, in some cases causing the pest population to be higher than it was before the use of pesticide.


title: Environmental impact of pesticides

text: Many alternatives are available to reduce the effects pesticides have on the environment. Alternatives to pesticides include manual removal, applying heat, covering weeds with plastic, placing traps and lures, removing pest breeding sites, maintaining healthy soils that breed healthy, more resistant plants, cropping native species that are naturally more resistant to native pests and supporting biocontrol agents such as birds and other pest predators. In the United States, conventional pesticide use peaked in 1979, and by 2007, had been reduced by 25 percent from the 1979 peak level, while US agricultural output increased by 43 percent over the same period.


title: Environmental impact of pesticides

text: Biological controls such as resistant plant varieties and the use of pheromones, have been successful and at times permanently resolve a pest problem. Integrated Pest Management (IPM) employs chemical use only when other alternatives are ineffective. IPM causes less harm to humans and the environment. The focus is broader than on a specific pest, considering a range of pest control alternatives. Biotechnology can also be an innovative way to control pests. Strains can be genetically modified (GM) to increase their resistance to pests.


title: Environmental impact of pesticides

text: Biopesticides such as canola oil and baking soda that contain curtain active ingredients from natural substances are an environmentally friendly alternative for toxic pesticides. There are three categories of biopesticides; microbial pesticides, plant-incorporated protectants (PIPs), and biochemical biopesticides. The alternatives to pesticides include a range of genetic material introduction to plants that target a particular pest, and active ingredients that control the mating and reproduction of certain pests or kill target pests. Biopesticides are affective in small quantities and degrade quickly making them an eco-friendly alternative to pesticides. They are often used in Integrated Pest Management (IPM) as well and has been an important component to the UK IPM strategy for its crop protection.


title: Environmental impact of pesticides

text: In the United States, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) suggests proper use of pesticides and disposal that follows federal or individual state guidance for farmers or commercial users. Commercial users of pesticides are told to follow the disposal instructions on the labels of the pesticides while using necessary safety measures for the disposal of hazardous waste. They are also advised to call for assistance by their local agencies in the disposal of unwanted or unused pesticides.