title: Guano Apes

text: In November 2003, Guano Apes released the album "Live", which was recorded during a concert in Cologne earlier that same year. The limited edition contained a DVD with video footage of the entire concert.


title: Guano Apes

text: In November 2004, the best of album "Planet of the Apes" was released, which included the new single "Break the Line". A was released in February 2005, containing a documentary, concert footage, and several music videos, among other things.


title: Guano Apes

text: Due to escalating personal differences among members, Guano Apes planned a farewell tour in February 2005 and subsequently disbanded. Dennis Poschwatta gave more details on the reason for their breakup in an interview:


title: Guano Apes

text: Poschwatta subsequently focused on his band Tamoto, in which he played guitar (and drums while in the studio) and shared vocal duties with Markus Gumball, a.k.a. G-Ball. Tamoto released the album "Clemenza" in August 2005, which was supported by the singles "Beware" and "On My Mind". Stefan Ude and Henning Rümenapp were among the musicians who participated in the recording of the album. In 2007, Tamoto released the mini album "Crudezza".


title: Guano Apes

text: In 2006, Rümenapp, Ude, and Poschwatta formed a new band named IO, together with American singer Charles Simmons. IO went on the road several times and released their debut album, "For the Masses", on 1 August 2008. The project was put on hold after Guano Apes reunited in 2009.


title: Guano Apes

text: In December 2006, GUN Records released the compilation album "Lost (T)apes", which contains a selection of previously unreleased demo tracks recorded in 1994 and 1995. "Lost (T)apes" was also released as part of the 2CD package "The Best and the Lost (T)apes".


title: Guano Apes

text: In 2009, Guano Apes reunited and played a string of concerts in Europe, starting in Sofia, Bulgaria, and also including Braga, Portugal, Nickelsdorf, Austria, Przystanek Woodstock, Poland, and Rock im Park, Germany, and Bucharest, Romania. In Bucharest, the band announced they were working on a new album.


title: Guano Apes

text: In April 2011, the group released their fourth studio album, "Bel Air", on Columbia Europe. The album entered the German album charts at number one. They released four singles from this record: "Oh, What a Night", "Sunday Lover", "This Time", and "When the Ships Arrive".


title: Guano Apes

text: Sony Music released the DVD "Live @ Rockpalast" in 2012. It contains footage of two concerts from 1997 and 2011, both recorded for the long-running German TV show "Rockpalast".


title: Guano Apes

text: On 28 February 2014, Guano Apes released their first single in two years, titled "Close to the Sun", as well as a teaser trailer for their fifth album, titled "Offline", and confirmed that the record would be released on 2 May 2014. A music video for "Close to the Sun" was released on 2 April. Later that month, it was announced that the release of "Offline" had been pushed back to 30 May.


title: Guano Apes

text: To celebrate the 20th anniversary of "Proud Like a God", Guano Apes released "Proud Like a God XX" on 6 October 2017. The album contains newly mixed versions of ten songs that appeared on the original album, plus the previously unreleased track "Score". The deluxe edition comes with a bonus CD containing reworked "2017 versions" of six songs from "Proud Like a God" (with a guest appearance by Danko Jones on the 2017 version of "Open Your Eyes"), as well as three cover songs, including the first single, "Lose Yourself" (originally performed by Eminem). Music videos for "Lose Yourself" and the 2017 version of "Suzie" were released on 6 October and 10 November 2017, respectively.


title: Beenox

text: Beenox Inc. is a Canadian video game developer established in 2000 in Quebec City, Quebec, Canada. The studio became a wholly owned subsidiary of Activision on May 25, 2005.


title: Beenox

text: Between 2003 and 2006, the developer was essentially a porting house. They completed approximately 30 projects for Microsoft Windows and Macintosh operating systems, based on popular franchises such as X-Men, Spider-Man and Shrek.


title: Beenox

text: In 2006, they returned to original game development with the console versions of "Bee Movie Game", inspired by the feature film from DreamWorks Animation. As part of Activision's E3 2007 media blitz, it was announced that Beenox was the developer behind the Windows version of Activision's Spider-Man game "", which was released in October 2007. They released the Xbox 360, PlayStation 2, PlayStation 3, Wii and Windows versions of "Monsters vs. Aliens" and the console versions of "Guitar Hero Smash Hits". Beenox later developed the Spider-Man games "", "", "The Amazing Spider-Man" and "The Amazing Spider-Man 2".


title: Beenox

text: After founder Dominique Brown's departure in December 2012, the studio's focus shifted from leading original game development to doing a number of support tasks on Activision's superbrands "Skylanders" and "Call of Duty". In 2015, Beenox worked in conjunction with Mercenary Technology on bringing "" to PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360.


title: Beenox

text: In March 2022, Beenox announced that it would open a second office in Montréal, Quebec, increasing its staff count by 20%. Polloni will lead the new studio.


title: Exeter Chiefs

text: Exeter Chiefs (officially Exeter Rugby Club) is an English professional rugby union club based in Exeter, Devon. They play in Premiership Rugby, England's top division of rugby.


title: Exeter Chiefs

text: The club was founded in 1871 and since 2006 has played its home matches at Sandy Park, a purpose-built facility on the outskirts of the city. They have been known by the name Chiefs since 1999. The club was promoted to the Premiership for the first time in 2010. Since promotion, the Chiefs have become one of the leading clubs in the Premiership, winning the championship title twice, in 2016–17 and 2019–20 respectively, and reaching a further four finals. In October 2020, the Chiefs won the Champions Cup, the top prize in European club rugby union, for the first time, defeating French club Racing 92 in the final of a tournament that was disrupted by the COVID-19 pandemic.


title: Exeter Chiefs

text: Exeter are the only club to win the top four tiers of English rugby, winning the Premiership in 2017 and 2020, RFU Championship in 2010, National League 1 in 1997 and National League 2 South in 1996. They have won the Anglo-Welsh Cup twice, most recently in 2018, and the European Rugby Champions Cup once, in 2020.


title: Exeter Chiefs

text: Exeter Rugby Club was founded in 1871. The club played its first match in 1873 against St. Luke's College. In 1890, they won the Devon Cup. In 1905, Exeter Rugby Club hosted the first match played by the New Zealand national rugby union team on English soil and in the Northern Hemisphere at the County Ground between New Zealand and the Devon County XV. It was from that game that New Zealand became known as the "All Blacks".


title: Exeter Chiefs

text: In 1993 and 1995, Exeter reached the quarter finals of the Pilkington Cup before being knocked out by top division opponents Leicester Tigers and London Wasps respectively.


title: Exeter Chiefs

text: In 1997, Exeter were promoted into the Premiership Two for the first time from National League 1. They regularly finished in the top half of the table. In 2005, Exeter finished second in the league, missing out on promotion by four points behind Bristol Rugby. The next season, they moved from the County Ground to Sandy Park due to a need for modern facilities that included corporate hospitality. In 2008 they again finished in second place and again missed out on promotion by finishing behind Northampton Saints. The same situation happened the next season when Exeter finished behind Leeds Carnegie.


title: Exeter Chiefs

text: In 2009, National Division One was reorganised into the RFU Championship with playoffs. During the regular league season, Exeter finished second behind Bristol. In the playoffs, they defeated Bedford Blues and Nottingham R.F.C. before facing Bristol in the two legged final. Exeter won 9–6 in the first leg at Sandy Park and then won 29–10 at Bristol's Memorial Stadium in the second leg to win promotion to the Premiership for the first time.


title: Exeter Chiefs

text: In their first season in the Premiership, they finished eighth despite a two-point deduction and a £5,000 fine for fielding too many overseas players during their match against Leeds Carnegie at Headingley Stadium. They also made their debut in the European Challenge Cup, making their way to the quarter finals where they lost to Stade Français. In the next season, they finished fifth in the Premiership which permitted them to play in the Heineken Cup for the first time. In their first season in the Heineken Cup, they were drawn against French Clermont Auvergne, Irish Leinster Rugby and Welsh Scarlets in the group stage. They finished the group third with nine points ahead of Scarlets. In 2014, Exeter Chiefs won their first major rugby trophy after they defeated Northampton Saints in the Anglo-Welsh Cup 15–8 at Sandy Park.


title: Exeter Chiefs

text: In the 2015–16 season the Chiefs finished in second place in Premiership Rugby entitling them to a home semi final in the Aviva Premiership which was played against Wasps. They won the match 34-23 thanks to two penalty tries, a try from Ian Whitten and a try from Dave Ewers as well as two penalties and four conversions from Gareth Steenson. This meant the Chiefs qualified to their first Aviva Premiership final on 28 May. They lost 28–20 to champions Saracens despite tries from England international Jack Nowell and club captain Jack Yeandle as well as 2 penalties and 2 conversions from Gareth Steenson.


title: Exeter Chiefs

text: The Chiefs also reached the quarter-final of the European Champions Cup in 2015–16. They were drawn away to Wasps in a tight game which they eventually lost 25–24 in the Ricoh Arena after Wasps' Jimmy Gopperth kicked a last-minute conversion.


title: Exeter Chiefs

text: In 2016–17, the Chiefs won the Premiership for the first time in their history by beating Wasps in the final 23–20. The game finished 20–20 at full time with captain Gareth Steenson slotting a late penalty to take it to extra time. In extra time, Steenson added another penalty to secure the victory.


title: Exeter Chiefs

text: The Chiefs finished the 2017–18 season eight points clear at the top of the Premiership Rugby table, but ultimately lost to 27–10 to Saracens in the final on 26 May 2018.


title: Exeter Chiefs

text: The Chiefs saw their most success to date during the 2019–20 season, winning an historic double of the European Rugby Champions Cup, in their first appearance in the final, and the Premiership.


title: Exeter Chiefs

text: In light of several controversies regarding their crest, the club unveiled a new logo ahead of the 2022–23 season. The face of the Ancient British chief was modelled on winger Jack Nowell.


title: Exeter Chiefs

text: Exeter play their home games at Sandy Park, which is located on the outskirts of the city. The club moved from their previous home, the County Ground, in 2006 having played there regularly since 1905. In 2002, Exeter Chiefs started looking for a new stadium because they felt the County Ground provided insufficient opportunities for growth. Despite concerns and opposition from traditionalists within the club, the motion to move was passed by 99% of the attendees at Exeter's annual general meeting. Sandy Park can accommodate 12,800 spectators, however, there are plans to increase this capacity to 20,600 with phase one having begun in early 2014. These plans came about because of a requirement for later stages of European matches to be played at grounds with a capacity of at least 20,000. Following recent East stand changes during 21/22, capacity now at 15,600


title: Exeter Chiefs

text: The kit is supplied by Samurai Rugby Gear. On the front of the shirt, SW Comms appear on the centre and the top left and Watson is on the top right. M.J Baker Foods is on the right sleeve. On the back of the shirt, Centrax is on the top while Sandy Park is on top of the squad number and Bradfords Building Supplies at the bottom. On the shorts, SW Comms (which also appear on the centre and the top left on the front of the shirt) is on the bottom left of the front shorts while on the back shorts, Frobishers Juices is at the top while Otter Brewery is on the bottom left.


title: Exeter Chiefs

text: In 1999, Exeter Rugby Club turned semi-professional and changed their name to Exeter Chiefs, after previously being referred to as the Chiefs in the 1930s. In 2016, the club's fans were called upon to change their behaviour over concerns that it could be considered an offensive appropriation of Native American culture. News outlets such as the BBC reported that the club had been urged to change its name and to stop playing "Indian."


title: Exeter Chiefs

text: In July 2020, a group set up by Exeter Chiefs supporters called for the club's "racist use of Native American imagery and branding" to be dropped, comparing the use of the headdresses and chanting the tomahawk chop to blackface. A petition gained more than 550 signatures in a week, with Exeter's Labour MP, Ben Bradshaw, also publicly backing the move. By Wednesday 8 July the petition had grown to 2,000 signatures and the debate about whether a re-brand was needed gained widespread attention. By 29 July the petition had gained 3,700 signatures and the issue was considered by the Exeter Board of Directors, they decided their branding was "highly respectful" but nonetheless retired their mascot "Big Chief" which "could be regarded as disrespectful". This decision was called "tone deaf" by the petitioners and considered controversial in the wider press.


title: Exeter Chiefs

text: In October 2021, fellow Premiership club Wasps called on the RFU and Premiership Rugby to rule on the acceptability of Exeter fans wearing "Native American-style headdresses" and discouraged the visiting Exeter fans from wearing them, though they stopped short of a ban. In November 2021 the National Congress of American Indians published an open letter calling for Exeter to drop their logo, the use of headdresses and venue names such as the 'Wigwam Bar', and that the continued use of such things perpetuated "dehumanising stereotypes". In response to this, the club stated that this issue would be addressed in the November AGM, and a decision made by the board of directors in the following weeks. As of 7 December 2021, the Board had still not come to a decision.


title: Exeter Chiefs

text: On 27 January 2022 it was announced that the club would be dropping the Native American branding in July 2022. The club will now use imagery depicting the Iron Age tribe, the Dumnonii.


title: Exeter Chiefs

text: The following are players which have represented their countries at the Rugby World Cup, whilst playing for Exeter:


title: Mickie Most

text: Michael Peter Hayes (20 June 1938 – 30 May 2003), known as Mickie Most, was an English record producer behind scores of hit singles for acts such as the Animals, Herman's Hermits, the Nashville Teens, Donovan, Lulu, Suzi Quatro, Hot Chocolate, Arrows, Racey, and the Jeff Beck Group, often issued on his own RAK Records label.


title: Mickie Most

text: Most was born as Michael Peter Hayes in Aldershot, Hampshire, England. The son of a regimental sergeant-major, he moved with his parents to Harrow, Middlesex in 1951. He was influenced by skiffle and early rock and roll in his youth. Leaving school at 15, he worked as a singing waiter at London's The 2i's Coffee Bar where he made friends with future business partner Peter Grant, and formed a singing duo with Alex Wharton (aka Alex Murray) who billed themselves as the Most Brothers. They recorded the single "Takes A Whole Lotta Loving to Keep My Baby Happy" with Decca Records before disbanding. Wharton later went on to produce the Moody Blues single "Go Now".


title: Mickie Most

text: After changing his name to Mickie Most in 1959, he travelled to South Africa with his wife Christina, and formed a pop group, Mickie Most and the Playboys. The band had eleven consecutive No. 1 singles there, mostly with cover versions of Ray Peterson, Gene Vincent, Buddy Holly and Eddie Cochran songs. Returning to London in 1962, Most appeared on package tours as well as recording "Mister Porter", a No. 45 hit in the UK Singles Chart in July 1963 and had moderate success with "The Feminine Look" in 1963, this single featuring Jimmy Page on lead guitar and heralding early British heavy rock.


title: Mickie Most

text: Becoming tired of touring clubs, Most decided to concentrate on other aspects of the music industry. His first job was selling records in stores and displaying them on racks (later inspiration for his record label, RAK) before finding a niche with production for Columbia Records. After spotting The Animals at Newcastle's Club A-Go-Go, he offered to produce their first single, "Baby Let Me Take You Home", which reached No. 21 in the UK Singles Chart. Their follow-up 1964 single, "The House of the Rising Sun", became an international hit.


title: Mickie Most

text: Most had success with Herman's Hermits after being approached by their manager Harvey Lisberg at Derek Everett's suggestion. Their first Most production, "I'm into Something Good", went to No. 1 in September 1964, beginning a run of single and album sales (ten million over 12 months), the group for a time challenging The Beatles in popularity in the United States. His down-to-earth handling of the band, his business acumen and knack for selecting hit singles, established Most as one of the most successful producers in Britain and kept him in demand throughout the 1960s and 1970s.


title: Mickie Most

text: In July 1964, Most scored another top 10 hit with the Nashville Teens' remake of the John D. Loudermilk song "Tobacco Road". In September 1964, with Most at the control board, Brenda Lee recorded "Is It True" and "What'd I Say". "Is It True" was released in England and later in the US, and it became a hit and a gold record. "What'd I Say" became another hit throughout Europe but was never released in the US. Most had equal success with other artists for whom he produced chart-topping albums and singles between 1964 and 1969, notably Donovan with "Sunshine Superman", "Mellow Yellow", "Jennifer Juniper", and Lulu's hits "To Sir, with Love", "The Boat That I Row", "Boom Bang-a-Bang" (which finished equal first in the 1969 Eurovision Song Contest), "Me the Peaceful Heart", and "I'm a Tiger". Most also produced the final studio single of the 1960s by The Seekers, "Days of My Life", in 1968, and Nancy Sinatra's "The Highway Song" in 1969. Additionally in the 1960s, Most signed and produced artists such as singer-guitarist Terry Reid, and all-girl rock band The She Trinity.


title: Mickie Most

text: Most's productions were backed by London-based session musicians including Big Jim Sullivan and Jimmy Page on guitar, John Paul Jones on bass guitar and arrangements, Nicky Hopkins on piano, and Bobby Graham on drums. He produced Jeff Beck's hits "Love is Blue" and "Hi Ho Silver Lining" and the Jeff Beck Group albums "Truth" and "Beck-Ola". By 1967, after commercial and critical failure of The Yardbirds album "Little Games", he decided to steer clear of rock groups. The Yardbirds objected to his insistence that every song be cut to three minutes and that albums were an afterthought following the singles. His focused approach also led to a split with Donovan in late 1969. Most and Donovan reunited in 1973 for the album "Cosmic Wheels" on which Most was credited under his real name, Michael Peter Hayes.


title: Mickie Most

text: Despite these setbacks, Most set up his own production office at 155 Oxford Street, sharing it with his business partner Peter Grant. It was through Most's association that Grant was asked to manage The Yardbirds. In 1968, Most and Grant set up RAK Management, but Grant's involvement with The New Yardbirds, which soon evolved into Led Zeppelin, meant Most had control in late 1969. RAK Records and RAK Music Publishing were launched in 1969. RAK Music Publishing has the copyright of such classic popular songs as "You Sexy Thing" composed by Hot Chocolate singer Errol Brown and a half interest in the song "I Love Rock 'n' Roll" written by Alan Merrill and Jake Hooker of the band Arrows.


title: Mickie Most

text: With RAK Records, Most's success continued with folk singer Julie Felix's charting cover of Simon & Garfunkel's "El Condor Pasa". Felix was the first artist signed to the label. Most then produced Mary Hopkin's 1970 hit "Temma Harbour" for Apple Records, followed by her Eurovision Song Contest entry, "Knock, Knock Who's There?". In 1970, Most approached Suzi Quatro for a recording contract after seeing her on stage at a Detroit dance hall with the band Cradle (which also had Quatro's sisters Arlene, Patti, and Nancy as members), while on a production assignment in Chicago. Quatro was among a growing roster of artists signed to RAK Records which included Alexis Korner's CCS, Arrows, Smokie (with Chris Norman) (originally spelt Smokey), Hot Chocolate, Angie Miller, Chris Spedding, and Heavy Metal Kids. Hiring the songwriting production team of Nicky Chinn and Mike Chapman, RAK scored several British number 1 singles with Suzi Quatro ("Can the Can" and "Devil Gate Drive") and Mud ("Tiger Feet", "Lonely This Christmas" and "Oh Boy").


title: Mickie Most

text: For RAK in the 1970s, Most also produced hits for New World, Duncan Browne, Cozy Powell, Tam White, Kandidate, and Racey, as well as Chris Spedding's self-titled 1976 album, which was Spedding's fifth solo record. He also produced "We Vibrate", the first 45 by punk band The Vibrators. In 1980, Most discovered Kim Wilde, who was doing backing vocals for her father Marty Wilde at a Luton recording session. After hearing her, Most signed Wilde who immediately scored a hit with the single "Kids in America" which reached number 2 in the UK, and number 25 on the US "Billboard" chart. In the 1980s, the band Johnny Hates Jazz, which featured Most's son Calvin Hayes, was also signed to RAK Records.


title: Mickie Most

text: In the 1970s, Most was a panellist on the ITV talent show "New Faces" and, along with fellow record producer Tony Hatch, became known for his harsh comments on the acts performing on the show. He was a producer of "Revolver", a TV programme devoted to punk rock which was at odds with his 'studio factory' approach to pop music.


title: Mickie Most

text: RAK sold out to EMI in 1983 but was revived in 1988. Most was one of the first producers to own the rights to his own records and RAK Studios, which opened in 1976 in St John's Wood, remains active.


title: Mickie Most

text: He was the subject of "This Is Your Life" in 1981 when he was surprised by Eamonn Andrews at BBC Broadcasting House in London.


title: Mickie Most

text: In 1995, Most's fortune was estimated at £50 million and he appeared in "The Sunday Times" annual Rich List among the Top 500 in England. His house, Montebello, in Totteridge Lane, London, was claimed to be the largest private home in the UK, worth an estimated £4 million. His production work diminished after he was diagnosed with cancer in 2000.


title: Mickie Most

text: On 30 May 2003, Most died at home aged 64 from possibly peritoneal mesothelioma, a complication of asbestosis. The investigative journalist Paul Foot thought it probable that he contracted the cancer from ingesting fibres from vinyl tiles impregnated with asbestos, intended to improve soundproofing in recording studios. A blue plaque, to commemorate his life, donated by the Heritage Foundation/Musical Heritage, was unveiled at RAK Studios on 16 May 2004. The lunch and auction that followed raised £40,000 for research into mesothelioma.


title: Ghawar Field

text: Ghawar (Arabic: الغوار) is an oil field located in Al-Ahsa Governorate, Eastern Province, Saudi Arabia. Measuring (some ), it is by far the largest conventional oil field in the world, and accounts for roughly a third of the cumulative oil production of Saudi Arabia as of 2018.


title: Ghawar Field

text: Ghawar is entirely owned and operated by Saudi Aramco, the state-run Saudi oil company. In April 2019, the company first published its profit figures since its nationalization nearly 40 years ago in the context of issuing a bond to international markets. The bond prospectus revealed that Ghawar is able to pump a maximum of per day—well below the more than per day that had become conventional wisdom in the market.


title: Ghawar Field

text: Ghawar occupies an anticline above a basement fault block dating to Carboniferous time, about 320million years ago; Cretaceous tectonic activity, as the northeast margin of Africa began to impinge on southwest Asia, enhanced the structure. Reservoir rocks are Jurassic Arab-D limestones with exceptional porosity (as much as 35% of the rock in places), which is about thick and occurs beneath the surface. Source rock is the Jurassic Hanifa formation, a marine shelf deposit of mud and lime with as much as 5% organic material, it is estimated that 1% to 7% is considered good oil source rock. The seal is an evaporitic package of rocks including impermeable anhydrite.


title: Ghawar Field

text: In the early 1940s, Max Steineke, Thomas Barger and Ernie Berg noted a bend in the Wadi Al-Sahbah dry riverbed. Measurements confirmed that the area had undergone geologic uplift, an indication that an oil reservoir may be trapped underneath. Oil was indeed found, in what turned out to be the southern reaches of Ghawar.


title: Ghawar Field

text: Historically, Ghawar has been subdivided into five production areas, from north to south: 'Ain Dar and Shedgum, 'Uthmaniyah, Hawiyah and Haradh. The major oasis of Al-Ahsa and the city of Al-Hofuf are located on Ghawar's east flank, corresponding to the 'Uthmaniyah production area. Ghawar was discovered in 1948 and put on stream in 1951. Some sources claim that Ghawar peaked in 2005, though this is denied by the field operators.


title: Ghawar Field

text: Approximately 60–65% of all Saudi oil produced between 1948 and 2000, came from Ghawar. Cumulative extraction of petroleum through early 2010, has exceeded . In 2009, it was estimated that Ghawar produced about of oil a day (6.25% of global production), a figure which was later shown to be substantially overestimated.


title: Ghawar Field

text: As of 31 December 2018, total reserves of of oil equivalent including barrels of liquid reserves have been confirmed by Saudi Aramco. Average daily extraction was per day.


title: Ghawar Field

text: The operators stimulate production by waterflooding, using seawater at a rate said to be around per day. Water flooding is said to have begun in 1965. The water cut was about 32% in 2003, and ranged from about 27% to 38% from 1993 to 2003. By 2006, North Uthmaniyah's water cut was about 46%.


title: Ghawar Field

text: Taking the production figure per year and the conventional energy density of crude oil (per the definition of the ton of oil equivalent) of ) the total thermal energy equivalent produced yearly by the oil field is roughly , or 2,210,000 gigawatt-hours of thermal energy equivalent.


title: Ghawar Field

text: For comparison, North Antelope Rochelle Mine, the largest coal mine in the world, produced of coal (down from over in 2015) at or of thermal energy equivalent. McArthur River uranium mine, the largest uranium mine in the world, produced of yellowcake in fiscal 2017, equivalent to roughly of uranium metal or of thermal energy at a burnup of 200MWh/kg achievable in CANDU-type reactors, but much less in more widespread reactor designs. The largest solar farm in the world, Bhadla solar park in India, covering and boasting a nameplate capacity of 2255 MW would produce of electricity at a capacity factor of 100% (i.e. If the sun was shining at peak intensity at all times) but given a more realistic capacity factor of 25% it would only produce of electricity per year. The largest wind farm as of 2021, Gansu Wind Farm in China has a nameplate capacity approaching 8 GW with plans to ramp up to 20 GW. A 20 gigawatt power plant at 100% capacity factor could deliver of electric output per year. However, once again due to the weather-dependency and intermittency of wind power, capacity factors for onshore wind installations like Gansu are typically much lower, ranging at 15-35% depending on local factors. Per 250000 standard tons of coal will be replaced per year at full deployment, which is equivalent to . The Ghawar oil field is thus the largest single supplier of primary energy on planet earth.


title: Ghawar Field

text: In April 2010, Saad al-Tureiki, Vice-President for Operations at Aramco, stated, in a news conference reported in Saudi media, that over have been produced from the field since 1951. Tureiki further stated that the total reserves of the field had originally exceeded .


title: Ghawar Field

text: The International Energy Agency in its 2008 World Energy Outlook stated that the oil production from Ghawar reached 66 Bbo in 2007, and that the remaining reserves are 74 Bbo.


title: Ghawar Field

text: Matthew Simmons, in his 2005 book "Twilight in the Desert", suggested that production from the Ghawar field and Saudi Arabia may soon peak.


title: Ghawar Field

text: When appraised in the 1970s, the field was assessed to have of original oil in place (OOIP), with about recoverable (1975 Aramco estimate quoted by Matt Simmons). The second figure, at least, was understated since that production figure has already been exceeded.


title: Grammy Award for Best Comedy Album

text: The Grammy Award for Best Comedy Album is presented by the National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences of the United States to "honor artistic achievement in comedy." The award was awarded yearly from 1959 to 1993 and then from 2004 to present day.


title: Grammy Award for Best Comedy Album

text: In 1960 and 1961 two separate awards were presented for the best spoken and for the best musical comedy performance.


title: Grammy Award for Best Comedy Album

text: In 1994, after four consecutive years of wins by classical music comedy albums, the award was restricted to spoken word comedy albums and moved into the "spoken" field. From then through 2003, it was awarded as the Grammy Award for Best Spoken Comedy Album.


title: Grammy Award for Best Comedy Album

text: In 2004 the award was reinstated within the comedy field as the Grammy Award for Best Comedy Album, once again allowing musical comedy works to be considered.


title: Grammy Award for Best Comedy Album

text: Bill Cosby holds the record for most consecutive wins, with six earned between 1965 and 1970. Peter Schickele (of P.D.Q. Bach fame) is the runner-up, with four wins between 1990 and 1993.


title: The Chi-Lites

text: The Chi-Lites (, ) are an American R&B/soul vocal quartet from Chicago, Illinois, United States. Forming at Chicago's Hyde Park High School in 1959, The group's original lineup consisted of singers Robert Lester, Eugene Record, Creadel Jones, Clarence Johnson, Burt Bowen, Eddie Reed and Marshall Thompson.


title: The Chi-Lites

text: The Chi-Lites' greatest fame came during the late 1960s through the early 1970s (with members Record, Jones, Lester and Thompson), scoring eleven Top Ten R&B hits from 1969 until 1974. The group also charted 21 songs in the Billboard Hot 100 Pop Chart, and had chart hits in Australia, the United Kingdom, Ireland, and Canada, as well as in the U.S.


title: The Chi-Lites

text: The original members were lead singer Eugene Record, Robert "Squirrel" Lester, Clarence Johnson, Burt Bowen, and Eddie Reed of the Chanteurs. The group was formed at Hyde Park Academy High School where majority of the members attended (Record attended Englewood High School and Thompson would later transfer to DuSable High School in his senior year and study music under Walter Dyett ) in Chicago in 1959. The group performed at their High School "Senior Varieties" talent show. Soon after, they released a single entitled, "You've Got a Great Love" written by Johnson. Bowen left the group and was replaced by Sollie McElroy of the Flamingos, who was soon replaced by Marshall Thompson of the Desideros. In 1960, Reed died and Thompson brought in Creadel "Red" Jones who was a member of the Desideros to replace him. In early 1964 the group changed their name to the Hi-Lites and released a song entitled, "I'm So Jealous" with Record on lead.


title: The Chi-Lites

text: Noting that the name Hi-lites was already in use and wanting to honor their home town they changed their name to Marshall & the Chi-Lites in 1964. Under their new name they recorded four songs entitled, "Pretty Girl" written by Record, who also was on lead, "Love Bandit" written by Jones with Thompson on lead, "Price of Love" and "Baby It's Time". Clarence Johnson left he group later that year, and their name was subsequently shortened to the Chi-Lites. Eugene Record was the musical group's sole songwriter and lead singer. Record never collaborated with members outside his singing group. In 1968, the group meet with record producer Carl Davis and signed a contract with Brunswick Records out of Chicago. The Chi-Lites with members Record, Thompson, Lester and Jones recorded their first charting song, "Give It Away" written by Davis and Record. The single became a top ten "Billboard" R&B hit spending nine weeks on the chart and peaking at No. 10 on March 15, 1969.


title: The Chi-Lites

text: Their major hits came in 1971 and 1972, "Have You Seen Her" and "Oh Girl", the latter becoming a #1 single on the "Billboard" Hot 100 on May 27, 1972. Each sold over one million copies and was awarded a gold disc by the RIAA. Other transatlantic chart hits followed, although their output became more fragmented as the group's personnel came and went. Bass singer Jones left in 1973, and was replaced in quick succession by Stanley Anderson, Willie Kinsey, and then Doc Roberson. Shortly thereafter, Eugene Record left, and David Scott and Danny Johnson entered. More personnel changes ensued, when Johnson was replaced by Vandy Hampton in 1977. The Chi-lites cut some tracks for the Inphasion label in 1979, which appeared on an obscure album for the Excello label.


title: The Chi-Lites

text: In 1980, Thompson, Jones, and Lester re-formed the group. Lester was the lead singer. The new group continued using the Chi-Lites established name. Creadel Jones left for a second time in 1982, and the group would remain a trio. In 1983, the group released the critically acclaimed "Bottoms Up" album and achieved notable club and R&B chart success with the title track and "Changing For You." Released on LARC Records, the album was also released in the UK on the R&B label under the distribution wing of PRT. "Changing For You" album version was released in the UK as a 12" single which became popular in London clubs including Flicks in Dartford and The Goldmine in Canvey Island. "Changing For You" also remained on the Caister Weekender playlist for two years. "Changing for You" and the title track "Bottoms Up" were heavily played and promoted by UK Jazz Funk Soul DJ Robbie Vincent. An edited version of "Changing for You" entered the UK Charts and reached No. 61. Record left again in 1988, and new lead Frank Reed joined to replace him. Singer Anthony Reynard Watson replaced Reed later that year and the duty of lead vocals would alternate between Reed and Watson over the course of the next decade. (Lester took over singing lead on "Oh Girl", while Watson led on their other songs).


title: The Chi-Lites

text: In 1997, while returning home from a concert in Pennsylvania, the Chi-Lites were involved in a serious car crash which resulted in both Reed and Thompson's wife Constance being ejected from the vehicle. Constance died from her injuries and Reed had to have a metal plate inserted in his back. "Hold On to Your Dreams" was included on the "Help Wanted (Heroes are in Short Supply)" album in Constance's honor. Reed was subsequently replaced once again by Watson until Watson's permanent departure in 2002. On December 13, 1999, BMI named The Chi-Lites, "Oh Girl" No. 36 of the top 100 songs of the century (1900-1999).


title: The Chi-Lites

text: In 2003, the Chi-Lites 1970 hit "Are You My Woman? (Tell Me So)" was sampled by Beyonce in her song "Crazy in Love," and their 1974 song "That's How Long" was used as the backdrop for one of the tracks on Jay-Z's "Black Album". In March 2004, the group reunited with former lead Eugene Record for a PBS Soul Music special. Record died in July 2005 following a long battle with cancer. Marshall Thompson and Squirrel Lester, along with more recent addition Frank Reed and the group's first female member, wife Tara Thompson, continued as the Chi-Lites, recording and touring over the last two decades with other soul groups such as the Stylistics and Ray, Goodman & Brown. In 2005 the group released the single "Mother Love". Lester died in January 2010, leaving Thompson the sole remaining founding member of the group. Lester was replaced by Fred Simon (formerly of the Lost Generation). In February 2014, Reed died after an illness.


title: The Chi-Lites

text: The Chi-Lites were among hundreds of artists whose material was destroyed in the 2008 Universal fire. As of 2020, Thompson is continuing the Chi-Lites' legacy as the last surviving member. On June 17, 2020, Hollywood Walk of Fame announced their Class of 2021 to receive stars on Hollywood Boulevard, and the Chi-Lites were named as one of the honorees.


title: The Chi-Lites

text: The group was inducted into the Rhythm and Blues Foundation in 2000 and Record appeared with the group on stage to perform and accept the award. The group was inducted into the Vocal Group Hall of Fame in 2005, and were honored with an induction into the R&B Music Hall of Fame on August 17, 2013, at the Waetejen Auditorium in Cleveland. On September 30, 2021, the Chi-Lites received the 2,702 star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame by Hollywood Chamber of Commerce and the City of Los Angeles. The Award presenters were Sirius XM radio personality Jeff Foxx from New York and Jimmy Walker best known for his role as J.J. On Good Times. Joining Marshall Thompson was the current group of wife Tara Thompson, Fred Simon, Warren Tipton and Mack Miller. Former original Chi-Lites, now deceased, Eugene Record, Robert Squirrel Lester, and Creadel Red Jones will also be remembered.


title: Pokémon TCG Online

text: Pokémon TCG Online is a 2011 video game based on the Pokémon Trading Card Game developed by Dire Wolf Digital, a studio that was based in Denver, Colorado. The game is available for Microsoft Windows, macOS, iOS and Android. It was originally released in March 2011 under the name of Pokémon Trainer Challenge as a browser-based game.


title: Pokémon TCG Online

text: On September 20, 2021, it was announced that "Pokémon Trading Card Game Online" would soon be replaced by "Pokémon Trading Card Game Live" upon release, and will no longer be available to download. Existing players will be able to transfer their account and game data to "Pokémon Trading Card Game Live" upon release. In November 2021, it was announced that the game would be delayed until 2022.


title: Pokémon TCG Online

text: "Pokémon Trading Card Game Online" is a video game simulation of the tabletop collectible card game with role-playing elements similar to the main "Pokémon" role playing series. Players challenge non-player characters and other online players to card battles using 60-card decks.


title: Pokémon TCG Online

text: In the Trainer Challenge mode, the player competes against a range of computer-controlled characters using pre-constructed theme decks. Winning a number of matches earns booster packs of cards. This is one of the easiest modes in the game, so is recommended for newer players.


title: Pokémon TCG Online

text: In Versus Mode, human players compete against one another. Winning earns tokens or tournament entry tickets, as well as Versus Points that contribute to earning prizes from a Versus Ladder that is reset every three weeks, adding new prizes and removing all Versus Points. There are four play modes. In Theme mode, only pre-constructed theme decks may be used. In standard mode the player's deck can only use cards which are legal in the current standard rotation (each year older cards are retired from play). Expanded mode allows cards from the expanded rotation. In unlimited mode, any cards are allowed, however the unlimited mode has been restricted to only be a playable option with online friends in a Friend Battle or training against a NPC.


title: Pokémon TCG Online

text: Tournament mode involves eight players fight through three rounds of a single–elimination style contest. The rewards increase in-line with the finishing position of the player. Winning at least one match in a ticket-entry ensures a tradable booster pack as a reward. Winning matches earns tokens which can be used to purchase untradable items from in game shop such as non-special booster packs of cards, pre-constructed theme decks or avatar customization items.


title: Pokémon TCG Online

text: The game initially offered three starting decks, and featured more content after release. After 6 April 2011, players could buy cards from the "Black and White" series, which have a code to be digitally represented. Players can also create a custom avatar. There were booster pack codes which allow booster packs up to "Black and White—Boundaries Crossed" to be purchased from the online shop. However, as of "Black and White—Plasma Storm", the code card within booster packs are now directly redeemed as online booster packs of their respective set.


title: Pokémon TCG Online

text: "Pokémon Trading Card Game Online" was co-developed by Dire Wolf and Dire Wolf Digital LLC, and published by The Pokémon Company. It was released on 24 March 2011.


title: Pokémon TCG Online

text: "GamesRadar" praised the game, stating "Everything looks to be faithfully recreated, including the card mat, prize card layout, and even coins."


title: American cheetah

text: The American cheetah is either of two feline species of the extinct genus Miracinonyx, endemic to North America during the Pleistocene epoch (2.6 million to 12,000 years ago) and morphologically similar to the modern cheetah ("Acinonyx jubatus"). These cats were originally known from fragments of skeletons, but nearly complete skeletons have been recovered from Natural Trap Cave in northern Wyoming.


title: American cheetah

text: The two species commonly identified are M. inexpectatus and M. trumani. Sometimes, a third species, M. studeri, is included, but it is more often listed as a junior synonym of "M. inexpectatus". Both species are similar to the modern cheetah, with faces shortened and nasal cavities expanded for increased oxygen capacity, and legs proportioned for swift running. However, these similarities may not be inherited from a common ancestor, but may instead result from either parallel or convergent evolution. These were larger than a modern cheetah and similar in size to a modern northern cougar. Body mass was typically around , with a head-and-body length of , tail length around , and shoulder height of . Large specimens could have weighed more than .


title: American cheetah

text: Fossils attributed to American cheetahs were first described from several isolated teeth from Port Kennedy Bone Cave from Pennsylvania, dating back to the Irvingtonian age. The American paleontologist Edward Drinker Cope considered these to be related to the spotted hyena, and described the material as Crocuta inexpectata in 1895. In 1899 he reclassified the specimens as related to the snow leopard, Unicia inexpectata. More fossil material were recovered from similar age deposits in Maryland and Arkansas, where in 1941 American paleontologist George Gaylord Simpson found them all belonging to the same animal, one he considered to be more closely related to the cougar (naming the animal as "Felis (Puma) inexpectata". A second species, "Felis studeri", was described by D. E. Savage in 1960 based on a more complete material consisting of extensive postcranial and cranial material of the animal. However, a 1976 review of fossil pumas from Kurtén considered "F. inexpectata" and "F. studeri" to be the same species, with "F. inexpectata" having priority. The other valid species (then as "Felis trumani") was described in 1969 by Orr based on a complete skull from the Late Pleistocene found in Crypt Cave, Nevada.


title: American cheetah

text: In 1979 Adams found these animals to be intermediates between cheetahs and cougars and decided to placed them in their own genus "Miracinonyx". The name is a combination of the Latin "mir" (wonderful) and "Acinonyx", which is a combination of the Greek for ἁκινητος (akinitos) meaning 'unmoved' or 'motionless', and ὄνυξ (onyx) meaning 'nail' or 'hoof".


title: American cheetah

text: Fossil remains of "Miracinonyx" have been found across the United States and as far south as Mexico. Fossils of "M. trumani" have been found in Arizona, Florida, Wyoming, Colorado, Nebraska, South Carolina, Maryland and Pennsylvania. The most complete finds of "M. trumani" are from the Natural Trap Cave in northern Wyoming. Fossil remains of "M. inexpectatus" found in Hamilton Cave in West Virginia show that this creature lived with and competed with other large cats like jaguars and saber-toothed cats. Fossils of "M. inexpectatus" have also been found in Florida, Texas, Colorado, Georgia, South Carolina, Pennsylvania, Maryland, and California. In 2022, the skeletal remains of a "M. inexpectatus" were retrieved from a cave in southwestern Virginia.


title: American cheetah

text: Research into the American cheetah has been contradictory. It was originally believed to be an early cougar representative, before being reclassified in the 1970s as a close relative of the cheetah. This suggested that the ancestors of the cheetah diverged from the "Puma" lineage in the Americas and migrated back to the Old World, a claim repeated as recently as 2006 by Johnson et al., and in 2015 by Dobrynin et al. However, other research by Barnett and Faurby, through examining mitochondrial DNA and reanalyzing morphology, has suggested reversing the reclassification: the American cheetah developed cheetah-like characteristics through parallel evolution, but it is most closely related to "Puma" and not to the modern cheetah of Africa and Asia. Moreover, Faurby notes that no "Acinonyx" fossils have been found in North America, and no "Miracinonyx" fossils elsewhere. However, O'Brien et al. (2016) posit that the supposed homoplasy between the genera is controversial, as it is asserted that is not necessarily any conclusive anatomical or genetic basis for dismissing a homologous relationship between "Acinonyx" and "Miracinonyx". The veracity of the origin of the modern cheetah is also debated; however, "Miracinonyx" is believed to have evolved from cougar-like ancestors, regardless of whether in the Old World or the New World.


title: American cheetah

text: The cougar and "M. trumani" are believed to have split from a cougar-like ancestor around three million years ago; where "M. inexpectatus" fits in is unclear, although it is probably a more primitive version of "M. trumani".


title: American cheetah

text: Below is the phylogeny from Chimento and Dondas (2017) when describing the earliest known fossil record of cougars in South America. As shown here, they found "Miracinonyx" to be a sister taxon to "Puma" (though in their paper they considered the former genus to be an extinct subgenus of the latter).


title: Beauty and the Beat (The Go-Go's album)

text: Beauty and the Beat is the debut album from Californian new wave band the Go-Go's. Released in 1981 on the I.R.S. Records label, the album reached number one on "Billboard"'s Top LPs & Tape chart in March 1982, bolstered by its two big Hot 100 hit singles: "Our Lips Are Sealed" (no. 20) and "We Got the Beat" (no. 2), initially released in 1980, but in a different version. After a long and steady climb, "Beauty and the Beat" reached number one in the album chart dated March 6, 1982, the week before "We Got the Beat" entered the Top Ten of the Hot 100. The album stayed at the top for six consecutive weeks, and ranked second in "Billboard"'s year-end Top 100 of 1982 (behind the self-titled debut album of Asia). The LP sold in excess of two million copies, and was RIAA-certified double platinum, qualifying it as one of the most successful debut albums of all time. Critically acclaimed, it has been described as one of the "cornerstone albums of American new wave".


title: Beauty and the Beat (The Go-Go's album)

text: In the late 1970s, Belinda Carlisle, Jane Wiedlin, and Margot Olavarria met while attending punk rock shows in California. The three attended the Sex Pistols' final performance in San Francisco in January 1978, and afterwards were inspired to form their own band. Although none of them actually knew how to play instruments, they quickly learned, and began playing in Hollywood nightclubs under the name the Go-Go's. Carlisle was the singer, Wiedlin played rhythm guitar, Olavarria played bass and the newly added Elissa Bello played drums. A few months later, Charlotte Caffey joined the band as the lead guitarist since she had experience writing music with other groups like the Eyes. The Go-Go's developed a reputation within the Hollywood punk scene and were invited to open for the band Madness on a UK tour. While on tour, the Go-Go's recorded an extended play for Stiff Records.


title: Beauty and the Beat (The Go-Go's album)

text: Tensions between band members resulted in Bello and Olavarria leaving the Go-Go's and they were replaced by drummer Gina Schock and bassist Kathy Valentine. Around this time, the Go-Go's began to move toward a more pop rock-driven sound, influenced by the burgeoning new wave genre. Although their reputation continued to grow, they were unable to attract attention from major record labels. At a special showcase for A&R representatives at the Starwood, the Go-Go's didn’t get a single offer. Carlisle believes this was because record executives were sexist and did not want to sign an all-female band. The only label that expressed interest was the indie label I.R.S. Records. In a 1982 "Rolling Stone" interview, Valentine said: "IRS was where you went if you couldn't get a deal with a real label." On April 1, 1981, I.R.S. cofounder Miles Copeland III signed the Go-Go's.


title: Beauty and the Beat (The Go-Go's album)

text: In the Go-Go's documentary, Carlisle claimed to have come up with the idea for the album cover, saying she wanted something "timeless" and "incognito." The towels the band used for the shoot were returned to the Macy's they were bought from earlier that day. Initially the album was released with a peach colored cover but the band was displeased with the look and later pressings were released with a blue cover.


title: Beauty and the Beat (The Go-Go's album)

text: "Beauty and the Beat" was released to reviews that, while positive, were not outstanding, especially in light of its eventual summit of the album charts. Robert Christgau found the album good and wrote "this one's got hooks" in his column in "The Village Voice", while Jon Pareles in "Rolling Stone" called it a "solid, likable debut". The album placed 10th on the annual Pazz & Jop critics' poll in "The Village Voice" for 1981.


title: Beauty and the Beat (The Go-Go's album)

text: The album has since gained in regard. AllMusic editor Stephen Thomas Erlewine called "Beauty and the Beat" "one of the cornerstone albums of new wave" and praised its "catchy hooks and an exuberant sense of fun", while "Rolling Stone"'s Warren Zanes wrote that the band "showed that elemental pop rock & roll remained as viable as ever."


title: Beauty and the Beat (The Go-Go's album)

text: Eric Allen of "American Songwriter", reviewing the album's 2011 deluxe edition, wrote that "Beauty and the Beat" is "one of the 1980s cornerstone albums of American new wave" and "still holds up surprisingly well thirty years later, which is a testament to the energetic spirit captured in this musical Zeitgeist of the 80s"; on the other hand, it is also "a reminder that the Go-Go's were never able to equal or surpass the success of this landmark debut".


title: Beauty and the Beat (The Go-Go's album)

text: NPR Musics Hilary Hughes credited the quintet with perfecting pop-punk's formula through the album. Though she saw that bands like Blondie and the Ramones showed that pop and punk music "[weren't] mortal enemies", she claimed that the Go-Go's showed the "certifiable success" of the two's fusion.


title: Beauty and the Beat (The Go-Go's album)

text: "When I was about seven, I discovered the Go-Go's," said American actress and author Drew Barrymore in an essay published by the magazine "V". "I went out and bought their album "Beauty and the Beat" and, as the vinyl twirled, my whole world changed. I stared at the girls on the cover like they were a gateway to cool. The fact that they were girls made me feel not only invited but more important – like I could be a badass too. I looked over to my Pippi Longstocking poster on the wall and thought, Yes! I like girls who rock!"


title: Beauty and the Beat (The Go-Go's album)

text: In 2003, "Beauty and the Beat" was ranked number 413 on "Rolling Stone"s list of the 500 greatest albums of all time, and it later placed on updates of the list at number 414 (in 2012) and at number 400 (in 2020). The album opener, "Our Lips Are Sealed", has been covered over the years by numerous artists, and remains a staple of 1980s playlists. It has been cited in numerous lists of the greatest songs, including "Rolling Stone"s 2000 list of the 100 greatest pop songs. "We Got the Beat" was named one of the "500 Songs That Shaped Rock and Roll" by the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame.


title: Beauty and the Beat (The Go-Go's album)

text: Capitol and I.R.S. released a 30th anniversary deluxe edition of "Beauty and the Beat" digitally and on CD on May 17, 2011. Disc one features the remastered original album while disc two contains an entire live show, recorded at the Metro Club in Boston on August 20, 1981. Both "Vacation" (1982) and "Talk Show" (1984) were previously issued in remastered CD form in 1999.


title: Beauty and the Beat (The Go-Go's album)

text: In 2016, Edsel Records reissued remastered deluxe editions, all with bonus tracks, of the Go-Go's original three releases.


title: The Byrds discography

text: The bulk of the band's releases were issued on Columbia Records or its subsidiaries, with a notable exception being their final studio album from 1973. This final album, titled "Byrds", and its accompanying singles ("Full Circle", "Things Will Be Better", and "Cowgirl in the Sand") were all released on Asylum Records. In addition, the band released a single under the pseudonym of the Beefeaters in October 1964 on Elektra Records (Pye Records in the UK), before they had signed a recording contract with Columbia.


title: The Byrds discography

text: The Byrds' discography was originally released on the vinyl format, as full-length LPs, shorter EPs, and singles. Since the 1960s, the band's back catalogue has also been released on reel-to-reel tape, audio cassette, 8-track tape, CD, MiniDisc, digital downloads, and, most recently, as streaming media. Between 1965 and 1968, the Byrds' albums were released in both mono and stereo variations, with "Sweetheart of the Rodeo" being the first album to be released exclusively in stereo in the US ("Sweetheart of the Rodeo" and its follow-up "Dr. Byrds & Mr. Hyde" were both issued in mono and stereo formats in the UK).


title: The Byrds discography

text: This article lists all of the Byrds' official studio albums, live albums, compilations, EPs, and singles. Unofficial, "bootleg" releases are not included.


title: The Byrds discography

text: There have been many official compilation albums by the Byrds released since 1967, with the majority of these collections consisting of material recorded between 1965 and 1971, a period when the band were with Columbia Records. In addition, four compilations of material recorded before the group secured a recording contract with Columbia have been released under the titles "Preflyte", "In the Beginning", "The Preflyte Sessions" and "Preflyte Plus". Two compilations of rare and previously unissued material have also been released as "Never Before" and "Another Dimension". There have so far been two Byrds' box sets issued: "The Byrds" (October 1990) and "There Is a Season" (September 2006). Also, excerpts from the band's performance at the Monterey Pop Festival have been released on "The Monterey International Pop Festival" CD box set and among the extras on the "Monterey Pop" DVD.


title: The Byrds discography

text: CBS Records released two Byrds EPs in the UK during 1966, featuring tracks taken from the band's first three albums. Then, in 1971, Columbia Records and Scholastic Books released an EP in the United States to tie-in with the publication of Bud Scoppa's biography of the Byrds. A further three EPs were released in the UK between 1983 and 1990 on various record labels.


title: Irbesartan

text: Irbesartan, sold under the brand name Avapro among others, is a medication used to treat high blood pressure, heart failure, and diabetic kidney disease. It is a reasonable initial treatment for high blood pressure. It is taken by mouth. Versions are available as the combination irbesartan/hydrochlorothiazide.


title: Irbesartan

text: Common side effects include dizziness, diarrhea, feeling tired, muscle pain, and heartburn. Serious side effects may include kidney problems, low blood pressure, and angioedema. Use in pregnancy may harm the baby and use when breastfeeding is not recommended. It is an angiotensin II receptor antagonist and works by blocking the effects of angiotensin II.


title: Irbesartan

text: Irbesartan was patented in 1990, and approved for medical use in 1997. It is available as a generic medication. In 2020, it was the 148th most commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more than 4million prescriptions.


title: Irbesartan

text: Irbesartan has the common structural features seen within the Angiotensin-II Receptor blockers or ARB medications. The medicine has an extended diphenyl group with a tetrazole at the 2-prime position. At the 4'prime position, the molecule has a diazaspiro04-none, which is on a methyl.


title: Irbesartan

text: Irbesartan is used for the treatment of hypertension. It may also delay progression of diabetic nephropathy and is also indicated for the reduction of renal disease progression in patients with type 2 diabetes, hypertension and microalbuminuria (>30 mg/24 h) or proteinuria (>900 mg/24 h).


title: Irbesartan

text: Irbesartan is also available in a fixed-dose combination formulation with hydrochlorothiazide, a thiazide diuretic, to achieve an additive antihypertensive effect. Irbesartan/hydrochlorothiazide combination preparations are marketed under various brand names.


title: Irbesartan

text: It was developed by Sanofi Research (part of Sanofi-Aventis). It is jointly marketed by Sanofi-Aventis and Bristol-Myers Squibb under the brand names Aprovel, Karvea, and Avapro.


title: International Falls, Minnesota

text: International Falls (sometimes referred to as I-Falls) is a city in and the county seat of Koochiching County, Minnesota. The population was 5,802 at the time of the 2020 census.


title: International Falls, Minnesota

text: International Falls is located on the Rainy River directly across from Fort Frances, Ontario, Canada. The two cities are connected by the Fort Frances–International Falls International Bridge. Voyageurs National Park is located 11 miles east of International Falls. There is a major U.S. Customs and Border Protection Port of Entry on the International Falls side of the toll bridge and a Canadian Customs entry point on the north side of the bridge.


title: International Falls, Minnesota

text: International Falls is nicknamed the "Icebox of the Nation,” with an average of 109.4 days per year with a high temperature below .


title: International Falls, Minnesota

text: The area now known as International Falls was inhabited by many indigenous peoples. The International Falls area was well known to explorers, missionaries, and voyagers as early as the 17th century. It was not until April 1895 that the community was platted by L. A. Ogaard, a teacher and preacher for the Koochiching Company, and named Koochiching. The word “Koochiching” comes from either the Ojibwe word "Gojijiing" or the Cree "Kocicīhk", both meaning “at the place of inlets,” referring to the neighboring Rainy Lake and River. The European inhabitants gave the names Rainy Lake and Rainy River to the nearby bodies of water because of the mist-like rain present at the falls where the lake flowed into the river.


title: International Falls, Minnesota

text: On August 10, 1901, the village was incorporated and two years later its name was changed to International Falls in recognition of the river's role as a border between the United States and Canada. It was incorporated as a city in 1909.


title: International Falls, Minnesota

text: Realizing the potential for water power and mills in the area, industrialist E.W. Backus, president of the Minnesota and Ontario Paper Company in the early 20th century, built a dam on the Rainy River to power the company's mills. Purchased by Boise Cascade Corporation in 1965, and sold to an investment group in 2003, the company remains the largest business and employer in the area. In 2013 Boise laid off 394 employees and closed down a paper machine. It then sold to Packaging Corporation of America (PCA).


title: International Falls, Minnesota

text: According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , of which is land and is water.


title: International Falls, Minnesota

text: International Falls, with its relatively central position in the North American continent, has a humid continental climate (Köppen: "Dfb"), with long, bitterly cold winters and humid warm summers, and is part of USDA Plant hardiness zone 3a. January averages , and lows reach on an average of 57.2 nights annually. Highs only reach the freezing point or above an average of 16.7 days in the months of December, January, and February, and the temperature often stays below freezing for weeks at a time during the winter. In the winter of 1978 to 1979, the temperature stayed below freezing for 101 days, from November 17 to February 25. Seasonal snowfall averages ; due to the cold typically preventing significant melting for much of the winter, snow depths of or more are seen on a majority of days from December through March. Spring, and more especially autumn, are short but mild transition seasons. July averages , with highs reaching an average of only 2 days annually, and in close to 40% of years, the temperature does not rise that high. Precipitation averages about per year, and is concentrated in the warmer months. The average window for freezing temperatures is September 14 through May 26, allowing a frost-free period of 110 days; however, the all-time record for the latest first freeze was set relatively recently on October 17, 2021, being over a month late. Measurable snowfall (≥) arrives on average on October 18 and departs April 22. The all-time record high temperature is , set on July 22, 1923, while the all-time record low is , set on January 6, 1909, a range of ; the record cold maximum is , set on the same day as the record low, while, conversely, the record warm minimum is on July 16, 1898.


title: International Falls, Minnesota

text: International Falls has long promoted itself as the "Icebox of the Nation"; however, the trademark for the slogan has been challenged on several occasions by the small town of Fraser, Colorado. Officials from Fraser claimed usage since 1956, International Falls since 1948. The two towns came to an agreement in 1986, when International Falls paid Fraser $2,000 to relinquish its "official" claim. However, in 1996, International Falls inadvertently failed to renew its federal trademark, although it had kept its state trademark up to date. Fraser then filed to gain the federal trademark. International Falls submitted photographic proof that its 1955 Pee Wee hockey team traveled to Boston, Massachusetts with the slogan. After several years of legal battles, the United States Patent and Trademark Office officially registered the slogan with International Falls on January 29, 2008, Registration Number 3375139. Only a few days after announcing its success in the trademark battle, International Falls had a daily record low temperature of −40 °F (−40 °C), beating a previous record of −37 °F (−38.3 °C) in 1967.


title: International Falls, Minnesota

text: As of 2000 the median income for a household in the city was $29,908, and the median income for a family was $41,458. Males had a median income of $41,584 versus $20,053 for females. The per capita income for the city was $19,171. About 10.0% of families and 14.5% of the population were below the poverty line, including 20.5% of those under age 18 and 12.3% of those age 65 or over.


title: International Falls, Minnesota

text: As of the census of 2010, there were 6,424 people, 2,903 households, and 1,645 families residing in the city. The population density was . There were 3,157 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 93.3% White, 1.0% African American, 2.5% Native American, 0.2% Asian, 0.1% from other races, and 2.8% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.1% of the population.


title: International Falls, Minnesota

text: There were 2,903 households, of which 26.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 39.1% were married couples living together, 12.1% had a female householder with no husband present, 5.5% had a male householder with no wife present, and 43.3% were non-families. 37.4% of all households were made up of individuals, and 16.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.16 and the average family size was 2.80.


title: International Falls, Minnesota

text: The median age in the city was 42.4 years. 21.9% of residents were under the age of 18; 8.6% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 22.4% were from 25 to 44; 27.3% were from 45 to 64; and 19.8% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 48.1% male and 51.9% female.


title: International Falls, Minnesota

text: As of the census of 2000, there were 6,703 people, 2,959 households, and 1,751 families residing in the city. The racial makeup of the city was 95.3% White, 0.3% African American, 2.6% Native American, 0.2% Asian, 0.2% from other races, and 1.5% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0.7% of the population.


title: International Falls, Minnesota

text: There were 2,959 households, of which 27.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 44% were married couples living together, 11.4% had a female householder with no husband present and 40.8% were non-families. 36.5% of all households were made up of individuals, and 18.2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.20 and the average family size was 2.85.


title: International Falls, Minnesota

text: The median age in the city was 40.5 years. 23.3% of residents were under the age of 18; 5.1% were between the ages of 20 and 24; 25.5% were from 25 to 44; 22.3% were from 45 to 64; and 20.7% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 47.7% male and 52.3% female.


title: International Falls, Minnesota

text: The local Icebox Radio Theater produces radio drama broadcasts on 106.9 FM, with a power output of one watt.


title: International Falls, Minnesota

text: The Backus Community Center opened in 2002 and serves as one of the cultural centers of International Falls. Each year, the Backus Performing Arts Series presents a number of musical and stage productions to the local community.


title: International Falls, Minnesota

text: The Borealis Bards community theatre group has staged a number of productions since its founding in 2014, including 2015's production of Alice In Wonderland.


title: International Falls, Minnesota

text: The International Falls post office contains a mural, "Early Lodging in Koochichin Falls", painted by Lucia Wiley. Federally commissioned murals were produced from 1934 to 1943 in the United States through the Section of Painting and Sculpture, later called the Section of Fine Arts, of the Treasury Department. The WPA was the largest and most ambitious American New Deal agency, employing individuals to carry out public works projects.


title: International Falls, Minnesota

text: Falls International Airport (IATA code: INL, ICAO code: KINL) is a public airport located just south of the city. The airport has two runways. It is mostly used for general aviation but is also served by a single commercial airline, Delta Air Lines' Delta Connection, which has two daily flights to Minneapolis–Saint Paul International Airport.


title: International Falls, Minnesota

text: A Sears Diehard car battery commercial was filmed in International Falls in the 1970s, playing on the city's extremely cold winter climate to promote the longevity and effectiveness of the product. It led to a parody ad – aired several times in the first (1975) season of Saturday Night Live – promoting a geriatric product.


title: International Falls, Minnesota

text: The fictional Minnesota small town of Frostbite Falls, which was the hometown of cartoon characters Rocket "Rocky" J. Squirrel and Bullwinkle J. Moose of The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show, was a spoof of the real-life International Falls. The fictional town was located in Koochiching County as well.


title: International Falls, Minnesota

text: The 2019 dark comedy film, International Falls (starring Rachael Harris, Rob Heubel and Matthew Glave), is set and filmed in International Falls.


title: Buddhist vegetarianism

text: Buddhist vegetarianism is the practice of vegetarianism by significant portions of Mahayana Buddhist monks and nuns (as well as laypersons) and some Buddhists of other sects. In Buddhism, the views on vegetarianism vary between different schools of thought. The Mahayana schools generally recommend a vegetarian diet because Gautama Buddha set forth in some of the sutras that his followers must not eat the flesh of any sentient being.


title: Buddhist vegetarianism

text: The earliest surviving written accounts of Buddhism are the Edicts written by King Ashoka, a well-known Buddhist king who propagated Buddhism throughout Asia, and is honored by both Theravada and Mahayana schools of Buddhism. The authority of the Edicts of Ashoka as a historical record is suggested by the mention of numerous topics omitted as well as corroboration of numerous accounts found in the Theravada and Mahayana Tripitakas written down centuries later.


title: Buddhist vegetarianism

text: Asoka Rock Edict 1 dated to c. 257 BCE mentions the prohibition of animal sacrifices in Ashoka's Maurya Empire as well as his commitment to vegetarianism; however, whether the Sangha was vegetarian in part or in whole is unclear from these edicts. However, Ashoka's personal commitment to, and advocating of, vegetarianism suggests Early Buddhism (at the very least for the layperson) most likely already had a vegetarian tradition (the details of what that entailed besides not killing animals and eating their flesh, were not mentioned, and therefore are unknown).


title: Buddhist vegetarianism

text: There is a divergence of views within Buddhism as to whether vegetarianism is required; with some schools of Buddhism rejecting such a requirement. Some Buddhists avoid meat consumption because of the first precept in Buddhism: "I undertake the precept to refrain from taking life". Other Buddhists disagree with this conclusion. Many Buddhist vegetarians also oppose meat-eating based on scriptural injunctions against flesh-eating recorded in Mahayana sutras.


title: Buddhist vegetarianism

text: The most clear reference in Theravada Buddhism to monastic consumption of non-vegetarian food is found in the Pali Canon, where the Buddha once explicitly refused a suggestion by Devadatta to mandate vegetarianism in the monks' Vinaya monastic code. This refusal to proscribe non-vegetarian food is within the context of Buddhist monastics receiving alms food.


title: Buddhist vegetarianism

text: The Buddha in the Aṅguttara Nikāya 3.38 "Sukhamala Sutta", before his enlightenment, describes his family being wealthy enough to provide non-vegetarian meals even to his servants. After becoming enlightened, he respectfully accepted any kind of alms food offered with good intention, including meat (within the limitations described above), fruit and vegetables.


title: Buddhist vegetarianism

text: In the same text, a former Jaina converted into Buddhism, Siha, gives alms including meat to the Buddha and his monks, ordering one of his servants to buy fresh meat from the market. Other Jain ascetics comment unfavorably, accusing Siha of killing an animal explicitly for the consumption of the Buddha, but Siha denies such thing.


title: Buddhist vegetarianism

text: In the modern era, the passage cited below has been interpreted as allowing the consumption of meat "if" it is not specifically slaughtered for the monastic receiving alms food:


title: Buddhist vegetarianism

text: Also in the Jivaka Sutta, Buddha instructs a monk or nun to accept, without any discrimination, whatever alms food is offered with good will, including meat. In contrast, the Buddha in the "Vanijja Sutta", AN 5:177


title: Buddhist vegetarianism

text: But this is not, strictly speaking, a dietary rule because the Buddha, on one particular occasion, specifically refused suggestions by Devadatta to institute vegetarianism in the Sangha.


title: Buddhist vegetarianism

text: In the "Amagandha Sutta" in the Sutta Nipata, a vegetarian Brahmin confronts Kassapa Buddha (a previous Buddha before Gautama Buddha) in regard to the evil of eating meat. The Brahmin insisted his higher status is well-deserved due to his observance of a vegetarian diet. The Buddha countered the argument by listing acts which cause real moral defilement (i.e. those acts in opposition to Buddhist ethics) and then stating the mere consumption of meat is not equivalent to those acts.


title: Buddhist vegetarianism

text: There were monastic guidelines prohibiting consumption of 10 types of meat: that of humans, elephants, horses, dogs, snakes, lions, tigers, leopards, bears and hyenas. This is because these animals (allegedly) can be provoked by the smell of the flesh of their own kind, or because eating of such flesh would generate a bad reputation for the Sangha.


title: Buddhist vegetarianism

text: Paul Breiter, a student of Ajahn Chah, states that some bhikkhus in the Thai Forest Tradition choose to be vegetarian and that Ajahn Sumedho encouraged supporters to prepare vegetarian food for the temple.


title: Buddhist vegetarianism

text: There are a significant minority of Theravada laypersons who practice vegetarianism especially in Thailand.


title: Buddhist vegetarianism

text: Mahayana views on vegetarianism are within the broader framework of Buddhist ethics or Śīla. The aim of Buddhist vegetarianism is to give rise to compassion and the upholder of vegetarianism is expected to (at least faithfully attempt to) observe Buddhist ethics. The Buddhist vegetarian who does not observe Buddhist ethics is not seen as a true Buddhist vegetarian.


title: Buddhist vegetarianism

text: According to the "Mahāyāna Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra", a Mahayana sutra giving Gautama Buddha's final teachings, the Buddha insisted that his followers should not eat any kind of meat or fish. Even vegetarian food that has been touched by meat should be washed before being eaten. Also, it is not permissible for the monk or nun just to pick out the non-meat portions of a diet – the whole meal must be rejected.


title: Buddhist vegetarianism

text: The Buddha in certain Mahayana sutras very vigorously and unreservedly denounced the eating of meat, mainly on the grounds that such an act is linked to the spreading of fear amongst sentient beings (who can allegedly sense the odor of death that lingers about the meat-eater and who consequently fear for their own lives) and violates the bodhisattva's fundamental cultivation of compassion. Moreover, according to the Buddha in the "Aṅgulimālīya Sūtra", since all beings share the same "Dhatu" (spiritual Principle or Essence) and are intimately related to one another, killing and eating other sentient creatures is tantamount to a form of self-killing and cannibalism. The sutras which inveigh against meat-eating include the "Mahāyāna Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra", the "Śūraṅgama Sūtra", the "Brahmajāla Sūtra", the "Aṅgulimālīya Sūtra", the "Mahamegha Sutra", and the "Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra".


title: Buddhist vegetarianism

text: In the "Mahāyāna Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra", which presents itself as the final elucidatory and definitive Mahayana teachings of the Buddha on the very eve of his death, the Buddha states that "the eating of meat extinguishes the seed of Great Kindness", adding that all and every kind of meat and fish consumption (even of animals found already dead) is prohibited by him. He specifically rejects the idea that monks who go out begging and receive meat from a donor should eat it: "[I]t should be rejected... I say that even meat, fish, game, dried hooves and scraps of meat left over by others constitutes an infraction... I teach the harm arising from meat-eating." The Buddha also predicts in this sutra that later monks will "hold spurious writings to be the authentic Dharma" and will concoct their own sutras and falsely claim that the Buddha allows the eating of meat, whereas he says he does not. A long passage in the "Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra" shows the Buddha speaking out very forcefully against meat consumption and unequivocally in favor of vegetarianism, since the eating of the flesh of fellow sentient beings is said by him to be incompatible with the compassion that a Bodhisattva should strive to cultivate. This passage has been seen as questionable by a small minority of Mahayana Buddhist writers (eg. D.T. Suzuki).


title: Buddhist vegetarianism

text: In several other Mahayana scriptures, too (e.g., the Mahayana jataka tales), the Buddha is seen clearly to indicate that meat-eating is undesirable and karmically unwholesome.


title: Buddhist vegetarianism

text: Some suggest that the rise of monasteries in Mahayana tradition to be a contributing factor in the emphasis on vegetarianism. In the monastery, food was prepared specifically for monastics. In this context, large quantities of meat would have been specifically prepared (killed) for them. Henceforth, when monastics from the Indian geographical sphere of influence migrated to China from the year 65 CE on, they met followers who provided them with money instead of food. From those days onwards, Chinese monastics, and others who came to inhabit northern countries, cultivated their own vegetable plots and bought food in the market. This remains the dominant practice in China, Vietnam, and most Korean Mahayana temples; the exceptions being some Korean Mahayana temples who traced their lineages back to Japan.


title: Buddhist vegetarianism

text: Mahayana lay Buddhists often eat vegetarian diets on the vegetarian dates (齋期 zhāi qī). There are different arrangement of the dates, from several days to three months in each year, in some traditions, the celebration of the bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara's birthday, Bodhi Day and Great Renunciation days hold the highest importance to be vegetarian.


title: Buddhist vegetarianism

text: Some Vajrayana practitioners both drink alcohol and eat meat. Many traditions of the Ganachakra which is a type of Panchamakara puja prescribed the offering and ingestion of meat and alcohol, although this practice is now often only a symbolic one, with no actual meat or alcohol ingested.


title: Buddhist vegetarianism

text: The 14th Dalai Lama and other esteemed lamas invite their audiences to adopt vegetarianism when they can. When asked in recent years what he thinks of vegetarianism, the 14th Dalai Lama has said: "It is wonderful. We must absolutely promote vegetarianism." The Dalai Lama tried becoming a vegetarian and promoted vegetarianism. In 1999, it was published that the Dalai Lama would only be vegetarian every other day and partakes of meat regularly. When he is in Dharamsala, he is vegetarian, but not necessarily when he is outside Dharamsala. Paul McCartney has taken him to task for this and wrote to him to urge him to return to strict vegetarianism, but "[The Dalai Lama] replied [to me] saying that his doctors had told him he needed [meat], so I wrote back saying they were wrong."


title: Buddhist vegetarianism

text: On 3 January 2007, one of the two 17th Karmapa, Urgyen Trinley Dorje, strongly urged vegetarianism upon his students, saying that generally, in his view, it was very important in the Mahayana not to eat meat and that even in Vajrayana students should not eat meat:


title: Buddhist vegetarianism

text: There are many great masters and very great realized beings in India and there have been many great realized beings in Tibet also, but they are not saying, "I'm realized, therefore I can do anything; I can eat meat and drink alcohol." It's nothing like that. It should not be like that.


title: Buddhist vegetarianism

text: According to the Kagyupa school, we have to see what the great masters of the past, the past lamas of Kagyupas, did and said about eating meat. The Drikung Shakpa [sp?] Rinpoche, master of Drikungpa, said like this, "My students, whomever are eating or using meat and calling it tsokhor or tsok, then these people are completely deserting me and going against the dharma." I can't explain each of these things, but he said that anybody that is using meat and saying it is something good, this is completely against the dharma and against me and they completely have nothing to do with dharma. He said it very, very strongly.


title: Buddhist vegetarianism

text: In the modern world, attitudes toward vegetarianism vary by location. In Sri Lanka and the Theravada countries of South East Asia, monks are obliged by the vinaya to accept almost any food that is offered to them, including meat, unless they suspect the meat was slaughtered specifically for them.


title: Buddhist vegetarianism

text: In China, Korea, Vietnam, Taiwan and their respective diaspora communities, monks and nuns are expected to abstain from meat and, traditionally, eggs and dairy, in addition to the fetid vegetables – traditionally garlic, "Allium chinense", asafoetida, shallot, and "Allium victorialis" (victory onion or mountain leek), although in modern times this rule is often interpreted to include other vegetables of the onion genus, as well as coriander – this is called pure vegetarianism or veganism (純素 chún sù / 淨素 jìng sù / zhāi). Pure Vegetarianism or Veganism is Indic in origin and is still practiced in India by some adherents of Dharmic religions such as Jainism and in the case of Hinduism, lacto-vegetarianism with the additional abstention of pungent or fetid vegetables.


title: Buddhist vegetarianism

text: A minority of Buddhist lay believers are year-long or life-long vegetarians. Many lay followers typically adhere to monastic-style vegetarianism on Lunar New Year Eve, commemorative holidays and ancestral feast days, as well as the first and fifteenth day of the lunar calendar. Some lay followers also follow monastic-style vegetarianism on the six-day (六日齋), ten-day (十日齋), Guan-yin (Avalokitesvara) vegetarian (觀音齋) etc., and follow according to that lunar calendar schedule. Other Buddhist lay-followers also follow less stringent forms of vegetarianism. Most Buddhist lay-followers however are not vegetarians. Some Zhaijiao lay adherents also do not eat any meat.


title: Buddhist vegetarianism

text: Japan initially received Chinese Buddhism in the 6th century. In 675, Emperor Tenmu issued an edict prohibiting eating the meat of cows, horses, dogs, monkeys, and roosters, as recorded in the Nihon Shoki. Tenmu was a strong proponent of Buddhism, and these views were bolstered by Shinto perspectives that reviewed blood and dead bodies as impure (Japanese: 穢れ "kegare") and to be avoided. These shared ideas bolstered the stigma against occupations related to processing dead animals, such as tanning and slaughtering, and the hereditary groups linked to them, the burakumin. For centuries, people in this "eta" (穢多, lit. "an abundance of defilement") were the only ones who consumed meat openly, which contributed to the views of their uncleanliness and marginalized social status. Despite this, animal products remained in the Japanese diet long after the 675 edict. References to hunting and eating deer and wild boar continued throughout the ancient and medieval period into the 16th century as an occasional part of the diet for all but those in the poorer agrarian classes. The court nobles also ate red meat occasionally, despite being obliged to follow Buddhist principles closely, although it was viewed as inferior to eating fish and birds.


title: Buddhist vegetarianism

text: Around the 9th century, two Japanese monks (Kūkai and Saichō), introduced Vajrayana Buddhism into Japan, and this soon became the dominant Buddhism among the nobility. In particular, Saichō, who founded the Tendai sect of Japanese Buddhism, reduced the number of vinaya code to 66. (円戒 yuán jiè) During the 12th century, a number of monks from Tendai sects founded new schools (Zen, Pure Land Buddhism) and de-emphasised vegetarianism. Nichiren Buddhism today likewise deemphasises vegetarianism. Zen does tend generally to look favourably upon vegetarianism. Shingon Buddhism, founded by Kūkai, recommends vegetarianism and requires it at certain times, but it is not always strictly required for monks and nuns. Buddhist vegetarianism (aka Shojin Ryori), also dictates Kinkunshoku (禁葷食) which is to not use meat as well as Gokun (五葷 5 vegetables from the allium family) in their cooking.


title: Buddhist vegetarianism

text: In 1872 of the Meiji restoration, as part of the opening up of Japan to Western influence, Emperor Meiji lifted the ban on the consumption of red meat. The removal of the ban encountered resistance and in one notable response, ten monks attempted to break into the Imperial Palace. The monks asserted that due to foreign influence, large numbers of Japanese had begun eating meat and that this was "destroying the soul of the Japanese people." Several of the monks were killed during the break-in attempt, and the remainder were arrested.


title: Buddhist vegetarianism

text: The practice of non-harming forms the basis of all three vehicles of Buddhist philosophy. For this reason, the Buddha gave advice to the Buddhist community of monastics in the Vinaya concerning food and the consumption of meat, since monastics traditionally relied upon alms given to them by the local community for sustenance on occasions which may include meat, and to refuse such offerings could be considered as going against their vows. The Buddha made clear distinctions between eating meat and killing, by giving instructions on the three-fold purity of meat.


title: Buddhist vegetarianism

text: In Tibet, where vegetables are scarce, meat is often consumed as a form of sustenance. However, records show that in Tibet, the practice of vegetarianism was encouraged as early as the 14th and 15th centuries by renowned Buddhist teachers such as Chödrak Gyatso and Mikyö Dorje, 8th Karmapa Lama.


title: Buddhist vegetarianism

text: Contemporary Buddhist teachers such as the Dalai Lama, and The 17th Karmapa Ogyen Trinley Dorje, invite their audiences to adopt vegetarianism whenever they can. Chatral Rinpoche in particular stated that anyone who wished to be his student must be vegetarian.


title: Terraforming of Venus

text: The terraforming of Venus or the terraformation of Venus is the hypothetical process of engineering the global environment of the planet Venus in such a way as to make it suitable for human habitation. Terraforming Venus was first proposed in a scholarly context by the astronomer Carl Sagan in 1961, although fictional treatments, such as "The Big Rain" of The Psychotechnic League by novelist Poul Anderson, preceded it. Adjustments to the existing environment of Venus to support human life would require at least three major changes to the planet's atmosphere:


title: Terraforming of Venus

text: These three changes are closely interrelated because Venus's extreme temperature is due to the high pressure of its dense atmosphere and the greenhouse effect.


title: Terraforming of Venus

text: Prior to the early 1960s, the atmosphere of Venus was believed by many astronomers to have an Earth-like temperature. When Venus was understood to have a thick carbon dioxide atmosphere with a consequence of a very large greenhouse effect, some scientists began to contemplate the idea of altering the atmosphere to make the surface more Earth-like. This hypothetical prospect, known as terraforming, was first proposed by Carl Sagan in 1961, as a final section of his classic article in the journal "Science" discussing the atmosphere and greenhouse effect of Venus. Sagan proposed injecting photosynthetic bacteria into the Venus atmosphere, which would convert the carbon dioxide into reduced carbon in organic form, thus reducing the carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.


title: Terraforming of Venus

text: Unfortunately, the knowledge of Venus's atmosphere was still inexact in 1961, when Sagan made his original proposal for terraforming. Thirty-three years after his original proposal, in his 1994 book "Pale Blue Dot", Sagan conceded his original proposal for terraforming would not work because the atmosphere of Venus is far denser than was known in 1961:


title: Terraforming of Venus

text: "Here's the fatal flaw: In 1961, I thought the atmospheric pressure at the surface of Venus was a few bars ... We now know it to be 90 bars, so if the scheme worked, the result would be a surface buried in hundreds of meters of fine graphite, and an atmosphere made of 65 bars of almost pure molecular oxygen. Whether we would first implode under the atmospheric pressure or spontaneously burst into flames in all that oxygen is open to question. However, long before so much oxygen could build up, the graphite would spontaneously burn back into CO, short-circuiting the process."


title: Terraforming of Venus

text: Following Sagan's paper, there was little scientific discussion of the concept until a resurgence of interest in the 1980s.


title: Terraforming of Venus

text: A number of approaches to terraforming are reviewed by Martyn J. Fogg (1995) and by Geoffrey A. Landis (2011).


title: Terraforming of Venus

text: The main problem with Venus today, from a terraformation standpoint, is the very thick carbon dioxide atmosphere. The ground level pressure of Venus is . This also, through the greenhouse effect, causes the temperature on the surface to be several hundred degrees too hot for any significant organisms. Therefore, all approaches to the terraforming of Venus include somehow removing almost all the carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.


title: Terraforming of Venus

text: The method proposed in 1961 by Carl Sagan involves the use of genetically engineered algae to fix carbon into organic compounds. Although this method is still proposed in discussions of Venus terraforming, later discoveries showed that biological means alone would not be successful.


title: Terraforming of Venus

text: Difficulties include the fact that the production of organic molecules from carbon dioxide requires hydrogen, which is very rare on Venus. Because Venus lacks a protective magnetosphere, the upper atmosphere is exposed to direct erosion by the solar wind and has lost most of its original hydrogen to space. And, as Sagan noted, any carbon that was bound up in organic molecules would quickly be converted to carbon dioxide again by the hot surface environment. Venus would not begin to cool down until after most of the carbon dioxide had already been removed.


title: Terraforming of Venus

text: Although it is generally conceded that Venus could not be terraformed by introduction of photosynthetic biota alone, use of photosynthetic organisms to produce oxygen in the atmosphere continues to be a component of other proposed methods of terraforming.


title: Terraforming of Venus

text: On Earth nearly all carbon is sequestered in the form of carbonate minerals or in different stages of the carbon cycle, while very little is present in the atmosphere in the form of carbon dioxide. On Venus, the situation is the opposite. Much of the carbon is present in the atmosphere, while comparatively little is sequestered in the lithosphere. Many approaches to terraforming therefore focus on getting rid of carbon dioxide by chemical reactions trapping and stabilising it in the form of carbonate minerals.


title: Terraforming of Venus

text: Modelling by astrobiologists Mark Bullock and David Grinspoon of Venus's atmospheric evolution suggests that the equilibrium between the current 92-bar atmosphere and existing surface minerals, particularly calcium and magnesium oxides, is quite unstable, and that the latter could serve as a sink of carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide through conversion to carbonates. If these surface minerals were fully converted and saturated, then the atmospheric pressure would decline and the planet would cool somewhat. One of the possible end states modelled by Bullock and Grinspoon was a atmosphere and surface temperature. To convert the rest of the carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, a larger portion of the crust would have to be artificially exposed to the atmosphere to allow more extensive carbonate conversion. In 1989, Alexander G. Smith proposed that Venus could be terraformed by lithosphere overturn, allowing crust to be converted into carbonates. Landis 2011 calculated that it would require the involvement of the entire surface crust down to a depth of over 1 km to produce enough rock surface area to convert enough of the atmosphere.


title: Terraforming of Venus

text: Natural formation of carbonate rock from minerals and carbon dioxide is a very slow process. Recent research into sequestering carbon dioxide into carbonate minerals in the context of mitigating global warming on Earth however points out that this process can be considerably accelerated (from hundreds or thousands of years to just 75 days) through the use of catalysts such as polystyrene microspheres. It could therefore be theorised that similar technologies might also be used in the context of terraformation on Venus. It can also be noted that the chemical reaction that converts minerals and carbon dioxide into carbonates is exothermic, in essence producing more energy than is consumed by the reaction. This opens up the possibility of creating self-reinforcing conversion processes with potential for exponential growth of the conversion rate until most of the atmospheric carbon dioxide can be converted.


title: Terraforming of Venus

text: Bombardment of Venus with refined magnesium and calcium from off-world could also sequester carbon dioxide in the form of calcium and magnesium carbonates. About 8 kg of calcium or 5 kg of magnesium would be required to convert all the carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, which would entail a great deal of mining and mineral refining (perhaps on Mercury which is notably mineral rich). 8 kg is a few times the mass of the asteroid 4 Vesta (more than in diameter).


title: Terraforming of Venus

text: Research projects in Iceland and the US state of Washington have shown that potentially large amounts of carbon dioxide could be removed from the atmosphere by high-pressure injection into subsurface porous basalt formations, where carbon dioxide is rapidly transformed into solid inert minerals.


title: Terraforming of Venus

text: Other studies predict that one cubic meter of porous basalt has the potential to sequester 47 kilograms of injected carbon dioxide. According to these estimates a volume of about 9.86 × 10 km of basalt rock would be needed to sequester all the carbon dioxide in the Venusian atmosphere. This is equal to the entire crust of Venus down to a depth of about 21.4 kilometers. Another study concluded that under optimal conditions, on average, 1 cubic meter of basalt rock can sequester 260 kg of carbon dioxide. Venus's crust appears to be thick and the planet is dominated by volcanic features. The surface is about 90% basalt, and about 65% consists of a mosaic of volcanic lava plains. There should therefore be ample volumes of basalt rock strata on the planet with very promising potential for carbon dioxide sequestration.


title: Terraforming of Venus

text: Research has also demonstrated that under the high temperature and high pressure conditions in the mantle, silicon dioxide, the most abundant mineral in the mantle (on Earth and probably also on Venus) can form carbonates that are stable under these conditions. This opens up the possibility of carbon dioxide sequestration in the mantle.


title: Terraforming of Venus

text: According to Birch, bombarding Venus with hydrogen and reacting it with carbon dioxide could produce elemental carbon (graphite) and water by the Bosch reaction. It would take about 4 × 10 kg of hydrogen to convert the whole Venusian atmosphere, and such a large amount of hydrogen could be obtained from the gas giants or their moons' ice. Another possible source of hydrogen could be somehow extracting it from possible reservoirs in the interior of the planet itself. According to some researchers, the Earth's mantle and/or core might hold large quantities of hydrogen left there since the original formation of Earth from the nebular cloud. Since the original formation and inner structure of Earth and Venus are generally believed to be somewhat similar, the same might be true for Venus.