title: Taurean Prince

text: In the summer of 2015, following his junior season, Prince helped the United States men's national basketball team win the bronze medal at the 2015 Pan American Games. He was on a team led by Bobby Brown and Anthony Randolph.


title: Taurean Prince

text: On August 25, 2022, Prince was arrested on a "fugitive warrant out of state extradite" at Miami International Airport on account of a "dangerous drugs" charge from Texas.


title: Marcian

text: Marcian (; ; ; 392 – 27 January 457) was Roman emperor of the East from 450 to 457. Very little of his life before becoming emperor is known, other than that he was a (personal assistant) who served under the commanders Ardabur and his son Aspar for fifteen years. After the death of Emperor Theodosius II on 28 July 450, Marcian was made a candidate for the throne by Aspar, who held much influence because of his military power. After a month of negotiations Pulcheria, Theodosius' sister, agreed to marry Marcian. Zeno, a military leader whose influence was similar to Aspar's, may have been involved in these negotiations, as he was given the high-ranking court title of patrician upon Marcian's accession. Marcian was elected and inaugurated on 25 August 450.


title: Marcian

text: Marcian reversed many of the actions of TheodosiusII in the Eastern Roman Empire's relationship with the Huns under Attila and in religious matters. Marcian almost immediately revoked all treaties with Attila, ending all subsidy payments to him. In 452, while Attila was raiding Roman Italy, then a part of the Western Roman Empire, Marcian launched expeditions across the Danube into the Great Hungarian Plain, defeating the Huns in their own heartland. This action, accompanied by the famine and plague that broke out in northern Italy, allowed the Western Roman Empire to bribe Attila into retreating from the Italian peninsula.


title: Marcian

text: After Attila's death in 453, Marcian took advantage of the resulting fragmentation of the Hunnic confederation by settling Germanic tribes within Roman lands as ("federates" providing military service in exchange for benefits). Marcian also convened the Council of Chalcedon, which declared that Jesus had two "natures": divine and human. This led to the alienation of the population of the eastern provinces of Syria and Egypt, as many of them were miaphysites, rejecting the new official Christology. Marcian died on 27 January 457, leaving the Eastern Roman Empire with a treasury surplus of seven million solidi coins, an impressive achievement considering the economic ruin inflicted upon the Eastern Roman Empire by the Huns and Theodosius' tribute payments. After his death, Aspar passed over Marcian's son-in-law, Anthemius, and had a military commander, Leo I, elected as emperor.


title: Marcian

text: Marcian was born in 392, in either Thrace or Illyria. The ancient historian John Malalas describes him as being tall and having some sort of foot impediment. Little of Marcian's early life is known. His father had served in the military and at a young age Marcian enlisted at Philippopolis in Thrace. By the time of the Roman–Sassanian War of 421–422, Marcian had likely reached the military rank of tribune—the historian Theophanes the Confessor mentions him commanding a military unit. He did not see action in the war, having become ill in Lycia. There he was cared for by Tatianus, who would be made (prefect of Constantinople) by Marcian, and Tatianus' brother Iulius. Marcian eventually rose to become the (personal assistant) of Aspar, the (commander-in-chief) of the Eastern Roman Empire. Despite being half-Alanic and half-Gothic, Aspar held much influence in the empire. In the early 430s, Marcian served under Aspar in Roman Africa, where he was captured by Vandals. Evagrius Scholasticus, Procopius and later authors give a likely false account in which Marcian, while in captivity, met the Vandal king Gaiseric, who predicted he would later become emperor. After his capture, Marcian is not mentioned again until the death of the eastern emperor, Theodosius II.


title: Marcian

text: The Eastern Roman Empire was plagued by external threats during the reign of Theodosius II. In 429, the Vandals, led by Gaiseric, began to conquer Roman Africa. Theodosius immediately organized a response, sending Aspar and three other commanders to attempt to repel them in the summer of 431. To the north, the Huns, who had customarily attacked the empire whenever its armies were preoccupied, withdrawing as those forces returned, sent ambassadors to Theodosius in 431, demanding tribute. He agreed to their demand to pay of gold each year. In 434, the Eastern Roman armies were still campaigning against the Vandals in Africa, having faced initial defeats and the withdrawal of many of the Western Roman soldiers. In the face of Eastern Roman weakness, the Huns doubled their demand, asking for of gold per year, which Theodosius agreed to. The threat the Huns posed to his weakly protected empire was enough that Theodosius recalled many of his forces from Africa. With large numbers of the Eastern Roman armies home, and Attila, who had just taken power in the Hunnic Confederation, busy campaigning to the north, Theodosius refused to pay the tribute and continued to refuse to until 439.


title: Marcian

text: On 19 October 439, the Vandals defeated the weakened Eastern Roman armies and captured the major city of Carthage. Both the Western and Eastern Roman Empires began preparing a massive counter-offensive, stripping the Balkan provinces of protection. In the spring of 440, 1,100 ships set sail from Constantinople for Africa; sending away so many of the Eastern Roman forces was a huge gamble on Theodosius' part. He was betting the fortified cities along the Danube could delay the Huns long enough for the invasion force to gain a secure foothold in Africa, allowing troops to be withdrawn back to the northern frontier. This gamble worked until 442 when the bishop of Margus led a raiding party into the Huns' territory and desecrated their royal tombs. In response to this desecration, Attila demanded that the bishop be handed over. To ensure his own safety, the bishop struck a deal with Attila, surrendering the city of Margus to him in exchange for his own life. With control of Margus, Attila had a foothold across the Danube, which he aggressively exploited, capturing and destroying the cities of Viminacium, Singidunum, and Sirmium. Theodosius recalled Aspar to Constantinople and launched a counter-attack. After his force was decisively defeated, Theodosius undertook to pay tribute to the Huns every year, which he did until his death in 450.


title: Marcian

text: After Theodosius II died unexpectedly in a riding accident on 28 July 450, the Eastern Roman Empire faced its first succession crisis in 60 years. Theodosius had no sons, nor had he designated a successor. Some later sources state that he willed the throne to Marcian on his deathbed, but this is thought to be propaganda created by Marcian's supporters after his election. Marcian had served Aspar and his father Ardabur loyally for fifteen years. Aspar conspired to have Marcian elected and was able to negotiate with other powerful figures to have him made the emperor, despite his relative obscurity. There was a one-month interregnum where negotiations for the succession took place, one of which was with Pulcheria, Theodosius II's sister, who agreed to marry Marcian; it is thought that Pulcheria agreed to marry Marcian on the condition that he would abandon Theodosius IIs religious policies and convoke a Church council. Their marriage helped to legitimize Marcian's rule, as Pulcheria's family, the Theodosian dynasty, had direct ties to the throne. Despite being married to Marcian, Pulcheria kept the vow of virginity she had made in 413, at age 14, during her three years of marriage to him.


title: Marcian

text: Historian Doug Lee proposes that negotiations were also needed between Aspar and Flavius Zeno, who was in a similar position of military power. Zeno was given the prestigious rank of patrician upon Marcian's ascension in 450, suggesting a deal whereby Zeno was rewarded for supporting Marcian instead of claiming the throne for himself; Zeno would ultimately die within a year of Marcians accession. Aspar son, Ardabur, was promoted to command the army of the Prefecture of the East as the new , soon after Marcian's accession.


title: Marcian

text: Marcian was elevated on 25 August 450, and Pulcheria's agreement to marry him likely boosted Marcian's legitimacy further. Marcian took the regnal name of Imperator Caesar Flavius Marcianus Augustus upon his coronation. The election of Marcian in 450 resulted in large changes to eastern imperial policy. Chrysaphius, the eunuch and (guard of the imperial chambers), who had exercised much influence over Theodosius, was either murdered or executed. Both Pulcheria and Zeno were opposed to Chrysaphius' influence, which may have motivated Marcian's actions. Marcian took a tougher stance against the Huns and a more direct role in ecclesiastical affairs. Byzantist Constance Head considers Marcian to be "an independent-minded emperor." Lee states that Marcian "can appear as a stronger figure than many other fifth-century incumbents of the imperial office", but notes that "Flavius Zeno and Pulcheria had both been opponents of Chrysaphius, so the changes may be more a reflection of their influence."


title: Marcian

text: Almost immediately after becoming emperor, Marcian revoked Theodosius' treaties with Attila and proclaimed the end of subsidies. He stated that he might grant gifts if Attila was friendly, but Attila would be repelled if he attempted to raid the Eastern Roman Empire. At this time Attila was preparing to invade the Western Roman Empire, under the guise of helping Emperor Valentinian III against the Visigoths. Attila reacted angrily to Marcian's proposal, demanding tribute, but did not alter his invasion plans. He led his horde from Pannonia in spring 451 into the Western Roman Empire. Flavius Aetius, who was the supreme commander of the Western Roman army as , organized a defense and called upon the Visigoths, Franks, Burgundians, Alans, Saxons, Celtic Armoricans, and other tribal groups numbering about 60,000 to aid him. Attila's forces were made up of Gepids, Alans, Sciri, Heruli, Rugians, along with some Franks, Burgundians, and Ostrogoths.


title: Marcian

text: Attila sacked Metz and attempted a siege of Orléans, before meeting Aetius' forces at the Battle of the Catalaunian Plains, in northeast Gaul. This battle involved around 100,000 men and resulted in very large losses on both sides. After the battle, Attila retreated to the Great Hungarian Plain, and Aetius dismissed his coalition of tribes, sending them back to their own territories. In spring 452, Attila again launched a raid into Italy, which was almost entirely undefended. He was likely motivated by a desire for revenge, along with a need to raid to stabilize his tribal state, which was dependent upon raiding for loot and resources. Attila captured the city of Aquileia after a long and difficult siege, and sacked it. He then raided across northern Italy, taking Mediolanum (Milan) and other important cities. There was much fear that Attila would attack Rome itself, the walls of which were weaker than those of some cities he had already captured. During this period, other than cutting his lines of communication and harassing his rear forces, Aetius did not launch a direct attack on Attila.


title: Marcian

text: Despite the plunder he now had from capturing Aquileia, Milan, and other cities, Attila was quickly placed in a precarious situation, because of the actions of both Eastern and Western Rome. In Italy, he was seriously lacking in funds, having not received subsidies from either Eastern or Western Rome for two years. Constant warfare had depleted his forces. As well, Attila's homeland was threatened by the Eastern Empire which, despite the punitive raids he ordered, took the offensive against the Great Hungarian Plain in mid-452, attacking across the Danube and inflicting a defeat upon the Huns. The area attacked by the Eastern Romans was home to Ostrogoths and Gepids, two groups bitterly opposed to Hunnic rule, and was the breadbasket of the Hunnic Empire. The loss of food supply from Attila's own land coupled with a famine that Italy was suffering at the time, along with a plague that followed it, placed yet more strain upon Attila, allowing the Western Roman Empire to bribe him into retreating to his homeland. After returning to the Great Hungarian Plain, he threatened to invade the Eastern Empire the following spring and conquer it entirely. Marcian and Aspar ignored his threats. They reasoned, based upon the previous treaties that Attila had broken, that he could not be permanently deterred even by tons of gold. The pair believed the gold would be better spent building up armies, not appeasing threats. Also, the rich Asian and African provinces, which were protected behind Constantinople, were secure enough to allow the Eastern Empire to retake any European provinces it might lose. This campaign never came to fruition, as Attila died unexpectedly in 453, either from hemorrhaging or alcoholic suffocation, after celebrating a marriage to one of his many wives. After his death, his tribal confederation rapidly fell apart, starting first with rebellions of the Ostrogoths.


title: Marcian

text: This fragmentation allowed the Eastern Empire to resume its policy of playing off barbarians against each other, to stop any one tribe from becoming too powerful. It is almost certain that the Gepid king Ardaric came to an agreement with Marcian. Ardaric had formed a coalition of the Rugians, Sciri, Heruli, and his own Gepids, which he led against the remaining Hunnic confederation. Ardaric, alongside the Ostrogoth leaders Theodemir, Valamir and Videmir, decisively defeated Attila's oldest son, Ellac, at the Battle of Nedao in 455, where he was slain. After this battle, the Hunnic confederation could no longer sustain the cohesion of its previous days, although they still remained prominent. In the wake of the reduced power of the Hunnic Empire, Marcian accepted the Ostrogoths, who had established themselves in Pannonia Prima and Valeria—nominally two Western Roman provinces—as . This marked the continuation of the tacit abandonment of a rigid Danube barrier, which had previously been manned by Roman , barbarians settled directly in Roman land in exchange for military service. For some time before Marcian, the had been replaced by , although the distinction between the two was increasingly breaking down. Marcian's successors would grant the status of to multiple peoples and ceding them lands in the recovered European provinces: the Rugians in eastern Thrace, Sciri in Lower Moesia and Scythia, Gepids in Dacia. This network of subject peoples, who were generally reliable and manageable, was beneficial to the Eastern Empire. The tribal peoples generally kept each other's power in check without Roman intervention. They could also be induced to serve the empire against its enemies by way of gifts, subsidies, and treaties. With the Hunnic empire's diminished might after the death of Attila, Marcian enjoyed a relatively peaceful reign, although he won some small campaigns against the Saracens in Syria and against the Blemmyes in Egypt.


title: Marcian

text: During the 5th century, a central religious issue was the debate concerning how the human and divine nature of Jesus Christ were associated, following the Arian controversy. The School of Alexandria, including theologians such as Athanasius, asserted the equality of Christ and God, and therefore focused upon the divinity of Christ. The School of Antioch, including theologians such as Theodore of Mopsuestia, determined not to lose the human aspect of Christ, focused upon his humanity.


title: Marcian

text: Shortly before Marcian became emperor, the Second Council of Ephesus was held in 449. The council stated that Jesus had one divine united nature, a position called ; this was rejected by the Pope and the Patriarch of Constantinople because of disputes on the matter of Christology, as the Pope and Patriarch of Constantinople saw the belief in miaphysis as heretical.


title: Marcian

text: To repudiate the Second Council of Ephesus, Marcian convened a new council of the imperial church, deemed to pass universally respected canons, in 451. Pulcheria may have influenced this decision or even made the convention of a council a requirement during her negotiations with Aspar to marry Marcian. The council was to take place near Constantinople so that the government could watch the proceedings closely. Initially, it was to be held at the city of Nicaea, which held enormous religious importance to the early church, as it was the site of its first council, the First Council of Nicaea in 325. However, Marcian successfully requested the transfer of the location to Chalcedon. This was closer to Constantinople and would allow him to respond quickly to any events along the Danube frontier. The Council of Chalcedon met in October 451. About 500 bishops attended it, most of them Eastern Roman, although two African bishops and two Papal legates sent by Pope Leo I attended. This council condemned the Second Council of Ephesus and agreed that Jesus had a divine nature () and a human nature, united in one person (), "without confusion, change, division, or separation."


title: Marcian

text: The council also agreed to condemn the Coptic Pope Dioscorus I of Alexandria, who had overseen the Second Council of Ephesus, and revoke the condemnations of Ibas of Edessa and Theodoret, which had taken place during this Council. The council also repeated the importance of the See of Constantinople, placing it firmly in second place behind the See of Rome, and giving it the right to appoint bishops in the Eastern Roman Empire, over the objection of Pope Leo I; the Patriarchs of Alexandria also objected to the elevation of the See of Constantinople. The council ended in November 451, after which Marcian issued numerous edicts confirming the outcomes of the council; showing that the outcome of the council was not universally accepted. One such edict ordered the repression of Eutychianists, who did not believe in the hypostatic union of the two natures of Jesus, barring them from holding state offices, forbidding them from criticizing the Council of Chalcedon, and ordering their literature, along with that of the Nestorians, to be burned.


title: Marcian

text: The anti-Miaphysite resolutions of the council led to a large increase in civil disruption in the eastern provinces of Syria and Egypt, where the majority of the population was Miaphysitic. Several violent revolts were put down with military force after significant bloodshed, in Jerusalem, Alexandria, and Antioch; as well as sending the military to suppress monks in Palestine and placing troops in Alexandria to ensure the installation of Proterius of Alexandria, who was to replace the deposed Pope Dioscorus I. According to the Byzantist Alexander Vasiliev, even after these revolts were put down, the popular dissatisfaction with the state church among the Miaphysite and Nestorian population remained, as the eastern provinces became increasingly convinced of their need for independence from the Eastern Roman Empire. Vasiliev states that this would lead to long-lasting disloyalty toward the Eastern Roman government among the eastern provinces, ultimately facilitating the loss of these provinces to the Sassanians and later to the Arabs. Another result of the council and the subsequent edicts was that many Christians who disagreed with the council, including many Nestorians, migrated to the Sassanian Empire. The separation of the Miaphysites from the churches accepting Chalcedonian doctrine would be made final after the failed attempts of reconciliation under Emperor Justinian I (), the Miaphysites splitting the Oriental Orthodox Churches from the main body of Christians.


title: Marcian

text: Marcian also funded Pulcheria's extensive building projects until her death in July 453. All of them focused on the construction of religious buildings, including the Church of St. Mary of Blachernae and the Hodegon Monastery. Marcian was compared to both Paul the Apostle and the Biblical king David, by the legates at the Council of Chalcedon.


title: Marcian

text: At the beginning of Marcian's reign, the Eastern Roman treasury was almost bankrupt, the result of the huge tributes paid to Attila by Theodosius. Marcian reversed this near bankruptcy, not by levying new taxes, but by cutting expenditure. Upon his accession, he declared a remission of all debts owed to the state. Marcian attempted to improve the efficiency of the state in multiple ways. He laid out legal reforms in his novels, or codes of law, containing 20 laws, many of which were targeted at reducing the corruption and abuses of office that had existed during the reign of Theodosius; five of which are preserved in full.


title: Marcian

text: Marcian mandated that the office of praetorship (officer in charge of public games and works) could only be given to senators who resided in Constantinople, attempted to curb the practice of selling administrative offices, and decreed that consuls should be responsible for the maintenance of Constantinople's aqueducts. He repealed the , a tax on senators' property that amounted to seven pounds of gold per annum. Marcian removed the financial responsibilities of the consuls and praetors, held since the time of the Roman Republic, to fund public sports and games or give wealth to the citizens of Constantinople, respectively. He further decreed that only a (a high-ranking man) could hold either office. He also partially repealed a marriage law enacted by Constantine I, which decreed that a man of senatorial status could not marry a slave, freedwoman, actress, or woman of no social status (), which had been created in an attempt to preserve the purity of the senatorial class. Marcian adjusted this law by declaring that the law should not exclude a woman of good character, regardless of her social status or wealth. By the time of his death, Marcian's shrewd cutting of expenditures and his avoidance of large-scale wars left the Eastern Roman treasury with a surplus of of gold.


title: Marcian

text: In 451, Marcian decreed that anyone who performed pagan rites would lose their property and be condemned to death and that no pagan temples, which had previously been closed, could be reopened. To ensure this law was implemented, he set a penalty of of gold for any judge, governor or official who did not enforce the law.


title: Marcian

text: When Marcian became emperor, he was influenced by Flavius Zeno, Pulcheria, and Aspar. Flavius Zeno died soon after Marcian ascended the throne, possibly as early as the end of 451, and Pulcheria died in July 453, leaving Aspar as the only major influence in the court of the Eastern Roman Empire. This influence was enhanced by the promotion of his son Ardabur to . It is unknown if Aspar and Ardabur influenced Marcians policies directly, but if so, they were extremely careful to avoid upsetting the ruling elites of Constantinople. Despite Aspar's great influence, the Eastern Roman elites retained much of their anti-German sentiment. Marcian's principal advisors were Pulcheria, Euphemius the (master of offices), Palladius the praetor, and Anatolius of Constantinople. In 453, Marcian had his daughter from a previous marriage, Marcia Euphemia, marry Anthemius, an aristocrat and talented general.


title: Marcian

text: Marcian patronized the Blues, who were one of the two circus teams, the other being the Greens. The two teams had become more like political parties than sports teams by his time, wielding large influence in the empire; both vied for power. After the Greens responded angrily to his patronage, Marcus censured them, forbidding any of them to hold any public office for three years. Marcian's patronage of the Blues may have had personal motivations, as the once powerful Chrysaphius had been favorable to the Greens.


title: Marcian

text: The Armenian king Vardan II Mamikonian, who was leading a revolt against the Sassanian Empire, sent an embassy to Theodosius in 450, composed of his brother Hmayeak Mamikonian, along with Atom Gnuni, Vardan Amatuni, and Meruzhan Artsruni, to ask for assistance. Theodosius received it favorably. Any plans were cut short by his death and the accession of Marcian. Marcian was counseled by the diplomat Anatolius and Florentius not to make war with the Sassanians, as it would engulf a large amount of the Eastern Roman military resources, and thus Marcian did not agree to help them.


title: Marcian

text: King Gubazes I of Lazica—a Caucasian state in theory under Eastern Roman suzerainty—was attempting to form an alliance with the Sassanians to break free of Roman control in 456. Marcian's troops invaded Lazica and restored Roman rule. In 455, Marcian banned the export to barbarian tribes of weapons and the tools used to manufacture them.


title: Marcian

text: Marcian was elected without any consultation with the Western Roman Emperor Valentinian III, a clear indication of further separation between the Eastern and Western Roman Empires than before his reign. Valentinian would later recognize Marcian as the Eastern Roman Emperor, although the date of his recognition is disputed; Lee states that Valentinian recognized Marcian in March 452, whereas historian Timothy E. Gregory states that Marcian was recognized by Valentinian on 30 March 451. Marcians appointment marked a further stage of separation between the Eastern and Western Roman Empires. One source, John of Antioch's , even suggest that Valentinian would have attempted to depose Marcian, but for Aetius opposition. Valentinian also did not recognize the Eastern Roman consuls for 451 or 452. The Western Roman chronicler Hydatius suggests that Marcian made Eastern Roman troops available to Valentinian to repel the Huns, confusingly led by a man named Aetius, which may simply be a muddling of Aetius' campaign against Attila and Marcian's campaign against the Huns on the Danube.


title: Marcian

text: When Marcian granted part of Pannonia to the Ostrogoths, and the Tisza region to the Gepids, he was accused of encroaching upon the border of Western Roman land. Marcian avoided involving himself with the affairs of the Western Roman Empire when possible. When the Vandals sacked Rome in 455, after Petronius Maximus assassinated Valentinian III and broke an engagement treaty with the Vandals, Marcian did not respond violently, possibly because of the influence of Aspar. He merely sent an envoy demanding that the Vandals return the Dowager Empress, Licinia Eudoxia and her daughters by Valentinian III, Placidia and Eudocia. A likely false account is given that Marcian, while captured by the Vandals in his youth, was shaded by an eagle while the other prisoners suffered the hot sun. According to this account, the Vandal King Gaiseric recognized that Marcian would later be emperor. In exchange for being released, he made Marcian pledge not to attack the Vandals should he become emperor. This account originates from Priscus, who served as an advisor to Marcian's confidant, Euphemius. Because of Euphemius' influence over foreign policy, some historians, such as Edward Arthur Thompson, have suggested that this account was a part of official imperial propaganda, which was generated to excuse Marcian's lack of retribution towards the Vandals, and quell any discontent. Marcian made several diplomatic attempts to have the prisoners returned, before finally beginning to plan an invasion of the Vandal's territory shortly before his death. The historian Frank Clover has suggested that this sudden reversal of policy was caused by the marriage of Eudocia to Huneric, the son of Gaiseric, which led to such pressure from Eastern Roman elites that Marcian was forced to begin preparations for war to ensure the return of the hostages. Around this time, Marcian made peace with Lazica, which would allow him to direct his attention elsewhere. The East Roman historian Theodorus Lector speaks of Marcian's sudden reversal of policy, and Evagrius Scholasticus, a Roman historian writing a century after the event, states that the Vandals released Licinia Eudoxia, Placidia, and Eudocia to Marcian after he threatened them with war, in either late 456 or early 457.


title: Marcian

text: Marcian did not recognize any Western Emperor after Valentinian, denying Petronius Maximus, now Western Emperor, when he sent an embassy requesting it, and similarly refusing to recognize Avitus, who succeeded Maximus. Marcian's exact treatment of Avitus is debated. The Roman historian Hydatius states that in 455 Avitus sent ambassadors to Marcian "for the sake of unanimity of power," and that, "Marcian and Avitus make use of Roman power in concord". The exact usage of concord ( in the original Latin) has led to debate among scholars. Some such as Thomas Hodgkin, J. B. Bury, and William Bayless consider it grounds for the belief that Marcian may have recognized Avitus. Most scholars take a more conservative stance on it; Ernst Stein suggests that it is merely a reflection of West Roman propaganda, whereas Norman Baynes believes it indicates that Marcian was cordial to Avitus, neither hostile nor friendly. Classicist Courtenay Edward Stevens interprets the phrase as meaning only that the meeting of the diplomats was amicable, rather than reflecting a relationship between the two states.


title: Marcian

text: The historian Geoffrey Nathan suggests the fact that only two Western delegates attended the Council of Chalcedon points to a new level of Western Roman self-absorption in their own political and religious affairs. He mentions that the canon from this council delegating authority over the whole east to the See of Constantinople marks a religious separation. Authority over the Church in the Eastern Roman Empire would prove a point of contention between Rome and Constantinople, leading up to the East–West Schism.


title: Marcian

text: Marcian's reign ended on 27 January 457, when he died, aged 65, possibly of gangrene. Theodorus Lector and Theophanes the Confessor say that Marcian died after a long religious procession from the Grand Palace to the Hebdomon, where he made the journey on foot, despite the fact that he could barely walk because of severe foot inflammation, possibly gout. He was buried in the Church of the Holy Apostles, in Constantinople, next to his wife Pulcheria, in a porphyry sarcophagus that was described in the 10th century by Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus in the . He left the Eastern Empire with seven million solidi in its treasury, an impressive achievement considering the economic ruin inflicted upon Eastern Rome by the Huns, both through warfare and the massive subsidies they received under Theodosius.


title: Marcian

text: Although Marcian had a son-in-law, Anthemius, he did not have any connection to the Theodosians, which Marcian himself had gained through his marriage to Pulcheria, and thus would not be considered a legitimate dynastic heir, so Aspar was once again left to play the role of emperor-maker. He selected Leo I, a fifty-year-old officer commanding a unit in one of the praesental armies—two field armies based near Constantinople. A later source claims that the Eastern Roman Senate offered to elect Aspar himself, but he declined, with the cryptic comment: "I fear that a tradition in ruling might be initiated through me". This comment has often been interpreted to be a reference to the fact that he was an Arian, or else to his Alanic heritage.


title: Marcian

text: Anthemius would later be sent by Leo to become the Western Roman emperor; Leo nominated him to be Western Emperor in the spring of 467, to fill the vacancy left by the death of Emperor Libius Severus since 465. Leo sent Anthemius to Rome with an army, headed by Marcellinus, the of Dalmatia; upon nearing Rome, Anthemius was installed as emperor on 12 April 467.


title: Marcian

text: Marcian was regarded favorably by Eastern Roman and Byzantine sources, often compared to Emperors Constantine I and Theodosius I. Marcian's reign was seen by many later Byzantine writers, such as Theophanes the Confessor, as a golden age: Marcian secured the Eastern Empire both politically and financially, set an orthodox religious line that future emperors would follow, and stabilized the capital city politically. Some later scholars attribute his success not just to his skill, but also to a large degree of luck. Not only had he been fortunate enough to have Pulcheria to legitimize his rule, but for much of it the two greatest external threats to Rome, the Sassanian Empire and the Huns, were absorbed with their own internal problems. Further, no natural disasters or plagues occurred during his reign. He was remembered fondly by the people of Constantinople, who would shout "Reign like Marcian!" at the installation of future emperors.


title: Marcian

text: The Prefect of Constantinople Tatianus built a column dedicated to Marcian, sometime between 450 and 452. It still stands in Istanbul, near the north branch of the Mese, though the statue of Marcian that originally topped it has been lost. Marcian also had a statue in the Forum of Arcadius, which contained the statues of several of the successors of Emperor Arcadius. Marcian may have been the sponsor of the Chrysotriklinos of the Great Palace of Constantinople. The states that Marcian constructed it, whereas the 10th century encyclopedia states that Emperor Justin II built it, a view with which most historians agree. The Byzantine historian Joannes Zonaras states that Justin II actually rebuilt an older construction, which some historians identify as the Heptaconch Hall of Emperor Justinian.


title: Marcian

text: Marcian is played by the Hollywood star Jeff Chandler in the 1954 period adventure "Sign of the Pagan". Jack Palance co-stars as Attila and Ludmilla Tchérina plays Pulcheria.


title: The Smeezingtons

text: The Smeezingtons were an American songwriting and record production team consisting of Bruno Mars (born 1985), Philip Lawrence (born 1980), and Ari Levine (born May 5, 1984). The Smeezingtons were established in Los Angeles, California; their production and writing services had been increasingly in demand since 2009. Eventually, the trio split, and with Christopher Brody Brown, Mars and Lawrence formed a new production trio called "Shampoo Press & Curl".


title: The Smeezingtons

text: The Smeezingtons first gained the attention of the music industry after Coca-Cola used K'naan's song "Wavin' Flag" with a different composition arranged by them, as the theme for television coverage of the 2010 FIFA World Cup. The trio broke into the American recording industry, writing songs for a diverse range of artists. The Smeezingtons produced and co-wrote "Nothin' on You" by American rapper B.o.B featuring Mars. It was their first "Billboard" Hot 100 number-one single. They also produced and co-wrote with American singer CeeLo Green his single "Fuck You", which topped the UK singles chart and peaked at number two on the "Billboard" Hot 100. Throughout their career, The Smeezingtons have been noted for their extensive work with Mars, writing and producing two consecutive "Billboard" Hot 100 number-one singles with him in 2010 and in 2013.


title: The Smeezingtons

text: Before meeting Bruno Mars, Philip Lawrence worked in theater and at Disney World in Florida for seven years after finishing college. He moved to Los Angeles and was "holding down these random telemarketing jobs to keep the lights on". After Mars graduated in Hawaii, he moved to L.A. and found he could only pay rent by DJing. Before they met each other, "a lot of time was wasted working with random producers bouncing around from studio to studio but never getting anything done". Lawrence was initially reluctant to meet Mars but their collaboration worked from the start. According to Lawrence:


title: The Smeezingtons

text: Mars and Lawrence started writing songs together for Mars to perform but they received rejections from labels. The duo considered moving back to their home cities but that week, they got a call from Mars's former manager Brandon Creed, who was A&Ring a reunited Menudo, who needed songs. Creed liked their song "Lost", which was written for Mars. At first Mars and Lawrence did not want to give up the song so Creed offered them $20,000 for it. Mars and Lawrence were so surprised they said; "You can have that one and whatever else you need!"; the call allowed them to stay in L.A. longer. In late 2008, Aaron-Bay Schuck (A&R), Lawrence and Mars helped write Flo Rida's single "Right Round". Lawrence and Mars decided to call their partnership The Smeezingtons.


title: The Smeezingtons

text: In 2007, Mars was a struggling singer-songwriter and Ari Levine was a producer looking to work with new songwriters. Lawrence was the first guest at Levine's studio Levcon Studios; they had previously worked together after being introduced by a mutual friend. Lawrence was responsible for connecting Mars and Levine. One day, Mars and Lawrence were sitting in a car with no money; they decided to try producing for themselves and enlisted the help of Levine, who contributed his equipment and expertise in drum programming, sampling and other electronic sounds. In 2009, The Smeezingtons settled in Hollywood and Levine joined the team. They worked over 10 hours every day for two years.


title: The Smeezingtons

text: The Smeezingtons ventured into the U.S. market, mostly writing songs for R&B-pop performers. They were given the chance of working with less-successful acts such as Mike Posner, Cobra Starship, Chad Hugo, and Lupe Fiasco. They also wrote songs for better-known acts Flo Rida, Lil Wayne, Wiz Khalifa and Cee-Lo Green.


title: The Smeezingtons

text: One of their first successful productions was the single "Get Sexy", which was performed by Sugababes, was released in August 2009, and peaked at number two in the United Kingdom. This success was followed with Matisyahu's single "One Day", which was chosen as NBC's 2010 Winter Olympics theme. The Smeezingtons also collaborated with Somali-Canadian artist K'naan on his fourth studio album "Troubadour". Coca-Cola used the album's track "Wavin' Flag" with a composition that was re-arranged by the Smeezingtons as the theme for television coverage of the 2010 FIFA World Cup. "Wavin' Flag" topped the Ö3 Austria Top 40, the Official German Charts and the Scottish Singles charts. The single brought the trio attention from the music industry. At this time, Levine joined The Smeezingtons, forming a trio.


title: The Smeezingtons

text: In late 2009, The Smeezingtons landed "Nothin' on You" by American rapper B.o.B's featuring Mars; it topped the "Billboard" Hot 100, the UK Singles chart, and the Dutch Top 40. In 2010, The Smeezingtons were responsible for "Billionaire" by American rapper Travie McCoy featuring Mars. It peaked at number four in the US, number three in the UK and topped the Dutch Top 40. In the same year, "Fuck You" by American singer Cee-Lo Green became another success for The Smeezingtons, reaching number one in the UK and the Netherlands, and number two on the "Billboard" Hot 100.


title: The Smeezingtons

text: In 2011, The Smeezingtons composed "Lighters" for Bad Meets Evil, featuring Mars's vocals. It peaked at number four in the U.S. and on the Canadian Hot 100, as well as number two in New Zealand. They also worked with Snoop Dogg and Wiz Khalifa on "Young, Wild & Free", which features Mars, for the movie Mac & Devin Go to High School. The song was included on the soundtrack. The single peaked at number seven in the US, number two in New Zealand, and number six on the French charts. At the 2013 Grammy Awards, "Young, Wild & Free" was nominated for Best Rap Song.


title: The Smeezingtons

text: In 2014, Mars said he was not interested in composing songs for other artists because he had to pay rent. Nevertheless, they produced "All I Ask" for Adele's third studio album "25" (2015). At the 2017 Grammy Awards, The Smeezingtons received the Grammy for Album of the Year for their work on "25"; it was their last production as a team.


title: The Smeezingtons

text: In May 2010, The Smeezingtons composed Mars's debut EP "It's Better If You Don't Understand", using the attention they gained from the success of "Nothin' on You" and "Billionaire". The EP's four songs were included on Mars's debut studio album "Doo-Wops & Hooligans", which was released in October 2010. The Smeezingtons produced and co-wrote the album, funneling lessons learned through label meetings and early hits into Mars's solo work. The album's singles "Just the Way You Are" and "Grenade" topped the "Billboard" Hot 100, the Australian charts, the UK Singles Chart, and singles charts in other countries. In 2011, "The Lazy Song", another success for the team, topped the UK and Danish charts, and peaked in the top 10s of other countries. The three were among the best selling digital singles of 2011.


title: The Smeezingtons

text: In the same year, The Smeezingtons composed Mars's single "It Will Rain" for the of . The song peaked at number three on the "Billboard" Hot 100 and at number two in New Zealand, and entered the top 20s of charts in other countries. The team received six nominations for the 2011 Grammy Awards; they were nominated for Producer of the Year, Non-Classical for their work on "Fuck You", "Just The Way You Are", "Nothin' on You", and others. Their work on "Nothin' on You" earned them a nomination for Record of the Year, while "Fuck You" was nominated on the aforementioned category and Song of the Year. Mars won his first Grammy on the Best Male Pop Vocal Performance category for "Just The Way You Are". With the team's contributions, Levine received a Songwriters' award at the ASCAP Pop Music Awards for "Billionaire," "Just the Way You Are", and "Nothin' On You". The team also earned the ASCAP Rhythm & Soul Music Awards for Top Rap Song for "Nothin' on You".


title: The Smeezingtons

text: At the 2012 Grammy Awards, The Smeezingtons were nominated in five categories, including Producer of the Year, Non-Classical for their involvement on Mars's "Doo-Wops & Hooligans", "Lighters", and "Mirror" by Lil Wayne featuring Mars. Their work on "Grenade" earned the team a nomination for Record of the Year and Song of the Year. "Doo-Wops & Hooligans" was nominated for Album of the Year. In the same year, The Smeezingtons also co-produced and co-wrote Mars's second studio album, "Unorthodox Jukebox". They were also responsible for the "Billboard" Hot 100 number-one songs "Locked Out of Heaven" and "When I Was Your Man", which also entered Top 10s of charts in other countries.


title: The Smeezingtons

text: At the 2014 Grammy Awards, The Smeezingtons' work received three nominations. "Locked out of Heaven" was nominated for Record of the Year and Song of the Year, while "Unorthodox Jukebox" won Best Pop Vocal Album. In 2016, The Smeezingtons were not composers of Mars's third studio album, "24K Magic" (2016), which led some writers to believe the trio had split. The Smeezingtons were replaced with Shampoo Press & Curl, which was composed of Mars, Lawrence, and Christopher Brody Brown. Eventually, Lawrence left the team and they disbanded.


title: The Smeezingtons

text: The Smeezingtons said they hoped to eventually move from for-hire work to development of new artists. Their recording suite Levcon Studios was open to musicians of all genres. "I don't think you can name an artist that we don't want to work with," Mars said.


title: The Smeezingtons

text: The Smeezingtons composed songs and played the instruments on those songs. Levine recorded and engineered Mars's debut EP and his first two albums, and mixed the track "Somewhere in Brooklyn". He also engineered, recorded, and mixed "Nothin' on You". Levine engineered and mixed "Billionaire" and "Young, Wild & Free".


title: The Smeezingtons

text: Levcon Studios was located in Los Angeles and was co-owned by Levine and his brother and manager Josh Levine. The studios were used by The Smeezingtons and were described as a "tiny Hollywood studio" with a "whiteboard hanging on the wall". The studio is "set in a ramshackle cottage between a laundromat and a medical marijuana dispensary on a seedy Hollywood side street". In the beginning, and according to Lawrence, they "worked long and hard in this little shack, hoping just to pay rent and have someone listen to our songs". The latter also said; "we always find that we still do our best work in our little shack of a studio ... That's where we find our magic."


title: The Smeezingtons

text: Lawrence and Mars came from musical families. Lawrence grew up listening to "everything" and Mars was exposed to a diverse mix of reggae, rock, hip hop, and R&B. Their interest in music started at a very young age; Lawrence started to perform when he was four years old, and Mars started to perform when he was three years old and regularly performed with his family band by the age of four. In an article by "American Songwriter", Lawrence cites acts such as Billy Joel, Elton John, and Seal as his biggest influences and inspirations. He was raised listening to acts including Isley Brothers, Eagles, Led Zeppelin, Stevie Wonder, and Billy Joel. As a child, Mars was influenced by R&B artists such as Keith Sweat, Jodeci, and R. Kelly, as well as 1950s rock 'n' roll and Motown. Later, in high school, Mars began listening to classic rock groups such as The Police, Led Zeppelin, and The Beatles. His influences include Billy Joel, Elton John, Prince, The Police, Michael Jackson, Little Richard, and Bob Marley. Mars has stated, "Ari turned out to be the secret ingredient to what me and Phil were doing", and "I'm used to live stuff. So you give me a studio with a bunch of live instruments, I can do it. But radio's not playing that stuff." The three songwriters also share a love for producers The Neptunes and Timbaland, and the hip-hop musicians of their youths who influenced them in their throwback sounds. The three said their musical influences also come from The Beatles, Police, Motown, Earth Wind & Fire, Michael Jackson, and disco music.


title: The Smeezingtons

text: In their usual production style, The Smeezingtons start writing their songs as cathartic, freestyle jams. Lawrence said, "We'll go into the studio, and [Mars will] start playing the piano and I'll start freestyling or vice versa. We're heavily influenced by the '80s [sound]." Lawrence sees himself and Mars as "melody guys", and stated, "That's kind of our main focus, to have really good, memorable melodies". They can also start their songs' production with a "Levine beat, a Mars guitar melody, or a lyric snippet from Lawrence. They reject each other's bad ideas and encourage the good ones in "a melting pot of trial and error", according to Lawrence.


title: The Smeezingtons

text: The team explained their songwriting process by saying every song should be like a "three-minute movie" that needs to have a conflict to make it interesting. Mars criticized "hit songwriters" by saying, "I liked hearing that from these hit songwriters because it seems like many times songwriters are more interested in just finishing a song than really taking the time to make a good song a hit song".


title: The Smeezingtons

text: After working with The Smeezingtons on "Unorthodox Jukebox", Jeff Bhasker said, "One of their great talents is that they have this fun, light vibe in the studio" that enables anyone "to be free so that you can let that primal emotion come out without being embarrassed. Then they polish afterward." Mark Ronson said the key is Mars's charisma.


title: The Smeezingtons

text: Mars says the trust that he, Levine and Lawrence have built in seven years of working together is essential. He added "We all know when we're onto something ... We also know when something's not jelling. And that's the thing you pray you will always have." Levine said the musical influences the three share completed his idea: "It's about finding ways to mix the classic we all love with modern songs. That's why people connect to the music on multiple levels: It's familiar-sounding but new-classic songwriting and instrumentation with a little twist". He added, "We're that weird middle ground, where there's live instruments but it's still rhythmic and pop".


title: The Smeezingtons

text: The Smeezingtons used an Akai MPC4000, three Roland Fantom S88, V‑Synth GT, a regular V‑Synth, Korg R3, MicroKorg, Novation Ultranova, Dave Smith Mopho, and two Access Virus TI's to produce music. Ari Levine stated he rarely uses MPC, Storm Drum or Addictive Drums software. In August 2012, the team purchased a Korg keyboard.


title: The Smeezingtons

text: While recording, they used a Yamaha 02R, Pro Tools HD, a Manley Langevin Dual Vocal Combo as pre/compressor/EQ, a Neumann U87, and Event SP8 speakers with an Mackie. Levine said the acoustics and vocals are all recorded with the 87 and the Manley, and the basses and electric guitars via DI unit, adding; "the acoustic guitar that we use is a $150 cheap Fender". Levine runs most of the keyboards and the MPC through the 02R and uses a Mackie Big Knob as an interface. He often uses Pro Tools. He does not use MIDI extensively despite it being incorporated in Pro Tools. According to Levine, "We're not making dance songs, so we don't need the synths to do all kinds of crazy stuff. And I fairly quickly render MIDI tracks to audio in Pro Tools". In 2011, Levine was thinking about purchasing a Minimoog.


title: The Smeezingtons

text: ... my favourites are the McDSP FilterBank for my EQ, the Waves Rvox and Renaissance Compressor as my compressors, the [Waves limiter] L2, and my favourite reverb is [Avid's venerable plug‑in] D‑Verb. I also use [Line 6] Echo Farm, Sound Toys Echoboy, and, well that's pretty much it. I have many plug-ins, but I don't really use them." He said "I've tried convolution reverbs, but they don't really work. They sound cheap.


title: The Smeezingtons

text: "The New York Times" reviewer Jon Caramanica wrote The Smeezingtons "[Ha]ve got a firm grip on the full spectrum of black pop, and white pop as well". Randall Roberts of "Los Angeles Times" wrote The Smeezingtons "[are] making some of the most cohesive yet expansive pop music today ... incredibly well-versed in the language of American music and the ways in which it can still be stretched and molded". Before Mars played at the Super Bowl halftime show in 2014, Idolator critic Kathy Iandoli praised The Smeezingtons' work on the Sugababes single "Get Sexy", calling them "a crew of talented fellas". Erik Adams, music critic, of "The A.V. Club", criticized the production team by saying; "If The Smeezingtons want to keep synthesizing yesterday's favorites into today's hits ... I could find it within myself to stomach Mars on more than one night of the year", referring to "their work on Cee-Lo Green's song "Fuck You".


title: Suffragette bombing and arson campaign

text: Suffragettes in Great Britain and Ireland orchestrated a bombing and arson campaign between the years 1912 and 1914. The campaign was instigated by the Women's Social and Political Union (WSPU), and was a part of their wider campaign for women's suffrage. The campaign, led by key WSPU figures such as Emmeline Pankhurst, targeted infrastructure, government, churches and the general public, and saw the use of improvised explosive devices, arson, letter bombs, assassination attempts and other forms of direct action and violence. At least 5 people were killed in such attacks (including one suffragette), and at least 24 were injured (including two suffragettes). The campaign was halted at the outbreak of war in August 1914 without having brought about votes for women, as suffragettes pledged to pause their campaigning to aid the nation's war effort.


title: Suffragette bombing and arson campaign

text: The campaign has seen classification as a terrorist campaign, with both suffragettes themselves and the authorities referring to arson and bomb attacks as terrorism. Contemporary press reports also referred to attacks as "terrorist" incidents in both the United Kingdom and in the United States, and a number of historians have also classified the campaign as one involving terrorist acts, such as C. J. Bearman, Fern Riddell, Rachel Monaghan and feminist historian Cheryl Jorgensen-Earp. However, historian June Purvis has publicly contested the term and argued that the campaign did not involve terrorist acts.


title: Suffragette bombing and arson campaign

text: Multiple suffrage societies had formed across Britain during the Victorian era, all campaigning for women's suffrage - with only certain men being able to vote in parliamentary elections at the time. In the years leading up to the First World War, "suffragettes" had become the popular name for members of a new organisation, the Women's Social and Political Union (WSPU). Founded in 1903 by Emmeline Pankhurst and her daughters, the Union was willing to carry out forms of direct action to achieve women's suffrage. This was indicated by the Union's adoption of the motto "deeds, not words".


title: Suffragette bombing and arson campaign

text: After decades of peaceful protest, the WSPU believed that more radical action was needed to get the government to listen to the campaign for women's rights. From 1905 the WSPU's activities became increasingly militant and its members became increasingly willing to break the law, inflicting damage upon property and people. WSPU supporters raided Parliament, physically assaulted politicians and smashed windows at government premises. In one instance, a suffragette assaulted future Prime Minister Winston Churchill with a horse whip on the platform at Bristol railway station. Other militant suffragette groups were active: the Women's Freedom League attacked ballot boxes at the 1909 Bermondsey by-election with acid, blinding the returning officer in one eye and causing severe burns to the Liberal agent's neck. However, before 1911, the WSPU made only sporadic use of violence, and it was directed almost exclusively at the government and its civil servants. Emily Davison, the suffragette who later became infamous after she was killed by the King's horse at the 1913 Epsom Derby, had launched several sole attacks in London in December 1911, but these attacks were uncommon at this time. On 8 December 1911, Davison attempted to set fire to the busy post office in Fleet Street by placing a burning cloth soaked in kerosene and contained in an envelope into the building, but the intended fire did not take hold. Six days later, Davison set fire to two pillar boxes in the City of London, before again attempting to set fire to a post office in Parliament Street, but she was arrested during the act and imprisoned.


title: Suffragette bombing and arson campaign

text: After 1911, suffragette violence was directed increasingly at commercial concerns and then at the general public. This violence was encouraged by the leadership of the WSPU. In particular, the daughter of WSPU leader Emmeline Pankhurst, Christabel Pankhurst, took an active role in planning a self-described "reign of terror". Emmeline Pankhurst stated that the aim of the campaign was "to make England and every department of English life insecure and unsafe".


title: Suffragette bombing and arson campaign

text: In June and July 1912, five serious incidents signified the beginning of the campaign in earnest: the homes of three anti-suffrage cabinet ministers were attacked, a powerful bomb was planted in the Home Secretary's office and the Theatre Royal, Dublin, was set fire to and bombed while an audience attended a performance. One of the most dangerous attacks committed by the suffragettes, the attack on the Theatre Royal was carried out by Mary Leigh, Gladys Evans, Lizzie Baker and Mabel Capper, who attempted to set fire to the building during a packed lunchtime matinee attended by the Prime Minister, H. H. Asquith. A canister of gunpowder was left close to the stage and petrol and lit matches were thrown into the projection booth which contained highly combustible film reels. Earlier in the day, Mary Leigh had hurled a hatchet towards Asquith, which narrowly missed him and instead cut the Irish MP John Redmond on the ear. The four suffragettes who carried out the attack on the Theatre Royal were subsequently charged with offences likely to endanger life.


title: Suffragette bombing and arson campaign

text: Arson attacks continued for the rest of 1912. On 25 October, Hugh Franklin set fire to his train carriage as it pulled into Harrow station. He was subsequently arrested and charged with endangering the safety of passengers. Then, on 28 November, post boxes were booby trapped across Great Britain, starting a 5-day long pillar box sabotage campaign, with dangerous chemicals being poured into some boxes. In London, meanwhile, many letters ignited while in transit at post offices, and paraffin and lit matches were also put in pillar boxes. On 29 November, a bystander was assaulted with a whip at Aberdeen railway station by Emily Davison, as she believed the man was politician David Lloyd George in disguise. On 17 December, railway signals at Potters Bar were tied together and disabled by suffragettes with the intention of endangering train journeys.


title: Suffragette bombing and arson campaign

text: The increasing number of arson attacks and acts of criminal damage was criticised by some members of the WSPU, and in October 1912 two long-standing supporters of the suffragette cause, Emmeline Pethick-Lawrence and Frederick Pethick-Lawrence, were expelled from the Union for voicing their objections to such activities. By the end of the year, 240 people had been sent to prison for militant suffragette activities.


title: Suffragette bombing and arson campaign

text: Christabel Pankhurst set up a new weekly WSPU newspaper at this time named "The Suffragette". The newspaper began devoting double-page spreads to reporting the bomb and arson attacks that were now regularly occurring around the country. This became the method by which the organisation claimed responsibility for each attack. The independent press also began to publish weekly round-ups of the attacks, with some newspapers such as the "Gloucester Journal" and "Liverpool Echo" running dedicated columns on the latest "outrages".


title: Suffragette bombing and arson campaign

text: Despite the outbreak of violence, at the start of January 1913 suffragettes still believed that there were some hopes of achieving the vote for women by constitutional means. A "Franchise Bill" was proposed to the House of Commons in the winter session of 1912–13, and it was drafted to allow a series of amendments which, if passed, would have introduced women's suffrage. However, after an initial debate on 24 January, the speaker of the house ruled the amendments out of order and the government was forced to abandon the Bill. In response, the WSPU stepped-up their bombing and arson campaign. The subsequent campaign was directed and in some cases orchestrated by the WSPU leadership, and was specifically designed to terrorise the government and the general public to change their opinions on women's suffrage under threat of acts of violence. In a speech, leader Emmeline Pankhurst declared "guerrilla warfare".


title: Suffragette bombing and arson campaign

text: The suffragettes had invented the letter bomb, a device intended to kill or injure the recipient, and an increasing amount began to be posted. On 29 January, several letter bombs were sent to the Chancellor of the Exchequer, David Lloyd George, and the prime minister Asquith, but they all exploded in post offices, post boxes or in mailbags while in transit across the country. In the following weeks, further attacks on letters and mailboxes occurred in cities such as Coventry, London, Edinburgh, Northampton, and York. On 6 February five postmen were burned, four severely, in Dundee when handling a phosphorus suffragette letter bomb addressed to Asquith. On 19 February, there was a suffragette bomb attack on Lloyd George's house, with two bombs being planted by Emily Davison. Only one of the bombs functioned but the building was seriously damaged, although nobody was injured. The explosion of the bomb occurred shortly before the arrival of workmen at the house, and the crude nature of the timer – a candle – meant that the likelihood of the bomb exploding while the men were present was high. WSPU Leader Emmeline Pankhurst was herself arrested in the aftermath for planning the attack on Lloyd George's house, and was later sentenced to three years in prison. Between February and March, railway signal wires were purposely cut on lines across the country, further endangering train journeys.


title: Suffragette bombing and arson campaign

text: Some of the inspiration for the suffragettes' attacks came from the earlier Fenian dynamite campaign of 1881 to 1885. Although more sophisticated explosive devices were used by suffragettes, inspiration was taken from this campaign's tactic of targeting symbolic locations, such as the Bank of England and St Paul's Cathedral. Amongst the other targets selected by suffragettes were sporting events: there was a failed attempt to burn down the grounds of the All England Lawn Tennis Club at Wimbledon, while a plot to burn down the grandstand of Crystal Palace F.C.'s football ground on the eve of the 1913 FA Cup Final was also foiled. During the year the grandstand of the Manor Ground football stadium in Plumstead was also burned down, costing £1,000 in damages. The destroyed ground was the home of then south London club Arsenal (known as Woolwich Arsenal until 1914), and the same year the financially-troubled club moved from south London to a new stadium in an area of north London, Highbury, where they still remain today. Suffragettes also attempted to burn the grandstands at the stadiums of Preston North End and Blackburn Rovers football clubs during the year. More traditionally masculine sports were specifically targeted in an attempt to protest against male dominance. One sport that was often targeted was golf, and golf courses were often subjected to arson attacks. During some of these attacks Prime Minister Asquith would be physically assaulted while playing the sport.


title: Suffragette bombing and arson campaign

text: On 4 April, the day after Emmeline Pankhurst was sentenced to 3 years in prison for her role in the bombing of Lloyd George's house, a suffragette bomb was discovered in the street outside the Bank of England. It was defused before it could detonate in what was then one of the busiest public streets in the capital, which likely prevented many casualties. The remains of the device are now on display at the City of London Police Museum in London. Railways were also the subject of bombing attacks at this time. On 3 April, a bomb exploded next to a passing train in Manchester, nearly killing the driver when flying debris grazed him and narrowly missed his head. Six days later, two bombs were left on the Waterloo to Kingston line, with one being placed on the eastbound train and the other on the westbound train. One of the bombs was discovered before it exploded at Battersea when the railway porter spotted smoke in a previously crowded third-class carriage. Later in the day, as the Waterloo train pulled into Kingston, the third-class carriage exploded and caught fire. The rest of the carriages were full of passengers at the time, but they managed to escape without serious injury. The bombs had been packed with lumps of jagged metal, bullets and scraps of lead. The London Underground was also targeted: on 2 May a highly unstable nitroglycerine bomb was discovered on the platform at Piccadilly Circus tube station. Although it had the potential to harm many members of the public on the platform, the bomb was dealt with. On 11 April, the cricket pavilion at the Nevill Ground in Royal Tunbridge Wells was destroyed in a suffragette arson attack. At many of the attacks, copies of "The Suffragette" newspaper were intentionally left at the scene, or postcards scrawled with messages such as "Votes For Women", as a way of claiming responsibility for the attacks.


title: Suffragette bombing and arson campaign

text: The high explosive nitroglycerine was used for a number of suffragette bombs, and was likely produced by themselves in their own labs by sympathisers. The explosive is distinctly unstable, and nitroglycerine bombs could be detonated by as little as a sharp blow, making the bombs highly dangerous.


title: Suffragette bombing and arson campaign

text: During this time, elderly suffragette ladies had reportedly begun to apply for gun licenses, supposedly to "terrify the authorities". On 14 April, the former home of MP Arthur Du Cros was burned down. Du Cros had consistently voted against the enfranchisement of women, which was why he had been chosen as a target. The immediate aftermath of the destruction of Du Cros's house was caught on film, with newsreel company Pathé filming the ruins while they were still smouldering. Some newspapers were also targeted by suffragettes: on 20 April there was an attempt to blow up the offices of the "York Herald" in York.


title: Suffragette bombing and arson campaign

text: One bomb that was found in Smeaton's Tower on Plymouth Hoe during April was found to have "Votes For Women. Death in Ten Minutes" written on it. On 8 May, a potassium nitrate bomb was discovered at St Paul's Cathedral at the start of a sermon. The bomb likely would have destroyed the historic bishop's throne and other parts of the cathedral had it exploded. Meanwhile, suffragette action continued to cause injury to postal workers, with three London postmen being injured after coming into contact with noxious chemicals that had been poured into pillar boxes. On 14 May, a letter bomb was sent to allegedly anti-women's suffrage magistrate Sir Henry Curtis-Bennett at Bow Street in an attempt to assassinate him, but the bomb was intercepted by London postal workers. Suffragettes again attempted to assassinate Curtis-Bennett by pushing him off a cliff two days later at Margate, although he managed to escape. The railways continued to be the subject of significant attacks throughout May. On 10 May, a bomb was discovered in the waiting room at Liverpool Street Station, London, covered with iron nuts and bolts intended to maximise damage to property and cause serious injury to anyone in proximity. Four days later, another three suffragette bombs were discovered in the third-class carriage of a crowded passenger train arriving from Waterloo at Kingston, made out of nitroglycerine. On 16 May, a second attempted bombing of the London Underground was foiled when a bomb was discovered at Westbourne Park tube station before it could explode. Another attack on the railways occurred on 27 May, when a suffragette bomb was thrown from an express train onto Reading station platform and exploded, but there were no injuries.


title: Suffragette bombing and arson campaign

text: During the month of May, 52 bombing and arson attacks had been carried out across the country by suffragettes.


title: Suffragette bombing and arson campaign

text: The most common target for suffragette attacks during the campaign was houses or residential properties belonging to politicians or members of the public. These attacks were justified by the WSPU on the grounds that the owners of the properties were invariably male, and so already possessed the vote. Since they already possessed the vote, suffragettes argued, the owners were responsible for the actions of the government since they were their electors. Houses were bombed or subjected to arson attacks around the country: in March 1913, fires raged at private homes across Surrey, and homes in Chorley Wood, Norwich, Potters Bar and Hampstead Garden were also set on fire. In Ilford, London, three residential streets had their fire alarm wires cut. Other prominent opponents of women's suffrage also saw their homes destroyed by fire and incendiary devices, sometimes as a response to police raids on WSPU offices. Relatives of politicians also saw their houses attacked: the Mill House near Liphook, Hampshire was burned because the owner was Reginald McKenna's brother Theodore, while a bomb was set off in a house in Moor Hall Green, Birmingham, as the property was owned by Arthur Chamberlain, brother of Conservative politician Joseph Chamberlain (father to future Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain). Houses were also attacked in Doncaster. After some suffragettes were thrown out of a political meeting there in June 1913, the house of the man who had thrown them out was burned down. In response to such actions, angry mobs often attacked WSPU meetings, such as in May 1913 when 1,000 people attacked a WSPU meeting in Doncaster. In retaliation, suffragettes burned down more properties in the local area.


title: Suffragette bombing and arson campaign

text: In early June 1913, a series of fires purposely started in rural areas in Bradford killed at least two men, as well as several horses. The acts were officially "claimed" by the suffragettes in their official newspaper, "The Suffragette". Over the next few months, suffragette attacks continued to threaten death and injury. On 2 June, a suffragette bomb was discovered at the South Eastern District Post Office, London, containing enough nitroglycerine to blow up the entire building and kill the 200 people who worked there. A potentially serious event was avoided on 18 June when a suffragette bomb narrowly failed to breach the Stratford-upon-Avon Canal in Yardley Wood, Birmingham. Since there was no lock for 11 miles, a breach would have emptied all this section's water into the populated valley below, which likely would have caused a loss of life. The next day, a suffragette named Harry Hewitt pulled out a revolver at the Ascot Gold Cup horseracing event, entering the track during the race and brandishing the gun and a suffragette flag as the competing horses approached. The leading horse collided with the man, causing serious head injuries to him and the jockey. Hewitt was later impounded in a psychiatric hospital. The incident was a copycat event inspired by the events of the Epsom Derby on 4 June 1913, where Emily Davison had famously entered the racecourse and threw herself in front of the King's personal horse, an incident which not only killed her but that seriously injured the jockey. On 19 July 1913, letter boxes were filled with noxious substances across Birmingham, seriously burning a postman when he opened one box. On the same day, Edith Rigby planted a pipe bomb at the Liverpool Cotton Exchange Building, which exploded in the public hall. After she was arrested, Rigby stated that she planted the bomb as she wanted "to show how easy it was to get explosives and put them in public places". On 8 August, a school in Sutton-in-Ashfield was bombed and burned down in protest while Lloyd George was visiting the town, with the bombs later being found to have represented a potentially serious threat to life had anyone been present in the building at the time. Then, on 18 December, suffragettes bombed a wall at Holloway Prison in protest of the imprisonment of an inmate inside. Many houses near the prison were damaged or had their windows blown out by the bombs, showering some children with glass while they slept in their beds. One of the perpetrators of the attack was injured by the blast.


title: Suffragette bombing and arson campaign

text: In one of the more serious suffragette attacks, a fire was purposely started at Portsmouth dockyard on 20 December 1913, in which 2 men were killed after it spread through the industrial area. In the midst of the firestorm, a battlecruiser, HMS "Queen Mary", had to be towed to safety to avoid the flames. Then, two days before Christmas, several postal workers in Nottingham were severely burned after more suffragette letter bombs caused mail bags to ignite.


title: Suffragette bombing and arson campaign

text: By the end of the year, "The Times" newspaper reported that there had been 39 recorded suffragette bombing attacks across the country.


title: Suffragette bombing and arson campaign

text: Arson and bombing attacks continued into 1914. One of the first attacks of the year took place on 7 January, when a dynamite bomb was thrown over the wall of the Harewood Army Barracks in Leeds, which was being used for police training at the time. The explosion of the bomb injured one man, while others narrowly escaped without being harmed after being thrown to the ground by the force of the bomb. An arson attack on Aberuchill Castle, Comrie, Scotland on 4 February also nearly caused fatalities. The building was set on fire with the servants inside, and they narrowly escaped harm. The next month, another cabinet minister, Home Secretary Reginald McKenna, had his house set on fire in an arson attack.


title: Suffragette bombing and arson campaign

text: One common target for suffragette attacks was churches, as it was believed that the Church of England was complicit in reinforcing opposition to women's suffrage. Between 1913 and 1914, 32 churches were the subject of suffragette attacks. Several churches and cathedrals were bombed in 1914: on 5 April, the St Martins-in-the-Field church in Trafalgar Square, London, was bombed, blowing out the windows and showering passers-by with broken glass. A bomb was also discovered in the Metropolitan Tabernacle church in London, and in June, a bomb exploded at Westminster Abbey, damaging the Coronation Chair. The Abbey was busy with visitors at the time, and around 80–100 people were in the building when the bomb exploded. The device was most probably planted by a member of a group that had left the Abbey only moments before the explosion. Some were as close as 20 yards from the bomb at the time and the explosion caused a panic for the exits, but no serious injuries were reported. The bomb had been packed with nuts and bolts to act as shrapnel. Coincidentally, at the time of the explosion, the House of Commons only 100 yards away was debating how to deal with the violent tactics of the suffragettes. Many in the Commons heard the explosion and rushed to the scene to find out what had happened. Two days after the Westminster Abbey bombing, a second suffragette bomb was discovered before it could explode in St Paul's Cathedral. Annie Kenney also attempted a second bombing of the Church of St John the Evangelist in Smith Square, Westminster on 12 July, placing a bomb underneath a pew during a sermon before leaving. However, the bomb was spotted by a member of the congregation, and Kenney, who was already being trailed by special branch detectives, was arrested as she left. The congregation left in the church then was able to disarm the bomb before it exploded.


title: Suffragette bombing and arson campaign

text: A hospital was also targeted in Dundee on 22 May, with suffragettes burning down the building. Two planned assaults on public officials also occurred during the year: in March, the Medical Prisoner Commissioner for Scotland was assaulted by suffragettes in public with horse whips, and on 3 June the medical officer for Holloway Prison, Dr. Forward, was also assaulted in a public street with whips. Another individual was injured in July when a suffragette letter bomb ignited a moving train in Salwick. After the bomb caused a train carriage to catch fire, the train's guard attempted to throw the burning materials off the train to avoid further damage. In doing so, he was badly burned on his arms, although he succeeded in disposing of the material. Another attempt to flood a populated area had also taken place on 7 May, when a bomb was placed next to Penistone Reservoir in Upper Windleden. If successful, the attack would have led to 138 million gallons of water emptying into the populated valleys below, although the anticipated breech did not take place.


title: Suffragette bombing and arson campaign

text: Some attacks were voluntarily aborted before they were carried out. In March 1913, a suffragette plot to kidnap Home Secretary Reginald McKenna was discussed in the House of Commons and in the press. It was reported that suffragettes were contemplating kidnapping one or more cabinet ministers and subjecting them to force-feeding.


title: Suffragette bombing and arson campaign

text: According to Special Branch detectives, there were also WSPU plans in 1913 to create a suffragette "army", known as the "People's Training Corps". A detective reported attending a meeting in which 300 young girls and women gathered ready to be trained, supposedly with the eventual aim of proceeding in force to Downing Street to forcibly imprison ministers until they conceded women's suffrage. The group were nicknamed "Mrs Pankhurst's Army".


title: Suffragette bombing and arson campaign

text: In August 1914 the First World War began, which effectively led the end of the suffragette bombing and arson campaign. After Britain joined the war, the WSPU took the decision to suspend their own campaigning. Leader Emmeline Pankhurst instructed suffragettes to stop their violent actions and support the government in the conflict against Germany. From this point forward, suffragettes instead largely channelled their energies into supporting the war effort. By the time of the outbreak of war, the aim of achieving votes for women was still unrealised. Later in the war, the increasing focus of the WSPU and the Pankhurst leadership on supporting the war effort led to the creation of the Women's Party, a political party that continued to promote women's suffrage but that was primarily concerned with patriotic support for the war.


title: Suffragette bombing and arson campaign

text: The violence employed by suffragettes caused angry reactions amongst some members of the general public, with some actions inciting violent responses in return. A month after the bombing attack on Lloyd George's house in February 1913, a WSPU rally was held in Hyde Park, London, but the meeting quickly degenerated into a riot as members of the public became violent towards the women. Clods of earth were thrown and some of the women manhandled, with many shouting "incendiary" or "shopbreakers" at the WSPU members. This was not an isolated event, as attacks on individual's houses often saw angry responses, such as in Doncaster in May 1913 when a 1,000 strong mob descended upon a WSPU meeting after several residential properties were burned down in the area. After one attack on Bristol University's sports pavilion on 23 October 1913, undergraduates revenged the attack by raiding the WSPU office in the city.


title: Suffragette bombing and arson campaign

text: The "suffragists" of the largest women's suffrage society, the National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies, led by Millicent Fawcett, were anti-violence, and during the campaign NUWSS propaganda and Fawcett herself increasingly differentiated between the militants of the WSPU and their own non-violent means. The NUWSS also publicly distanced themselves from the violence and direct action of suffragettes. The other major women's suffrage society, the Women's Freedom League, also opposed the violence publicly.


title: Suffragette bombing and arson campaign

text: The counter-terrorist Special Branch of the police, which had been set up during the earlier Fenian dynamite campaign of 1881–1885, bore responsibility for dealing with the campaign. Special Branch officers were employed to cover WSPU meetings and demonstrations in order to pre-empt offences, provide public order intelligence and to record inflammatory speeches. WSPU leaders had been followed by Special Branch officers from 1907 onwards, and Emmeline Pankhurst herself was trailed by officers from the branch. A separate suffragette section of the branch had been formed in 1909.


title: Suffragette bombing and arson campaign

text: During the campaign, attempts to attend WSPU meetings became increasingly difficult as officers were recognised and attacked. The attacks became so widespread that police had to invent new and never before attempted methods of counter-terrorism. These included the use of double agents, covert photo surveillance, public pleas for funding and the use of a secret bomb disposal unit on Duck Island in St James's Park, London. The branch was also given extra staff in order to protect ministers and their families, who were increasingly being targeted. Prime Minister Asquith wrote that "even our children had to be vigilantly protected against the menace of abduction". Many arrests were also made at WSPU meetings, and raids were often conducted against WSPU offices, in an attempt to find the bomb-makers arsenal. In one raid on the home of Jennie Baines, a half-made bomb, a fully made bomb and guns were found. Raids were also conducted against the offices of "The Suffragette" newspaper, and the printers were threatened with prosecution. Because of this, there were periods that the newspaper could not publish, but secret reserves were kept for the newspaper to publish as many issues as possible.


title: Suffragette bombing and arson campaign

text: At the time, planting bombs was officially a hangable offence, and so suffragettes took special measures to avoid being caught by police when carrying out bombing attacks.


title: Suffragette bombing and arson campaign

text: At the conclusion of the campaign in August 1914, the attacks had, in total, cost approximately £700,000 in damages (), although according to historian C. J. Bearman this figure does not include "the damage done to works of art or the more minor forms of militancy such as window-smashing and letter-burning". Bearman also notes that this figure does not include the extra costs inflicted by violent suffragette action, "such as extra police time, additional caretakers and night watchmen hired to protect property, and revenue lost when tourist attractions such as Haddon Hall and the State Apartments at Windsor Castle were closed for fear of suffragette attacks". With these additional considerations, Bearman asserts, the campaign cost the British economy between £1 and £2 million in 1913 to 1914 alone (approximately £130–£240 million today). There was an average of 21 bombing and arson incidents per month in 1913, and 15 per month in 1914, with there being an arson or bombing attack in every month between February 1913 and August 1914. Bearman calculates that there was a total of at least 337 arson and bombing attacks between 1913 and 1914, but states that the true number could be well over 500. By the end of the campaign, more than 1,300 people had been arrested and imprisoned for suffragette violence across the United Kingdom.


title: Suffragette bombing and arson campaign

text: The extent to which suffragette militancy contributed to the eventual enfranchisement of women in 1918 has been debated by historians, although the consensus of historical opinion is that the militant campaign was not effective. With the aim of gaining votes for women still unrealised by the outbreak of war in 1914, the WSPU had failed to create the kind of "national crisis" which might have forced the government into concessions. Historian Brian Harrison has also stated that opponents to women's suffrage believed the militant campaign had benefited them, since it had largely alienated public opinion and placed the suffrage question beyond parliamentary consideration. In May 1913 another attempt had been made to pass a bill in parliament which would introduce women's suffrage, but the bill actually did worse than previous attempts when it was voted on, something which much of the press blamed on the increasingly violent tactics of the suffragettes. The impact of the WSPU's violent attacks drove many members of the general public away from supporting the cause, and some members of the WSPU itself were also alienated by the escalation of violence, which led to splits in the organisation and the formation of groups such as the East London Federation of Suffragettes in 1914. Bearman has asserted that contemporary opinion overwhelmingly was of the view that WSPU violence had shelved the question of women's suffrage until the organization "came to its senses or had disappeared from the scene". At the time it was largely only suffragettes themselves that argued their campaign had been effective.


title: Suffragette bombing and arson campaign

text: In the 1930s, soon after all women over the age of 21 had received the vote under the Representation of the People Act of 1928, some historians asserted that militancy had evidently succeeded. The Suffragette Fellowship, which compiled the sources on the movement that were often used by later historians, also decided in this decade that they were not going to mention any of the bombings in any of the sources. This was partly in order to protect former suffragettes from prosecution, but was also an attempt to step away from the violent rhetoric and to change the cultural memory of the suffragette movement. Many official sources on suffragette violence are only now beginning to be released from archives.


title: Suffragette bombing and arson campaign

text: Some feminist historians and supporters of feminist icon Emmeline Pankhurst such as Sandra Stanley Horton and June Purvis have also renewed the arguments that militancy succeeded, with Purvis arguing that assertions about the counter-productiveness of militancy deny or diminish the achievements of Pankhurst. However, Purvis's arguments have been challenged by Bearman. Revisionist historians such as Harrison and Martin Pugh have also attempted to draw greater attention to the role of the non-militants, such as those in the anti-violence National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies (NUWSS) (known as "suffragists"), and emphasised their understated role in gaining votes for women.


title: Suffragette bombing and arson campaign

text: During the campaign, the WSPU described its own bombing and arson attacks as terrorism, with suffragettes declaring themselves to be "terrorists" in 1913. Christabel Pankhurst also increasingly used the word "terrorism" to describe the WSPU's actions during the campaign, and stated that the WSPU's greater "rebellion" was a form of terrorism. Emmeline Pankhurst stated that the suffragettes committed violent acts because they wanted to "terrorise the British public". The WSPU also reported each of its attacks in its newspaper "The Suffragette" under the headline "Reign of Terror". The authorities talked of arson and bomb attacks as terrorism, and contemporary newspapers in the UK and in the United States also made use of the term "Suffragette Terrorism" to report on WSPU attacks. One instance of this was after the bombing attack on David Lloyd George's house in February 1913, when the "Pall Mall Gazette" reported the attack under the specific headline of "Suffragette Terrorism".


title: Suffragette bombing and arson campaign

text: The bombing and arson campaign has seen classification as a single-issue terrorism campaign by academics, and is classified as such in "The Oxford Handbook of Terrorism". Many historians have also asserted that the campaign contained terrorist acts. Rachel Monaghan published three articles in 1997, 2000 and 2007 in terrorism-themed academic journals in which she argued that the campaign can be described as one that was terrorist in nature. In 2005, historian C. J. Bearman published a study on the bombing and arson campaign in which he asserted: "The intention of the campaign was certainly terrorist in terms of the word's definition, which according to the "Concise Oxford Dictionary" (1990 edition) is 'a person who uses or favours violent and intimidating methods of coercing a government or community'. The intention of coercing the community is clearly expressed in the WSPU's Seventh Annual Report, and, according to Annie Kenney, that of coercing Parliament was endorsed by Emmeline and Christabel Pankhurst themselves. The question is therefore not whether the campaign was terrorist, or whether the WSPU (in 1912–14) can be called a terrorist organization, but whether its terrorism worked." Bearman later published a further article in 2007 which also claims that the suffragette campaign was a terrorist one.


title: Suffragette bombing and arson campaign

text: Fern Riddell has also highlighted that, as well as being actions that would be defined as terrorism today, suffragette bombing and arson attacks were considered terrorist attacks at the time. Some feminist historians have also agreed that the campaign was a terrorist one, such as Cheryl Jorgensen-Earp, on the grounds that the WSPU were fighting a just war. Other historians who have asserted that the campaign involved terrorism include Paula Bartley, Laura Mayhall and George Legg.


title: Suffragette bombing and arson campaign

text: Feminist historian June Purvis has consistently objected to the characterisation of suffragette actions as terrorism, in part arguing that the WSPU leadership was not responsible for the actions of some of its members. Arguing that the leadership of the WSPU emphasised that their followers were instructed not to endanger human life, she has asserted that suffragettes cannot be compared to modern-day terrorists. She has further argued that the suffragettes did not kill or harm anyone. However, Purvis's arguments remain controversial. Fern Riddell has criticised claims that the suffragettes did not cause harm or intend to cause harm, stating: "The newspapers (and even the accounts of the militant suffragettes) prove that there were numerous instances where injuries occurred, and that personal risk, or even death, was great". Rachel Monaghan has argued that the use of letter bombs by suffragettes can be seen to call into question whether the WSPU truly aimed to avoid endangering human life, while C. J. Bearman has criticised Purvis directly, claiming that it is inaccurate to state that the WSPU was not responsible for the actions of its paid members, and has called this assertion "grotesque". Purvis maintains that those who support the assertion that the suffragettes committed acts of terror "seek to condemn these radical women who were campaigning for their democratic right to the parliamentary vote".


title: Suffragette bombing and arson campaign

text: The campaign in part provided the inspiration for later bombing and terrorist campaigns in Britain, such as those conducted by the Irish Republican Army (IRA). The S-Plan of 1939 to 1940 utilised the tactic of undertaking incendiary attacks on pillar boxes, and also saw the planting of explosive devices. The tactic of packing nuts and bolts into bombs to act as shrapnel, often regarded as a later twentieth-century IRA invention, was also first employed by the suffragettes. Several suffragette bombings, such as the attempted bombing of Liverpool Street station in 1913, saw the use of this method. The combination of high explosive bombs, incendiary devices and letter bombs used by suffragettes also provided the pattern for the IRA campaigns of the 1970s and 1980s. Unknown to many, the first terrorist bomb to explode in Northern Ireland in the twentieth century was not detonated by the IRA but by the suffragettes at Lisburn Cathedral in August 1914. Suffragette tactics also provided a template for more contemporary attacks in Britain.


title: Amelia Eve

text: Eve was born and raised in London, England. In 2018, Eve appeared in the BBC comedy series "Enterprice". In 2020, Eve had a starring role as Jamie opposite Victoria Pedretti in the Netflix series "The Haunting of Bly Manor".


title: Hanga Roa

text: Hanga Roa (; , [ˈha.ŋa ˈɾo.a]) (Spanish: "Bahía Larga") is the main town, harbour and seat of Easter Island, a municipality of Chile. It is located in the southern part of the island's west coast, in the lowlands between the extinct volcanoes of Terevaka and Rano Kau.


title: Hanga Roa

text: Upon Chile's claim of the island, the Rapa Nui were gathered in Hanga Roa, and the rest of the land was leased to a sheep farm. For much of the twentieth century, the rest of the island was leased to the Compañía Explotadora de la Isla de Pascua (CEDIP) (a subsidiary of Williamson-Balfour Company) and closed to the Rapa Nui.


title: Hanga Roa

text: Some disagreements between the government of Chile and the Rapa Nui has led the locals with ancestral roots to "take over" many hotels in the city. For the locals, it is a way to draw the line between the Chilean government's policy-making in the island, and the Rapa Nui's ancestral rights on their land. In 2011, the Schiess family, owner of the Hanga Roa Hotel, donated back the land of the hotel to the Rapa Nui, but retained a 30-year management lease of the hotel. A week before, the Schiess family had personally shipped a special force squad from the Carabineros de Chile to remove the locals who squatted the hotel. A prior police intervention in August 2010 had led to 25 Rapa Nui protesters being wounded.


title: Hanga Roa

text: The island's main avenue, Avenida Atamu Tekena (formerly Avenida Policarpo Toro), is the heart of the town. Many hotels, restaurants, grocery stores and pharmacies are found alongside this road. In 1998, the road was renamed after nineteenth century Rapanui king Atamu Te Kena; it had previously been named after Captain Policarpo Toro, the Chilean Naval officer who annexed Easter Island to Chile in 1888. The island's museum, and also the Roman Catholic "Holy Cross Church", are located in the center of town. With the advent of the Internet and the expansion of communication services by the Chilean government, many internet cafes and automated teller machines (ATM) have appeared in recent years.


title: Hanga Roa

text: In 1914, the population of Hanga Roa was just 250 and the rest of the island was inhabited by large populations of sheep.


title: Hanga Roa

text: The town has a number of hotels and guesthouses which cater for tourists who come to see the island's World Heritage Sites, in particular the famous moai statues. Hanga Roa and the surrounding area have a number of impressive moai, but there are larger ones elsewhere on the island. Total capacity is about 2,500 beds as of 2022, ranging from camping sites to luxury hotels, including hotel Hanga Roa.


title: Hanga Roa

text: The Ahu Tahai archaeological complex is within a walking distance from the city's center. Every year, the city is home to the "farandula" cultural festival, a months-long event when the locals sculpt giant wooden statues. The celebration includes a habit where people get nude and bath in clay that covers their bodies.


title: Hanga Roa

text: In addition to tourism, other businesses in Hanga Roa include fishing, farming and administration. Several Chilean government departments including the Chilean Navy maintain a presence on the island.


title: Hanga Roa

text: The harbour has a shipping service to Valparaíso, Chile. In April 2018, the freighter "Lago Icalma", parked in the port of Hanga Roa, was struck by a barge. A fuel tank was ruptured, leaking diesel fuel in the waters of the port. The surrounding beaches were also blackened by the spread of the black liquid.


title: Hanga Roa

text: The island's only airport, Mataveri International Airport, is served by LATAM Airlines, Chile's national carrier, which offers direct 5-hour flights from Santiago and weekly flights from Papeete. It is the only commercial carrier that regularly serves the island.


title: Hanga Roa

text: A new hospital was opened in 2013, replacing an older one donated in the 70s by the United States. The hospital has a capacity of 16 beds, and includes a delivery ward designed to also allow the practice of folk medicine. It is the only healthcare facility on the island.


title: Hanga Roa

text: Among several schools are the "Colegio Lorenzo Baeza Vega", which offers primary education with a focus on teaching traditional culture and language, and "Liceo Aldea Educativa", which offers qualification in the areas of humanist studies, tourism and agriculture.


title: Hanga Roa

text: Hanga Roa has a multi-use stadium, the Estadio de Hanga Roa, which is the home ground of the CF Rapa Nui, the football team representing Easter Island.


title: Hanga Roa

text: The regular consumer brands sold in grocery stores are expensive due to the costly and time-consuming trip required to import those products. Locals informally sell fish, meat and vegetables. The tuna empanada is the city's favorite snack.


title: Loris

text: Loris is the common name for the strepsirrhine mammals of the subfamily Lorinae (sometimes spelled Lorisinae) in the family Lorisidae. "Loris" is one genus in this subfamily and includes the slender lorises, "Nycticebus" is the genus containing the slow lorises, and "Xanthonycticebus" is the genus name of the pygmy slow loris.


title: Loris

text: Lorises are nocturnal and arboreal. They are found in tropical and woodland forests of India, Sri Lanka, and parts of southeast Asia. Loris locomotion is a slow and cautious climbing form of quadrupedalism. Some lorises are almost entirely insectivorous, while others also include fruits, gums, leaves, and slugs in their diet.


title: Loris

text: Female lorises practice infant parking, leaving their infants behind in trees or bushes. Before they do this, they bathe their young with allergenic saliva that is acquired by licking patches on the insides of their elbows, which produce a mild toxin that discourages most predators, though orangutans occasionally eat lorises.


title: Loris

text: The family Lorisidae is found within the infraorder Lemuriformes and superfamily Lorisoidea, along with the family Galagidae, the galagos. This superfamily is a sister taxon of Lemuroidea, the lemurs. Within Lorinae, there are ten species (and several more subspecies) of lorises across three genera:


title: Pontic Greek

text: Pontic Greek (, or ; , ; ) is a variety of Modern Greek indigenous to the Pontus region on the southern shores of the Black Sea, northeastern Anatolia, and the Eastern Turkish/Caucasus region. Today it is spoken mainly in northern Greece. Its speakers are referred to as Pontic Greeks or Pontian Greeks.


title: Pontic Greek

text: The linguistic lineage of Pontic Greek stems from Ionic Greek via Koine and Byzantine Greek, and contains influences from Russian, Turkish, Armenian, and Kurdish.