title: Mathematics of Sudoku

text: The puzzle is then completed by assigning an integer between 1 and 9 to each vertex, in such a way that vertices that are joined by an edge do not have the same integer assigned to them.


title: Mathematics of Sudoku

text: A Sudoku solution grid is also a Latin square. There are significantly fewer Sudoku grids than Latin squares because Sudoku imposes the additional regional constraint.


title: Mathematics of Sudoku

text: As in the case of Latin squares the (addition- or) multiplication tables (Cayley tables) of finite groups can be used to construct Sudokus and related tables of numbers. Namely, one has to take subgroups and quotient groups into account:


title: Mathematics of Sudoku

text: Take for example formula_1 the group of pairs, adding each component separately modulo some formula_2.


title: Mathematics of Sudoku

text: By omitting one of the components, we suddenly find ourselves in formula_3 (and this mapping is obviously compatible with the respective additions, i.e. it is a group homomorphism).


title: Mathematics of Sudoku

text: One also says that the latter is a quotient group of the former, because some once different elements become equal in the new group.


title: Mathematics of Sudoku

text: However, it is also a subgroup, because we can simply fill the missing component with formula_4 to get back to formula_1.


title: Mathematics of Sudoku

text: Each Sudoku region looks the same on the second component (namely like the subgroup formula_7), because these are added regardless of the first one.


title: Mathematics of Sudoku

text: On the other hand, the first components are equal in each block, and if we imagine each block as one cell, these first components show the same pattern (namely the quotient group formula_7). As outlined in the article of Latin squares, this is a Latin square of order formula_9.


title: Mathematics of Sudoku

text: Now, to yield a Sudoku, let us permute the rows (or equivalently the columns) in such a way, that each block is redistributed exactly once into each block – for example order them formula_10.


title: Mathematics of Sudoku

text: This of course preserves the Latin square property. Furthermore, in each block the lines have distinct first component by construction


title: Mathematics of Sudoku

text: and each line in a block has distinct entries via the second component, because the blocks' second components originally formed a Latin square of order formula_11 (from the subgroup formula_7). Thus we arrive at a Sudoku (rename the pairs to numbers 1...9 if you wish). With the example and the row permutation above, we arrive at Grid 2.


title: Mathematics of Sudoku

text: For this method to work, one generally does not need a product of two equally-sized groups. A so-called short exact sequence of finite groups


title: Mathematics of Sudoku

text: of appropriate size already does the job. Try for example the group formula_13 with quotient- and subgroup formula_14.


title: Mathematics of Sudoku

text: A Sudoku whose regions are not (necessarily) square or rectangular is known as a Jigsaw Sudoku. In particular, an "N"×"N" square where "N" is prime can only be tiled with irregular "N"-ominoes. For small values of "N" the number of ways to tile the square (excluding symmetries) has been computed . For "N" ≥ 4 some of these tilings are not compatible with any Latin square; i.e. all Sudoku puzzles on such a tiling have no solution.


title: Mathematics of Sudoku

text: The answer to the question 'How many Sudoku grids are there?' depends on the definition of when similar solutions are considered different.


title: Mathematics of Sudoku

text: For the enumeration of "all" possible solutions, two solutions are considered distinct if any of their corresponding (81) cell values differ. Symmetry relations between similar solutions are ignored., e.g. the rotations of a solution are considered distinct. Symmetries play a significant role in the enumeration strategy, but not in the count of "all" possible solutions.


title: Mathematics of Sudoku

text: The first known solution to complete enumeration was posted by QSCGZ (Guenter Stertenbrink) to the "rec.puzzles" newsgroup in 2003, obtaining 6,670,903,752,021,072,936,960 () distinct solutions.


title: Mathematics of Sudoku

text: In a 2005 study, Felgenhauer and Jarvis analyzed the permutations of the top band used in valid solutions. Once the Band1 symmetries and equivalence classes for the partial grid solutions were identified, the completions of the lower two bands were constructed and counted for each equivalence class. Summing completions over the equivalence classes, weighted by class size, gives the total number of solutions as 6,670,903,752,021,072,936,960, confirming the value obtained by QSCGZ. The value was subsequently confirmed numerous times independently. A second enumeration technique based on band generation was later developed that is significantly less computationally intensive.


title: Mathematics of Sudoku

text: This subsequent technique resulted in roughly needing 1/97 of the number of computation cycles as the original techniques, but was significantly more complicated to set up.


title: Mathematics of Sudoku

text: The precise structure of the sudoku symmetry group can be expressed succinctly using the wreath product (≀). The possible row (or column) permutations form a group isomorphic to "S" ≀ "S" of order 3! = 1,296. The whole rearrangement group is formed by letting the transposition operation (isomorphic to "C") act on two copies of that group, one for the row permutations and one for the column permutations. This is "S" ≀ "S" ≀ "C", a group of order 1,296 × 2 = 3,359,232. Finally, the relabelling operations commute with the rearrangement operations, so the full sudoku (VPT) group is ("S" ≀ "S" ≀ "C") × "S" of order 1,218,998,108,160.


title: Mathematics of Sudoku

text: The set of equivalent grids which can be reached using these operations (excluding relabeling) forms an orbit of grids under the action of the rearrangement group. The number of essentially different solutions is then the number of orbits, which can be computed using Burnside's lemma. The Burnside "fixed points" are grids that either do not change under the rearrangement operation or only differ by relabeling. To simplify the calculation the elements of the rearrangement group are sorted into conjugacy classes, whose elements all have the same number of fixed points. It turns out only 27 of the 275 conjugacy classes of the rearrangement group have fixed points; these conjugacy classes represent the different types of symmetry (self-similarity or automorphism) that can be found in completed sudoku grids. Using this technique, Ed Russell and Frazer Jarvis were the first to compute the number of essentially different sudoku solutions as 5,472,730,538.


title: Good cop/bad cop

text: Good cop/bad cop is a psychological tactic used in negotiation and interrogation, in which a team of two people take opposing approaches interrogating their subject. One interrogator adopts a hostile or accusatory demeanor, emphasizing threats of punishment, while the other adopts a more sympathetic demeanor, emphasizing reward, in order to convince the subject to cooperate. It is an instance of the Reid technique.


title: Good cop/bad cop

text: The "bad cop" takes an aggressive, negative stance towards the subject, making blatant accusations, derogatory comments, threats, and in general creating antipathy with the subject. This sets the stage for the "good cop" to act sympathetically, appearing supportive and understanding, and in general showing sympathy for the subject. The good cop defends the subject from the bad cop. The subject may feel able to cooperate with the good cop, either out of trust or out of fear of the bad cop and may then seek protection by the good cop and provide the information the interrogators are seeking. The order can also be reversed. When performed in this manner, the good cop will try to gain a subject's trust. If that fails, the bad cop will intimidate the subject to make them crack under pressure.


title: Good cop/bad cop

text: The disadvantage of this technique is that it can be easily identified, and the "bad cop" may alienate the subject.


title: Clash of Champions (2020)

text: The 2020 Clash of Champions was the fourth and final Clash of Champions professional wrestling pay-per-view and livestreaming event produced by WWE. It was held for wrestlers from the promotion's Raw and SmackDown brand divisions. The event took place on September 27, 2020, from the WWE ThunderDome, hosted at the Amway Center in Orlando, Florida. An event was planned for 2021, but its September date was instead given to Extreme Rules. As per the theme of the event, all championships available to the Raw and SmackDown brands at the time were defended with the exception of the WWE Women's Tag Team Championship, which was originally scheduled to be defended; however, the match was canceled as the champions were not medically cleared to compete.


title: Clash of Champions (2020)

text: The event was originally scheduled to be held on September 20, 2020, at the Prudential Center in Newark, New Jersey, but Governor Phil Murphy canceled all large public gatherings of more than 50 people due to the COVID-19 pandemic. With WWE's ThunderDome residency at the Amway Center that began in late August, Clash of Champions was subsequently relocated to this venue and pushed back to September 27.


title: Clash of Champions (2020)

text: Eight matches were contested at the event, including one on the Kickoff pre-show. In the main event, Roman Reigns defeated Jey Uso by technical knockout to retain SmackDown's Universal Championship. In the penultimate match, Drew McIntyre defeated Randy Orton in an ambulance match to retain Raw's WWE Championship. Other prominent matches included Bobby Lashley


title: Clash of Champions (2020)

text: defeating Apollo Crews to retain Raw's United States Championship, and in the opening bout, Sami Zayn defeated AJ Styles and defending champion Jeff Hardy in a triple threat ladder match to become SmackDown's undisputed Intercontinental Champion.


title: Clash of Champions (2020)

text: Clash of Champions was a pay-per-view (PPV) and WWE Network event first produced by WWE in 2016, generally held in September. The theme of the event was that every active championship available to each brand division featured at the event were defended. The fourth event in the Clash of Champions chronology, the 2020 event featured the Raw and SmackDown brands and their respective titles at the time. These included the four championships on Raw—the WWE Championship, the Raw Women's Championship, the United States Championship, and the Raw Tag Team Championship—the four championships on SmackDown—the Universal Championship, the SmackDown Women's Championship, the Intercontinental Championship, and the SmackDown Tag Team Championship—and the non-exclusive 24/7 Championship. The WWE Women's Tag Team Championship was also originally scheduled to be defended but the match was canceled just prior to the event as the defending champions were not medically cleared to compete. The 2019 event had also featured the 205 Live brand and its Cruiserweight Championship, but that brand and title were merged under the NXT umbrella in late 2019.


title: Clash of Champions (2020)

text: As a result of the COVID-19 pandemic that began affecting the industry in mid-March, WWE had to present the majority of its programming from a behind closed doors set. Initially, Raw and SmackDown's television shows and PPVs were done at the WWE Performance Center in Orlando, Florida. A limited number of Performance Center trainees and friends and family members of the wrestlers were later utilized to serve as the live audience. Clash of Champions was originally scheduled to be held at the Prudential Center in Newark, New Jersey on September 20, 2020, but due to the pandemic, New Jersey Governor Phil Murphy banned all large public gatherings and live public events of more than 50 people from March 16 onward.


title: Clash of Champions (2020)

text: In late August, WWE's programs for Raw and SmackDown were moved to a bio-secure bubble called the WWE ThunderDome, hosted at Orlando's Amway Center. The select live audience was no longer utilized as the bubble allowed fans to attend the events virtually for free and be seen on the nearly 1,000 LED boards within the arena. Additionally, the ThunderDome utilized various special effects to further enhance wrestlers' entrances, and arena audio was mixed with that of the chants from the virtual fans. With the change in location to the ThunderDome at the Amway Center, Clash of Champions was pushed back to September 27.


title: Clash of Champions (2020)

text: The show comprised eight matches, including one on the Kickoff pre-show. The matches resulted from scripted storylines, where wrestlers portrayed heroes, villains, or less distinguishable characters in scripted events that built tension and culminated in a wrestling match or series of matches. Results were predetermined by WWE's writers on the Raw and SmackDown brands, while storylines were produced on WWE's weekly television shows, "Monday Night Raw" and "Friday Night SmackDown".


title: Clash of Champions (2020)

text: At SummerSlam, Drew McIntyre defeated Randy Orton to retain the WWE Championship. The following night on "Raw", McIntyre gloated about his victory against "the greatest wrestler ever" with a wrestling move (a backslide), and stated that he knew that Orton wanted a rematch. As McIntyre made his exit, Orton attacked McIntyre with two Punts. Later, Orton was confronted by former NXT wrestler Keith Lee, making his Raw debut. Lee, on behalf of McIntyre, challenged Orton to a match. The two faced each other that night; however, the match ended in a disqualification win for Orton after McIntyre attacked Orton. After the ensuing brawl, Orton performed a third Punt to McIntyre, taking him out for the next two weeks. Lee then faced Orton in a rematch and on behalf of McIntyre once again at Payback where Lee defeated Orton. On the following night's "Raw", three singles matches were set up with the winners of each facing each other in a triple threat match that night to determine the number one contender for the WWE Championship at Clash of Champions. Orton, Lee, and Seth Rollins won their respective matches with Orton winning the ensuing triple threat to secure another title opportunity against McIntyre. Throughout the course of that night, McIntyre performed three Claymore kicks to Orton. The following week, McIntyre changed the stipulation of their match to an ambulance match. Also that night, due to the uncertainty if Orton would make it to Clash of Champions as a result of McIntyre's attacks the previous week, Lee faced McIntyre in a non-title match where if Lee won, he would replace Orton in the event that Orton could not compete at Clash of Champions; the match, however, ended in a no-contest when Retribution attacked both men.


title: Clash of Champions (2020)

text: At Payback, Big E and Matt Riddle won their respective matches against Sheamus and King Corbin while in the main event, a now heel Roman Reigns, who aligned himself with Paul Heyman, won the Universal Championship. On the following "SmackDown", a fatal four-way match between Big E, Riddle, Corbin, and Sheamus was scheduled to determine the number one contender for the Universal Championship at Clash of Champions. However, Sheamus attacked Big E backstage, taking him out of the match. Big E was subsequently replaced by Reigns' own cousin Jey Uso, who won the fatal four-way to earn the title match against Reigns.


title: Clash of Champions (2020)

text: On the September 11 episode of "SmackDown", Lucha House Party's Kalisto and Gran Metalik (accompanied by their fellow team member Lince Dorado) defeated SmackDown Tag Team Champions Cesaro and Shinsuke Nakamura in a non-title match. The following week, Cesaro and Nakamura were scheduled to defend the title against Lucha House Party on the Clash of Champions Kickoff pre-show.


title: Clash of Champions (2020)

text: In May 2020, Sami Zayn was stripped of the Intercontinental Championship after refraining from competing during the COVID-19 pandemic. A tournament to determine a new champion was then won by AJ Styles on the June 12 episode of "SmackDown". Jeff Hardy then defeated Styles to win the title on the August 21 episode; prior to the match, Styles attacked Hardy's leg which led to medical personnel placing a knee brace on Hardy's injured leg. The following week, Styles interrupted Hardy, feeling that Hardy had cheated in their match as Hardy kicked Styles with his knee brace. As Hardy was leaving, however, Zayn returned with his own title belt, claiming that he was the true champion as he was never defeated. Zayn then attacked Hardy as Styles watched on and taunted Hardy afterward. Over the next few weeks, all three would bicker and state their claim on who was the real champion. The rivalry eventually reached a boiling point on the September 18 episode when an enraged Hardy announced that he would defend the Intercontinental Championship against Styles and Zayn in a triple threat ladder match at Clash of Champions. The following week, it was announced that in order to win the match, both title belts (Hardy's championship and Zayn's faux belt) must be retrieved to be declared the undisputed Intercontinental Champion.


title: Clash of Champions (2020)

text: At Payback, Nia Jax and Shayna Baszler won the WWE Women's Tag Team Championship from Bayley and Sasha Banks, while during the Kickoff pre-show, The Riott Squad (Ruby Riott and Liv Morgan) defeated The IIconics (Peyton Royce and Billie Kay). The following night on "Raw", The Riott Squad faced The IIconics in a rematch with the added stipulation that the winning team would earn a shot at the Women's Tag Team Championship while the losing team would disband. The Riott Squad won the match and the title opportunity, while The IIconics had to disband as a team. The championship match was scheduled for Clash of Champions. However, just hours before the event, WWE announced that both Jax and Baszler were not medically cleared to compete and the match was canceled as a result.


title: Clash of Champions (2020)

text: During the Clash of Champions Kickoff pre-show, it was announced that Women's Tag Team Champions Nia Jax and Shayna Baszler, who were scheduled to defend the title against The Riott Squad (Ruby Riott and Liv Morgan), and Nikki Cross, who was set to face Bayley for the SmackDown Women's Championship, were not medically cleared to compete at the event. The Women's Tag Team Championship match was canceled while SmackDown Women's Champion Bayley was set to address her match during the pay-per-view.


title: Clash of Champions (2020)

text: Also during the pre-show, Cesaro and Shinsuke Nakamura defended the SmackDown Tag Team Championship against Lucha House Party (Kalisto and Lince Dorado, accompanied by Gran Metalik). Nakamura performed the Kinshasa on Kalisto who was on the receiving of a Giant Swing performed by Cesaro, to retain the title.


title: Clash of Champions (2020)

text: The actual pay-per-view opened with Jeff Hardy defending the Intercontinental Championship against AJ Styles and Sami Zayn.There were many risky spots with Zayn being bounced off a ladder and Hardy being banged onto the handles off a ladder. Jeff Hardy did his finisher Swanton Bomb on Sami Zayn who was lying on a ladder to put him through it. After a back-and-forth match, Zayn obtained two pairs of handcuffs from his jacket pocket. He used the first handcuff on Hardy by threading it through Hardy's earlobe and cuffing Hardy to a ladder. Zayn then used the second pair to cuff both himself and Styles together. In the climax, Zayn unlocked his cuff (using a key that he was hiding in his mouth) and cuffed Styles, who was fighting Hardy, to the ladder. Zayn then ascended the ladder and unhooked both belts to become the undisputed Intercontinental Champion. Following the match, Zayn declared that he was not the new champion, but that he was still the champion as he had never lost the title in the first place.


title: Clash of Champions (2020)

text: In a quick backstage segment, an impromptu 24/7 Championship defense occurred when SmackDown's Drew Gulak pinned champion R-Truth to win the title for the first time.


title: Clash of Champions (2020)

text: Next, Asuka defended the Raw Women's Championship against Zelina Vega. In the end, Asuka forced Vega to tap out the Asuka Lock to retain the title. Following the match, Asuka stated that Vega was not ready for her; however, she showed respect by bowing to Vega, who then attacked Asuka.


title: Clash of Champions (2020)

text: After that, Bobby Lashley (accompanied by MVP and Shelton Benjamin) defended the United States Championship against Apollo Crews (accompanied by Ricochet). Lashley forced Crews to tap out to the Hurt Lock to retain the title.


title: Clash of Champions (2020)

text: Next, The Street Profits (Angelo Dawkins and Montez Ford) defended the Raw Tag Team Championship against Andrade and Angel Garza. The ending saw what appeared to be a botched finish, as after Dawkins performed the Sky High slam on Andrade, he pinned Andrade, who kicked out at two but the referee still counted three for The Street Profits to retain the title. It was later reported that Garza had sustained a knee injury and an audible was called to end the match.


title: Clash of Champions (2020)

text: Backstage, while new 24/7 Champion Drew Gulak was interviewed on winning the title earlier, R-Truth attacked Gulak with a steel catering bowl from behind and pinned him to regain the title for a record fortieth time.


title: Clash of Champions (2020)

text: Next, SmackDown Women's Champion Bayley came out to address her title match, in which she was originally scheduled to defend the title against Nikki Cross. As Cross was not medically cleared to compete, Bayley then issued an open challenge to any competitor for the title. After no one seemingly answered the call, Bayley started celebrating as if she had won by forfeit, however, Raw Women's Champion Asuka came out to accept the challenge. In the end, Bayley struck Asuka with a chair, thus Asuka won by disqualification, however, Bayley retained the title. Following the match, Bayley's former tag team partner Sasha Banks (who Bayley had turned on and attacked over the past few weeks) appeared and attacked Bayley with a steel chair.


title: Clash of Champions (2020)

text: In the penultimate match, Drew McIntyre defended the WWE Championship against Randy Orton in an ambulance match. Throughout the match, Orton was attacked by the legends whom he had attacked over the past few months, including Big Show, Christian, and Shawn Michaels. In the end, McIntyre performed the Claymore Kick on Orton and placed him in the back of the ambulance, however, before McIntyre closed the doors, he performed Orton's own maneuver, the Punt, on Orton (which Orton also used to take out the aforementioned legends) and then closed the doors of the ambulance to retain the title. Driving the ambulance was Ric Flair, another legend who was attacked by Orton.


title: Clash of Champions (2020)

text: In the main event, Roman Reigns (accompanied by Paul Heyman) defended the Universal Championship against his cousin Jey Uso. Reigns dominated Jey after which, he implored Jey to address him as the "Tribal Chief" and the head of the Anoa'i family. Jey refused and eventually made a comeback, however, during a pin attempt, Reigns performed a low blow on Jey as he kicked out of the pin. Reigns then continued to assert his dominance on Jey, who refused to give in to Reigns' demands. Jey's injured brother Jimmy Uso then came out, ready to throw in the towel, however, Jey pleaded with him not to do so. In the closing moments, Reigns viciously beat down a practically unconscious Jey with a fury of blows, forcing Jimmy to throw in the towel, thus Reigns retained the title by technical knockout. Following the match, Jimmy tended to Jey and reluctantly told Reigns that he was the chief. Heyman then adorned Reigns with a garland as Reigns celebrated his victory.


title: Clash of Champions (2020)

text: The following night on "Raw", WWE Champion Drew McIntyre opened the show and celebrated his victory over Randy Orton with Big Show, Ric Flair, Christian, and Shawn Michaels. Orton then appeared on the TitanTron and declared that his war with McIntyre was not over until he had captured the WWE Championship and then stated that McIntyre would pay for what he did. Proving to assert his dominance as a fighting champion, McIntyre then issued an open challenge to any competitor he had not yet faced. Later on the show, a returning Robert Roode, in his first appearance since March 2020, answered the challenge. McIntyre subsequently defeated Roode to retain the title. Before the end of the show, however, Orton once again attacked Big Show, Flair, Christian, and Michaels, who were playing poker in the legends room. The following week, Orton challenged McIntyre to another title match inside Hell in a Cell at the Hell in a Cell pay-per-view which McIntyre accepted.


title: Clash of Champions (2020)

text: Asuka defended the Raw Women's Championship against Zelina Vega in a rematch. Vega lost once again after tapping out to the Asuka Lock.


title: Clash of Champions (2020)

text: Also on the following "Raw", The Hurt Business (United States Champion Bobby Lashley, MVP, and Shelton Benjamin) faced the team of Apollo Crews, Ricochet, and Mustafa Ali in a six-man tag team match. Ali picked up the win for his team by pinning MVP.


title: Clash of Champions (2020)

text: The originally scheduled WWE Women's Tag Team Championship match, which did not take place at the event, would eventually take place on the October 5 episode of "Raw". In the ensuing match, defending champions Nia Jax and Shayna Baszler defeated The Riott Squad (Ruby Riott and Liv Morgan) to retain the title.


title: Clash of Champions (2020)

text: The following episode of "SmackDown", Universal Champion Roman Reigns (accompanied by Paul Heyman) came out to address what transpired at the pay-per-view. Reigns stated he did what he had to do and called Jey Uso out. Jey then came out and stated that Reigns had showed his true colors. However, Reigns stated that Jey failed to acknowledge him as the Tribal Chief of the family. Reigns stated that all he wanted to do was to give Jey the main event spotlight, however, Jey disgraced his family. After Reigns lambasted Jey further, he then gave Jey another rematch for the title at Hell in a Cell in a Hell in a Cell match.


title: Clash of Champions (2020)

text: Also on the following "SmackDown", Sasha Banks challenged Bayley for the SmackDown Women's Championship, scheduled for the following week, which was also the first night of the 2020 WWE Draft. On the following week Banks would defeat Bayley by disqualification after Bayley struck her with a steel chair, after which Banks would challenge Bayley for a rematch for the title at Hell in a Cell in a Hell in a Cell match. The match would then be made official the next day.


title: Clash of Champions (2020)

text: Jeff Hardy received a rematch for the Intercontinental Championship against Sami Zayn. Zayn retained after causing Hardy to fall and hit his head on an exposed turnbuckle.


title: Clash of Champions (2020)

text: The 2020 Clash of Champions would in turn be the final Clash of Champions event. An event for 2021 was originally scheduled for September 26 at the Nationwide Arena in Columbus, Ohio; however, on July 9, 2021, WWE announced that Extreme Rules would instead take place on that date at that venue due to WWE rescheduling Money in the Bank to take place on Extreme Rules' original July date. Clash of Champions was in turn quietly canceled without a new date for 2021 being scheduled. Furthermore, in October that year, WWE revealed their PPV calendar for 2022, and Clash of Champions was not included; however, the exact events for some scheduled dates were not revealed.


title: Cheikh Anta Diop

text: Cheikh Anta Diop (29 December 1923 – 7 February 1986) was a Senegalese historian, anthropologist, physicist, and politician who studied the human race's origins and pre-colonial African culture. Diop's work is considered foundational to the theory of Afrocentricity, though he himself never described himself as an Afrocentrist. The questions he posed about cultural bias in scientific research contributed greatly to the postcolonial turn in the study of African civilizations.


title: Cheikh Anta Diop

text: Diop argued that there was a shared cultural continuity across African people that was more important than the varied development of different ethnic groups shown by differences among languages and cultures over time. Some of his ideas have been criticized as based upon outdated sources and an outdated conception of race. Other scholars have defended his work from what they see as widespread misrepresentation.


title: Cheikh Anta Diop

text: Cheikh Anta Diop University (formerly known as the University of Dakar), in Dakar, Senegal, is named after him.


title: Cheikh Anta Diop

text: Born in Thieytou, Diourbel Region, Senegal, Diop belonged to an aristocratic Muslim Wolof family in Senegal where he was educated in a traditional Islamic school. Diop's family was part of the Mouride brotherhood, the only independent Muslim fraternity in Africa according to Diop. He obtained the colonial equivalent of the metropolitan French baccalauréat in Senegal before moving to Paris to study for a degree.


title: Cheikh Anta Diop

text: In 1946, at the age of 23, Diop went to Paris to study. He initially enrolled to study higher mathematics, but then enrolled to study philosophy in the Faculty of Arts of the University of Paris. He gained his first degree (licence) in philosophy in 1948, then enrolled in the Faculty of Sciences, receiving two diplomas in chemistry in 1950.


title: Cheikh Anta Diop

text: In 1948 Diop edited with Madeleine Rousseau, a professor of art history, a special edition of the journal "Musée vivant", published by the Association populaire des amis des musées (APAM). APAM had been set up in 1936 by people on the political left wing to bring culture to wider audiences. The special edition of the journal was on the occasion of the centenary of the abolition of slavery in the French colonies and aimed to present an overview of issues in contemporary African culture and society. Diop contributed an article to the journal: "Quand pourra-t-on parler d'une renaissance africaine" (When we will be able to speak of an African Renaissance?). He examined various fields of artistic creation, with a discussion of African languages, which, he said, would be the sources of regeneration in African culture. He proposed that African culture should be rebuilt on the basis of ancient Egypt, in the same way that European culture was built upon the legacies of ancient Greece and Rome.


title: Cheikh Anta Diop

text: In 1949, Diop registered a proposed title for a Doctor of Letters thesis, "The Cultural Future of African thought," under the direction of Professor Gaston Bachelard. In 1951 he registered a second thesis title "Who were the pre-dynastic Egyptians" under Professor Marcel Griaule.


title: Cheikh Anta Diop

text: In 1953, he first met Frédéric Joliot-Curie, Marie Curie's son-in-law, and in 1957 Diop began specializing in nuclear physics at the Laboratory of Nuclear Chemistry of the College de France which Frederic Joliot-Curie ran until his death in 1958, and the Institut Pierre et Marie Curie in Paris. He ultimately translated parts of Einstein's Theory of Relativity into his native Wolof.


title: Cheikh Anta Diop

text: According to Diop's own account, his education in Paris included History, Egyptology, Physics, Linguistics, Anthropology, Economics, and Sociology. In Paris, Diop studied under André Aymard, professor of History and later Dean of the Faculty of Letters at the University of Paris and he said that he had "gained an understanding of the Greco-Latin world as a student of Gaston Bachelard, Frédéric Joliot-Curie, André Leroi-Gourhan, and others".


title: Cheikh Anta Diop

text: In his 1954 thesis, Diop argued that ancient Egypt had been populated by Black people. He specified that he used the terms "negro", "black", "white" and "race" as "immediate givens" in the Bergsonian sense, and went on to suggest operational definitions of these terms. He said that the Egyptian language and culture had later been spread to West Africa. When he published many of his ideas as the book "Nations nègres et culture" ("Negro Nations and Culture"), it made him one of the most controversial historians of his time.


title: Cheikh Anta Diop

text: In 1956 he re-registered a new proposed thesis for Doctor of Letters with the title "The areas of matriarchy and patriarchy in ancient times." From 1956, he taught physics and chemistry in two Paris lycees as an assistant master, before moving to the College de France. In 1957 he registered his new thesis title "Comparative study of political and social systems of Europe and Africa, from Antiquity to the formation of modern states." The new topics did not relate to ancient Egypt but were concerned with the forms of organisation of African and European societies and how they evolved. He obtained his doctorate in 1960.


title: Cheikh Anta Diop

text: Diop served as a member of the UNESCO International Scientific Committee for the Drafting of a General History of Africa in 1971 and wrote the opening chapter about the origins of the ancient Egyptians in the UNESCO General History of Africa. In this chapter, he presented anthropological and historical evidence in support of his hypothesis that Ancient Egyptians had a close genetic affinity with Sub-Saharan African ethnic groups, including a shared B blood group between modern Egyptians and West Africans, "negroid" bodily proportions in ancient Egyptian art and mummies, microscopic analysis of melanin levels in mummies from the laboratory of the Musée de L’Homme in Paris, primary accounts of Greek historians, and shared cultural linkages between Egypt and Africa in areas of totemism and cosmology. At the symposium Diop's conclusions were met with an array of responses, from strong objections to enthusiastic support.


title: Cheikh Anta Diop

text: African-American historian John Henrik Clarke called Diop “one of the greatest historians to emerge in the African world in the twentieth century”, noting that his theoretical approach derived from various disciplines, including the “hard sciences". Clarke further added that his work, "The African Origin of Civilization: Myth or Reality", challenged contemporary attitudes “about the place of African people in scholarly circles around the world” and relied upon “historical, archaeological and anthropological evidence to support his thesis”. He later summarised that Diop contributed to a new “concept of African history” among African and African-American historians.


title: Cheikh Anta Diop

text: S.O.Y. Keita (né J.D. Walker), a biological anthropologist, contended that "his views, or some of them, have been seriously misrepresented" and he argued that there was linguistic, anthropological and archaeological evidence which supported the views of Diop. The author also stated "Diop, though he did not express it clearly, thought in terms of biogeography and biohistory for his definitions. He also defined populations in an ethnic or ethnogeographical fashion. Nile Valley populations absorbed "foreign genes", but this did not change their Africanity".


title: Cheikh Anta Diop

text: Stuart Tyson Smith, Egyptologist and professor of anthropology at University of California, Santa Barbara regarded his work, "The African Origin of Civilization", published in 1974 as "A highly influential work that rightly points out the African origins of Egyptian civilization, but reinforces the methodological and theoretical foundations of colonialist theories of history, embracing racialist thinking and simply reversing the flow of diffusionist models".


title: Cheikh Anta Diop

text: Guyanese educator and novelist Oscar Dathrone credits Diop as a "unique unifier" in countering the "built-in prejudices of the scholars of his time" and presenting a more comprehensive view of African historical development.


title: Cheikh Anta Diop

text: Bethwell Allan Ogot, a Kenyan historian and editor of UNESCO General History of Africa Volume 5, stated that “Cheikh Anta Diop wrested Egyptian civilization from the Egyptologists and restored it to the mainstream of African history”.


title: Cheikh Anta Diop

text: Esperanza Brizuela Garcia, professor of history, wrote that he “was most persuasive among intellectuals of African descent in the diaspora” and among Afrocentric scholars who had criticised the omission of Africa in the works of world historians. Garcia also added that his work, "The" "African Origin of Civilization", best represented "Afrocentric critique" but "it does so without a serious engagement with the diversity and complexity of the African experience and offers only a limited challenge to the Eurocentric values it aims to dislodge".


title: Cheikh Anta Diop

text: Toyin Falola, a Nigerian historian, called Diop's work "passionate, combative, and revisionist" and "demonstrated the black origins of Egyptian civilisation" in his view.


title: Cheikh Anta Diop

text: Firinne Ni Chreachain, an academic in African literature, described him as "one of the most profoundly revolutionary thinkers francophone Africa had produced" in the twentieth century and his radio-carbon techniques had “enabled him to prove, on the contrary to the claims of European Egyptologists, many of the ruling class of ancient Egypt whose achievements Europeans revered had been black Africans”.


title: Cheikh Anta Diop

text: Helen Tilley, Associate professor of history at Northwestern University, noted that the academic debates over ""The African Origin of Civilizations"" still continued but that the "more general points that Cheikh Anta Diop" sought to establish "have become commonplace" and "no one should assume a pure lineage" can be attributed to "any intellectual genealogy because entanglements, appropriations, mutations and dislocations have been the norm, not the exception".


title: Cheikh Anta Diop

text: Dawne Y. Curry, Associate Professor of History and Ethnic Studies stated that "Diop's greatest contribution to scholarly endeavours lies in his tireless search for physiological and genetic evidence to support his thesis. Using mummies, bone measurements and blood types to determine age and evolution, Diop revolutionized scientific enquiry" but she noted that his message was not initially well-received but "more and more scholarship [had] began to support Diop's conclusions, earning him international acclaim".


title: Cheikh Anta Diop

text: Josep Cervello Autuori, Associate Professor and Lecturer of Egyptology assessed the cultural tradition established by Diop and noted that "the West had failed to consider its contributions, sometimes ignoring them completely, and sometimes considering them as the fruits of the socio-political excitement in the era of African independence". Autuori argued that the academic contributions of Diop should be recognised as "a recontextualisation and a rethinking of the Pharaonic civilisation from an African perspective" due to the continued parallels between Egypt and Africa.


title: Cheikh Anta Diop

text: Diop was awarded the joint prize of most influential African intellectual along with W.E.B. Du Bois at the first World Festival of Black Arts in 1966. He was awarded the "Grand prix de la mémoire" of the GPLA 2015. The Cheikh Anta Diop University (formerly known as the University of Dakar), in Dakar, Senegal, is named in his honor.


title: Cheikh Anta Diop

text: According to Andrew Francis Clark, Associate Professor of History at the University of North Carolina-Wilmington and Lucie Colvin Phillips, Professor of African Studies in the University of Maryland, "although Diop's work has been influential, it has generally been discredited by historians".


title: Cheikh Anta Diop

text: Robert O. Collins, a former history professor at University of California, Santa Barbara, and James M. Burns, a professor in history at Clemson University, have both characterized Diop's writings on Ancient Egypt as "revisionist".


title: Cheikh Anta Diop

text: Diop's book "Civilization or Barbarism" was described as Afrocentric pseudohistory by professor of philosophy and author Robert Todd Carroll. According to Marnie Hughes-Warrington, Diop's works were criticised by leading French Africanists, but they (and later critics) noted the value of his works for the generation of a "politically useful mythology", that would promote African unity. Likewise, Santiago Juan-Navarro, a professor of Spanish at Florida International University described Diop as having "undertaken the task of supporting this Afrocentric view of history from an equally radical and 'mythic' point of view".


title: Cheikh Anta Diop

text: Historian Robin Derricourt, in summarizing Diop's legacy, states that his work "increased francophone black pride, though trapped within dated models of racial classification". Stephen Howe, professor of the history of colonialism in Bristol University, writes that Diop's work is built mostly upon disagreements with Victorian-era thinkers like J.J. Bachofen, Lewis Henry Morgan and Friedrich Engels, and criticizes him for "failing to take modern research into account."


title: Cheikh Anta Diop

text: Kevin MacDonald, a doctor of archeology, was critical of what he saw as Diop's "cavalier attitude" in making "amateur, non-statistical comparison of languages" between West Africa and Egypt. MacDonald also felt that such attitude showed "a disrespect for the discipline" and for the "methodology of linguistics". He did however state that Diop had asked "appropriate and relevant questions" regarding possible relations between Egypt and the African continent beyond Nubia.


title: Cheikh Anta Diop

text: Historian Clarence E. Walker criticizes Diop's claim that Ramses II was black, as being without qualification, a futile exercise and "probably the single most unsuccessful effort on the part of a scholar to determine the racial origins of an Egyptian notable".


title: Cheikh Anta Diop

text: Mary Lefkowitz, scholar of Classics, accuses Diop of supplying his readers only with selected and, to some extent, distorted information. She criticizes his methodology, stating that his writing allows him to disregard historical evidence, especially if it comes from European sources.


title: Cheikh Anta Diop

text: Historian and classicist Frank M. Snowden Jr. states that Diop misinterprets the classical usage of color words, distorts classical sources and omits Greek and Roman authors, whom he claimed, make a clear distinction between Egyptians and Ethiopians.


title: Winky Wright

text: Ronald Lamont "Winky" Wright (born November 26, 1971) is an American former professional boxer who competed from 1990 to 2012. He is a two-time light middleweight world champion and was the last to hold the undisputed title at that weight until Jermell Charlo in 2022. In his later career he also challenged for a unified middleweight world title. He announced his retirement from boxing in 2012, following a loss to Peter Quillin.


title: Winky Wright

text: In 2005, "The Ring" magazine ranked him as the world's second best active boxer, pound for pound. In 2017, it was announced that Wright had been elected as an International Boxing Hall of Fame member in the Modern Category, alongside Vitali Klitschko and Érik Morales, with the induction ceremony scheduled for June 2018.


title: Winky Wright

text: After his second-round knockout of Carlos Santana on July 30, 1992, in St. Petersburg, Florida, the ring announcer called him "Winky" Wright, the name given to him by his grandmother when he was 6 months old and that had unofficially stuck with him since he was 18 months old. The nickname stuck with him for the rest of his career following his win over Santana.


title: Winky Wright

text: Major promoters like Don King and Lou Duva declined to work with Wright early in his career. His first promoters were the France-based Acaries brothers, who struck a deal for Wright to fight Darryl Lattimore in Luxembourg on January 1, 1993. Wright knocked Lattimore down three times and the fight was stopped. He then went on a tear during his tour of Europe, winning eight straight in France, Germany, and Monte Carlo while only fighting in the United States once over the next year.


title: Winky Wright

text: On August 21, 1994, Wright received his first title match against WBA light-middleweight champion Julio César Vásquez in Saint-Jean-de-Luz, France. Although he was 25–0 at the time, Wright had not fought in a match that had gone more than 8 rounds. His inexperience showed as he lost a unanimous decision in controversial fashion, with Vasquez knocking down Wright in the second, seventh and ninth rounds, and twice in the twelfth round. Wright officially slipped three times and unofficially another four times while also appearing to win all but one round on points.


title: Winky Wright

text: On February 4, 1995, Wright defeated Tony Marshall by unanimous decision to win the vacant NABF light-middleweight title.


title: Winky Wright

text: Wright continued fighting in Europe, only fighting in the United States once, until his unanimous decision victory against Andrew Council on March 5, 1996. His impressive win opened the door to fight WBO light-middleweight champion Bronco McKart, a fight Wright won by split decision. Wright successfully defend his title in England three times; twice in Manchester against local fighters Ensley Bingham and Steve Foster, and Adrian Dodson in London.


title: Winky Wright

text: Wright then traveled to South Africa where he lost his world title in controversial circumstances to the undefeated Harry Simon. After a very close contest the fight was initially ruled a draw, then minutes later changed to a majority decision win for Simon due to an apparent scoring error.


title: Winky Wright

text: He stopped working with the Acaries brothers in 1999, stating that he was tired of all the travelling. He went on to knock out Derrick Graham in the third round in Miami, Florida. Wright then challenged IBF light-middleweight champion Fernando Vargas. Although some ringside fans and members of the media felt that Wright had won the fight, Vargas ended up winning a controversial majority decision. Harold Lederman (a ringside boxing broadcaster for HBO whose job is to unofficially score fights) scored the bout 115–113, for Wright.


title: Winky Wright

text: Wright continued to defend the NABF and won the USBA light-middleweight title in another decision over Bronco McKart.


title: Winky Wright

text: Félix Trinidad's jump to the middleweight division left the IBF light-middleweight title vacant. Wright scored a unanimous decision over Robert Frazier on October 12, 2001 to win the vacant title. In his first defense on February 2, 2002, Wright stopped Jason Papillion in the fifth round. He took a third fight against Bronco McKart, which ended in controversy as the referee disqualified McKart for repeated low blows in the 8th round.


title: Winky Wright

text: For Wright's next fight, Oscar De La Hoya offered to fight him. However, because of the lack of money The Golden Boy was willing to give Wright for the fight, the deal fell through and Oscar fought Luis Ramon Campas for the WBA/WBC titles. Wright went on to debut on National Television Las Vegas against Juan Carlos Candelo on March 1, 2003 in a title defense, winning a unanimous decision. He followed that up with another blowout victory over Angel Hernandez 8 months later.


title: Winky Wright

text: To the surprise of many, including Wright, Shane Mosley challenged Winky to a light-middleweight unification title fight on March 13, 2004. Mosley was a celebrated fighter coming off his second win against Oscar De La Hoya and was looking for a tune-up fight to prepare for a super fight with Félix Trinidad. Shane had stated that he wanted to fight the winner of the fight between Wright and Angel Hernandez. Wright, being the winner, earned a fight with Shane Mosley. Wright was a 4 to 1 underdog against Mosley. During the fight, Wright pressed his will early on and discouraged Mosley with his size, effective jabbing and defense. Winky won a lopsided unanimous decision, unifying his IBF title with Mosley's "Lineal"/"The Ring"/WBC/WBA titles, to become undisputed light middleweight champion.


title: Winky Wright

text: The rematch took place on November 20, 2004. This fight was much closer because Winky deliberately gave away some of the rounds and even dropped his hands in one round, in order to show that Mosley couldn't hurt him. Two judges scored 115–113 for Wright and one judge scored the bout a draw. Wright was awarded the majority decision, which despite Wright blatantly giving away a few of the rounds, was still a decisive victory in his favour. Soon after, Wright would vacate his titles to move up to the middleweight division to challenge Félix Trinidad.


title: Winky Wright

text: On May 14, 2005, with Wright once again playing the underdog role, he easily defeated Félix Trinidad by unanimous decision. Wright credits this fight as his greatest achievement in his career as he earned the respect and fan base of many that Félix Trinidad had behind him. Trinidad was a fan favorite and a feared power puncher and many figured he would be able to knock Wright out. But Wright's signature style defence and piston-like jab was too much for the Puerto Rican hero as Trinidad was having trouble landing punches throughout the fight (Two judges scored the fight 119–108 and one judge scored it 120–107). As a result of his dominant victory over such a highly regarded opponent, many placed Wright among the top pound-for-pound boxers in the world. His victory would send Trinidad into his second retirement for three years.


title: Winky Wright

text: Trinidad-Wright was also a WBC middleweight eliminator, giving Wright a shot at undisputed middleweight champion Jermain Taylor for his titles.


title: Winky Wright

text: After winning a unanimous decision over Sam Soliman in December 2005, Wright faced off against undisputed middleweight champion Jermain Taylor on June 17, 2006, at the FedEx Forum in Memphis, Tennessee for the "Lineal"/"The Ring"/WBC/WBO titles. In a very close fight, the match was ruled a draw. Two judges scored the bout 115–113 for each fighter, while the final judge scored it 114–114. Both camps attempted at negotiating a rematch, but talks failed after neither side could agree on how to split the money—a problem attributed to Wright's insistence on parity and Taylor's reluctance to give 50 percent to a challenger.


title: Winky Wright

text: Wright returned to defeat Ike Quartey at middleweight by a unanimous twelve-round decision at St. Pete Times Forum, Tampa, Florida in December 2006. Two judges scored the fight 117–110, and one had the bout 117–109, all for Wright.


title: Winky Wright

text: Wright's next fight came against Bernard Hopkins at a catch weight of 170 pounds on July 21, 2007. The bout aired on HBO pay-per-view. In the early rounds of the fight, there was no love lost as Hopkins outpointed Wright until a clash of heads (ruled unintentional) by Hopkins left a deep gash over Wright's eyebrow leading to Wright becoming the aggressor in the fight. Now fighting with a sense of urgency, Wright gave Hopkins problems due to his tight defense guarding the cut and landing combinations from the outside. Hopkins seemed to stick through the pressure and land flush combinations targeting the bloody eye. Hopkins won via unanimous decision on the judges' score cards (116–112, 117–111, 117–111).


title: Winky Wright

text: It was Winky's first loss in eight years. In the post-fight interview, Wright was asked why he took the fight. He responded by saying, "I wanted to show everybody that I'm the best fighter out there, regardless of weight. If I fight the best, then I'll be the best."


title: Winky Wright

text: Wright ended a 21-month layoff when he faced former welterweight title holder Paul "The Punisher" Williams in a middleweight bout at Mandalay Bay, Las Vegas in April 2009. Wright lost via decision. Two judges scored the bout 119–109 for Williams while the 3rd judge scored the bout 120–108 for Williams. Wright won only the 5th round on two judges cards, while the 3rd judge scored all the rounds for Paul Williams.


title: Winky Wright

text: After several failed attempts to stay active after the one-sided sweep by Paul Williams, Wright decided to get surgery on his knee during his inactivity, in the summer of 2010. Wright's most recent attempts were to get fights with Middleweight Champion Sergio Martínez, who knocked out Williams, and also a 160 lb. fight with Kelly Pavlik. He, however, successfully landed a fight with contender Grady Brewer on December 11, 2009 in San Juan, Puerto Rico. Wright and Brewer were ready and set to do battle until weeks before the fight, the promoters shut the PPV matchup down due to poor ticket sales.


title: Winky Wright

text: On November 16, 2010, it surfaced on the internet that Wright's grandmother, Mary Dorsey, had died on November 3. When asked to give his thoughts on what had happened, Winky credited his grandmother for everything he had accomplished during his boxing career, in which he primarily stated that he wouldn't have been world champion if it wasn't for her. After the new year of 2011, Wright came out and gave his side and strategies to the Super Fight between Shane Mosley and Manny Pacquiao. During the interview, he also stated that he'll be coming back to fight on April 9 on the undercard of Marques-Morales against Matthew Macklin. Although it was not a title fight, both fighters have hopes that with the win over each other, they would have a shot at the Middleweight Champion Sergio Martínez at 160 lbs. Once again, weeks before the PPV the fight had to be canceled due to an injury to Winky's right hand.


title: Winky Wright

text: Shortly after the showdown between Bernard Hopkins and Chad Dawson was made, it was stated that Dawson would not be working with trainer Emanuel Steward and instead would work with his previous trainer John Scully. Wright, being a good friend of Dawson's, offered to help him on his upcoming fight while getting him into physical shape. He stated in a brief, short interview, "No, I'm not a trainer and I'm not training Dawson. The fighting part of my career isn't even over, why would I want to start training? I'm just there to give advice and pointers to Dawson. Help him prepare for Hopkins and his dirty tactics. Hopkins is a dirty fighter." In an October interview, he stated that he will once again be coming back stating, "The junior middleweight division is full of people that call themselves champions when they ain't fought nobody. I'm coming back to take what's rightfully mine." He also stated that he'd made a mistake with just coming back and taking on a fighter like Paul Williams. He confirmed that he's going to take a couple tune-up fights hoping to grab one by December. He also, in the interview, he expressed interest in fighting WBA Light Middleweight Champion Miguel Cotto, WBC Light Middleweight Champion Saul Alvarez and "The Ring" Middleweight Champion Sergio Martínez in the future.


title: Winky Wright

text: After a 3-year hiatus from boxing, Wright was expected to face Peter Quillin on May 26, 2012, but the date was changed to June 2, 2012 in order to satisfy the California State Athletic Commission. Quillin defeated Wright via a ten-round unanimous decision. Wright announced his retirement shortly after the fight.


title: Winky Wright

text: Wright has appeared in music videos for Busta Rhymes' "Touch It Remix", 50 Cent's "Outta Control Remix", Jamie Foxx's "DJ Play a Love Song", and 2 Pistols's "She Got It" . He also appeared briefly in the cult hit "State Property 2" along with Dame Dash and Beanie Sigel.


title: Winky Wright

text: Wright has previously entered into ventures and endorsements with brands such as Reebok, Vitamin Water, Rocawear, State Property and 2(x)ist men's underwear among many others. Through these partnerships, Wright has appeared in television commercials and ad campaigns around New York City and in "Men's Fitness", "Men's Health", "VIBE" and "VIBE VixeN" magazines.


title: Winky Wright

text: He currently owns an independent record label, Pound 4 Pound Records, also based in St. Petersburg, Florida. The label consists of a talent roster which covers genres of music from rock & roll to hip hop.


title: Winky Wright

text: Wright married Sayquana Barney on August 1, 2009. Winky often participates in charity events, in which he also has his own charity event called Winky Wright Foundation which gives him the opportunity to give back to the community. He currently resides in his hometown St. Petersburg, Florida.


title: Autoimmune hepatitis

text: Autoimmune hepatitis, formerly known as lupoid hepatitis, plasma cell hepatitis, or autoimmune chronic active hepatitis, is a chronic, autoimmune disease of the liver that occurs when the body's immune system attacks liver cells, causing the liver to be inflamed. Common initial symptoms may include fatigue, nausea, muscle aches, or weight loss or signs of acute liver inflammation including fever, jaundice, and right upper quadrant abdominal pain. Individuals with autoimmune hepatitis often have no initial symptoms and the disease may be detected by abnormal liver function tests and increased protein levels during routine bloodwork or the observation of an abnormal-looking liver during abdominal surgery.


title: Autoimmune hepatitis

text: Anomalous presentation of MHC class II receptors on the surface of liver cells, possibly due to genetic predisposition or acute liver infection, causes a cell-mediated immune response against the body's own liver, resulting in autoimmune hepatitis. This abnormal immune response results in inflammation of the liver, which can lead to further symptoms and complications such as fatigue and cirrhosis. The disease is most often diagnosed in patients in their late teens or early 20s and between the ages of 40 and 50. It affects women more commonly than men.


title: Autoimmune hepatitis

text: Autoimmune hepatitis may present completely asymptomatic (12–35% of the cases), with signs of chronic liver disease, or acute or even fulminant hepatic failure.


title: Autoimmune hepatitis

text: People usually present with one or more nonspecific, long-lasting symptoms such as fatigue, general ill health, lethargy, weight loss, mild right upper quadrant abdominal pain, malaise, anorexia, itching, nausea, jaundice or joint pain especially affecting the small joints. Rarely, rash or unexplained fever may appear. In women, the absence of menstruation (amenorrhoea) is a frequent feature. Physical examination may be normal, but it may also reveal signs and symptoms of chronic liver disease. Many people have only laboratory abnormalities as their initial presentation, as unexplained increase in transaminases and are diagnosed during an evaluation for other reasons. Others have already developed cirrhosis at diagnosis. Of note, alkaline phosphatase and bilirubin are usually normal.


title: Autoimmune hepatitis

text: Autoimmune hepatitis may overlap with other autoimmune conditions, mainly type 1 diabetes mellitus, ulcerative colitis, lupus, celiac disease, vasculitis, and autoimmune thyroiditis.


title: Autoimmune hepatitis

text: The prevailing theory for the development of autoimmune hepatitis is thought to be the interplay of genetic predisposition, an environmental trigger (virus, drugs, herbs, immunizations), and failure of the native immune system resulting in chronic inflammation of hepatocytes and subsequent fibrosis of the liver.


title: Autoimmune hepatitis

text: There is no specific evidence of the cause. Sixty percent of patients have findings associated with chronic hepatitis but without serologic evidence of a viral infection. The disease is strongly associated with anti-smooth muscle autoantibodies.


title: Autoimmune hepatitis

text: The exact genes and triggers responsible remain undefined, but studies show association of early-onset, severe disease with the HLA-DR3 serotype and late-onset disease with the HLA-DR4 serotype.


title: Autoimmune hepatitis

text: The diagnosis of autoimmune hepatitis is best achieved with a combination of clinical, laboratory, and histological findings after excluding other etiological factors (e.g. viral, hereditary, metabolic, cholestatic, and drug-induced liver diseases). The requirement for histological examination necessitates a liver biopsy, typically performed with a needle by the percutaneous route, to provide liver tissue.


title: Autoimmune hepatitis

text: A number of specific antibodies found in the blood (antinuclear antibody (ANA), anti-smooth muscle antibody (SMA), anti-liver kidney microsomal antibodies (LKM-1, LKM-2, LKM-3), anti soluble liver antigen (SLA), liver–pancreas antigen (LP), and anti-mitochondrial antibody (AMA)) are of use, as is finding an increased immunoglobulin G level. The presence of anti-mitochondrial antibody is more suggestive of primary biliary cholangitis. Hypergammaglobulinemia is also of diagnostic value.


title: Autoimmune hepatitis

text: The Internal Autoimmune Hepatitis Group developed a standardized scoring system for clinical diagnosis in population studies but lacks value in individualized cases. A simplified scoring system for clinical use incorporates titers of autoantibodies, total IgG levels, liver histology, and the exclusion of viral hepatitis for diagnostic scoring.


title: Autoimmune hepatitis

text: On the basis of detected autoantibodies, autoimmune hepatitis can be classified into three subtypes but have no distinct clinical presentations.


title: Autoimmune hepatitis

text: Other diagnoses to consider include conditions that may cause acute hepatitis or chronic liver inflammation that may be accompanied by cirrhosis:


title: Autoimmune hepatitis

text: The choice for medical treatment should be based on the individual's severity of symptoms, quantitative elevation of liver enzymes and antibody levels, findings on liver biopsy, and ability to tolerate side effects of medical therapy.


title: Autoimmune hepatitis

text: Generally, treatment is not required in asymptomatic patients with normal liver enzyme and antibody levels and liver biopsies that do not demonstrate inflammation because these patients are at a low risk of disease progression. In symptomatic individuals with evidence of interface hepatitis and necrosis on liver biopsy, it is recommended to offer treatment especially if the patient is young and can tolerate the side effects of medical therapy.


title: Autoimmune hepatitis

text: The mainstay of treatment involves the use of immunosuppressive glucocorticoids such as prednisone during acute episodes and resolution of symptoms can be achieved in up to 60–80% of cases, although many will eventually experience a relapse. In individuals with moderate to severe disease who may not tolerate glucocorticoids, lower dose prednisone monotherapy or combination with azathioprine is a reasonable alternative. Budesonide has been shown to be more effective in inducing remission than prednisone, but evidence is scarce and more data is needed before it can be routinely recommended. Those with autoimmune hepatitis who do not respond to glucocorticoids and azathioprine may be given other immunosuppressives like mycophenolate, ciclosporin, tacrolimus, or methotrexate.


title: Autoimmune hepatitis

text: Liver cirrhosis can develop in about 7% to 40% of treated patients. People with the highest risk for progression to cirrhosis are those with incomplete response to treatment, treatment failure, and multiple relapses. Once cirrhosis develops, management of liver cirrhosis in autoimmune hepatitis is standard regardless of etiology. Liver transplantation is the standard of care in people presenting with fulminant liver failure or those with the progression of disease despite multiple lines of therapy.


title: Autoimmune hepatitis

text: Without treatment, the ten-year survival rate for individuals with symptomatic autoimmune hepatitis is 50%. However, with treatment, the ten-year survival rate is above 90%. Despite the benefits of treatment, people with autoimmune hepatitis generally have a lower transplant-free survival than the general population. Outcomes with liver transplant are generally favorable with a five-year survival greater than 80 percent.


title: Autoimmune hepatitis

text: Presentation and response to therapy may differ according to race. African Americans appear to present with a more aggressive disease that is associated with worse outcomes.


title: Autoimmune hepatitis

text: There has been strong evidence that patients with autoimmune hepatitis can develop mental health disorders like schizophrenia and bipolar disorder later in their life.


title: Autoimmune hepatitis

text: Autoimmune hepatitis can develop in people of any race or age but occurs most frequently in women. Eighty percent of cases are the type 1 subtype with women being affected 4 times more often than men; for the type 2 subtype, women are affected 10 times more often than men.


title: Autoimmune hepatitis

text: European studies suggest a disease incidence of 1 to 2 people affected per 100,000 population with a prevalence of 10 to 25 people per 100,000 population.


title: Autoimmune hepatitis

text: The disease has a bimodal peak occurring between the ages of 10 to 20 and then later in life between the ages of 40 to 50.


title: Autoimmune hepatitis

text: Autoimmune hepatitis was previously called "lupoid" hepatitis due to people having an associated autoimmune disease like system lupus erythematosus at time of diagnosis, which was believed to be its cause. It was originally described in the early 1950s.


title: Alistair Cooke

text: Alistair Cooke (born Alfred Cooke; 20 November 1908 – 30 March 2004) was a British-American writer whose work as a journalist, television personality and radio broadcaster was done primarily in the United States. Outside his journalistic output, which included "Letter from America" and "", he was well known in the United States as the host of PBS "Masterpiece Theatre" from 1971 to 1992. After holding the job for 22 years, and having worked in television for Cooke retired in 1992, although he continued to present "Letter from America" until shortly before his death. He was the father of author and folk singer John Byrne Cooke.


title: Alistair Cooke

text: He was born Alfred Cooke in Salford, Lancashire, England, the son of Mary Elizabeth (Byrne) and Samuel Cooke. His father was a Methodist lay preacher and metalsmith by trade; his mother's family were of Irish Protestant origin.


title: Alistair Cooke

text: He was educated at Blackpool Grammar School, and won a scholarship to Jesus College, Cambridge, where he gained an honours degree (2:1) in English. He was heavily involved in the arts, was editor of "Granta", and set up the Mummers, Cambridge's first theatre group open to both sexes, from which he notably rejected a young James Mason, telling him to stick to architecture.


title: Alistair Cooke

text: Cooke's first visit to the United States was in 1932 on a two-year Commonwealth Fund Fellowship, now Harkness Fellowship to Yale and Harvard, where his acting and music skills came to the fore with visits to Hollywood.


title: Alistair Cooke

text: Cooke saw a newspaper headline stating that Oliver Baldwin, the Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin's son, had been sacked by the BBC as film critic. Cooke sent a telegram to the Director of Talks, asking if he would be considered for the post. He was invited for an interview and took a Cunard liner back to Britain, arriving twenty-four hours late for his interview. He suggested typing out a film review on the spot, and a few minutes later, he was offered the job. He also sat on a BBC Advisory Committee headed by George Bernard Shaw for correct pronunciation.


title: Alistair Cooke

text: Cooke was also the London correspondent for NBC. Each week, he recorded a 15-minute radio dialogue for American listeners on life in Britain, under the series title of "London Letter". In 1936, he intensively reported on the Edward VIII abdication crisis for NBC. He made several talks on the topic each day to listeners in many parts of the United States. He calculated that in ten days he spoke 400,000 words on the subject. During the crisis, he was aided by a twenty-year-old Rhodes Scholar, Walt Rostow, who would become Lyndon B. Johnson's national security advisor.


title: Alistair Cooke

text: Cooke replaced Oliver Baldwin as the BBC's film critic on 8 October 1934 and gave his first BBC broadcast: ""I declare that I am a critic trying to interest a lot of people into seeing interesting films", he told his audience. "I have no personal interest in any company. As a critic I am without politics and without class."" Thus very soon in 1937, Cooke emigrated to the United States; but became a United States citizen and swore the Oath of Allegiance on 1 December 1941, six days before Pearl Harbor was attacked. Shortly after emigrating, Cooke suggested to the BBC the idea of doing the "London Letter" in reverse: a 15-minute talk for British listeners on life in America. A prototype, "Mainly About Manhattan", was broadcast intermittently from 1938, but the idea was shelved with the outbreak of World War II in 1939.


title: Alistair Cooke

text: During this time, as well, Cooke undertook a journey through the whole United States, recording the lifestyle of ordinary Americans during the war and their reactions to it. The manuscript was published as "The American Home Front: 1941–1942" in the United States (and as "Alistair Cooke's American Journey: Life on the Home Front in the Second World War" in the UK) in 2006.


title: Alistair Cooke

text: The first "American Letter" was broadcast on 24 March 1946 (Cooke said this was at the request of Lindsey Wellington, the BBC's New York Controller); the series was initially commissioned for only 13 instalments. The series came to an end 58 years later in March 2004, after 2,869 instalments and less than a month before Cooke's death. Along the way, it picked up a new name (changing from "American Letter" to "Letter from America" in 1950) and an enormous audience, being broadcast not only in Britain and in many other Commonwealth countries, but throughout the world by the BBC World Service.


title: Alistair Cooke

text: In 1947, Cooke became a foreign correspondent for the "Manchester Guardian" newspaper (later "The Guardian"), for which he wrote until 1972. It was the first time he had been employed as a staff reporter; all his previous work had been freelance. In reporting on the Montgomery bus boycott, begun by Rosa Parks and led by Martin Luther King, Cooke expressed sympathy for the economic costs imposed on the city bus company and referred to Mrs. Parks as "the stubborn woman who started it all ... to become the Paul Revere of the boycott."


title: Alistair Cooke

text: In 1968, he was only yards away from Robert F. Kennedy when he was assassinated, witnessing the events that followed.


title: Alistair Cooke

text: In 1952, Cooke became the host of CBS's "Omnibus", the first U.S. commercial network television series devoted to the arts. It featured appearances by such personalities as Hume Cronyn, Jessica Tandy, Gene Kelly and Leonard Bernstein. Jonathan Winters was the first comic to appear on the show.


title: Alistair Cooke

text: In 1966 he was invited to deliver the MacMillan Memorial Lecture to the Institution of Engineers and Shipbuilders in Scotland. He chose the subject "The Jet Age and the Habits of Man".


title: Alistair Cooke

text: In 1971, he became the host of the new "Masterpiece Theatre", PBS's showcase of quality British television. He remained its host for 22 years, before retiring from the role in 1992. He achieved his greatest popularity in the United States in this role, becoming the subject of many parodies, including "Alistair Cookie" in "Sesame Street" ("Alistair Cookie" was also the name of a clay animated cookie-headed spoof character created by Will Vinton as the host of a video trailer for "The Little Prince and Friends"), and Alistair Quince, portrayed by Harvey Korman, who introduced many episodes in the early seasons of "Mama's Family".


title: Alistair Cooke

text: "" (1972), a 13-part television series about the United States and its history, was first broadcast in both the United Kingdom and the United States in 1973, and was followed by a book of the same title. It was a great success in both countries, and resulted in Cooke's being invited to address the joint Houses of the United States Congress as part of Congress's bicentenary celebrations. After the series was broadcast in Ireland, Cooke won a Jacob's Award, one of the few occasions when this award was made to the maker of an imported programme.


title: Alistair Cooke

text: On 2 March 2004, at the age of 95, following advice from his doctors, Cooke announced his retirement from "Letter from America"—after 58 years, the longest-running speech radio show in the world.


title: Alistair Cooke

text: Cooke died at midnight on 30 March 2004, at his home in New York City. He had been ill with heart disease, but died of lung cancer, which had spread to his bones. He was cremated, and his ashes were clandestinely scattered by his family in Central Park.


title: Alistair Cooke

text: On 22 December 2005, the "New York Daily News" reported that several of Cooke’s bones and many other people had been surgically removed before cremation by employees of Biomedical Tissue Services of Fort Lee, New Jersey, a tissue-recovery firm. The thieves sold the bones for use as medical-grade bone grafts. The cancer from which Cooke was suffering had spread to his bones, making them unsuitable for grafts. Reports indicated the people involved in selling the bones altered his death certificate to hide the cause of death and reduce his age from 95 to 85. Michael Mastromarino, a former New Jersey-based oral surgeon, and Lee Cruceta agreed to a deal that resulted in their imprisonment. Mastromarino was sentenced on 27 June 2008, in the New York Supreme Court, to 18 to 54 years' imprisonment. The entire story of the theft featured in a documentary aimed at educating the public about modern-day grave robbery. On the morning of 7 July 2013, at age 49, Michael Mastromarino died at St. Luke's Hospital after suffering from liver cancer.


title: Alistair Cooke

text: In 1932 Cooke became engaged to Henrietta Riddle, the daughter of the English actor Henry Ainley and the Baroness von Hütten, but she broke off the engagement the following year while he was in America on a Commonwealth Fund Fellowship. He met Ruth Emerson, a great-grandniece of Ralph Waldo Emerson, in 1933, and they married on 24 August 1934. Their son, John Byrne Cooke, was born 5 October 1940 in New York City, New York.


title: Alistair Cooke

text: Alistair Cooke divorced Ruth in 1944, and married Jane White Hawkes, a portrait painter and the widow of neurologist A. Whitfield Hawkes, the son of Albert W. Hawkes, on 30 April 1946. Their daughter, Susan, was born on 22 March 1949.


title: Alistair Cooke

text: Cooke took up golf in his mid-fifties, developing a fascination with the game, despite never attaining an extraordinary level of skill. He was driven by his love of golf to devote many of his "Letter from America" episodes to the topic, speaking once of the thrill of learning "how much more awesome was the world of golf than the world of politics." Cooke became close friends with many of the leading golfers of the era: Jack Nicklaus, in the introduction to a compilation of Cooke's writing on golf, recounts his many notable achievements, but describes him as "most of all ... a friend."


title: Alistair Cooke

text: In 1973, Cooke was awarded an honorary knighthood (KBE) for his "outstanding contribution to Anglo-American mutual understanding." Cooke was reportedly happy to accept, because in the words of Thomas Jefferson, it did not involve "the very great vanity of a title." Having relinquished his British citizenship during World War II, he could not be called "Sir Alistair".


title: Alistair Cooke

text: After Alistair Cooke's death the Fulbright Alistair Cooke Award in Journalism was established as a tribute to the man and his life and career achievements. The award supports students from the United Kingdom to undertake studies in the United States, and for Americans to study in the United Kingdom.


title: Alistair Cooke

text: The album features Cooke playing jazz standards on piano with accompanying whistle and speaking about his life in America.


title: Babycham

text: Babycham () is the trade name of a light (6% ABV), sparkling perry invented by Francis Showering, a brewer in Shepton Mallet in Somerset, England. The name was owned by Accolade Wines until December 2021 when it was bought back into the Showering family business Brothers Drinks Limited. The brand was particularly popular during the 1960s and 1970s. The four brothers are planning a major rebranding and relaunch of the drink.


title: Babycham

text: Francis Showering first submitted his new drink to the Three Counties Agricultural Show and other agricultural shows in the late 1940s and early 1950s where it was found to be popular. Initially called "baby champ," it later became Babycham.


title: Babycham

text: Launched in the United Kingdom in 1953, Babycham was the first alcoholic product to be advertised on British commercial television, the campaign being launched in 1957, with the drink originally marketed as a "genuine champagne perry". It was the first alcoholic drink aimed specifically at women and used the catchphrase "I'd Love a Babycham".


title: Babycham

text: In 1965, the Babycham Company sued the food writer Raymond Postgate, founder of the "Good Food Guide", for an article in "Holiday" magazine in which he warned readers against Babycham, which "looks like champagne and is served in champagne glasses [but] is made of pears". The company sued for libel, claiming the article implied it was dishonestly passing off Babycham as champagne. The judge in his summation stated that the article was defamatory, but that the jury could consider it as "fair comment" rather than a factual statement. The jury found for Postgate, and he was awarded costs.


title: Babycham

text: During the 1960s, Showerings stopped brewing beer to concentrate on cider and perry. Production of Babycham went from 300 dozen bottles an hour to 2,800 dozen. At the peak in June 1973 144,000 bottles were being produced each hour. To supply the production line, perry pears were planted in Somerset, Gloucestershire, Worcestershire and Hereford. Until suitable trees could be grown locally, pear juice was imported from Switzerland. The profits helped to pay for the landscaping of the gardens at the company's headquarters at Kilver Court.


title: Babycham

text: In 1978, the Babycham company was sued by French Champagne producers for abuse of their trade name. The case ("H P Bulmer Ltd and Showerings Ltd v J Bollinger SA" [1978] RPC 79) hinged on the fact that Babycham had been described in advertising as ‘champagne perry’ or ‘champagne cider’. Champagne producers were litigating to protect their goodwill but because there would not actually be confusion, they were unsuccessful.


title: Babycham

text: The brand's appeal waned with the rise of cheaply available alternatives and a tightening up of the regulations governing alcohol advertising on television. 1993 saw a major relaunch of the brand and the reintroduction of the chamois mascot, a giant model of which can be seen outside the Shepton Mallet factory where the drink is produced. 1997 saw the reintroduction of Babycham Babe beauty contests that had been popular in the 1960s. The iconic 'Babycham' logo was designed and created by John Emperor of Collett Dickenson Pearce.


title: Babycham

text: The Showerings' company was bought by Allied Breweries in 1968 and with it the Babycham brand. The sons of the original Showerings founders went on to produce Brothers Cider, and in 2021 bought the Babycham brand back from its then owner Accolade Wines for an undisclosed sum.


title: Babycham

text: During 2011 sales were reported to be increasing, with approximately 15 million bottles sold each year.


title: Babycham

text: In 2013 a trademark dispute between Accolade Wines and the Cath Kidston home furnishings company was taken to the High Court.


title: Houghton, Michigan

text: Houghton (; ) is the largest city and seat of government of Houghton County in the U.S. state of Michigan. Located on the Keweenaw Peninsula, Houghton is the largest city in the Copper Country region. It is the fifth-largest city in the Upper Peninsula, with a population of 8,386 at the 2020 census. Houghton is the principal city of the Houghton micropolitan area, which includes all of Houghton and Keweenaw County.


title: Houghton, Michigan

text: The city of Houghton and the county were named after Douglass Houghton, an American geologist and physician, primarily known for his exploration of the Keweenaw Peninsula. Houghton has been listed as one of the "100 Best Small Towns in America" despite it being considered a city. Houghton is home to Michigan Technological University, a public research college founded in 1885. Michigan Tech hosts a yearly Winter Carnival in February, drawing thousands of visitors from around the world.


title: Houghton, Michigan

text: Native Americans mined copper in and around what would later be Houghton thousands of years before European settlement. "French explorers had noted... [its] existence [in the area] as early as the seventeenth century, [and in] 1772 Alexander Henry had prospected for copper on the Ontonagon River near Victoria."


title: Houghton, Michigan

text: Many Cornish and Finnish immigrants arrived in the Houghton area to work in the copper mines in the mining boom that made Copper Country on the Keweenaw Peninsula; both groups have had a great influence on the culture and cuisine of the local area. The Finns and others called much of the area Copper Island. Smaller numbers of French-Canadian immigrants moved to Houghton, while more of them settled elsewhere in Houghton County.


title: Houghton, Michigan

text: The last nearby mines closed in the late 1960s, but a school founded in 1885 by the Michigan State Legislature to teach metallurgy and mining engineering, the Michigan College of Mines, continues today under the name of Michigan Technological University and is the primary employer in the city.


title: Houghton, Michigan

text: The first known European settler of Houghton was named Ransom Shelden, who set up a store named Ransom's near Portage Lake, though it is unclear whether this was in the same building as the 1852 Shelden and Shafer drugs, sometimes described as "the first commercial building constructed in Houghton," which Shelden owned with his son Ransom B. The main street of Houghton, variously called "Sheldon Avenue," (incorrectly) Sheldon Street, and Shelden Avenue, is named for him. In the 1970s the construction of a parking deck and the connection of downtown stores to create Shelden Center significantly changed the downtown.


title: Houghton, Michigan

text: In 1854, Ernest F. Pletschke platted Houghton, and was incorporated as a village in 1861. In Houghton's first days it was said that "only thieves, crooks, murderers and Indians" lived there. The postwar boom and increasing demand for copper wiring fueled the development of Houghton in the 1860s and 1870s.


title: Houghton, Michigan

text: Houghton gained in importance as a port with the opening of the Keweenaw Waterway in 1873, the waterway being the cumulative dredging and extension of the Portage Lake, Portage Shipping Canal and Lily Pond so as to isolate the northern part of the Keweenaw Peninsula into Copper Island. By 1880 Houghton had become "a burgeoning city" and in 1883, the railroad was extended from Marquette.


title: Houghton, Michigan

text: During the bitter Copper Country Strike of 1913-1914, the Michigan National Guard was called in after the sheriff petitioned the governor.


title: Houghton, Michigan

text: Houghton was the birthplace of professional ice hockey in the United States when the Portage Lakers were formed in 1903. Houghton is the home of the Portage Lake Pioneers Senior Hockey Team. The team's home ice is Dee Stadium, named after James R. Dee. Dee Stadium was originally called the Amphidrome, before it was severely damaged in a 1927 fire.


title: Houghton, Michigan

text: In the winter of 2001, Houghton was the site of one of the first lumitalos (Finnish temporary snow houses) to be constructed in the United States.


title: Houghton, Michigan

text: On October 28, 2002, the first day of issue ceremony was held in Houghton for the "snowman stamps" issued by the United States Postal Service.


title: Houghton, Michigan

text: One of the 2006 United States Postal Service snowflake stamps ("photographed in Houghton by Caltech physicist Kenneth Libbrecht using a digital camera and special microscope") were unveiled in Houghton.


title: Houghton, Michigan

text: A pictorial postmark commemorating Winter Carnival 2007, "Ancient Worlds Come to Play in Snowy Drifts of Modern Day", was applied at the Winter Carnival temporary station in Michigan Technological University's Memorial Union Building, February 10, 2007.


title: Houghton, Michigan

text: The city is located on the south shore of the Keweenaw Waterway, primarily "on rolling wooded hills less than a mile" across Portage Lake." from Hancock. The city is bounded on the east by Portage Township and Pilgrim, on the west by Dakota Heights and on the south by Hurontown and Isle Royale Location, unincorporated communities that are part of Portage Township; and also on the west by Adams Township. Houghton is named after Douglass Houghton, discoverer of copper nearby. Houghton is also the home of Michigan Technological University. The city is served by Houghton County Memorial Airport in nearby Oneco.


title: Houghton, Michigan

text: According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , of which is land and is water.


title: Houghton, Michigan

text: In the West Houghton neighborhood is West Houghton Park, containing an outdoor ice rink and lawn tennis courts. Along Portage Lake is the Raymond Kestner Waterfront Recreation Area, the principal feature of which is a large "Chutes and Ladders" playground; it also includes Houghton Beach. Along the waterfront, in the area that used to be occupied by the railroad tracks, runs the "flat, paved" Waterfront Trail for bikers and pedestrians; at one end of this is the Houghton RV Park, at the other end the Nara Nature Park and midway along this corridor is "Mattila Square". Prince's Point is also along this trail. Veterans Park is just across the Portage Lake Lift Bridge from Hancock, and contains the memorial to the Houghton Company, which fought in the Civil War. Houghton is the headquarters for Isle Royale National Park.


title: Houghton, Michigan

text: The Portage Lift Bridge connects Hancock and Houghton, Michigan, by crossing over Portage Lake, which is part of the river and canal system that crosses the entire peninsula. The Portage Lift Bridge is the world's heaviest and widest double-decked vertical lift bridge. Its center span "lifts" to provide of clearance for ships. Since rail traffic was discontinued in the Keweenaw, the lower deck is used to accommodate snowmobile traffic in the winter. This is the only land based link between the north and south section of the Keweenaw peninsula, and is crucial.


title: Houghton, Michigan

text: Houghton has a humid continental climate (Köppen "Dfb") but the (typically) long and snowy (due to lake-effect snow, with an average of ) winters make the city feel as though it is in a climate much farther north. It holds the distinction of having the third-most (behind Duluth and International Falls in Minnesota) maxima below of any incorporated city in the contiguous US, with the top temperature failing to reach freezing on 100.9 days per year. It is sometimes said that Houghton has “two seasons: winter’s here and winter’s coming.”


title: Houghton, Michigan

text: While Houghton's winters may be the subject of humor, residents take the subject of snow and winter very seriously. Houghton is one of the premier “Winter Cities” found anywhere. A “Winter City” is a community that accommodates winter, celebrates it, and whose residents generally enjoy the season by participating in a variety of outdoor activities. Among those activities are cross country skiing, snow-shoeing, ice fishing, snowmobiling, ice skating and outdoor ice hockey, among other activities. Houghton celebrates winter through the “Winter Carnival” organized by Michigan Tech every year in February.


title: Houghton, Michigan

text: Houghton's summer climate tends to be especially pleasant, as hot temperatures are often moderated by the cool waters of nearby Lake Superior. The city's record high temperature of was recorded July 7, 1988; this is the only day in the city's history with a temperature over . Temperatures below are also relatively infrequent due to the moderating effect of the lake, being reached only on 18.3 nights per year as against over fifty at International Falls. The coldest temperature on record is , set on February 9, 1951. The heaviest monthly snow total was in December 1978; the winter of 1978–1979 saw of snow fall, making it the snowiest in 109 years of continuous records at the county airport (1891-2000). The greatest snow depth recorded was at the end of February 1937; in only two winters between 1891–1892 and 1999–2000 (1925–26 with and 1932–33 with ) did the snow depth never reach at least two feet ().


title: Houghton, Michigan

text: Every summer, the city of Houghton hosts a festival known as "Bridgefest", to commemorate the building of the Portage Lake Lift Bridge; this is often held in conjunction with "Seafoodfest". Every fall, the Parade of Nations takes place in downtown Houghton to commemorate the ethnic diversity of Michigan Technological University. "Strawberry Fest" is held in neighboring Chassell every summer, which not only celebrates the fruit, but also includes an art market with paintings, photos, sculptures, and crafts.


title: Houghton, Michigan

text: The city houses two museums. The Carnegie Museum, located in the former Portage Lake District Library building, contains photographs from the Raffaelli Historical Photo Collection, other artifacts on the history of the local area, a mural depicting the history of Houghton, Ontonagon, Baraga and Keweenaw Counties and exhibits of artwork. The AE Seaman Mineral Museum, state mineral museum of Michigan, is located on the campus of Michigan Technological University.


title: Houghton, Michigan

text: Houghton is often the host of winter sporting events, due to its long winters and many ski hills. The 2006 cross-country skiing Junior Olympics took place in Houghton. The US National Championships for Nordic skiing took place in Houghton in January 2007. In addition, the International Frisbee Tournament (IFT) takes place every year in Houghton and the roll-out of the distance events of the Keweenaw Chain Drive bike races of Houghton and Hancock takes place in downtown Houghton.


title: Houghton, Michigan

text: Other winter events focus around Michigan Technological University. Michigan Tech hosts a yearly Winter Carnival in which thousands of visitors come to see snow sculptures built by members of fraternities, sororities, other student organizations, as well as a few community groups, and participate in the week-long celebration. Students at the university also receive several days of vacation for Carnival. As part of Winter Carnival 2006, the city of Houghton and the university broke three world records: the largest snowball, the largest snowball fight, and the largest number of people making snow angels in one place. They currently still hold two of these records: largest snowball and largest snowball fight.


title: Houghton, Michigan

text: "The Daily Mining Gazette" (formerly "The Mining Gazette") is a daily newspaper published in Houghton.


title: Houghton, Michigan

text: The town is sometimes referred to by locals as "Hoton" or "Ho-town." "Hoton" is even stenciled on city property. Since Houghton and Hancock are very near each other, their combined area is often referred to as "Houghton-Hancock," though the towns are often fierce rivals, something particularly manifested by the sports rivalry between Houghton High School and Hancock Central.


title: Houghton, Michigan

text: Tourism is a major industry in Houghton. Summer tourism is very popular, especially among those wishing to tour old mines, visit various historical sites, and camp. Winter tourism is also very active from November through April, for snowmobiling, skiing and other winter sports.


title: Houghton, Michigan

text: As of the census of 2020, there were 8,386 people residing in the city, living in 2,533 households with an average of 2.30 people per household.


title: Houghton, Michigan

text: As of the census of 2010, there were 7,708 people, 2,380 households, and 907 families residing in the city. The population density was . There were 2,516 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 85.2% White, 1.0% African American, 0.4% Native American, 11.2% Asian, 0.1% Pacific Islander, 0.4% from other races, and 1.8% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino residents of any race were 1.8% of the population.


title: Houghton, Michigan

text: There were 2,380 households, of which 18.4% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 28.6% were married couples living together, 6.3% had a female householder with no husband present, 3.2% had a male householder with no wife present, and 61.9% were non-families. 32.1% of all households were made up of individuals, and 11.9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.37 and the average family size was 2.82.


title: Houghton, Michigan

text: The median age in the city was 22.1 years. 10.1% of residents were under the age of 18; 56.2% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 16.1% were from 25 to 44; 10.5% were from 45 to 64; and 7% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 64.3% male and 35.7% female.


title: Houghton, Michigan

text: As of the census of 2000, there were 7,010 people, 2,114 households, and 877 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,625.5 per square mile (628.0/km). There were 2,222 housing units at an average density of 515.2 per square mile (199.1/km). The racial makeup of the city was 89.24% White, 1.87% Black or African American, 0.40% Native American, 6.79% Asian, 0.01% Pacific Islander, 0.24% from other races, and 1.44% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0.77% of the population. 16.4% were of German, 12.7% Finnish, 8.2% Irish, 8.0% English, 6.0% Polish and 5.1% Italian ancestry according to Census 2000. 94.8% spoke English, 1.8% Spanish and 1.2% Chinese as their first language.


title: Houghton, Michigan

text: There were 2,114 households, out of which 21.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 31.6% were married couples living together, 7.9% had a female householder with no husband present, and 58.5% were non-families. 35.2% of all households were one-person households, and 12.2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.34 and the average family size was 2.94.


title: Houghton, Michigan

text: In the city, the population was spread out, with 12.0% under the age of 18, 55.2% from 18 to 24, 15.3% from 25 to 44, 10.3% from 45 to 64, and 7.1% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 22 years. For every 100 females, there were 160.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 173.2 males.


title: Houghton, Michigan

text: The median income for a household in the city was $21,186, and the median income for a family was $41,779. Males had a median income of $36,161 versus $28,639 for females. The per capita income for the city was $11,750. About 20.3% of families and 36.9% of the population were below the poverty line, including 21.9% of those under age 18 and 18.2% of those age 65 or over.


title: Houghton, Michigan

text: The local school district is Houghton-Portage Township Schools. Students K-12 are served by Houghton Elementary (K-5), Middle (6-8), and High (9-12) Schools. Houghton is also the home of Michigan Technological University.


title: Houghton, Michigan

text: Indian Trails bus lines operates daily intercity bus service between Hancock, Michigan and Milwaukee, Wisconsin.


title: Houghton, Michigan

text: Houghton Motor Transit operates both a demand bus and a route bus throughout Houghton and in nearby parts of Portage Township; there are also night trips to Mont Ripley in Ripley.


title: Houghton, Michigan

text: Houghton is the port of departure for Isle Royale National Park. Cruise ships on the great lakes formerly (in the 1950s) used to frequently stop in Houghton, but this is now an exceedingly rare occurrence.


title: Houghton, Michigan

text: Houghton was formerly served by airship. A seaplane departs from Houghton to Isle Royale National Park.


title: Houghton, Michigan

text: Snowmobiling is a major winter activity in the area, both locally (snowmobiles are often the best available means of transportation after a blizzard) and as a tourist industry. The Bill Nichols Snowmobile Trail has a terminus in Houghton.


title: Houghton, Michigan

text: Houghton is generally said to be divided into East Houghton, the Central Houghton area (which includes the downtown) and West Houghton.


title: Houghton, Michigan

text: The Houghton, Michigan micropolitan area is a statistical aggregation of the United States census bureau.


title: Houghton, Michigan

text: Houghton figures in the novels "A Superior Death" and "Winter Study" by Nevada Barr and the Robin Hamilton mystery series by Nancy Barr. Much of Ander Monson's "Other Electricities" takes place in Houghton.