title: MIM-72 Chaparral

text: The MIM-72A/M48 Chaparral is an American-made self-propelled surface-to-air missile system based on the AIM-9 Sidewinder air-to-air missile system. The launcher is based on the M113 family of vehicles. It entered service with the United States Army in 1969 and was phased out between 1990 and 1998. It was intended to be used along with the M163 VADS, the Vulcan ADS covering short-range short-time engagements, and the Chaparral for longer range use.


title: MIM-72 Chaparral

text: Starting in 1959 the U.S. Army MICOM (Missile Command) began development of an ambitious anti-aircraft missile system under their "Forward Area Air Defense" (FAAD) program. Known as the MIM-46 Mauler, it was based on a modified M113 chassis carrying a large rotating A-frame rack on top with nine missiles and both long-range search and shorter-range tracking radars. Operation was to be almost entirely automatic, with the operators simply selecting targets from the search radar's display and then pressing "fire". The entire engagement would be handled by the fire control computer.


title: MIM-72 Chaparral

text: In testing, Mauler proved to have numerous problems. Many of these were relatively minor, including problems with the rocket motors or fins on the airframe. Others, like problems with the fire control and guidance systems, appeared to be more difficult to solve. Army strategy from the mid-1950s PENTANA study was based on having embedded mobile anti-aircraft capability, and Mauler's delays put this entire program in question. More worrying, a new generation of Soviet attack aircraft was coming into service. For both of these reasons the Mauler program was scaled back in 1963 and alternatives were studied.


title: MIM-72 Chaparral

text: MICOM was directed to study whether or not the Navy's AIM-9D Sidewinder missile could be adapted for the ground-to-air role. Since the Sidewinder was guided by an infrared seeker, it would not be confused by ground clutter like the radar-guided Mauler. On the downside, the missile required some time to "lock on", and the current generation seekers were only able to lock onto the tail of an aircraft. MICOM's report was cautiously optimistic, concluding that the Sidewinder could be adapted very quickly, although it would have limited capability.


title: MIM-72 Chaparral

text: A new concept, the "Interim Forward Area Air Defense" (IFAAD) evolved around the Sidewinder. The main concern was that at shorter distances the missile would not have time to lock onto the target before it flew out of range, so to serve this need a second vehicle based around the M61 Vulcan cannon was specified. Both would be aimed manually, eliminating the delay needed for a fire control system to develop a "solution". Neither vehicle concept had room for a search radar, so a separate radar system using datalink was developed for this role.


title: MIM-72 Chaparral

text: The studies were completed in 1965 and the Chaparral program was begun. The first XMIM-72A missiles were delivered to the US Army in 1967. Ford developed the M730 vehicle, adapted from the M548, itself one of the many versions of the widely used M113. The first Chaparral battalion was deployed in May 1969.


title: MIM-72 Chaparral

text: A small target-acquisition area radar, the AN/MPQ-49 Forward Area Alerting Radar (FAAR), was developed in 1966 to support the Chaparral/Vulcan system, although the FAAR is transported by the Gama Goat and thus not suitable for use in the front line.


title: MIM-72 Chaparral

text: The complete system was known as the M48 Chaparral Intercept-Aerial Guided Missile System, composed of the M54 Launching Station atop the M730 carrier, a M113 variant. M730A1 had M113A2 improvements, while M730A2 was upgraded to M113A3 standard complete with diesel engine


title: MIM-72 Chaparral

text: The launcher was capable of a full 360 degrees traverse and +90/-9 degrees of elevation. Four missiles were carried on the launch rails, with eight extras stored below the launcher with their fins and wings removed. The gunner sat between the missile pairs on the mount, aiming using a simple reflex sight. An auxiliary power unit provides the necessary power to run the mount, and a cryonic air cooler provides the missile seekers with the necessary cooling. On early models the power unit was a two-cylinder 10 horsepower gasoline engine, though it was replaced with a more powerful 30 hp diesel engine in the early 1980s, greatly improving available power while simultaneously allowing fuel compatibility with the main engine.


title: MIM-72 Chaparral

text: The MIM-72A missile was based on the AIM-9D Sidewinder. The main difference is that to reduce drag only two of the fins on the MIM-72A have rollerons, the other two having been replaced by fixed thin fins. The MIM-72's MK 50 solid-fuel rocket motor was essentially identical to the MK 36 MOD 5 used in the AIM-9D Sidewinder.


title: MIM-72 Chaparral

text: MIM-72B was a training missile with the radar fuze replaced with an IR model for use against target drones.


title: MIM-72 Chaparral

text: 1974 saw the introduction of the MIM-72C, used the advanced AN/DAW-1B seeker with all-aspect capability, as well as a new doppler radar fuze and M250 blast-frag warhead. The fuze and warhead were adapted from the earlier Mauler program. C models were deployed between 1976 and 1981, reaching operational status in 1978.


title: MIM-72 Chaparral

text: A naval version of the missile was also developed, based on the C version of the missile – the RIM-72C "Sea Chaparral". This was not adopted by the U.S. Navy, however it was exported to Taiwan.


title: MIM-72 Chaparral

text: MIM-72E of the late 1970s used the M121 smokeless motor, which greatly reduced the smoke generated on firing, thus allowing easier follow-up shots and making it harder for enemy aircraft to find the launch site.


title: MIM-72 Chaparral

text: MIM-72G was the final upgrade to the system. The rosettee scan seeker of the Stinger POST was adapted to the Chaparral by Ford in a program beginning in 1980. The improved AN/DAW-2 seeker offered a large field of view, as well as the ability to reject most flares and countermeasures. All existing missiles had been updated by the late 1980s and new-build G models followed between 1990 and 1991. By this point in time the system was already being removed from regular Army service, and being handed over to the National Guard.


title: MIM-72 Chaparral

text: Two training missiles, the Trainer M30 and Trainer M33, were also built. Used for loading practice, these trainers used inert dummy components and could not be launched. For tracking practice, the Trainers could be fitted with tactical seekers. The M30 replicated the live "A" using the original Mk28 seeker head, while the M33 replicated "C" and later and was fitted with the AN/DAW series of seekers


title: Migration to Abyssinia

text: The migration to Abyssinia (), also known as the First Hijra (), was an episode in the early history of Islam, where the first followers of the Islamic prophet Muhammad (they were known as the Sahabah) fled from Arabia due to their persecution by the Quraysh, the ruling Arab tribal confederation of Mecca. They sought and were granted refuge in the Kingdom of Aksum, an ancient Christian state that was situated in modern-day Ethiopia and Eritrea (also referred to as Abyssinia), in or . The ruling Aksumite monarch who received them is known in Islamic sources as Najashi (), the Negus of the kingdom; modern historians have alternatively identified him with the Aksumite king Armah and Ella Tsaham. Some of the Sahabah exiles returned to Mecca and made the migration to Medina with Muhammad, while others remained in Aksum and arrived in Medina in 628.


title: Migration to Abyssinia

text: According to the traditional view, members of the early Muslim community in Mecca faced persecution, which prompted Muhammad to advise them to seek refuge in Aksum. The earliest extant account is given in the "sirah" of the eighth-century Muslim historian Ibn Ishaq:


title: Migration to Abyssinia

text: Another view, grounded in the political developments of the time, suggests that following the capture of Jerusalem in 614 by the Sasanian Empire, many believers saw a potential danger to the community as they were not the partisans of the Persians who practiced Zoroastrianism and had earlier supported the Jews of Arabia in Himyar. The acceptance of these Muslims into the Kingdom of Aksum at precisely a moment of Persian triumph in the Levant recalls the Aksumite foreign policy of the previous century, which saw Aksum and Persia compete for influence in Arabia.


title: Migration to Abyssinia

text: According to historians of Islam, there were two migrations, although there are differences of opinion with regard to the dates.


title: Migration to Abyssinia

text: The first group of migrants, which comprised twelve men and four women, who fled Arabia in the year or according to other sources, and was granted asylum by Najashi, the Negus of the Kingdom of Aksum, a Christian state that existed in modern-day Ethiopia and Eritrea. This group included Muhammad's daughter Ruqayyah and his son-in-law Uthman ibn Affan, who would later become the third caliph of the Rashidun Caliphate after Muhammad's death. Prior to the exile, Muhammad chose Uthman ibn Mazʽun, one of his most important companions, as the leader of this group. According to Tabqat Ibn Saʽd, the group boarded a merchant ship from the sea port of Shuʽaiba and paid a half-dinar each to cross into East Africa via the Red Sea. After a year, the exiles heard rumours that the Quraysh had converted to Islam, which prompted them to return to Mecca. Confronted with the opposite reality, they set out for the Aksumite kingdom again in or according to other sources, this time accompanied by other newly-founded Muslims, with the migrant group comprising 83 men and 18 women in total.


title: Migration to Abyssinia

text: Some Western historians such as Leone Caetani (1869–1935) and William Montgomery Watt (1909–2006) questioned the account of two migrations. Although Ibn Ishaq provided two partially overlapping lists of migrants, he did not mention that the first group returned and went back a second time. Watt argued that the word used by Ibn Ishaq ("tatāba‘a", ) and the order of the names on the lists suggests that the migration may have taken place in a number of smaller groups rather than two large parties, while the appearance of the two lists reflected the controversies surrounding the assignment of priority on official registers during the reign of the second Rashidun caliph, Umar ibn al-Khattab.


title: Migration to Abyssinia

text: When the Quraysh learned that the early Muslims were planning to move to the Aksumite kingdom, they sent a delegation to the Negus to demand the surrender of the fugitives. They selected two envoys: ‘Amr ibn al-‘As and Abdullah bin Rabiah. The Meccan envoys were given gifts for the Aksumite king Najashi and his generals. The gifts were made up of leather and prepared by fine skin. The Meccans appealed to the generals, arguing that the Muslim migrants were rebels who had invented a new religion, the likes of which neither the Meccans nor the Aksumites had heard of, and that their relatives were asking for their return. The king granted them an audience, but ultimately refused to hand over the migrants until he heard their defence.


title: Migration to Abyssinia

text: The Sahabah were later brought in front of the Negus and his bishops. Jaʽfar ibn Abi Talib, who acted as the leader of the exiles, spoke in their defence:


title: Migration to Abyssinia

text: The Christian king requested their revelations from God. Jaʽfar then recited a passage from the Quran's Surah Maryam (). When the king heard it, he wept and exclaimed: "Verily, this and what Jesus brought (the Gospel) has come from the same source of light ("miškāt")".


title: Migration to Abyssinia

text: However, one of the envoys, ‘Amr ibn al-‘As, thought of an alternative tactic. On the following day, he returned to the king and told him that the Muslims had disrespected Jesus. When the Muslims heard that the king had summoned them again to question them about their view of Jesus, they tried to find a diplomatic answer, but ultimately decided to speak according to the revelation they had received. When the king addressed Jaʽfar, he replied that they held Jesus to be "God's servant, His prophet, His spirit, and His word which He cast upon the virgin Mary". Muslim accounts state that upon hearing these words, the Negus declared that Jesus was indeed no more than what he had said; he turned to the Muslims and told them: "go, for you are safe in my country". He then returned the gifts to the envoys and dismissed them.


title: Migration to Abyssinia

text: Many of the exiles in Aksum returned to Mecca in 622 and made the hijra to Medina with Muhammad, while a second wave went to Medina in 628.


title: Amanda Root

text: Amanda Root (born 1963) is an English stage and screen actress and a former voice actress for children's programmes.


title: Amanda Root

text: Root is known for her starring role in the 1995 BBC film adaptation of Jane Austen's "Persuasion", her role in the British TV comedy "All About Me", as Miranda, alongside Richard Lumsden in 2004, and for voicing Sophie in "The BFG".


title: Amanda Root

text: Root was born in Chelmsford, Essex. She began her career at the Leeds Playhouse in 1983 when she played Essie in Bernard Shaw's "The Devil's Disciple".


title: Amanda Root

text: She was a remarkably complete actress even in her early twenties, when physically she looked little more than a child. With her dark soulful eyes she could command a stage, and the Royal Shakespeare Company saw her talent very early on.


title: Amanda Root

text: She worked regularly with the RSC in Stratford-upon-Avon and London from 1983 to 1991, including playing the role of Juliet to Daniel Day-Lewis's Romeo; a very young Lady Macbeth; Cressida to Ralph Fiennes's Troilus, and Rosaline to his Berowne.


title: Amanda Root

text: In 1995, she starred as Anne Elliot in "Persuasion", co-starring Ciarán Hinds and John Woodvine. The film (made for TV, then released in cinemas) was based on the novel by Jane Austen and was her first leading role in a film.


title: Amanda Root

text: She won rave reviews (and was nominated for a Tony Award) in October 2008 for her portrayal of the control freak Sarah in The Old Vic's revival of Alan Ayckbourn's interlinked trilogy "The Norman Conquests", directed in the round by Matthew Warchus.


title: Amanda Root

text: In 2006, Root undertook the task of recording an unabridged audiobook of Charlotte Brontë's "Jane Eyre". Published by Naxos it has a running time of 20 hours 30 minutes, spread across 17 audio CDs: . She had previously recorded an abridged 3-hour reading of Jane Austen's "Persuasion", published by Hodder & Stoughton Audiobooks in July 2004: .


title: Amanda Root

text: In November 2007 for BBC Radio 4 she played in the "Woman's Hour" Drama serial adaptation of F. Tennyson Jesse's novel "A Pin to See the Peep Show", and on 2 December 2007 was heard in Arnold Wesker's 75-minute radio play "The Rocking Horse", commissioned by the BBC World Service to celebrate its 75th anniversary. As part of the BBC Radio 4 "Hopes and Desires" season, she played Lindsey, an incurable romantic who yearns to meet a modern-day Heathcliff, in Nick Warburton's 30-minute comedy "Catching Heathcliff", broadcast at 11 pm on 15 January 2008. She was the voice of Fanny in the 2-cassette 1997 BBC radio dramatisation of Jane Austen's "Mansfield Park".


title: Andal

text: Andal (), also known as Kothai, Nachiyar, and Godadevi, was the only female Alvar among the twelve Hindu poet-saints of South India. She was posthumously considered an avatar of the goddess Bhudevi. As with the Alvar saints, she was affiliated to the Sri Vaishnava tradition of Hinduism. Active in the 8th-century, with some suggesting 7th-century, Andal is credited with two great Tamil works, "Thiruppavai" and "Nachiyar Tirumoḻi", which are still recited by devotees during the winter festival season of Margaḻi. Andal is a prominent figure for women in South India and has inspired several women's groups such as Goda Mandali.


title: Andal

text: According to literary and religious tradition, Periyalvar (பெரியாழ்வார்), originally called Vishnuchithan, was an ardent devotee of Perumal (Vishnu) and he used to string garlands to the deity every day. He was childless and he prayed to God to save him from the longing for a child. One day, he found a girl under a Tulasi in a garden inside the temple. The child was considered to be the Goddess Bhudevi herself. He named the child as Kothai, who grew up as a devotee of Krishna, an avatar of Vishnu, the supreme God. She is believed to have worn the garland before dedicating it to the presiding deity of the temple. Periyalvar, who later found it, was highly upset and remonstrated her. Vishnu appeared in his dream and asked him to dedicate only the garland worn by Andal to him because when the new garland was put on Vishnu's idol, it fell down but when the garland was worn by Andal, Vishnu turned into gold. The girl Kothai was thus named Andal and was referred to as "Chudikodutha Sudarkodi" (சூடிகொடுத்த சுடர்க்கொடி), meaning the lady who wore and gave her garland to Vishnu. Periyalvar took Andal to the Ranganathaswamy Temple in Srirangam and Andal was reunited with Vishnu as his bride. The practice is followed during modern times when the garland of Andal from Srivilliputhur Andal Temple is sent to Tirumala Venkateswara Temple on Garudotsavam during the Tamil month of "Purattaasi" (September – October) and Azhagar Koyil during Chitra Pournami. Andal is also called as Nachiyar or Andalnachiar.


title: Andal

text: Kodhai was brought up by Vishnuchitta (Periyalvar) in an atmosphere of love and devotion. As Kodhai grew into a beautiful maiden, her fervor for God grew to the extent that she decided to marry only God himself. As time passed, her resolve strengthened and she thought constantly about marrying Ranganathar of Thiruvarangam (the reclining form of Vishnu). Andal is referred to as Nachiyar. She wrote Thiruppavai and Nachiyar Thirumoḻi.


title: Andal

text: In Tamil Nadu, Andal is remembered for her pure love and devotion. In the Thiruppavai, Andal, as a Gopi in Ayarpadi (Brindavan), emphasizes that the ultimate goal of life is to seek surrender and refuge at the Lord's feet. It is believed that Ranganatha of Ranganathaswamy temple married Andal, who later merged with the idol. Since Andal married Ranganatha, the presiding deity is called Rangamannar.


title: Andal

text: Andal's hairstyle and ornamentation are unique to ancient Tamil culture. The tuft of the hair is bunned to the side and adorned with jasmine flowers and elaborate jewellery.


title: Andal

text: Srivilliputhur Andal's hand-crafted parrot is made with fresh green leaves each and every day. This parrot is kept in the left hand of Andal. It takes approximately four and half hours to make this parrot. A pomegranate flower for beak and mouth, Bamboo sticks for legs, banana plant, petals of pink oleander and nandiyavattai are used to prepare this parrot.


title: Andal

text: Andal composed two literary works, both of which are in the rich Tamil verse form and express literary, philosophical, religious, and aesthetic content.


title: Andal

text: Her first work is the Thiruppavai, a collection of 30 verses in which Andal imagines herself to be a gopi, one of the cowherd girls known for their unconditional devotion to Krishna. In Thiruppavai, Andal idolized Radha as the ideal gopi and also invoked the gopis of Braj. Nappinai is identified as a form of Lakshmi, who is accorded the status of the supreme consort of Vishnu in Sri Vaishnavism. In these verses, she describes the yearning to serve Vishnu and achieve happiness not just in one lifetime, but for all eternity. She also describes the religious vows (pavai) that she and her fellow cowherd girls will observe for this purpose. It is said that Thiruppavai is the nectar of Vedas and teaches philosophical values, moral values, ethical values, pure love, devotion, dedication, single-minded aim, virtues, and the ultimate goal of life.


title: Andal

text: The second work by Andal is the Nachiyar Tirumoḻi, a poem of 143 verses. "Tirumoḻi" literally means "Sacred Sayings" in a Tamil poetic style and "Nachiyar" means Goddess. Therefore, the title means "Sacred Sayings of the Goddess." This poem fully reveals Andal's intense longing for Vishnu, the Divine Beloved. Utilising classical Tamil poetic conventions and interspersing stories from the Vedas and Puranas, Andal creates imagery that is possibly unparalleled in the whole gamut of Indian religious literature.


title: Andal

text: In "Nachiyar Tirumoḻi", Andal craves for God and says she would offer God a 1000 pots of "akkaravadisal" if he marries her, which was later fulfilled by Saint Ramanuja in the 11th century.


title: Andal

text: Nevertheless, conservative Vaishnava institutions do not encourage the propagation of Nachiyar Tirumoḻi as much as they encourage Thiruppavai because Nachiyar Tirumoḻi belongs to an erotic genre of spirituality that is similar to Jayadeva's Gita Govinda.


title: Andal

text: Andal is one of the reputed poet-saints of the Tamils. Pious tradition holds her to be the incarnation of Bhūmi Devi (Sri Lakshmi as Mother Earth) to show humanity the way to Vishnu's lotus feet. In Southern India, representation of her next to Vishnu are present in Vaishnava temples, many temples also have a separate shrine for Andal. During the month of "Margaḻi", discourses on the Thiruppavai in Tamil, Telugu, Kannada, and Hindi take place all over India. The Srivilliputhur Divya Desam at Srivilliputhur consists of twin temples, one of which is dedicated to Andal. There are a number of festivals dedicated to Andal, among the most notable being the Pavai Nonbu in the Tamil month of "Margaḻi" (December – January), Andal Thirukalyanam in "Panguni", Pagalpathu, Rapathu, "Adi Thiruviḻa", when Andal is depicted seated in the lap of Ranganathar. Andal is known for her unwavering devotion to Vishnu, the preserver deity. Adopted by her father, Periyalvar, Andal avoided earthly marriage, the normal and expected path for women of her culture, to marry Vishnu, both spiritually and physically. In many places in India, particularly in Tamil Nadu, Andal is treated more than a saint and as a form of god herself and a shrine for Andal is dedicated in several Vishnu temples.


title: Andal

text: Thousands of people from the state Tamil Nadu participate in the "Aadi Pooram" festival celebrated in the Andal Temple. After early morning special pujaas, the presiding deities, Shri Rengamannar and Goddess Andal are taken in decorated palanquins to the car. The festival marks the adoption of presiding deity, Andal, by Periyalvar after he found her near a Tulsi plant in the garden of Vatapatrasayi Temple at Srivilliputhur on the eighth day of the Tamil month of "Aadi".


title: Andal

text: For Tirupati Brahmotsavam, garlands worn to Andal in Srivilliputhur temple are sent to Venkateswara Temple at Tirupati in Andhra Pradesh. These traditional garlands are made of tulasi, sevanthi and sampangi flowers. These garlands are worn by Venkateswara during the Garuda seva procession.


title: Andal

text: Every year, Tirupati Venkateswara's garland is sent to Srivilliputtur Andal for marriage festival of Andal.


title: Andal

text: In poetry, 9th-century Andal became a well known Bhakti movement poetess, states Pintchman, and historical records suggest that by 12th-century she was a major inspiration to Hindu women in south India and elsewhere. Andal continues to inspire hundreds of classical dancers in modern times choreographing and dancing Andal's songs. Andal is also called "Goda", and her contributions to the arts have created "Goda Mandali" (circle of Andal) in the Vaishnava tradition.


title: Andal

text: Through poetry of saints (such as Andal) women are thought to be able to connect with God directly and those words are thought to encapsulate their personal emotions.


title: Andal

text: Goda Mandali (circle) which was named after Andal was formed in 1970 and reorganized in 1982 spreads Andal songs widely through TV and radio programs. The group would gather weekly to learn songs and would sing at events such as festivals where they would raise money for shrines.


title: Andal

text: In contemporary commentaries on Tamil "bhakti" poetry, A.K. Ramanujan's work remarks on how many other religious traditions would keep and treat passionate love and devotion to God as separate, while in the "bhakti" tradition, they can be in resonance with one another:


title: Andal

text: "All devotional poetry plays on the tension between saguna and nirguna, God as person and God as principle. If he were entirely a person, he would not be divine, and if he were entirely a principle, a godhead, one could not make poems about him.


title: Andal

text: The Vaishnavas, too, say that God is characterized by both 'paratva, 'otherness' and soulabhaya, 'ease of access'; he is both here and beyond, both tangible as a person and intangible as a principle-such is the nature of the ground of all being. It is not either/or, but both and; myth, bhakti and poetry would be impossible without the presence of both attitudes".


title: Andal

text: Several contemporary interpretations view her act of marrying Vishnu as feminist. Divine marriages and virginity allowed women's subjectivity, as she is able to choose her husband, and given an "aristocratic freedom". It is said that by devoting herself to God and rejecting marrying a human, she avoided the regular duties involved with being a wife that would inhibit her freedom.


title: Andal

text: In one of her poems, Andal says that her voluptuous heart will swell for God alone, and scorns the idea of making love to mortal beings, comparing that with the sacrificial offering made by Brahmins being violated by jackals in the forest, and in another verse she dedicates her swelling breasts to God who carries a conch.


title: Andal

text: Feminist interpretations look at some of Andal's verses as her open acknowledgement of her love for Vishnu, written with bold sensuality and startlingly savage longing, hunger and inquiry as widely found in Tamil Sangam literature that express women's longings and their separation from their men; even today, her most erotic poems are rarely rendered publicly. In one such verse Andal dispenses with metaphor and imagines herself lying in the arms of Krishna, making love to him:


title: Andal

text: Quoted from "Feminism and world religions" by Arvind Sharma, Katherine K. Young: "What Andal and other women poets did by living the way they did was to negotiate a space within a marriage-dominated society and made at least some sections of society make room for them".


title: Andal

text: Andal fulfilled the expectation of becoming a wife by marrying God, but since her husband was divine, she gained her autonomy. This act is referred to as virginal feminism by numerous scholars in patristic theology. Virginity is viewed as giving women the option to avoid childbearing, "male domination" and live a new life of devotion to God.


title: Andal

text: Krishnadevaraya of the Vijayanagar Dynasty composed the epic poem Amuktamalyada in Telugu, which is considered as a masterpiece. Amuktamalyada translates to "one who wears and gives away garlands", and describes the story of Andal or Goda Devi, the daughter of Periyalvar.


title: Andal

text: Amuktamalyada describes pain of separation (viraha) experienced by Andal, who is described as the incarnate of Lakshmi the consort of Vishnu. Further the poem describes Andal's beauty in 30 verses written in the keśādi-pādam style, starting from her hair, going down her body till her feet.


title: Christianity in Israel

text: Christianity in Israel is called "Natsrut b'Yisrael" () in Modern Hebrew and "al-Masihiat fi 'Isra'il" () in Arabic.


title: Christianity in Israel

text: Ten Christian churches are formally recognized under Israel's confessional system, for the self-regulation and state recognition of status issues, such as marriage and divorce: the Armenian Apostolic Church, the Armenian Catholic Church, the Chaldean Catholic Church, the Episcopal Church in Jerusalem and the Middle East, the Greek Orthodox Church, the Latin Catholic Church, the Melkite Greek Catholic Church, the Syriac Catholic Church, the Syriac Maronite Church, and the Syriac Orthodox Church. However, the practice of religion is free, with no restrictions on the practice of other denominations. Approximately 300 Christians have converted from Islam according to one 2014 estimate, and most of them are part of the Roman Catholic Church. A certain number of Israelis also practice Messianic Judaism, usually considered a syncretist form of Christianity. The number of Messianic Jews in Israel is estimated to be around 20,000. They are mostly classified as being "without a religious affiliation" rather than being classified as either Jewish or Christian.


title: Christianity in Israel

text: In terms of demographics, Christians made up 1.9% of the population in the State of Israel (178,000 people) in 2021. Most of these (78%) are Arab Christians, who are mostly adherents of the Melkite Greek Catholic Church (60% of Arab Christians in Israel). Some 42% of all Israeli Christians are affiliated with the Melkite Greek Church, and 30–32% with the Eastern Orthodox Patriarchate of Jerusalem. Smaller numbers are split between the Latin Patriarchate of Jerusalem with 13% of Christians, about 25,000 Russian Orthodox Christians (Russian Orthodox Church), about 13,000 Maronites and other Syriac churches, 3,000 to 10,000 adherents of Armenian churches, 1,000 Assyrians affiliated with the Assyrian Churches, a community of around 1,000 Coptic Christians registered as "Arab Christians", although their Arab identity is disputed, and small branches of Protestants.


title: Christianity in Israel

text: Israeli Christians are historically bound with neighbouring Lebanese, Syrian, and Palestinian Christians. The cities and communities where most Christians in Israel reside are Haifa, Nazareth, Jish, Mi'ilya, Fassuta and Kafr Yasif. Arab Christians are one of the most educated groups in Israel. "Maariv" newspaper has described Arab Christians as "the most successful [group] in the education system", since Arab Christians fared the best in terms of education in comparison to any other group receiving an education in Israel. The Christian communities in Israel run numerous schools, colleges, hospitals, clinics, orphanages, homes for the elderly, dormitories, family and youth centers, hotels, and guesthouses.


title: Christianity in Israel

text: According to traditional sources, Jesus lived in Roman Judea, and died and was buried on the site of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in the Old City Jerusalem, making the area a Holy Land for Christianity. However, few Christians now live in the region, compared to Muslims and Jews. This is mainly because Islam displaced Christianity throughout the Middle East, and the rise of modern Zionism and the establishment of the State of Israel has seen millions of Jews emigrate to Israel.


title: Christianity in Israel

text: The Christian population in Israel has increased significantly with the immigration of many mixed families from the former Soviet Union (1989-late 1990s) and by the influx of some 10,000 Christian Maronites from Lebanon in 2000. Recently, a further increase in Christianity came with arrival of many foreign workers and asylum seekers, some of Christian background (for instance from the Philippines, Eritrea, Ethiopia and South Sudan). As a result, numerous churches have opened in Tel Aviv.


title: Christianity in Israel

text: As of December 2013, about 161,000 Israeli citizens practiced Christianity, together comprising about 2% of the total population. The largest group consists of Melkites (about 60% of Israel's Christians), followed by the Greek Orthodox (about 30%), with the remaining "circa" 10% spread between the Roman Catholic (Latin), Maronite, Anglican, Lutheran, Armenian, Syriac, Ethiopian, Coptic and other denominations.


title: Christianity in Israel

text: Six of the particular churches of the Catholic Church have jurisdiction within Israel: the Melkite Greek Catholic Church is by far the largest Catholic church in Israel, the Latin Church (by far the dominant Catholic church worldwide), the Armenian Catholic Church, the Chaldean Catholic Church, the Syriac Catholic Church, and the Syriac Maronite Church.


title: Christianity in Israel

text: Around 30% of Christians in Israel are adherents of the Eastern Orthodox Church. There are two Eastern Orthodox ecclesiastical jurisdictions on the territory of Israel: Greek Orthodox Church of Jerusalem (covering central and southern regions) and Greek Orthodox Church of Antioch (covering only the most northern region). Eastern Orthodox Christians in Israel have many churches, monasteries, seminaries, and other religious institutions all over the land, particularly in Jerusalem.


title: Christianity in Israel

text: Oriental Orthodoxy in Israel is represented mainly by adherents of Armenian Apostolic Church, represented by Armenian Patriarchate of Jerusalem, and adherents of Syriac Orthodox Church, headed by archbishop Severius Malke Mourad, patriarchal exarch of Jerusalem.


title: Christianity in Israel

text: There has been a small Protestant community in Israel since the foundation of the state in 1948, who are either Arab Christians who had changed their religious affiliation to Protestant teachings or European and American residents moving to the area.


title: Christianity in Israel

text: The Episcopal Church in Jerusalem and the Middle East is a province of the Anglican Communion. The seat of the Anglican Bishop in Jerusalem is St. George's Cathedral, Jerusalem. Other prominent Episcopal churches in Israel include Christ Church, Jerusalem, built in 1849, which is inside the Jaffa Gate of the contested Old City of Jerusalem, and Christ Church, Nazareth, built in 1871, both built during the Ottoman period.


title: Christianity in Israel

text: Jehovah's Witnesses have been present for decades in Israel. They have faced some religious persecution in the past century. On March 8, 1997, a mob of over 250 people attacked one of their meeting halls. By 1999 it was estimated there were about 850 Jehovah's Witnesses in Israel.


title: Christianity in Israel

text: In 2020, the number of Jehovah's Witnesses was 1,957 active publishers, united in 31 congregations; 3,653 people attended the annual celebration of Lord's Evening Meal in 2020.


title: Christianity in Israel

text: Jewish Christians are not considered bona-fide Jews under Israel's Law of Return (see Oswald Rufeisen).


title: Christianity in Israel

text: The Hebrew Christian movement of the 19th and early 20th centuries consisted of Jews who converted to Christianity as a result of Protestant missionary activity. It was incorporated into the later parallel Messianic Jewish movement in the late 1960s.


title: Christianity in Israel

text: In Jerusalem, there are twelve Messianic congregations. On 23 February 2007, Israel Channel 2 News released a news documentary about the growing number of Messianic Jews in Israel.


title: Christianity in Israel

text: Hebrew-speakers call Christians "Notzri" (also romanized "Notsri"), which means Nazarene (originated from Nazareth). The word is cognate to the Arabic "Nasrani".


title: Christianity in Israel

text: The Israeli Declaration of Independence, issued in 1948, describes the country as a Jewish state but clearly extends religious freedoms to all of its inhabitants by stating that the State of Israel will ensure complete equality of social and political rights to all its inhabitants irrespective of religion, race or sex; it will guarantee freedom of religion, conscience, language, education and culture; it will safeguard the Holy Places of all religions.


title: Christianity in Israel

text: During the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, the fate of the Christian Palestinians was similar to that of the Muslims, in term of military administration and land confiscations. However, Christian churches generally avoided destruction or defilement during the 1948/1949 Arab-Israeli War. Aware of the international attention to the conflict, David Ben-Gurion is said to have expressly forbidden to loot or defile holy places. For the same reason, Israeli authorities have a more lenient attitude to the right of return of the Christian refugees.


title: Christianity in Israel

text: According to Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs, since the reunification of Jerusalem, the Christian as well as Jewish and Islamic holy sites were opened for multinational pilgrims by the Israeli authorities, for the first time since 1948, when the Kingdom of Jordan took over the Eastern half of the city.


title: Christianity in Israel

text: As of 2013, the Government - Christians Forum was formed in Jerusalem, under the umbrella of the Ministry of Public Security, to address the concerns of the Christian leaders and representatives in Israel, and in order to empower the relations between the government and Christian leaders and representatives in Israel.


title: Christianity in Israel

text: Some ultra-Orthodox Jews have been accused of having a decades-old practice of cursing and spitting on Christian clergymen in Jerusalem, and there have been cases where churches and cemeteries were defaced by price taggers. When the doors of the Latrun Trappist monastery were set aflame and the phrase "Jesus was a monkey" was painted on its walls, the Vatican reacted with a rare official complaint against the Israeli government's inaction. In June 2015, an auxiliary building of the Church of the Multiplication was significantly damaged by an arson attack and its walls defaced by Hebrew graffiti, bearing the words "the false gods will be eliminated" (quoted from the Aleinu prayer). This attack was labelled as "terrorism" by Israeli officials.


title: Christianity in Israel

text: Gabriel Naddaf argues that Israel is the only country in which Christian communities have been able to thrive in the Middle East. However, there has also been criticism by Palestinian Christians of this claim, with such statements being called a "manipulation" of the facts. Members of the Palestinian Christian community claim that such statements attempt to hide the discrimination that Arab Christians face within Israel due to alleged discrimination against Arabs as well as the effect of the occupation of the West Bank and Gaza on the Christian population in these areas.


title: Christianity in Israel

text: Recently, there has been a steady undercurrent of Arab Christians who seek deeper integration into Israeli society. Under the leadership of Greek Orthodox priest Gabriel Naddaf, United Allies is a political party that advocates Christian enlistment in the Israel Defense Forces and a more distinct societal separation of Christians from Muslims. This separation is partly based on the purported fact that Christians in Israel are not technically Arabs, seeing as they were present in the holy land long before the Arab conquest, hallmarked by the Siege of Jerusalem. This distinction is in the process of being formalized into law, as the Likud government is currently drafting legislation to grant this request.


title: Christianity in Israel

text: This new attitude is founded largely by the perception by some that only in Israel the Christian population is growing due to natural increase and no state persecution, seeing the entire Middle East, except Lebanon, as where Christianity is and has been rapidly on the decline. In addition, increasing numbers of Christian leaders and community members are pointing to Muslim violence as a threat to their way of life in Arab majority cities and towns. Sons of the New Testament as a party and a national movement has been met with wide admiration from the Jews of Israel, harshly negative scorn from the Muslim Arabs, and mixed reactions from the Christians themselves. Because of Israel's parliamentary system where each party must attain at least 2% of the popular vote, Sons of the New Testament must be supported by non-Christians to enter the Knesset.


title: Christianity in Israel

text: In 2008, Rabbi Shlomo Riskin, the chief rabbi of Efrat, established the Center for Jewish–Christian Understanding and Cooperation or CJCUC, the first Orthodox Jewish institution to dialogue with the Christian world on a religious and theological basis. The center, currently located in Jerusalem, engages in Hebraic Bible Study for Christians, from both the local community and from abroad, has organized numerous interfaith praise initiatives, such as "Day to Praise", and has established many fund-raising initiatives such as "Blessing Bethlehem" which aim to aid the persecuted Christian community of Bethlehem, in part, and the larger persecuted Christian community of the Middle East region and throughout the world.


title: Christianity in Israel

text: A recent survey indicated that Christians in Israel are prosperous and well-educated – but some fear that Muslim intimidation will cause a mass escape to the West. The Christian communities in Nazareth tend to be wealthier and better educated compare to other Arabs elsewhere in Israel, and Christians of Nazareth occupy the majority of the top positions in the town: three hospitals and bank managers, judges and school principals and faculties. The socio-economic gap between the Christians wealth and Muslim poverty led sometimes to sectarian crises.


title: Christianity in Israel

text: Recently there has been an increase of anti-Christian incidents in the Nazareth area, inspired by the rise of Jihadist forces in the Middle East. Many Christians have complained of being targeted by Muslims, whom they believe are trying to either drive them out of cities that have traditionally had large Christian populations, or to "persuade" them to convert. In 1999, for example, radical Muslims in Nazareth rioted as they attempted to wrest land from a major Christian shrine to build a mosque. In one incident during 2014, a flag of the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant was installed in front of a church in Nazareth.


title: Christianity in Israel

text: There has also been increasing incitement and violence by the Muslims against Christians who voice their support for the Israel Defense Forces. In a recent case, the son of Gabriel Naddaf, a prominent Eastern Orthodox priest who is regarded as being pro-Israel, was severely beaten. Nadaf himself has been suffering from vasts amount of Muslim incitement in recent years.


title: Christianity in Israel

text: A 2016 study by Pew research points to the convergence of political views of both Muslims and Christians over issues like – Israel cannot be a Jewish state and a democracy at the same time (Christians: 72%; Muslims: 63%), US being too supportive of Israel (Christians: 86%; Muslims: 75%), Israeli government not making enough efforts to make peace with Palestine (Christians: 80%; Muslims: 72%).


title: Christianity in Israel

text: According to the study "Are Christian Arabs the New Israeli Jews? Reflections on the Educational Level of Arab Christians in Israel" by Hanna David from the University of Tel Aviv, one of the factors why Arab Christians are the most educated segment of Israel's population is the high level of the Christian educational institutions. Christian schools in Israel are among the best schools in the country, and while those schools represent only 4% of the Arab schooling sector, about 34% of Arab university students come from Christian schools, and about 87% of the Israeli Arabs in the high tech sector have been educated in Christian schools. A 2011 "Maariv" article described the Christian Arab sector as "the most successful in the education system", an opinion supported by others who point out that Christian Arabs fared best in terms of education in comparison to any other group receiving an education in Israel.


title: Christianity in Israel

text: The Israel Central Bureau of Statistics noted that when taking into account the data recorded over the years, Arab Christians fared the best in terms of education in comparison to any other group receiving an education in Israel. In 2016 Arab Christians had the highest rates of success at matriculation examinations, namely 73.9%, both in comparison to Muslim and Druze Israelis (41% and 51.9% respectively), and to the students from the different branches of the Hebrew (majority Jewish) education system considered as one group (55.1%).


title: Christianity in Israel

text: Arab Christians are one of the most educated groups in Israel. Statistically, Arab Christians in Israel have the highest rates of educational attainment among all religious communities, according to a data by Israel Central Bureau of Statistics in 2010, 63% of Arab Christians have had college or postgraduate education, the highest of any religious group. Despite the fact that Arab Christians only represent 2.1% of the total Israeli population, in 2014 they accounted for 17.0% of the country's university students, and for 14.4% of its college students. The percentage of Arab Christian women who are receiving higher education is also higher than that of other groups. There are more Christians who have attained a bachelor's degree or higher academic degrees than the median Israeli population.


title: Christianity in Israel

text: The rate of students studying in the field of medicine was higher among Christian Arab students than that of all other sectors.


title: Christianity in Israel

text: In 2013, Arab Christian students were also the vanguard in terms of eligibility for higher education, as the Christian Arab students had the highest rates of receiving Psychometric Entrance Test scores which make them eligible for acceptance into universities, data from the Israel Central Bureau of Statistics show that 61% of Arab Christians were eligible for university studies, compared to 50% of Jewish, 45% of Druze, and 35% of Muslim students.


title: Christianity in Israel

text: In terms of their socio-economic situation, Arab Christians are more similar to the Jewish population than to the Muslim Arab population. They have the lowest incidence of poverty and the lowest percentage of unemployment which is 4.9% compared to 6.5% among Jewish men and women. They have also the highest median household income among Arab citizens of Israel and second highest median household income among the Israeli ethno-religious groups. Arab Christians also have a high presentation in science and in the white collar professions. In Israel, Arab Christians are portrayed as a hard-working and upper-middle-class educated ethno-religious minority. According to study the majority of Christians in Israel (68.2 per cent) are employed in the service sector, i.e. banks, insurance companies, schools, tourism, hospitals etc.


title: Christianity in Israel

text: In 2019, approximately 70.6% of Arab Chrisitans resided in the Northern District, 13.3% in the Haifa District, 9.5% in the Jerusalem District, 3.4% in the Central District, 2.7% in the Tel Aviv District and 0.5% in the Southern District. Approximately 23.5% of Non-Arab Chrisitans resided in the Tel Aviv District, 19.4% in the Haifa District, 17.5% in the Central District, 14.4% in the Northern District, 14.3% in the Southern District and 9.8% in the Jerusalem District.


title: Christianity in Israel

text: Nazareth has the largest Christian Arab population, followed by Haifa. The majority of Haifa's Arab minority is Christian. The Christian Arab communities in Nazareth and Haifa tend to be wealthier and better educated compared to other Arabs elsewhere in Israel. Arab Christians also live in a number of other localities in the Galilee; such as Abu Snan, Arraba, Bi'ina, Deir Hanna, I'billin, Jadeidi-Makr, Kafr Kanna, Muqeible, Ras al-Ein, Reineh, Sakhnin, Shefa-Amr, Tur'an and Yafa an-Naseriyye. localities such as Eilabun, Jish, Kafr Yasif and Rameh are predominantly Christians. Nearly all the population of Fassuta and Mi'ilya are Melkite Christians. Some Druze villages, such as Daliyat al-Karmel, Ein Qiniyye, Hurfeish, Isfiya, Kisra-Sumei, Maghar, Majdal Shams and Peki'in have small Christian Arab populations. Mixed cities such as Acre, Jerusalem, Lod, Ma'alot-Tarshiha, Nof HaGalil, Ramla and Tel Aviv-Jaffa have significant Christian Arab populations.


title: Christianity in Israel

text: Christians in Israel are generally more religious than Israeli Jews and Druzes. Over half (57%) say religion is very important in their lives. About one third (34%) pray daily and 38% report that they attend church at least once a week. Israeli Christians also are more likely than Jews and Druze to participate in weekly worship services. Nearly all (94%) Israeli Christians believe in God, of whom 79% say they are absolutely certain.


title: Christianity in Israel

text: According to a Pew Research Center survey conducted in 2015, 60% of Christians in Israel fast during Lent, Most (81%) also said that they have icons of saints or other holy figures in their home. Of them, 83% claimed that their icons were anointed with holy oil. The survey also found that the majority of Israeli Christians (89%) say the Bible is the word of God, of whom 65% believe that the Bible should be taken literally. 33% of Christians believe that Jesus will return during their lifetime, which was similar to the number of Muslims who held that belief (33%).


title: Christianity in Israel

text: Christians in Israel are more likely than Jews, Muslims, and Druze to say they are proud of their identity. About 89% say they have a strong sense of belonging to the Christian community. Two thirds believe that they have a special responsibility to help fellow members of their religious group who are in need around the world.


title: Christianity in Israel

text: The nature of Christian identity varies among Christians as well. Christians in Israel are about evenly divided among those who say their identity is mainly a matter of religion (31%), those who say being Christian is mainly about ancestry and/or culture (34%) and those who say their identity is characterized by a combination of religion and ancestry/culture (34%).


title: Christianity in Israel

text: In September 2014, Minister of the Interior Gideon Sa'ar instructed the to recognize Arameans as an ethnicity separate from Israeli Arabs. Under the Ministry of the Interior's guidance, people born into Christian families or clans who have either Aramaic or Maronite cultural heritage within their family are eligible to register as Arameans. About 200 Christian families were thought to be eligible prior to this decision. According to an August 9, 2013 Israel Hayom article, at that time an estimated 10,500 persons were eligible to receive Aramean ethnic status according to the new regulation, including 10,000 Maronites (which included 2,000 former SLA members) and 500 Syriac Catholics.


title: Christianity in Israel

text: The first person to receive the "Aramean" ethnic status in Israel was 2 year old Yaakov Halul in Jish on October 20, 2014.


title: Christianity in Israel

text: Another milestone in recognizing Aramean minority as a distinct culture in Israel was made by Israeli court in 2019, which ruled that the Aramean minority could choose Jewish or Arab education, rather than making children with Aramean identity to be automatically designated to Arabic-language schools.


title: Christianity in Israel

text: The recognition of the Aramean ethnicity led to mixed reactions among Israeli minorities, the Christian community, and among the general Arab Israeli population. While some celebrated the success of their long legal struggle to be recognized as a non-Arab ethnic minority, other members of the Arab community in Israel denounced it as an attempt to divide Arab Christians. Representatives of the Greek Orthodox Patriarchate of Jerusalem officially denounced the move.


title: Christianity in Israel

text: Many in Israeli academia advocate the recognition of the Aramean identity and have called on the government of Israel to promote the awareness regarding this issue on the basis of the international principle of ethnic self-determination as espoused by Wilson's 14 points. One of the staunchest supporters of the recognition of the Aramean identity is Gabriel Naddaf, who is one of the leaders of the Christians in Israel. He advocated on behalf of his Aramean followers and thanked the Interior Ministry's decision as a "historic move".


title: Traveling Wilburys Vol. 3

text: Traveling Wilburys Vol. 3 is the second and final studio album by the Traveling Wilburys, a group consisting of George Harrison, Jeff Lynne, Bob Dylan and Tom Petty. It was released on October 29, 1990, as the follow-up to their 1988 debut, "Traveling Wilburys Vol. 1". The band members again adopted pseudonyms for their contributions, using new names from the fictitious Wilbury brothers.


title: Traveling Wilburys Vol. 3

text: Though it was their second release, the album was mischievously titled "Vol. 3" by George Harrison. According to Jeff Lynne, "That was George's idea. He said, 'Let's confuse the buggers.


title: Traveling Wilburys Vol. 3

text: As the dynamics within the band had shifted with Roy Orbison's death, the four remaining members all adopted new Wilbury pseudonyms: Spike (George Harrison), Clayton (Jeff Lynne), Muddy (Tom Petty) and Boo (Bob Dylan). With Harrison and Lynne producing again, the sessions were undertaken in the spring of 1990. An additional track, a cover of "Nobody's Child", was recorded and released in June 1990 as a charity single in aid of Olivia Harrison's Romanian Angel Appeal. The song was also the title track of a multi-artist fundraising album compiled by the Harrisons, "". "Traveling Wilburys Vol. 3" was dedicated to the memory of "Lefty Wilbury" (Roy Orbison).


title: Traveling Wilburys Vol. 3

text: Released in October 1990, the album was less positively received than "Vol. 1", yet still saw a fair measure of success. In the United States, "She's My Baby" (with guest guitarist Gary Moore) and "Inside Out" became radio hits, charting at number 2 album rock and number 16 album rock, respectively. The album peaked at number 14 in the UK and number 11 in the US, where it was certified platinum by the RIAA.


title: Traveling Wilburys Vol. 3

text: Comparing the two Wilburys albums, a reviewer in "The New York Times" wrote in November 1990: "The superstar pop group stays close to 50's and 60's rock roots, drawing on blues, doo-wop, rockabilly and Buddy Holly. But their second album is faster, jokier, lighter and meaner than the first." "Rolling Stone" described the blending of the four participants' musical styles as "seemingly effortless", and said that the album showed they continued to enjoy their collaboration. In the years following "Vol. 3", there was speculation about further Wilbury releases. Since Harrison was viewed as the de facto leader of the group, his death in November 2001 ended the possibility of any future projects.


title: Traveling Wilburys Vol. 3

text: When Harrison's distribution deal with Warner Bros. expired in 1995, ownership of his Dark Horse Records catalog and the two Wilburys albums reverted to him, and the albums went out of print. On June 12, 2007, "Vol. 1" and "Vol. 3" were reissued by Rhino Records as "The Traveling Wilburys Collection", packaged together with bonus tracks and a DVD.


title: Rouleaux

text: Rouleaux (singular is rouleau) are stacks or aggregations of red blood cells (RBCs) that form because of the unique discoid shape of the cells in vertebrates. The flat surface of the discoid RBCs gives them a large surface area to make contact with and stick to each other; thus forming a rouleau. They occur when the plasma protein concentration is high, and, because of them, the ESR (erythrocyte sedimentation rate) is also increased. This is a nonspecific indicator of the presence of disease.


title: Rouleaux

text: Conversely, the presence of rouleaux is a cause of disease because it will restrict the flow of blood throughout the body because capillaries can only accept free-flowing singular and independent red blood cells. The aggregations, also known as "clumping," form as an allergic reaction to certain antibiotics and not necessarily because of disease.


title: Rouleaux

text: Conditions that cause rouleaux formation include infections, multiple myeloma, Waldenström's macroglobulinemia, inflammatory and connective tissue disorders, and cancers. It also occurs in diabetes mellitus and is one of the causative factors for microvascular occlusion in diabetic retinopathy.


title: Rouleaux

text: Acute-phase proteins, particularly fibrinogen, interact with sialic acid on the surface of RBCs to facilitate the formation of rouleaux. An increase in the ratio of RBCs to plasma volume, as seen in the setting of polycythemia and hypovolemia, decreases rouleaux formation and decreases sedimentation.


title: Rouleaux

text: Rouleaux formations are also adopted by spermatozoa as a means of cooperation between genetically similar gametocytes so as to improve reproductive success through enhanced motility and, therefore, fertilization capacity—e.g., the guinea pig.


title: Rouleaux

text: According to Smoluchowski aggregation, the kinetics of colloids is based on the assumption that each particle is surrounded by a "sphere influence". Single spherical particles which undergo Brownian motion collide and sticking of particles happens. As aggregation proceeds, the average diffusion constant of the aggregate population decreases. The aggregation of red blood cells progresses in the same manner except that cells are biconcave rather than spherical.


title: Flash powder

text: Flash powder is a pyrotechnic composition, a mixture of oxidizer and metallic fuel, which burns quickly and produces a loud noise regardless of confinement. It is widely used in theatrical pyrotechnics and fireworks (namely salutes, e.g., cherry bombs, M-80s, firecrackers, and cap gun shots) and was once used for flashes in photography.


title: Flash powder

text: Different varieties of flash powder are made from different compositions; most common are potassium perchlorate and aluminium powder. Sometimes, sulfur is included in the mixture to increase the sensitivity. Early formulations used potassium chlorate instead of potassium perchlorate.


title: Flash powder

text: Flash powder compositions are also used in military pyrotechnics when production of large amount of noise, light, or infrared radiation is required, e.g., missile decoy flares and stun grenades.


title: Flash powder

text: Lycopodium powder is a yellow-tan dust-like powder historically used as a flash powder. Today, the principal use of the powder is to create flashes or flames that are large and impressive but relatively easy to manage safely in magic acts and for cinema and theatrical special effects.


title: Flash powder

text: Normally, flash powder mixtures are compounded to achieve a particular purpose. These mixtures range from extremely fast-burning mixtures designed to produce a maximum audio report, to mixtures designed to burn slowly and provide large amounts of illumination, to mixtures that were formerly used in photography.


title: Flash powder

text: The combination of aluminium powder and potassium chlorate is unstable, and a poor choice for flash powder that is to be stored for more than a very short period. For that reason, it has been largely replaced by the potassium perchlorate mixtures. Chlorate mixes are still used when cost is the overriding concern because potassium chlorate is less expensive than perchlorate.


title: Flash powder

text: The composition is approximately 70% KClO : 30% Al by weight for the reactants of the above stoichiometrically balanced equation.


title: Flash powder

text: It is considered critically important to exclude sulfur and any acidic components from these mixtures. Sulfur oxidises and absorbs moisture to produce sulfuric and thionic acids; any acid in the mixture makes it unstable. Sometimes a few percent of bicarbonate or carbonate buffer is added to the mixture to ensure the absence of acidic impurities.


title: Flash powder

text: Sulfur is deliberately added as a third component to this mixture in order to reduce the activation energy. However this gives the problem with acid production and instability and so these mixtures are generally considered too unstable to be stored and must be mixed immediately before use. Antimony trisulfide may be used as an alternative, and is more stable in storage.


title: Flash powder

text: This composition, usually in a ratio of 5 parts potassium nitrate, to 3 parts aluminum powder, to 2 parts sulfur, is especially popular with hobbyists. It is not very quick-burning unless exceptionally fine ingredients are used. Although it incorporates sulfur, it is in fact fairly stable, sustaining multiple hits from a hammer onto a hard surface. Adding 2% of its weight with boric acid is reputed to significantly increase stability and shelf life, through resistance to dampening through ambient humidity. Other ratios such as 6 KNO/3 Al/2 S and 5 KNO/2 Al/3 S also exist and work. All ratios have similar burn times and strength, although 5 KNO/3 Al/2 S seems to be dominant.


title: Flash powder

text: The composition is approximately 59% KNO : 31.6% Al : 9.4% S by weight for the reactants of the above stoichiometrically balanced equation.


title: Flash powder

text: For best results, "German Dark" aluminum should be used, with air float sulfur, and finely ball-milled pure potassium nitrate. The finished mixture should never be ball milled together.


title: Flash powder

text: Aluminium powder and potassium perchlorate are the only two components of the pyrotechnic industry standard flash powder. It provides a great balance of stability and power, and is the composition used in most commercial exploding fireworks.


title: Flash powder

text: A ratio of seven parts potassium perchlorate to three parts dark pyro aluminium is the composition used by most pyrotechnicians.


title: Flash powder

text: For best results, the aluminium powder should be "Dark Pyro" grade, with a flake particle shape, and a particle size of fewer than 10 micrometres. The KClO should be in powder form, free from clumps. It can be sieved through a screen, if necessary, to remove any clumps prior to use. The particle size of the perchlorate is not as critical as that of the aluminium component, as much less energy is required to decompose the KClO than is needed to melt the aluminium into the liquid state required for the reaction.


title: Flash powder

text: Although this composition is fairly insensitive, it should be treated with care and respect. Hobbyist pyrotechnicians usually use a method called "diapering", in which the materials are poured separately onto a large piece of paper, which is then alternately lifted at each corner to roll the composition over itself and mix the components. Some amateur pyrotechnicians choose to mix the composition by shaking in a closed paper container, as this is much quicker and more effective than diapering. One method of mixing flash is to put the components in the final device and handling the device will mix the flash powder. Paper/cardboard is chosen over other materials, such as plastic, as a result of its favorable triboelectric properties.


title: Flash powder

text: Large quantities should never be mixed in a single batch. Large quantities are not only more difficult to handle safely, but they place innocent bystanders within the area at risk. In the event of accidental ignition, debris from a multiple-pound flash powder explosion can be thrown hundreds of feet with sufficient force to kill or injure. (Note: 3 grams of mixture is enough to explode in open air without constraint other than air pressure.)


title: Flash powder

text: No matter the quantity, care must always be taken to prevent any electrostatic discharge or friction during mixing or handling, as these may cause accidental ignition.


title: Flash powder

text: Another flash composition common among amateurs consists of magnesium powder and potassium nitrate. Other metal nitrates have been used, including barium and strontium nitrates. Compositions using nitrate and magnesium metal have been used as photographic flash powders almost since the invention of photography. Potassium nitrate/magnesium flash powder should be mixed and used immediately and not stored due to its tendency of self-ignition.


title: Flash powder

text: If magnesium isn't a very fine powder it can be passivated with linseed oil or potassium dichromate. The passivated magnesium flash powder is stable and safe to store.


title: Flash powder

text: The composition is 62.5% KNO : 37.5% Mg by weight for the reactants of the above stoichiometrically balanced equation. Below is the same reaction but involving barium nitrate.


title: Flash powder

text: Mixtures designed to make reports are substantially different from mixtures designed for illumination. A stoichiometric ratio of three parts KNO to two parts Mg is close to ideal and provides the most rapid burn. The magnesium powder should be smaller than 200 mesh, though up to 100 mesh will work. The potassium nitrate should be impalpable dust. This mixture is popular in amateur pyrotechnics because it is insensitive and relatively safe as such things go.


title: Flash powder

text: For photographic use, mixtures containing magnesium and nitrates are made much more fuel rich. The excess magnesium is volatilized by the reaction and burns in air providing additional light. In addition, the higher concentration of fuel results in a slower burn, providing more of a "poof" and less of a "bang" when ignited. A formula from 1917 specifies 5 parts of magnesium to 6 parts of barium nitrate for a stoichiometry of nine parts fuel to one part oxidizer. Modern recreations of photographic flash powders may avoid the use of barium salts because of their toxic nature. A mixture of five parts 80 mesh magnesium to one part of potassium nitrate provides a good white flash without being too violent. Fuel rich flash powders are also used in theatrical flash pots.


title: Flash powder

text: Magnesium based compositions degrade over long periods, meaning the metallic Mg will slowly react with atmospheric oxygen and moisture. In military pyrotechnics involving magnesium fuels, external oxygen can be excluded by using hermetically sealed canisters. Commercial photographic flash powders are sold as two-part mixtures, to be combined immediately before use.


title: Flash powder

text: A flash composition designed specifically to generate flares that are exceptionally bright in the infrared portion of the spectrum use a mixture of pyro-grade magnesium and powdered polytetrafluoroethylene. These flares are used as decoys from aircraft that might be subject to heat-seeking missile fire.


title: Flash powder

text: This mixture, and similar mixtures sometimes containing pyro aluminium have been used since the early 1900s for small "Black Cat" style paper firecrackers. Its extremely low cost makes it popular among manufacturers of low-grade fireworks in China. Like all mixtures containing chlorates, it is extremely sensitive to friction, impact and ESD, and is considered unsafe in pyrotechnic devices that contain more than a few tens of milligrams of the mixture.


title: Flash powder

text: This mixture is not highly energetic, and in at least some parts of the United States, firecrackers containing 50 mg or less of this mixture are legal as consumer fireworks.


title: Flash powder

text: Flash powders even within intended usages often release explosive force of deadly capacity. Nearly all widely used flash powder mixtures are sensitive to shock, friction and electrostatic discharge. In certain mixtures, it is not uncommon for this sensitivity to spontaneously change over time, or due to change in the environment, or to other unknowable factors in either the original manufacturing or in real-world storage. Additionally, accidental contaminants such as strong acids or sulfur compounds can sensitise them even more. Because flash powder mixtures are so easy to initiate, there is potentially a high risk of accidental explosions which can inflict severe blast/fragmentation injuries, e.g. blindness, explosive amputation, permanent maiming, or disfigurement. Fatalities have occurred. The various flash powder compositions should therefore not be handled by anyone who is unfamiliar with their properties, or the handling techniques required to maintain safety. Flash powder and flash powder devices pose exceptionally high risks to children, who typically cannot understand the danger and may be less adept with safe handling techniques. As a result, children tend to suffer more severe injuries than adults.


title: Flash powder

text: Flash powders—especially those that use chlorate—are often highly sensitive to friction, heat/flame and static electricity. A spark of as little as 0.1–10 millijoules can set off certain mixtures. Certain formulations prominent in the underground press contain both sulfur and potassium chlorate. These mixtures are especially shock and friction sensitive and in many applications should be considered unpredictable. Modern pyrotechnic practices call for never using sulfur in a mix containing chlorate salts.


title: Flash powder

text: Some flash powder formulations (those that use single-digit micrometre flake aluminium powder or fine magnesium powder as their fuel) can self-confine and explode in small quantities. This makes flash powder dangerous to handle, as it can cause severe hearing damage and amputation injury even when sitting in the open. Self-confinement occurs when the mass of the pile provides sufficient inertia to allow high pressure to build within it as the mixture reacts. This is referred to as 'inertial confinement', and it is not to be confused with a detonation.


title: Flash powder

text: Flash powder of any formulation should not be mixed in large quantities by amateur pyrotechnicians. Beginners should start with sub-gram quantities, and refrain from making large devices. Flash powder should only be made at the site at which it will be used. Additionally, the mixture should be made immediately before use. When mixed, the transportation, storage, usage, various possession, and illegal "firearms" laws (including felonies) may come into effect that do not apply to the unmixed or pre-assembled components.


title: Military glider

text: Military gliders (an offshoot of common gliders) have been used by the militaries of various countries for carrying troops (glider infantry) and heavy equipment to a combat zone, mainly during the Second World War. These engineless aircraft were towed into the air and most of the way to their target by military transport planes, e.g., C-47 Skytrain or Dakota, or bombers relegated to secondary activities, e.g., Short Stirling. Most military gliders do not soar, although there were attempts to build military sailplanes as well, such as the DFS 228.


title: Military glider

text: Once released from the tow craft near the front, they were to land on any convenient open terrain close to the target, hopefully with as little damage to the cargo and crew as possible as most landing zones (LZ) were far from ideal. The one-way nature of the missions meant that they were treated as semi-expendable leading to construction from common and inexpensive materials such as wood. Most nations seriously attempted to recover as many as possible, to re-use them, so they were not originally intended to be disposable, although resource-rich nations like the US sometimes used them as if they were, since it was easier than recovering them.


title: Military glider

text: Troops landing by glider were referred to as "air-landing" as opposed to paratroops. Landing by parachute caused the troops to be spread over a large drop-zone and separated from other airdropped equipment, such as vehicles and anti-tank guns. Gliders, on the other hand, could land troops and ancillaries in greater concentrations precisely at the target landing area. Furthermore, the glider, once released at some distance from the actual target, was effectively silent and difficult for the enemy to identify. Larger gliders were developed to land heavy equipment like anti-tank guns, anti-aircraft guns, small vehicles, such as jeeps, and also light tanks (e.g., the Tetrarch tank). This heavier equipment made otherwise lightly armed paratroop forces a much more capable force. The Soviets also experimented with ways to deliver light tanks by air, including the Antonov A-40, a gliding tank with detachable wings.


title: Military glider

text: By the time of the Korean War, helicopters had largely replaced gliders. Helicopters have the advantage of being able to extract soldiers, in addition to delivering them to the battlefield with more precision. Also, advances in powered transport aircraft had been made, to the extent that even light tanks could be dropped by parachute. And after the widespread use of radar in the military, silence in the air is no longer sufficient for concealment.


title: Military glider

text: The development of modern gliders was spurred by the Versailles Treaty following World War I, under the terms of which Germany was prohibited from constructing certain high powered airplanes. As a result, German aircraft designers turned their attention toward the practical development of unpowered aircraft, with a pilot remaining in the air in a glider for more than 20 minutes and a national glider competition emerging by 1922.


title: Military glider

text: The early sporting objectives of gliders were quickly overtaken in the Soviet Union and in Germany by military applications, mainly the training of pilots. By 1934, the Soviet Union had ten gliding schools and 57,000 glider pilots had gained licences.


title: Military glider

text: In 1932, the Soviet Union demonstrated the TsK Komsula, a four-place glider, designed by GF Groschev that could also be used for cargo. Larger gliders were then developed culminating in an 18-seater at the military institute in Leningrad in 1935. Luftwaffe Colonel Kurt Student visited Moscow as part of the military collaboration programme with the Soviet Union. He reported back to his superiors in Berlin details of a 1,500 man parachute drop and the large transport gliders that he had seen. The Luftwaffe opened a parachute school as a result in 1937. Further field testing convinced Student that a vehicle was needed to deliver the heavy weapons for the lightly armed parachute troops. This idea was dismissed until October 1938 by which time Student had risen to major-general and was appointed Inspector of Airborne Forces. Development of a troop-carrying glider was assigned to Hans Jacobs of the Deutsche Forschungsanstalt für Segelflug to develop the DFS 230 which could carry 9–10 fully equipped troops or 1,200 kg (2,800 pounds).


title: Military glider

text: The Germans were the first to use gliders in warfare, most famously during the assault of the Eben Emael fortress and the capture of the bridges over the Albert Canal at Veldwezelt, Vroenhoven and Kanne on May 10, 1940, in which 41 DFS 230 gliders carrying 10 soldiers each were launched behind Junkers Ju 52s. Ten gliders landed on the grassed roof of the fortress. Only twenty minutes after landing the force had neutralized the fortress at a cost of six dead and twenty wounded. Hitler was anxious to gain maximum publicity and so several foreign attachés were given guided tours of the fortress. Consequently, the British, American and Japanese became quickly aware of the methods that had been used. By mid-1940, both Japan and Britain had active glider programs.


title: Military glider

text: Development then began of even larger gliders such as the Gotha Go 242 (23 trooper) and Messerschmitt Me 321 (130 trooper) to transport heavy armaments in anticipation of Operation Sea Lion and Operation Barbarossa.


title: Military glider

text: Gliders were also used by Germany in Greece in 1941. On April 26, 1941, the troops from six DFS 230 gliders captured the bridge over the Corinth Canal accompanied by 40 plane-loads of German paratroopers. (Fortuitously, the British were able to demolish the bridge a few hours later.) Next, General Student then convinced Hitler that Crete could be captured using only airborne troops. Consequently, on May 20, 1941, 500 German transport aircraft carrying paratroopers and 74 DFS 230 gliders took off from the Greek mainland. During the capture of the island, 5,140 German airborne troops were either killed or wounded out of the 13,000 sent. Among the 350 German planes destroyed in the operation, half had been Ju 52s, which seriously depleted the force needed for the invasion of the Soviet Union shortly after. As a result, Hitler vowed never to use his airborne force in such large numbers again.


title: Military glider

text: Some German glider operations continued later in the war, some examples being the rescue operation of Benito Mussolini at Gran Sasso and emergency re-supply operations in Russia, North Africa and Eastern Europe towards the end of the war. The Junkers Ju 322 "Mammut" ("Mammoth") was the largest such glider ever built, but it was never used operationally. Not all military gliders were planned for transport. The Blohm & Voss BV 40 was a German glider fighter designed to attack Allied bomber formations but was not used.


title: Military glider

text: The British glider development started in mid-1940, prompted by the assault on Eben Emael. Among the types developed were the 28 trooper Airspeed Horsa and the 7-ton capacity General Aircraft Hamilcar cargo glider. The Hamilcar could carry vehicles, anti-tank guns and light tanks into action. The General Aircraft Hotspur – originally planned as a compact assault glider carrying a small number of troops – was used for training the British Army pilots who formed the Glider Pilot Regiment. The Slingsby Hengist was a backup design which was not required when the similar capacity American-built Waco CG-4 (given the British service name "Hadrian") became available in large numbers through lend-lease. Four hundred of the 3,600 Horsas built were supplied to the USAAF.


title: Military glider

text: The most famous British actions using gliders included the unsuccessful Operation Freshman, against a German heavy water plant in Norway in 1942; and the capture of the Caen canal and Orne river bridges in a coup-de-main operation at the very start of the invasion of Normandy. Other glider actions included Operation Dragoon (the invasion of southern France), Operation Market Garden (the landing at Arnhem Bridge to try and seize a bridgehead over the lower Rhine) and Operation Varsity (crossing of the Rhine). Out of the 2,596 gliders dispatched for Operation Market Garden, 2,239 were effective in delivering men and equipment to their designated landing zones.


title: Military glider

text: Although gliders are still used in the Royal Air Force in the Royal Air Force Gliding & Soaring Association and for cadet training by the Air Training Corps, they are not used in combat operations. No troop-carrying gliders have been in British service since 1957.


title: Military glider

text: Major General Henry "Hap" Arnold, Acting Deputy Chief of Staff for Air (becoming Commanding General of the United States Army Air Forces on March 9, 1942), initiated a study with view to develop a glider capable of being towed by aircraft. This directive was set into motion through Classified Technical Instructions (CTI-198 on 24 February 1941, and CTI-203 on 4 March 1941), which authorized the procurement of 2-, 8-, and 15-place gliders and equipment. Eleven companies were invited to participate in the experimental glider program, but only four responded with any interest, Frankfort Sailplane Company (XCG-1, XCG-2), Waco Aircraft Company (XCG-3, XCG-4), St. Louis Aircraft Corp. (XCG-5, XCG-6), and Bowlus Sailplanes (XCG-7, XCG-8). Only Waco Aircraft Company was able to deliver the experimental glider prototypes that satisfied the requirements of Materiel Command, the eight-seat Waco CG-3 (modified to become a production nine-seat glider) and the fifteen-seat Waco CG-4. In October 1941, Lewin B. Barringer was made Glider Specialist, Air Staff, HQ of the Army Air Forces, answering to General Arnold, and placed in charge of the glider program. The shock of the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on 7 December 1941 prompted the United States to set the number of glider pilots needed at 1,000 to fly 500 eight-seat gliders and 500 fifteen-seat gliders. The number of pilots required was increased to 6,000 by June 1942. After Barringer was lost at sea on a flight to Africa in January 1943, the program came under direction of Richard C. du Pont. Bigger gliders, such as the 30-troop Waco CG-13A and the 42-troop Laister-Kauffman CG-10A were designed later.


title: Military glider

text: The most widely used type was the Waco CG-4A, which was first used in the invasion of Sicily in July 1943 and participated in the D-Day assault on France on 6 June 1944, and in other important airborne operations in Europe, including Operation Market Garden in September 1944 and the crossing the Rhine in March 1945, and in the China-Burma-India Theater. The CG-4A was constructed of a metal and wood frame covered with fabric, manned by a crew of two and with an allowable normal cargo load of 3,710 lb, allowing it to carry 13 combat-equipped troops or a jeep or small artillery piece. The CG-10 could hold 10,850 lb of cargo, such as two howitzers, at a time. The final glider mission of the war was at Luzon on 23 June 1945. By the end of the war, the United States had built 14,612 gliders of all types and had trained over 6,000 glider pilots. The designs of the Waco Aircraft Company were also produced by a wide variety of manufacturers including Ford Motor Company and Cessna Aircraft Company as well as furniture, piano and coffin manufacturers.


title: Military glider

text: Following World War II, the United States maintained only one regiment of gliders. Gliders were used in military exercises in 1949, but glider operations were deleted from the United States Army′s capabilities on 1 January 1953. However, the United States Air Force continues to use sailplanes at the United States Air Force Academy to train cadets in the fundamentals of flight.


title: Military glider

text: In April 1941, United States Navy officer Marc Mitscher proposed that the Navy develop amphibious gliders with flying-boat hulls with a goal of deploying an amphibious glider force capable of delivering an entire United States Marine Corps brigade of 715 men to a hostile beachhead, the gliders to be towed by Consolidated PBY-5A Catalina amphibian aircraft. The Navy's Bureau of Aeronautics developed specifications for two types of amphibious glider, a single-hulled type which could carry 12 passengers and a twin-hulled type that could carry 24 passengers. Two companies, the Allied Aviation Corporation and the Bristol Aeronautical Corporation, received contracts to produce 100 gliders, and plans called for the procurement of 12,000 more amphibious gliders if the concept proved successful.


title: Military glider

text: No twin-hulled glider was built, but each company constructed the prototype of a single-hulled amphibious glider, the XLRA-1 by Allied Aviation and the XLRQ-1 by Bristol Aeronautical. The two prototypes made their first flights in early 1943, but by the time they did the Navy and Marine Corps already had concluded that the use of gliders to deliver Marines to beachheads was impractical. No further examples of the two glider types were built, and the Navy officially terminated the amphibious glider program on 27 September 1943. Testing of the two prototypes continued until early December 1943, apparently in connection with the development of a glider bomb.


title: Military glider

text: The Marine Corps established a glider training unit in early 1942 at Marine Corps Recruit Depot Parris Island, South Carolina, using non-amphibious Pratt-Read LNE-1 and Schweizer LNS-1 gliders. In addition, the Navy took delivery during World War II of 15 U.S. Army Air Forces Waco CG-4A non-amphibious gliders for evaluation under the Navy designation LRW-1. Neither of these initiatives resulted in operational use of gliders by the U.S. Navy or Marine Corps.


title: Military glider

text: The Soviet Union built the world's first military gliders starting in 1932, including the 16-seat Grokhovski G63, though no glider was built in quantity until World War II. During the war, there were only two light gliders built in series: Antonov A-7 and Gribovski G-11 – about 1,000 altogether. A medium glider, the KC-20, was built in a small series. They were used mostly for providing partisans in Belarus with supplies and armament in 1942–1943. On 21 September 1943, 35 gliders were used in the Dnepr crossing. Later, other types of gliders were built: the Cybin C-25 (25 trooper) in 1944, the Yakovlev Yak-14 (35 trooper) in 1948, and the Ilyushin Il-32 (60 trooper) also in 1948. In 1950, a Yak-14 became the first glider to fly over the North Pole.


title: Military glider

text: The Soviet Union maintained three glider infantry regiments until 1965. However, Soviet Air Force transport gliders were gradually withdrawn from service with the arrival of turboprop transports like the Antonov An-12 and Antonov An-24, which entered service in the late 1950s.


title: Kayser–Fleischer ring

text: Kayser–Fleischer rings (KF rings) are dark rings that appear to encircle the cornea of the eye. They are due to copper deposition in the Descemet's membrane as a result of particular liver diseases. They are named after German ophthalmologists Bernhard Kayser and Bruno Fleischer who first described them in 1902 and 1903. Initially thought to be due to the accumulation of silver, they were first demonstrated to contain copper in 1934.


title: Kayser–Fleischer ring

text: The rings, which consist of copper deposits where the cornea meets the sclera, in Descemet's membrane, first appear as a crescent at the top of the cornea. Eventually, a second crescent forms below, at the "six o'clock position", and ultimately completely encircles the cornea.


title: Kayser–Fleischer ring

text: Kayser–Fleischer rings are a sign of Wilson's disease, which involves abnormal copper handling by the liver resulting in copper accumulation in the body and is characterised by abnormalities of the basal ganglia of the brain, liver cirrhosis, splenomegaly, involuntary movements, muscle rigidity, psychiatric disturbances, dystonia and dysphagia. The combination of neurological symptoms, a low blood ceruloplasmin level and KF rings is diagnostic of Wilson's disease.


title: Kayser–Fleischer ring

text: Other causes of KF rings are cholestasis (obstruction of the bile ducts), primary biliary cirrhosis and "cryptogenic" cirrhosis (cirrhosis in which no cause can be identified).


title: Kayser–Fleischer ring

text: As Kayser–Fleischer rings do not cause any symptoms, it is common for them to be identified during investigations for other medical conditions. In certain situations, they are actively sought; in that case, the early stages may be detected by slit lamp examination before they become visible to the naked eye.


title: Wolf Girl and Black Prince

text: Erika Shinohara is a high school student who desperately wants to fit in a clique so she would not become lonely. However, because her clique consists of girls who have boyfriends, she has to resort to tell lies about having one herself. To make them more authentic, Erika takes a photo of a random guy in the street. Unfortunately, the guy, Kyoya Sata, turns out to be the most popular boy from her school. Erika asks him to pretend to be her boyfriend, which he agrees to under one condition: that she become his "Wolf Girl" by acting like a pet to him.


title: Wolf Girl and Black Prince

text: To her dismay, Erika discovers that Kyoya is far more dark-hearted than the "princely" personality he feigns towards others; he frequently gives snarks, insults, and generally has a cynical view of the world. Despite this, Erika is slowly attracted and eventually falls in love with him. Kyoya in turn softens and finds out that he is attracted to her as well, something that is cemented when Erika quits being the Wolf Girl after a misunderstanding, which he responds by "promoting" her to become his actual girlfriend.


title: Wolf Girl and Black Prince

text: Erika and Kyoya go through their high school years as a couple while having to face many challenges, including love rivals for each other, misunderstandings, and jealousy. They also learn to understand and change for the benefit of each other. In the process, they befriend three people who form a part of a group: Erika's self-reliant best friend, Ayumi Sanda; Kyoya's hot-blooded best friend, Takeru Hibiya; and the flamboyant Nozomi Kamiya, who becomes their classmate during their second year. Near the end of the series, the couple also have to face the truth of a long-distance relationship when Erika has to move to Kyoto to attend a vocational school for glass making; the two ultimately decide on working it out somehow.


title: Wolf Girl and Black Prince

text: Seven years after graduation, the group have attained each of their preferred professions, with Erika herself becoming a glass maker. She has also married Kyoya, with whom she has a daughter, Yuina.


title: Wolf Girl and Black Prince

text: Written and illustrated by Ayuko Hatta, "Wolf Girl and Black Prince" was serialized in Shueisha's "Bessatsu Margaret" magazine from October 25, 2011, to May 13, 2016. The series' chapters were collected in sixteen "tankōbon" volumes.


title: Wolf Girl and Black Prince

text: At New York Comic Con 2022, Viz Media announced that they licensed the series for English publication.


title: Wolf Girl and Black Prince

text: An anime television series adaptation aired in Japan between October 5, 2014, and December 21, 2014. Produced by Shueisha, Yomiuri Telecasting Corporation, VAP, TYO Animations and Yomiuri-TV Enterprise, the series is directed by Ken'ichi Kasai, with Sawako Hirabayashi handling series composition, Maki Fujioka designing the characters and Gō Sakabe composing the music. The opening theme is "LOVE GOOD TIME" by SpecialThanks and the ending theme is by Oresama. It ran for 12 episodes. Crunchyroll streamed the series, while Sentai Filmworks has licensed the series.


title: Wolf Girl and Black Prince

text: A live-action film adaptation directed by Ryūichi Hiroki premiered in Japanese theaters on May 28, 2016. It grossed US$10,639,039 at Japan box office.


title: Wolf Girl and Black Prince

text: The manga has sold over 2.4 million copies as of April 2014. The 7th volume reached the number four place on the Oricon weekly manga chart in the week of September 23–29, 2013, with 102,872 copies sold.


title: Satana (Marvel Comics)

text: Satana Hellstrom is a fictional character appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. Created by Roy Thomas and John Romita Sr., she first appeared in "Vampire Tales" #2 (October 1973). Satana belongs to the subspecies of magical beings called demons, who are born with supernatural abilities, as a human-succubus hybrid. She is the sister of Daimon Hellstrom and the daughter of Marduk Kurios.


title: Satana (Marvel Comics)

text: Satana, renamed Ana, made her live-action debut in the Hulu television series "Helstrom", played by Sydney Lemmon.


title: Satana (Marvel Comics)

text: Satana made her debut in "Vampire Tales" #2 (cover-dated October 1973). She was created by Roy Thomas and John Romita Sr.


title: Satana (Marvel Comics)

text: She appeared as a regular character in "Thunderbolts" since issue #155, and remained with the team when the title transitioned into "Dark Avengers" beginning with issue #175.


title: Satana (Marvel Comics)

text: Satana and Daimon were born in the fictional town of Greentown, Massachusetts. They were the half-human children of Satan (their father was later retconned into a demon named Marduk Kurios, who posed as Satan). Satana and her brother were groomed by their father to be evil, but Daimon rejected these teachings, while Satana embraced them.


title: Satana (Marvel Comics)

text: When Satana was still a child, her mother, Victoria Wingate, discovered her husband and children's true nature and was driven mad. Daimon was raised by servants, while Satana was taken to her father's particular Hell-dimension (of which there are many in the Marvel Universe) and taught black magic. As a reward for her devotion to him, Satana's father gave her a familiar named Exiter, with whom she formed a close bond. Satana began studying magic under her father and the demon Dansker. In Hell, her soul was bonded with an evil spirit called the Basilisk (not to be confused with the Basilisk) in order to increase her magical power.


title: Satana (Marvel Comics)

text: As an adult, Satana was banished to Earth by the Four as a succubus, draining the souls of men. When she does this, the victim's soul transforms into an ethereal butterfly; Satana then consumes its essence by eating it. She also possesses the ability to gain strength through the use of weapons that were used to kill a living being. In order to do this, she merely places a portion of her own blood on the chosen weapon. She used both her magic and sexual wiles to get the victims she needed.


title: Satana (Marvel Comics)

text: As a succubus, she stalked victims in New York City, and then in Los Angeles she befriended a Satanist named Ruth Cummins. When Ruth was killed, Satana avenged Ruth's death by destroying Darkos Edge and Harry Gotham. She later battled the Four, a mystic cabal. During Satana's first time in the mortal dimension, she was attacked by Monsignor Jimmy Cruz and his band of soldiers. During this battle, Cruz summoned demons called the N'Garai. Exiter tried to fend them off, but was killed trying to protect his mistress. Though she was too late to save her beloved Exiter, Satana gained her revenge by killing Cruz and consuming his soul. She confronted her father, who was disguised as Miles Gorney, and defied him by saving Michael Heron's soul from him. Some time later, Satana was seemingly destroyed by her brother Daimon Hellstrom, but she defeated the demoness Kthara. She was transformed by the Camarilla of the N'Garai into a human, Judith Camber. She was restored to normal, and destroyed the Camarilla.


title: Satana (Marvel Comics)

text: Eventually, however, the demon to which she had been bonded began to desire its freedom. The Basilisk managed to put a curse on Doctor Strange, basically turning him into a werewolf. With the help of Spider-Man, Satana was able to free Strange's soul from the curse, but the Basilisk was released in the process, and stabbed her in the back with a mystical blade. Satana died laughing, however, because their life-forces were still bound together; by killing her, the Basilisk had sealed its own fate as well. She had thus sacrificed her life to cure Strange of lycanthropy.


title: Satana (Marvel Comics)

text: As a supernatural being, however, Satana's death was not permanent. Her spirit returned to her father's realm of Hell for a time, until she and a cabal of demons arranged to have her soul (among others) placed into a soulless body on Earth. There she began to build her powers again, preparing to return to Hell and conquer her father's realm.


title: Satana (Marvel Comics)

text: At some point, she apparently died again. In the short-lived Marvel series "Witches", Satana is resurrected again by Doctor Strange and teamed with two other magic-wielding females to defeat a powerful mystic enemy called the Hellphyr, which was a front for her father Marduk Kurios. According to that series, the three witches formed a coven in order to protect the "Tome of Zhered-na" (a powerful Book of Shadows belonging to the Kale family) from would-be thieves such as Doctor Strange.


title: Satana (Marvel Comics)

text: After a brief cameo in "Nick Fury's Howling Commandos", Satana has been shown to have reverted to her former wicked ways; reaping souls in Manhattan and plotting her father's overthrow from the comfort of a desecrated church. Despite her fatherly conflict, Satana revealed that for every mortal victim she takes, she must offer the 10th victim as supplication to her father. The Hood seeks her out to find out more information about Dormammu. Some time after the fall of the Hood, Luke Cage and Doctor Strange attempt to apprehend her for working with the Hood and to get her to join the Thunderbolts. She is initially resistant, but happily agrees when she realizes she will get to work with the Man-Thing.


title: Satana (Marvel Comics)

text: In the course of Marvel's "Deadpool Team-Up" series, Satana loses her soul to four geeks in a high-stakes poker game, and she subsequently seeks out Deadpool's help to get it back. Deadpool discovers the poker-playing geeks are actually demons debating which will marry Satana to become the heir to Hell. Deadpool comes up with a plan to swindle Satana's soul back from the demons: he marries her, binding their souls together. Satana strengthens Deadpool's katana swords with his own soul power to make the inevitable fight with the demon suitor more evenly matched. When the demon comes to take Satana as his bride, Deadpool produces the marriage certificate, denying the demon his bride. The demon then points out the loophole—marriage is only valid until death; therefore, he decides to kill Deadpool. In the ensuing battle, Deadpool uses his soul-enhanced swords to easily dispatch the demon. Afterwards, Satana slips off and leaves Deadpool a letter explaining the inevitable divorce. She indicates she will be keeping half his soul—her entitlement in the divorce settlement.


title: Satana (Marvel Comics)

text: She later was involved in a battle with several Hell-lords, attempting to take control of new territories within Hell. She was killed in battle by the mutant / Asgardian god hybrid Tier.