title: Visa policy of South Korea

text: However, the above-mentioned nationalities are eligible if holding a Certificate of Invitation issued by Jeju Government or Jeju Island Immigration Office, or have previously visited South Korea for 3 times since 1996 or once since 2006 while holding permanent residence permits issued by Five Eyes countries (Australia, Canada, New Zealand, United Kingdom and the United States).


title: Visa policy of South Korea

text: Holders of passports issued by the following countries who possess an APEC Business Travel Card (ABTC) containing the "KOR" code on the reverse that it is valid for travel to South Korea can enter visa-free for business trips for up to 90 days.


title: Visa policy of South Korea

text: The Working Holiday Visa (H-1) is issued to young-adult foreigners in some countries which have reciprocal agreements with South Korea. Holders are allowed to stay in the country for up to one year and engage in some employment activities as well as some educational activities. However, the main purpose of the trip is intended to be vacation.


title: Visa policy of South Korea

text: People between the ages of 18 and 25 or 30, depending on the country, are eligible for a South Korean working holiday visa.


title: Visa policy of South Korea

text: A working holiday visa holder cannot be employed in certain jobs such as receptionist, dancer, singer, musician, acrobat, or in places of entertainment where they may endanger good morals and manners.


title: Visa policy of South Korea

text: The Overseas Study (D-2) visa is issued to a foreigner who are planning to study at the undergraduate or above level of school.


title: Visa policy of South Korea

text: Due to the high cost of education and difficulty in attracting foreign students the government considered granting special work visas to parents of students on D-2 visas in 2006. Parents would have been able to remain and work in the country for up to five years. In the same year it was noted that foreign students often taught illegally to keep up with their finances. Immigration law allowed D-2 visa holders only to work part-time in some businesses which paid an average of 3000W per hour. Students were allowed to work only 20 hours per week. However, students could earn 30000-50000W per hour teaching languages as tutors. In 2007 over 1800 foreigners on D-2 visas were found to be working illegally. Foreigners who have a D-2 visa are prohibited from working full-time. 2009 saw concern raised over Chinese nationals who overstayed their visas. There was an 11.7 times increase in overstays on the D-2 and other visas. It was also reported that "a number" of those entering on D-2 visas from China were doing so only to find a job illegally. In 2010, 68 illegal tutors on D-2 visas were caught by the immigration department.


title: Visa policy of South Korea

text: The Corporate Investment (D-8) visa is issued to foreigners who are going to own and manage a small or medium business in South Korea or who are sent as specialists to work at businesses owned by companies outside Korea. Individuals wishing to apply for this visa on their own must invest a minimum of 50 million won.


title: Visa policy of South Korea

text: The amount of money required as an investment by foreigners to obtain the visa has risen over the years. In 1991 a foreign investor was required to invest only 25 million won, then in 2001 this was raised to 50 million won. In 2010 the government announced that it was looking to increase this further to 100 million for a number of reasons. Due to inflation, a rise in the cost of living and other costs they felt that 100 million was more representative of what was required as a minimum investment to start a business in Korea. However, there was also concern that some foreigners were taking advantage of the visa and using it to reside permanently in Korea without actually creating any business. Once the visa has been issued the government doesn't keep track of the investment, so some foreigners were using agents who provided the investment money for a fee in order for them to obtain the visa. Concern was raised that the increase would do nothing to deter abuse of the visa and would instead discourage foreign investment in Korea. The regulations surrounding the visa and foreign business ownership have been criticized for requiring a Korean guarantor even though the foreigner has invested a large sum of money and been given permission to open nearly any business they wish.


title: Visa policy of South Korea

text: The Foreign Language teaching (E-2) visa is issued to foreign language teachers who work in South Korea. Applicants are required to be native residents of a country whose mother tongue is the same as the language they will teach and they are also required to hold a bachelor's degree from that country. Applications are required to submit criminal background checks, health checks, sealed transcripts, verified copies of their degree, contracts and a fee to obtain the visa.


title: Visa policy of South Korea

text: In 2007 the government introduced several new regulations to the E-2 visa. Included in these were a criminal record check, health check, and consulate/embassy interview for first-time applicants. In 2008 several English-speaking countries that were disqualified from applying for the E-2 visa denounced it as discriminatory. The Philippines ambassador met with Korean Immigration officials to try to persuade them to change the policy and allow teachers from the Philippines to teach English in South Korea. However, the government had already indicated earlier in the year that they planned to look at expanding E-2 visas to additional countries but it required the approval of various government agencies, so there was no timeframe for when it would come to fruition. In the same year, foreign instructors already working in Korea also called the rules surrounding the visa discriminatory because they were subject to health criminal and other checks, unlike other foreigners on different visas, such as ethnic Koreans born abroad or foreigners who had married Koreans. Korean Immigration responded that it was their policy to favour ethnic Koreans and that other nations and territories followed similar policies. Increasing crime was cited as a reason for the regulations, but some teachers felt it was a knee-jerk reaction to a suspected pedophile who had taught in South Korea, but never had a criminal record in the first place. Immigration again claimed the right to decide how and to whom it issued visas. Later in 2009, a challenge was filed with the National Human Rights Commission in Korea over the checks by law professor Benjamin Wagner.


title: Visa policy of South Korea

text: The Residency (F-2) visa is issued to spouses of Korean nationals or holders of the F-5 permanent residency visa. Applicants must provide documents proving financial ability and relationship. The visa is also issued to refugees who gain permanent residence status in Korea.


title: Visa policy of South Korea

text: Concern was raised in 2008 that "unqualified foreigner teachers" were using F visas like the F-2 to gain employment in Korea. The government passed a law in 2009 that would change the visas issued to government employees of foreign countries from E7 to F2. In 2010 the government announced that foreigners who invested over US$500,000 on Jeju Island can also obtain an F-2 residency visa. It was also announced in 2010 that foreigners already on certain visas would be given an opportunity to change their visa to an F-2 visa after meeting certain criteria and accruing a certain number of points.


title: Visa policy of South Korea

text: Nationals of seeking to visit South Korea cannot use North Korean passports to travel to South Korea. They must instead submit a North/South Korea visitation verification certificate as well as a departure card to the South Korean immigration officer at the port of entry and go through immigration inspection in South Korea. They must also seek authorization from the North Korean government prior to departure.


title: Banknotes of Scotland

text: Banknotes of Scotland are the banknotes of the pound sterling that are issued by three Scottish retail banks and in circulation in Scotland. The issuing of banknotes by retail banks in Scotland is subject to the Banking Act 2009, which repealed all earlier legislation under which banknote issuance was regulated, and the Scottish and Northern Ireland Banknote Regulations 2009. Currently, three retail banks are allowed to print notes for circulation in Scotland: Bank of Scotland, Royal Bank of Scotland, and Clydesdale Bank.


title: Banknotes of Scotland

text: Scottish banknotes are unusual, first because they are issued by retail banks, not government central banks, and second, because they are technically not legal tender anywhere in the United Kingdom – not even in Scotland, where in law no banknotes even those issued by the Bank of England are defined as legal tender. Formally, they are classified as promissory notes, and the law requires that the issuing banks hold a sum of Bank of England banknotes or gold equivalent to the total value of notes issued.


title: Banknotes of Scotland

text: The fact that the notes are not defined as legal tender means that they are not withdrawn from circulation in the same way as the Bank of England notes, which cease to be legal tender on a given date. Instead, the Scottish banks withdraw old notes from circulation as they are banked. Any notes still in circulation continue to be honoured by banks, but retailers may refuse to accept older notes.


title: Banknotes of Scotland

text: For ease of identification, all three issuing banks in Scotland use the same principal colour for each denomination: Blue for £5, brown for £10, purple for £20, red for £50, and turquoise for £100. This colour scheme is similar to current Bank of England notes (except that the Bank of England does not issue a £100 note). The size of the notes is also consistent across the three Scottish banks and the Bank of England.


title: Banknotes of Scotland

text: All Bank of Scotland notes bear a portrait of Sir Walter Scott on the front in commemoration of his 1826 "Malachi Malagrowther" campaign for Scottish banks to retain the right to issue their own notes. The Bank of Scotland's 2007 series of banknotes is known as the "Bridges of Scotland" series. These notes were introduced on 17 September 2007, and show Scotland's most famous bridges on the reverse side. From 2016, the "Bridges of Scotland" series is being renewed with the issue of new polymer notes with designs that follow the same basic theme of bridges. The "Tercentenary" and 2007 series of notes are being withdrawn from circulation and replaced with the polymer series as these are issued, but older notes continue to be accepted at banks. In line with this, the Committee of Scottish Bankers encouraged the public to spend or exchange non-polymer five and ten pound notes before 1 March 2018, and twenty and fifty pound notes before 30 September 2022


title: Banknotes of Scotland

text: Following the announcement that HBOS (Bank of Scotland's parent company) would be taken over by Lloyds TSB in September 2008, it was confirmed that the new banking company would continue to print bank notes under the Bank of Scotland name. According to the Bank Notes (Scotland) Act 1845, the bank could have lost its note-issuing rights, but by retaining headquarters within Scotland, banknote issue continued.


title: Banknotes of Scotland

text: From May 2020 the Royal Bank of Scotland adopted a new series of banknotes, made of polymer. The £5 note shows poet Nan Shepherd on the obverse accompanied by a quote from her book "The Living Mountain", and the Cairngorms in the background. The reverse displays two mackerel and an excerpt from the Scottish Gaelic poem ‘The Choice’ by Sorley MacLean. The obverse of the £10 note shows scientist Mary Somerville, with a quote from her work "The Connection of the Physical Sciences", and Burntisland beach in the background. The reverse displays two otters and an excerpt from the poem ‘Moorings’ by Norman MacCaig. The obverse of the £20 note shows entrepreneur Catherine Cranston. The reverse shows two red squirrels and a quote from the Scots-language poem 'Venus and Cupid' by Mark Alexander Boyd. The obverse of the £50 note, in red to mirror the Bank of England £50 notes, depicts educationalist Flora Stevenson on its obverse and an osprey on the reverse.


title: Banknotes of Scotland

text: The design process of the notes was touted as a "collaboration with the people of Scotland", with a total of 1,178 Scots being included. Nile HQ, a Strategic Design Company led the redesign process and De La Rue printed the notes. Each note contributes to an overall theme ‘Fabric of Nature’. Given the national significance of the notes, Nile HQ invited some Scottish designers, photographers and calligraphers to develop the creative concept for the new notes (O Street, Graven Images, Timorous Beasties, Stuco and Susie Leiper).


title: Banknotes of Scotland

text: The previous series of Royal Bank of Scotland notes, originally issued in 1987, is in the process of being replaced by a polymer series: the Committee of Scottish Bankers encouraged the public to spend or exchange non-polymer five and ten pound notes before 1 March 2018, and twenty and fifty pounds before 30 September 2022. On the front of each note is a picture of Lord Ilay (1682–1761), the first governor of the bank, based on a portrait painted in 1744 by the Edinburgh artist Allan Ramsay. The front of the notes also features an engraving of the bank's former headquarters in St Andrew Square, Edinburgh. The background graphic on both sides of the notes is a radial star design which is based on the ornate ceiling of the banking hall in the old headquarters building. On the back of the notes are images of Scottish castles, with a different castle for each denomination.


title: Banknotes of Scotland

text: Occasionally the Royal Bank of Scotland issues commemorative banknotes. Examples are the £1 note issued to mark the 150th anniversary of the birth of Alexander Graham Bell in 1997, the £20 note for the 100th birthday of Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother in 2000, the £5 note honouring veteran golfer Jack Nicklaus in his last competitive Open Championship at St Andrews in 2005, and the £10 note commemorating HM Queen Elizabeth II's Diamond Jubilee in 2012. These notes are much sought after by collectors.


title: Banknotes of Scotland

text: Clydesdale Bank's polymer series came into circulation in March 2015, when the Clydesdale Bank became the first bank in Great Britain to issue polymer banknotes. The £5 commemorative notes, issued to mark the 125th anniversary of the construction of the Forth Bridge, contain several new security features including a reflective graphic printed over a transparent window in the banknote. The public were encouraged to spend or exchange non-polymer five and ten pound notes before 1 March 2018 and twenty and fifty pound notes before 30 September 2022.


title: Banknotes of Scotland

text: The polymer notes continue the theme of the "World Heritage" Series of paper banknotes, introduced in autumn 2009. The new notes each depict a different notable Scot on the front and on the reverse bear an illustration of one of Scotland's UNESCO World Heritage Sites.


title: Banknotes of Scotland

text: Banknotes of the earlier "Famous Scots" Series portray notable Scottish historical people along with items and locations associated with them.


title: Banknotes of Scotland

text: The Clydesdale Bank also occasionally issues special-edition banknotes, such as a £10 note celebrating the bank's sponsorship of the Scotland team at the 2006 Commonwealth Games.


title: Banknotes of Scotland

text: Following the announcement of the CYBG's takeover of Virgin Money in 2018 and planned phasing-out of the Clydesdale Bank brand by 2021 in favour of Virgin Money, there was uncertainty as to the future of the Clydesdale Bank's banknotes after 2021. In June 2019, the company confirmed that it would continue to issue notes under the Clydesdale Bank name. However, they became rarer from 2020 after the bank withdrew from contracts to supply cash machines run by rival lenders, meaning they could no longer be withdrawn from Santander, TSB, Co-op or Asda machines.


title: Buddleja

text: Buddleja (; Buddleia; also historically given as Buddlea) is a genus comprising over 140 species of flowering plants endemic to Asia, Africa, and the Americas. The generic name bestowed by Linnaeus posthumously honoured the Reverend Adam Buddle (1662–1715), an English botanist and rector, at the suggestion of Dr. William Houstoun. Houstoun sent the first plants to become known to science as buddleja ("B. americana") to England from the Caribbean about 15 years after Buddle's death.


title: Buddleja

text: The botanic name has been the source of some confusion. By modern practice of botanical Latin, the spelling of a generic name made from 'Buddle' would be "Buddleia", but Linnaeus in his "Species Plantarum" of 1753 and 1754 spelled it "Buddleja", with the long i between two vowels, common in early modern orthography. The pronunciation of the long i in "Buddleja" as "j" is a common modern error. The International Code of Botanical Nomenclature has gradually changed to incorporate stricter rules about orthographic variants and as of the 2006 edition requires (article 60, particularly 60.5) that Linnaeus' spelling should be followed in this case.


title: Buddleja

text: The genus "Buddleja" is now included in Scrophulariaceae, having earlier been classified under Buddlejaceae (synonym: Oftiaceae) and Loganiaceae


title: Buddleja

text: Of the approximately 140 species, nearly all are shrubs less than tall, but a few qualify as trees, the largest reaching . Both evergreen and deciduous species occur, in tropical and temperate regions respectively. The leaves are lanceolate in most species, and arranged in opposite pairs on the stems (alternate in one species, "B. alternifolia"); they range from long. The flowers of the Asiatic species are mostly produced in terminal panicles long; the American species more commonly as cymes forming small, globose heads. Each individual flower is tubular and divided into four spreading lobes (petals) about across, the corolla length ranging from around 10 mm in the Asiatics to 3–30 mm in the American species, the wider variation in the latter because some South American species have evolved long red flowers to attract hummingbirds, rather than insects, as exclusive pollinators.


title: Buddleja

text: The colour of the flowers varies widely, from mostly pastel pinks and blues in Asia, to vibrant yellows and reds in the New World, while many cultivars have deeper tones. The flowers are generally rich in nectar and often strongly honey-scented. The fruit is a small capsule about long and diameter, containing numerous small seeds; in a few species (previously classified in the separate genus "Nicodemia") the capsule is soft and fleshy, forming a berry.


title: Buddleja

text: The genus is found in four continents. Over 60 species are native through the New World from the southern United States south to Chile, while many other species are found in the Old World, in Africa, and parts of Asia, but all are absent as natives from Europe and Australasia. The species are divided into three groups based on their floral type: those in the New World are mostly dioecious (occasionally hermaphrodite or trioecious), while those in the Old World are exclusively hermaphrodite with perfect flowers.


title: Buddleja

text: As garden shrubs, buddlejas are essentially 20th-century plants, with the exception of "B. globosa" which was introduced to Britain from southern Chile in 1774 and disseminated from the nursery of Lee and Kennedy, Hammersmith. Several species are popular garden plants and are commonly known as "butterfly bushes", owing to their attractiveness to butterflies, and have become staples of the modern butterfly garden; they are also attractive to bees and moths.


title: Buddleja

text: The most popular cultivated species is "Buddleja davidii" from central China, named for the French Basque missionary and naturalist Père Armand David. Other common garden species include the aforementioned "B. globosa", grown for its strongly honey-scented orange globular inflorescences, and the weeping "Buddleja alternifolia". Several interspecific hybrids have been made, notably "B." 'Lochinch' ("B. davidii" × "B. fallowiana") and "B. × weyeriana" ("B. globosa" × "B. davidii"), the latter a cross between a South American and an Asiatic species.


title: Buddleja

text: Some species commonly escape from the garden. "B. davidii" in particular is an extensive coloniser of dry open ground. In urban areas in the United Kingdom, it often self-sows on waste ground or old masonry, where it grows into a dense thicket. A number of agricultural organizations and governing authorities throughout the world have designated the plant as an invasive species or a noxious weed. It is frequently seen in the United Kingdom beside railway lines, on the sites of derelict factories and other buildings and, in the aftermath of World War II, on urban bomb sites. That earned it the popular nickname of "the bomb site plant".


title: Buddleja

text: Popular garden cultivars include 'Royal Red' (reddish-purple flowers), 'Black Knight' (very dark purple), 'Sungold' (golden yellow), and 'Pink Delight' (pure pink). In recent years, much breeding work has been undertaken to create seed sterile cultivars (see Non-invasive Buddleja cultivars). This is a particularly important consideration in the United States, where several states have banned "B. davidii" and its fertile cultivars because of their invasiveness. Unlike native "B. davidii", some of these non-invasive cultivars are small and compact, such as 'Blue Chip', which only reaches a height of and a width of .


title: Buddleja

text: In Britain, there are four National Council for the Conservation of Plants and Gardens collections, held by:


title: Buddleja

text: The many species of "Buddleja" have been the subject of much taxonomic contention. The listing below includes the names, still prevalent in horticulture, of many former Asiatic species sunk by the late Toon Leeuwenberg as "Buddleja crispa" and adopted as such in the definitive "Flora of China".


title: Buddleja

text: The following Buddleja species and cultivars are (2017) holders of the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit:


title: Nuclear envelope

text: The nuclear envelope, also known as the nuclear membrane, is made up of two lipid bilayer membranes that in eukaryotic cells surround the nucleus, which encloses the genetic material.


title: Nuclear envelope

text: The nuclear envelope consists of two lipid bilayer membranes: an inner nuclear membrane and an outer nuclear membrane. The space between the membranes is called the perinuclear space. It is usually about 10–50 nm wide. The outer nuclear membrane is continuous with the endoplasmic reticulum membrane. The nuclear envelope has many nuclear pores that allow materials to move between the cytosol and the nucleus. Intermediate filament proteins called lamins form a structure called the nuclear lamina on the inner aspect of the inner nuclear membrane and give structural support to the nucleus.


title: Nuclear envelope

text: The nuclear envelope is made up of two lipid bilayer membranes, an inner nuclear membrane and an outer nuclear membrane. These membranes are connected to each other by nuclear pores. Two sets of intermediate filaments provide support for the nuclear envelope. An internal network forms the nuclear lamina on the inner nuclear membrane. A looser network forms outside to give external support. The actual shape of the nuclear envelope is irregular. It has invaginations and protrusions and can be observed with an electron microscope.


title: Nuclear envelope

text: The outer nuclear membrane also shares a common border with the endoplasmic reticulum. While it is physically linked, the outer nuclear membrane contains proteins found in far higher concentrations than the endoplasmic reticulum. All four nesprin proteins (nuclear envelope spectrin repeat proteins) present in mammals are expressed in the outer nuclear membrane. Nesprin proteins connect cytoskeletal filaments to the nucleoskeleton. Nesprin-mediated connections to the cytoskeleton contribute to nuclear positioning and to the cell’s mechanosensory function. KASH domain proteins of Nesprin-1 and -2 are part of a LINC complex (linker of nucleoskeleton and cytoskeleton) and can bind directly to cystoskeletal components, such as actin filaments, or can bind to proteins in the perinuclear space. Nesprin-3 and-4 may play a role in unloading enormous cargo; Nesprin-3 proteins bind plectin and link the nuclear envelope to cytoplasmic intermediate filaments. Nesprin-4 proteins bind the plus end directed motor kinesin-1. The outer nuclear membrane is also involved in development, as it fuses with the inner nuclear membrane to form nuclear pores.


title: Nuclear envelope

text: The inner nuclear membrane encloses the nucleoplasm, and is covered by the nuclear lamina, a mesh of intermediate filaments which stabilizes the nuclear membrane as well as being involved in chromatin function. It is connected to the outer membrane by nuclear pores which penetrate the membranes. While the two membranes and the endoplasmic reticulum are linked, proteins embedded in the membranes tend to stay put rather than dispersing across the continuum. It is lined with a fiber network called the nuclear lamina which is 10-40 nm thick and provides strength.


title: Nuclear envelope

text: Mutations in the genes that encode for the inner nuclear membrane proteins can cause several laminopathies.


title: Nuclear envelope

text: The nuclear envelope is punctured by around a thousand nuclear pore complexes, about 100 nm across, with an inner channel about 40 nm wide. The complexes contain a number of nucleoporins, proteins that link the inner and outer nuclear membranes.


title: Nuclear envelope

text: During the G2 phase of interphase, the nuclear membrane increases its surface area and doubles its number of nuclear pore complexes.


title: Nuclear envelope

text: In eukaryotes such as yeast which undergo closed mitosis, the nuclear membrane stays intact during cell division. The spindle fibers either form within the membrane, or penetrate it without tearing it apart.


title: Nuclear envelope

text: In other eukaryotes (animals as well as plants), the nuclear membrane must break down during the prometaphase stage of mitosis to allow the mitotic spindle fibers to access the chromosomes inside. The breakdown and reformation processes are not well understood.


title: Nuclear envelope

text: In mammals, the nuclear membrane can break down within minutes, following a set of steps during the early stages of mitosis.


title: Nuclear envelope

text: First, M-Cdk's phosphorylate nucleoporin polypeptides and they are selectively removed from the nuclear pore complexes. After that, the rest of the nuclear pore complexes break apart simultaneously. Biochemical evidence suggests that the nuclear pore complexes disassemble into stable pieces rather than disintegrating into small polypeptide fragments. M-Cdk's also phosphorylate elements of the nuclear lamina (the framework that supports the envelope) leading to the disassembly of the lamina and hence the envelope membranes into small vesicles.


title: Nuclear envelope

text: Electron and fluorescence microscopy has given strong evidence that the nuclear membrane is absorbed by the endoplasmic reticulum—nuclear proteins not normally found in the endoplasmic reticulum show up during mitosis.


title: Nuclear envelope

text: In addition to the breakdown of the nuclear membrane during the prometaphase stage of mitosis, the nuclear membrane also ruptures in migrating mammalian cells during the interphase stage of the cell cycle. This transient rupture is likely caused by nuclear deformation. The rupture is rapidly repaired by a process dependent on "endosomal sorting complexes required for transport" (ESCRT) made up of cytosolic protein complexes. During nuclear membrane rupture events, DNA double-strand breaks occur. Thus the survival of cells migrating through confined environments appears to depend on efficient nuclear envelope and DNA repair machineries.


title: Nuclear envelope

text: Aberrant nuclear envelope breakdown has also been observed in laminopathies and in cancer cells leading to mislocalization of cellular proteins, the formation of micronuclei and genomic instability.


title: Nuclear envelope

text: A study of the comparative genomics, evolution and origins of the nuclear membrane led to the proposal that the nucleus emerged in the primitive eukaryotic ancestor (the “prekaryote”), and was triggered by the archaeo-bacterial symbiosis. Several ideas have been proposed for the evolutionary origin of the nuclear membrane. These ideas include the invagination of the plasma membrane in a prokaryote ancestor, or the formation of a genuine new membrane system following the establishment of proto-mitochondria in the archaeal host. The adaptive function of the nuclear membrane may have been to serve as a barrier to protect the genome from reactive oxygen species (ROS) produced by the cells' pre-mitochondria.


title: Lincoln cent

text: The Lincoln cent (sometimes called the Lincoln penny) is a one-cent coin that has been struck by the United States Mint since 1909. The obverse or heads side was designed by Victor David Brenner, as was the original reverse, depicting two stalks of wheat (thus "wheat pennies", struck 1909–1958). The coin has seen several reverse, or tails, designs and now bears one by Lyndall Bass depicting a Union shield. All coins struck by the United States government with a value of of a dollar are called cents because the United States has always minted coins using decimals. The penny nickname is a carryover from the coins struck in England, which went to decimals for coins in 1971.


title: Lincoln cent

text: In 1905, sculptor Augustus Saint-Gaudens was hired by the Mint to redesign the cent and the four gold coins, which did not require congressional approval. Two of Saint-Gaudens's proposed designs for the cent were eventually adapted for the gold pieces, but Saint-Gaudens died in before submitting additional designs for the cent. In , the Mint engaged Brenner to design a cent depicting the late president Abraham Lincoln, 1909 being the centennial year of his birth. It was the first widely circulating design of a U.S. president on a coin, an idea that had been seen as too monarchical in the past, namely by George Washington. Nevertheless, Brenner's design was eventually approved, and the new coins were issued to great public interest on , 1909.


title: Lincoln cent

text: Brenner's initials (VDB), on the reverse at its base, were deemed too prominent once the coins were issued, and were removed within days of the release. The initials were restored, this time smaller, on Lincoln's shoulder, in 1918. Originally struck in 95% copper, the cent coin was changed for one year to zinc-coated steel in 1943 as copper was needed to aid in the war effort. The mint then reverted to 95% copper until 1982, when inflation made copper too expensive and the composition was changed to zinc with an outer copper layer. Brenner's wheat reverse was replaced in 1959 by a depiction of the Lincoln Memorial designed by Frank Gasparro, for the sesquicentennial of his birth year. The Lincoln Memorial reverse was itself replaced in 2009 by four commemorative designs marking the bicentennial of Lincoln's birth. Beginning in 2010, Bass's shield design was coined.


title: Lincoln cent

text: In 1904, President Theodore Roosevelt wrote to his Secretary of the Treasury, Leslie Mortier Shaw, complaining that U.S. coinage lacked artistic merit, and enquiring if it would be possible to engage a private artist, such as sculptor Augustus Saint-Gaudens, to prepare new coin designs. At Roosevelt's instructions, the Mint hired Saint-Gaudens to redesign the cent and the four gold pieces: the double eagle ($20), eagle ($10), half eagle ($5), and quarter eagle ($2.50). As the designs of those pieces had remained the same for 25 years, they could be changed without an act of Congress. The Indian Head cent, which the Lincoln cent replaced, had been introduced in 1859.


title: Lincoln cent

text: Saint-Gaudens originally conceived a flying eagle design for the cent, but at Roosevelt's request, developed it for the double eagle after learning that by law, an eagle could not appear on the cent. Writer and friend Witter Bynner recalled that in , Saint-Gaudens was seriously ill with cancer, and was carried to his studio for ten minutes a day to critique the work of his assistants on current projects, including the cent. Saint-Gaudens sent Roosevelt a design in February for the obverse of the cent showing a figure of Liberty. Roosevelt suggested the addition of a Native American war bonnet, stating, "I don't see why we should not have a conventional head-dress of purely American type for the Liberty figure." In , Roosevelt instructed that the Indian design be developed for the eagles instead. Saint-Gaudens was by then in declining health; he died on , 1907, without having submitted another design for the cent.


title: Lincoln cent

text: With the redesign of the four gold denominations completed by 1908, Roosevelt turned his attention to the cent. The centennial of the birth of assassinated president Abraham Lincoln would occur in , and large numbers of privately manufactured souvenirs were already being issued. Many citizens had written to the Treasury Department, proposing a Lincoln coin, and Roosevelt was interested in honoring his fellow Republican. This was a break with previous American numismatic tradition; before the Lincoln cent, no regularly circulating U.S. coin had featured an actual person (as opposed to idealized personifications, as of "liberty"). Many writers had suggested a Lincoln half dollar, but that coin's design had been changed in 1892 and could not yet be altered without congressional approval. By then a lame duck in office, Roosevelt was reluctant to involve Congress.


title: Lincoln cent

text: In late 1908, Roosevelt sat for sculptor Victor David Brenner, who was designing a medal for the Panama Canal Commission. While the contents of their conversations were never recorded, it appears they discussed Roosevelt's plans for coinage redesign. Roosevelt had admired a 1907 plaque of Lincoln which the artist had produced. It is uncertain how Brenner was selected to design the cent, but in , Mint Director Frank A. Leach contacted Brenner to ask his fee for designing the coin. Brenner mentioned in his correspondence with Leach that the President had liked his Lincoln design; there is no evidence Brenner considered any other concept for the piece.


title: Lincoln cent

text: Brenner's obverse design closely follows a profile of Lincoln he had used in other work, such as the desk plaque he made for the Gorham Manufacturing Company in 1907. Numismatic historian Roger Burdette suggests that Brenner based his work on an 1864 photograph of Lincoln taken at Mathew Brady's studio by one of his assistants. However, Burdette adds that in an , 1909 letter, Brenner mentioned that in producing the design, he envisioned Lincoln reading to a child, when the sculptor felt Lincoln would be at his brightest. This suggests that Brenner may have drawn inspiration from the well-known Brady photograph of Lincoln with his son, Tad. In a 2012 study published in "Coin World", numismatic historian Fred Reed suggests that Brenner's Lincoln work was based on a Brady portrait of Lincoln in right profile which was taken on the same day as the picture with his son (there were several photos taken at this sitting). As the photograph in question only showed Lincoln's head and shoulders, Reed indicates that Brenner obtained additional detail from an 1860 campaign photograph of a beardless Lincoln.


title: Lincoln cent

text: On January 18, 1909, Brenner submitted models to the Mint with a Lincoln profile on the obverse, and a reverse design very similar to that on the then-current French silver coins, showing a tree branch. He also proposed designs for a Lincoln half dollar, with the late president to appear on one side, and a standing Liberty design—almost identical to the obverse of the same French coins. Leach replied on that no change to the half dollar could be made without congressional approval. By , Leach had discovered the origin of the branch design—although numismatic historian Don Taxay notes that it is odd Leach had not discovered the source of the standing Liberty design, given that they were on opposite sides of the same French coins. Leach did not confront the sculptor with the artistic borrowing, but instead simply ruled out the submitted designs as unsuitable for the reverse of the cent. He urged the sculptor to prepare a simple design, bearing the denomination, the country's name, and the motto ""E pluribus unum"". Brenner worked quickly, and on , delivered models for both obverse and reverse similar to the eventual coin, though with a somewhat larger bust of Lincoln, and the motto "In God We Trust" omitted. As a design element on the reverse, Brenner used two ears of durum wheat. The designs were shown to President Roosevelt, who approved them although Roosevelt required "UNITED", which Brenner had spelled "VNITED", to be spelled in the conventional way. After Leach examined the models, he objected to the fact that Brenner had put his full surname on the obverse. Brenner wrote in return, "I shall take it out and put it in small letters on the reverse."


title: Lincoln cent

text: On March 4, 1909, the day on which Roosevelt left office, replaced by William Howard Taft, Brenner met with Mint Engraver Charles E. Barber in Philadelphia. Barber had written to Leach, suggesting that Brenner's designs would have to be modified to be suitable for coinage. On , Brenner wrote to Leach stating that Barber seemed in no hurry to have the new coins produced. Brenner also complained that the Mint was losing detail as it reduced the large models to coin-sized hubs. Barber had been stung by criticism that he had lost detail in this way with the new gold coins, and he raised no objection to having the reductions done by an outside silversmith. After several hubs were prepared by the Medallic Art Company of New York, Barber sank a master die and sent it to Brenner for retouching.


title: Lincoln cent

text: Patterns were prepared from the dies, but Barber and Leach were unhappy with the pieces. On , Leach wrote to Brenner,


title: Lincoln cent

text: I have to inform you that I was not satisfied with the first proof of the Lincoln cent. I found that you had not dropped the Lincoln portrait down so that the head would come nearer the center of the coin ... Therefore I had Mr. Barber make me a proof of this change, and as this left so much blank space over the top we concluded that it would be better to put on the motto, "In God We Trust". This change has made a marked improvement in the appearance of the coin.


title: Lincoln cent

text: On May 26, samples of the new coin with and without the motto were shown to President Taft, who selected the mottoed version. The coin was formally approved by Secretary of the Treasury Franklin MacVeagh on and a release date of , 1909, was set.


title: Lincoln cent

text: The Philadelphia Mint struck 20,000,000 of the new coin even before its design was made official by Secretary MacVeagh. Dies for the San Francisco Mint, prepared at Philadelphia, were ready for shipment to San Francisco on .


title: Lincoln cent

text: There was intense public interest in the new cents, especially since the Mint had not permitted images of the new coin to be printed in the newspapers. The Lincoln craze sparked by the centennial had not yet subsided, and there was widespread speculation about the coin's design. The Mint decided to plan for a simultaneous release of the coin across the United States on , and Treasury Department branches were sent what were thought to be adequate supplies.


title: Lincoln cent

text: On the morning of August 2, 1909, long lines formed outside Treasury facilities across the United States. Some early applicants were able to obtain all the coins they wanted, but soon the pieces were rationed: applicants at the New York Sub-Treasury were allowed 100 pieces per person; those who sought the coins at the Philadelphia Mint were allowed only two each. Coins passed on the secondary market outside the Philadelphia Mint for a quarter each until prices settled down to five cents per new penny. Many newsboys were among those who profited from the new coins; crowds gathered around the windows where the coins were for sale in Washington until order was restored.


title: Lincoln cent

text: Brenner's initials, which he had placed at the base of the reverse, immediately became a source of controversy—on the afternoon of , "The Washington Star" queried the Treasury as to the initials. Quotes appeared in the papers from (possibly invented) unnamed Treasury officials, opining that the coins were illegal because of the initials, which were seen as advertising. On , Secretary MacVeagh ordered coinage of the cent suspended until the coins could be struck with an inconspicuous "B" for Brenner on the coin. However, removing the initials and striking new pieces with no initials would lead to a three-day delay in coinage; effacing the initials and inserting an initial "B" would cause a 14-day delay. Assistant Treasury Secretary Eliot Norton, after meeting with Barber, ordered that the coins be struck with no initial. Treasury Department Solicitor Maurice O'Connell held that the exclusion of the initials did not constitute a design change which could only have been implemented by waiting 25 years or obtaining congressional approval. Barber also opposed retaining a single initial "B", fearing that as he had used an identical initial on his Barber coinage, the new coin would be deemed to be his work, and, according to Norton, "He is not willing to be held personally responsible for the Lincoln penny which he has always opposed and does not regard as a successful coin."


title: Lincoln cent

text: Brenner objected to the removal of his initials, but his protests were to no avail. The cents without Brenner's initials were in production by , 1909. During the halt, owners of vending and slot machines complained that the new pennies were too thick to fit in their machines. Barber was recalled from his vacation in Cape May, New Jersey, to deal with the complaints. Leach ordered changes in the new cent, but Barber resisted Leach's orders, and was in the end successful—vending and slot machine manufacturers modified their machines to suit the new cent, rather than the other way around. By the end of 1909, supply of the new cents was finally up to demand.


title: Lincoln cent

text: Burdette suggests that had MacVeagh been more experienced in his job, he would have been less concerned about the initials. Saint-Gaudens had prominently signed his double eagle on the obverse, and George T. Morgan's design for the silver dollar contained an "M" marked on both sides of the piece.


title: Lincoln cent

text: Cents with and without Brenner's initials were struck at both Philadelphia and San Francisco in 1909. Coins struck at Philadelphia bear no mintmark; those struck at San Francisco were marked with an S. While almost 28 million Philadelphia VDB cents were struck, making them quite common, the 1909-S with Brenner's initials (commonly called the 1909-S VDB) is the rarest Lincoln cent by date and mintmark, with only 484,000 released for circulation. In 1911, the Denver Mint began striking cents with the mintmark D, and in most years in the following decades, all three mints struck cents. In 1916, Barber modified the design, causing Lincoln's cheek and coat to appear less wrinkled. This modification was done to extend die life.


title: Lincoln cent

text: In 1917, a year which saw Barber's death in office at age 77, the wartime economy caused a shortage of cents. At this time, the Lincoln cent had not yet become dominant in circulation; four-fifths of the cents in circulation were of the older Indian Head design. Demand for the cent continued to increase when a luxury tax was instituted, and cents were needed to make change. In 1918, Brenner's initials were restored to the coin, appearing where Lincoln's shoulder is cut off by the rim of the coin.


title: Lincoln cent

text: The recession year of 1922 saw a lower-than-usual demand for coins in commerce, and few cents were coined. At the time, dies were only made at Philadelphia; the Denver Mint had outstanding orders for cents that year. When Denver applied to the Philadelphia Mint for more dies (cents were not struck at either Philadelphia or San Francisco that year), it was told that the Philadelphia Mint could supply no more cent dies, as it was fully engaged in preparing dies for the Peace dollar. Denver filled its orders by striking with a worn-out obverse die, which impressed the design fainter than usual. On many strikes, the mintmark on the die filled with oil and dirt, producing coins on which the mintmark does not appear, or appears only faintly. The 1922 plain piece is another relatively rare one in the Lincoln cent series.


title: Lincoln cent

text: When the 25-year period during which the Lincoln cent could not be changed without congressional approval expired, there was no interest in replacing the design as the coin had remained popular. Beginning in 1936, proof coins were struck for collectors for the first time since 1916. Made only at Philadelphia, these pieces were coined from dies polished to mirror smoothness.


title: Lincoln cent

text: With the US entry into World War II in 1941, copper and tin, which were both used in the cent, were in short supply. Experiments were carried out by several corporations under contract from the Mint; they tested various metallic and non-metallic substances, including fiber, tempered glass, and several types of plastic. These experiments used various designs, since actual Lincoln cent dies could not leave government custody. As the experiments proceeded, production of bronze cents was cut back drastically in , and ceased in December. On , 1942, Congress gave the mint authorization to change the composition of the cent for a three-year period, and five days later, Treasury Secretary Henry Morgenthau announced that the coin would be made out of zinc-coated steel. Zinc and iron form an electromagnetic "couple"; the two metals soon corrode when in contact with each other in a damp atmosphere. The public soon complained that the new coins were becoming spotted and stained. Another common complaint was confusion with the dime, and some letters suggested that a hole be punched in the center of the new coins. Morgenthau responded that the new pieces would soon become darker, and that the Mint would be willing to darken them if it could figure out a suitable process.


title: Lincoln cent

text: Production of the war-time cent was provided for in an Act of Congress approved on December 18, 1942, which also set as the expiration date of the authority December 31, 1946. Low-grade carbon steel formed the base of these coins, to which a zinc coating thick was deposited on each side electrolytically as a rust preventive. This coating was applied to the steel before the blanks were made, leaving the rims of these coins extremely susceptible to rust. The same size was maintained, but the weight was reduced from the standard to , by using a lighter alloy. Production commenced on February 27, 1943, and by December 31 of that year, the three Mint facilities had produced 1,093,838,670 of the one-cent coins. The copper released for the war effort was enough to meet the combined needs of two cruisers, two destroyers, 1,243 Flying Fortresses, 120 field guns and 120 howitzers, or enough for 1,250,000 shells for large field guns.


title: Lincoln cent

text: In December 1943, the Treasury Department announced that the steel cent would be discontinued after 1943, to be replaced with coins containing 95% copper and 5% zinc (pre-1943 cents contained the same percentage of copper but might also contain tin in place of some of the zinc). The Treasury also stated that some of the metal for the new coins would be obtained by melting down small arms ammunition shells. However, numismatic writer Shane Anderson, in his study of the Lincoln cent, doubts that any shells were melted down, except perhaps ceremonially. After the war, the Treasury quietly retired as many steel cents as it could from circulation, while denying it was doing so—no public admission of the program was made until 1959, as the Treasury feared that were it publicly known, the coins would be hoarded. A few 1943 bronze cents and 1944 steel cents are known to exist, and they are valuable. Only one 1943-D cent in bronze is known; it sold in for $1.7 million. One of the four known 1943-S cents in bronze was sold to Texas Rangers baseball team co-chairman Bob R. Simpson for $1 million. One 1943 cent struck in 86.41% tin and 8.37% antimony with other trace metals was authenticated in 2019. There are also many cents dated 1943 that were coated with copper to imitate the genuine rarity. These pieces may be distinguished from genuine off-metal strikes by the use of a magnet. The planchets from which the 1943 and 1944 off-metal strikes were coined were most likely concealed in the coining equipment and were struck when coinage resumed after year end. In September 2010, a record was set when a unique off-metal 1943-D Copper Cent sold for $1.7 million. This is currently the most expensive Lincoln cent that has ever been sold. The cent returned to its prewar composition in 1944.


title: Lincoln cent

text: In 1952, the Mint considered replacing the Lincoln cent with a new design by Mint Chief Engraver Gilroy Roberts, but Mint officials feared that the incoming Eisenhower administration would be hostile to replacing a Republican on the cent. Several thousand 1955 pieces were struck with a doubled die, and display doubling of the date. The Mint was aware of the pieces, and knew they were somewhere within a large production lot, but opted to release them, rather than destroy the entire lot. The variety did not become widely known until several years later.


title: Lincoln cent

text: On Sunday morning, December 21, 1958, President Eisenhower's press secretary, James Hagerty, issued a press release announcing that a new reverse design for the cent would begin production on , 1959. The new design, by Frank Gasparro, had been developed by the Treasury in consultation with the Lincoln Sesquicentennial Commission. Approved by the President and by Secretary of the Treasury Robert B. Anderson, the new design featured the Lincoln Memorial in Washington, D.C. The redesign came as a complete surprise, as word of the proposal had not been leaked. The coin was officially released on , 1959, the 150th anniversary of Lincoln's birth, although some pieces entered circulation early.


title: Lincoln cent

text: The selected design was the result of an internal competition among the Mint's engravers. Gasparro did not go in person to see the Lincoln Memorial, a place he had never visited. According to Anderson, Gasparro created an "impressive" image of the Memorial, however, Taxay states that the design "looks at first glance like a trolley car". Numismatic historian Walter Breen describes Gasparro's design as "an artistic disaster".


title: Lincoln cent

text: There was considerable public excitement over the "small date" and "large date" 1960 and 1960-D cents, with the small dates being the rarer. The Mint feared the interior of the zero as punched into the die would break away during the coining process, giving the zero a filled-in appearance. To reduce the chance of this happening, the Mint enlarged the date. Sealed bags of 1960 cents, with a face value of $50, sold for as much as $12,000. Prices for the small date coins, of which approximately two million had been struck at Philadelphia, continued to increase until 1964, when the bubble burst. Approximately of the Denver small date (out of a total mintage of 1.5 billion) were struck, and are not particularly rare. Bowers points out that there are enough of the 1960 Philadelphia small date known to supply every member of the American Numismatic Association, and every subscriber to the major coin periodicals.


title: Lincoln cent

text: The composition of the coin was changed again slightly in 1962. Mint officials felt that deletion of the tin content would have no adverse effect on the wearing qualities of the coin, whereas the manufacturing advantages to be gained with the alloy stabilized at 95% copper and 5% zinc would be of much benefit. Congressional authority for this modification was contained in an Act of Congress approved on September 5, 1962.


title: Lincoln cent

text: In 1964, a rise in the price of silver led to silver coins being hoarded by the public. With change short, hoarding extended to the cent, which also became scarce in circulation. Mint Director Eva Adams felt that part of the reason for the shortage was coin collectors taking pieces from circulation, and Adams ordered that mintmarks no longer appear on coins. Coins continued to be dated 1964 until the end of 1965, using authority given by the Coinage Act of 1965, and almost all 1965 cents were actually struck in 1966. The Mint began striking clad dimes and quarters, replacing the silver pieces which the public would not spend. Although coinage had been stopped at San Francisco after 1955, the California facility began to issue cents again, though without mintmarks. In 1968, mintmarks were restored to the cent. San Francisco began minting a limited number of circulation strikes (which it would cease to do after 1974) and began striking proof coins. By this time the master hub had become quite worn and Lincoln's features were becoming indistinct. For the 1969 coins a new master was produced for use in all three mints and the features were sharpened and moved further from the edge of the coin, while the lettering was broadened.


title: Lincoln cent

text: Copper prices began to rise in 1973, to such an extent that the intrinsic value of the coin approached a cent, and citizens began to hoard cents, hoping to realize a profit. The Mint decided to switch to an aluminum cent. Over a million and a half such pieces were struck in the second half of 1973, though they were dated 1974. At congressional hearings, representatives of the vending machine industry testified that aluminum cents would jam their equipment, and the Mint backed away from its proposal. Mint director Mary Brooks sought the return of samples which had been distributed to members of Congress, but 14 remained missing, with the recipients affecting not to know what had become of them. One aluminum cent was donated to the Smithsonian Institution for the National Numismatic Collection; another was reportedly found by a US Capitol Police Officer. Experiments were also conducted with bronze-clad steel cents. Slated for disposal, when a bag of them tore open before going into a smelter; a few were kept by the workers. They are also considered to be illegally held government property. Recognizing that a change from the current copper composition was still inevitable, Congress passed Public Law 93–441 on October 11, 1974, declaring "[w]henever in the judgment of the Secretary of the Treasury such action is necessary to assure an adequate supply of coins to meet the national needs, he may prescribe such composition of copper and zinc in the alloy of the one-cent piece as he may deem appropriate."


title: Lincoln cent

text: In 1981, faced with another rise in the price of copper, the Mint decided to change the composition of the cent to copper-covered zinc. After contract difficulties and production delays, the first such cents were struck at the Philadelphia Mint (without mintmark) on , 1982. Denver did not convert to the new composition until . A few pieces were struck by error in bronze dated 1983 and are extremely rare. A number of small changes were made to the obverse design in the 1990s and early 2000s.


title: Lincoln cent

text: The Presidential $1 Coin Act of 2005 required that the cent's reverse be redesigned for 2009, and that four designs be issued to celebrate the Abraham Lincoln Bicentennial. The coins were to be emblematic of Lincoln's early life in Kentucky and in Indiana, of his professional life in Illinois, and of his presidency. Unveiled , 2008, at a ceremony held at the Lincoln Memorial, these designs were:


title: Lincoln cent

text: The Presidential $1 Coin Act required that the cent, beginning in 2010, "shall bear an image emblematic of President Lincoln's preservation of the United States of America as a single and united country". On , 2009, the Commission of Fine Arts (CFA) met and recommended a design that showed 13 wheat sheaves bound together with a ring symbolizing American unity as one nation. Subsequently, this design was withdrawn because it was similar to coins issued in Germany in the 1920s. The Citizens Coinage Advisory Committee (CCAC) also met and recommended a design showing a Union shield with superimposed in a scroll; "E pluribus unum" was also depicted in the upper portion of the shield.


title: Lincoln cent

text: In June 2009 the CFA met again and this time selected a design featuring a modern rendition of the American flag. As a part of the release ceremony for the last of the 2009 cents on , 2009, the design for the 2010 cent was announced. The design chosen by the CCAC was the Union shield. According to the Mint, the 13 stripes on the shield "represent the states joined in one compact union to support the Federal government, represented by the horizontal bar above." The new reverse was designed by artist Lyndall Bass and sculpted by US Mint sculptor-engraver Joseph Menna. The Mint re-engraved the obverse, returning to the original 1909 galvano in preparing new dies. However, the Mint did not return to striking the pieces in the higher relief of 1909—the piece has long been struck in a much lower relief than the original pieces.


title: Lincoln cent

text: In January 2010, the new coins were released early in Puerto Rico; this was prompted by a shortage of cents on the island. Cents of the new design were officially released at a ceremony at the Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library in Springfield, Illinois, on , 2010.


title: Lincoln cent

text: In early January 2017, cents bearing the current date and with the mint mark P appeared in circulation. The Mint had made no announcement of such coins, but confirmed their authenticity, stating that the coins had the mint mark to honor the Mint's 225th anniversary. All cents struck at Philadelphia in 2017 received the mint mark, but cents struck in 2018 and thereafter do not.


title: Lincoln cent

text: In February 2019, the Mint announced that the West Point Mint would strike cents with that mint's W mint mark. These are not released into circulation, but they are struck in three different finishes for three of the year's annual sets: uncirculated, proof, and reverse proof.


title: Lincoln cent

text: The Circulating Collectible Coin Redesign Act of 2020 () was signed by President Donald Trump on January 13, 2021. It provides for, among other things, special one-year designs for the circulating coinage in 2026, including the cent, for the United States Semiquincentennial (250th anniversary), with one of the designs to depict women.


title: Kaaka Muttai

text: Kaaka Muttai (released internationally as The Crow's Egg) is a 2015 Indian Tamil-language comedy drama film written, directed and filmed by M. Manikandan, in his directorial debut. Jointly produced by Dhanush's Wunderbar Films, Vetrimaaran's Grass Root Film Company and distributed by Fox Star Studios, it stars newcomers Vignesh and Ramesh, alongside Aishwarya Rajesh, Ramesh Thilak, Yogi Babu in supporting roles and Silambarasan in a cameo appearance. The film's storyline revolves around two slum children of Chennai, whose desire is to taste a pizza.


title: Kaaka Muttai

text: Vetrimaaran approached Manikandan in a film festival, after he saw one of his short films being screened. When asked by Vetrimaaran to develop a script, Manikandan wrote a storyline based on slum children and also inspired incidents from his life. Then the team cast real children living in the slum, in order to have a realistic approach. Following an official announcement in mid-January 2013, the film began production in that May. It was shot in real slums and streets across Chennai within 61 working days. The film explores the themes of class-based discrimination, consumerism and media sensationalism. The film's soundtrack and score is composed by G. V. Prakash Kumar and editing was done by Kishore Te.


title: Kaaka Muttai

text: The film had its world premiere on 5 September 2014 at the 39th Toronto International Film Festival, and was further screened at many other film festival circuits before its worldwide theatrical release on 5 June 2015. It opened to widespread critical acclaim praising the performances of the cast members, storyline, screenplay, direction and other major technical aspects. In addition to the critical and audience response, the film further achieved commercial success at the box-office. "Kaaka Muttai" was occasionally listed at the "Best Tamil Films of 2015". It was further considered one of the "25 Greatest Tamil Films of the Decade" by "Film Companion"; the same website ranked the actors Vignesh and Ramesh's and Aishwarya Rajesh's performance as two of the "100 Greatest Performances of the Decade". The film is remade in Marathi as "Half Ticket" (2016).


title: Kaaka Muttai

text: "Kaaka Muttai" won the National Award for Best Children's Film and Best Child Artist, for the actors Ramesh and Vignesh, at the 62nd National Film Awards. It was the strong contender to be shortlised for the Indian submissions for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film but lost to the Marathi-language film "Court" (2015). At the 63rd Filmfare Awards South, the film won the Filmfare Award for Best Film, out of its four nominations in the Tamil branch. M. Manikandan received an award for Best Debut Director at the 5th South Indian International Movie Awards, where it was nominated in other four categories. The film also won six Tamil Nadu State Film Awards, six Ananda Vikatan Cinema Awards, two Norway Tamil Film Festival Awards and an Edison Awards. In July 2017, the Tamil Nadu government announced State Film Awards for films released during the 2009–2014 period in which "Kaaka Muttai" won three awards: Best Actress (Aishwarya Rajesh), Best Child Artist (Vignesh and Ramesh) and a Special Prize for Best Film.


title: Kaaka Muttai

text: In a tiny concrete-and-tin Chennai home in the slums live two young brothers with their mother and grandmother. With the boys' father in prison for unknown reasons and with an ageing mother-in-law, the mother does her best to keep the kitchen fires burning. The brothers spend their time playing games and stealing and devouring eggs from crows' nests. Their love for these eggs leads them to start calling themselves Periya Kaaka Muttai (Big Crow Egg) and Chinna Kaaka Muttai (Small Crow Egg).


title: Kaaka Muttai

text: The young boys constantly beg their mother and grandmother for toys they cannot afford and later for a television. They don't yet understand that the two women can't give them everything they want. When their mother and grandmother finally do bring home a television, a gift from the government to ration card holders who live below the poverty line, it's like the opening of a portal. The boys see a pizza commercial on TV whose steaming, slow-motion images make the unfamiliar food look like manna from heaven. Meanwhile, a brand new pizzeria comes up in the neighbourhood, and actor Silambarasan alias Simbu comes to its opening. Remembering the looks of enjoyment on Simbu's face when he tasted a pizza at the pizzeria, the boys thereafter think of nothing else but getting their first taste of a pizza.


title: Kaaka Muttai

text: The brothers go to the railway tracks each morning to collect the charcoal that falls off goods trains. They sell the charcoal at a scrap metal shop and are paid for their trouble. They usually hand the money over to their mother, who is saving up to pay their lawyer to get her husband out of jail. But once the boys become aware of the cost of a pizza, they begin saving the money for themselves instead, lying to their mother that they have not collected any charcoal since they were out playing. The boys succeed in saving the ₹ 300 required to buy a pizza but are shooed away by the watchman of the pizza shop since they are badly dressed, which reflects the fact that they are local slum-dwellers. The boys narrate this story to their friend Pazharasam who works as a lineman with the Railways. He tells them that people place a lot of importance on clothes and advises them to save up and purchase new dresses before approaching the pizza outlet again.


title: Kaaka Muttai

text: The boys go on to work again to save money for buying new clothes at Chennai Citi Centre. In the meantime, they show their grandmother the pamphlet from the pizza shop. She tries to make them a home-cooked pizza using dosa batter as base, but the boys deride her attempts and insult her. After finally saving up enough money for new dresses when the boys see Citi Centre, they realise that it is another big mall which would definitely not allow them inside. But they somehow manage to acquire a newly bought pair of clothes from a couple of rich children by buying them panipuri from a street vendor, much against the wishes of the rich boys' father, who had denied them the treat as he considered it unhygienic.


title: Kaaka Muttai

text: The happy brothers return to the pizza shop in their new dresses. Another group of slum boys who are envious and sceptical about the brothers' story about going to eat pizza follow them to take a video of what transpires with the brothers at the pizza shop. The brothers are once again confronted by the watchman and he now forces them to go home right away, but the boys protest by saying that they have money and are wearing new clothes. This argument attracts the attention of the pizzeria supervisor who comes out and slaps the older brother. This is caught on video by the other slum kids who laugh at the brothers' humiliation. The sad and disappointed brothers return to their slum only to be further overwhelmed by the miserable sight of their dead grandmother. The brothers feel guilty when they remember insulting their grandmother some time before.


title: Kaaka Muttai

text: When two men in the slum happen to watch the video of the boy being slapped, they try to make money by threatening the owner of the pizza shop to release the video to the media. The owner realises he could be imprisoned and his pizzeria sealed by the government due to his supervisor's act of discrimination and violence against slum children. He offers one of the men a hundred thousand rupees for not making the video public. The man agrees, but his associate releases it to the media hoping to make some money (unaware of the huge sum being offered). This stirs up tension amongst the pizzeria's owners who finally decide to publicly apologise to the slum kids. The boys are welcomed to the pizza spot in a red carpet reminiscent of Simbu being welcomed in the opening ceremony of the pizzeria. The owner also promises them free pizzas for life. Even as the brothers begin to finally enjoy their first pizza, they tell each other that the dosa-pizza which their grandmother had earlier made for them had tasted much better.


title: Kaaka Muttai

text: M. Manikandan, a former wedding photographer, had directed a short film named "Wind" in late 2010, primarily for his cinematography in the film. It was critically raved by cinephiles and other celebrities, and also got the attention of director Vetrimaaran, when the film was screened at a film festival, where he was a jury member. Vetrimaaran personally approached Manikandan, to ask about his other future film projects, where Manikandan narrated a script about slum children and its essence, impressed and decided to produce the film under his Grass Root Film Company banner. He later called Manikandan to meet him and Dhanush in Delhi to progress about the narration of the script and storyline, but Dhanush said that he liked the script and also joined the film as a co-producer under the Wunderbar Films banner. Vetrimaaran said that the storyline has an artistic approach and had similarities to "Slumdog Millionaire" (2008).


title: Kaaka Muttai

text: The script's basic plot line is inspired from his life, where his son often have craved for pizza, but he could have a little money to buy it, one day. Then he inspired that "what if someone who couldn't afford a pizza wished to have one", which he kept as a basic idea pitching the story line. To develop the conflict stronger, he characterised the lead artists as slum children and also realized that the kids get attracted to things only because of catchy advertisements. Initially, he had planned to produce the film on his own, through crowdfunding, where he suggested his friends to send money for the production of the project, before Vetrimaaran agreed to produce the film. On the occasion of Republic Day (26 January 2013), both Dhanush and Vetrimaaran announced the project officially under the title "Kaaka Muttai".


title: Kaaka Muttai

text: For a children's film, Manikandan eventually planned to cast professional kids from the film, but as he was not convinced with their performances, he made a visit to real slums across Mylapore to pick slum children, who do not have an acting experience. In the process, he picked J. Vignesh and Ramesh, hailing from the fishermen community, both under 15. Manikandan also trained the kids and gave a lot of rehearsals before the shoot. He eventually said that, "During shooting both of them would fight with each other often. But on screen they will look like siblings." He added that the kids will play the lead protagonists and there are no typical male or female leads. Aishwarya Rajesh was roped to play the mother of the siblings. She was very hesitant at first to play a mother role at such an early stage in her career, but, after seeking advice from her "Pannaiyarum Padminiyum" co-star Vijay Sethupathi, she decided to be part of the film. Producer Vetrimaaran was initially skeptical to cast Aishwarya Rajesh and thought it would be more apt to cast an actual mother from the slums. Yogi Babu and Ramesh Thilak appear in supporting roles. While Manikandan handled the cinematography, Kishore Te., who was a regular in Vetrimaaran's projects, was assigned as the film editor, which became one of the last works of the editor before his death in March 2013.


title: Kaaka Muttai

text: The principal photography began during late-May 2013, where the entire film will be completed within a single stretch of 61 days. In order to have a realistic approach, the makers shot the film entirely in real slums and streets of Chennai. In August 2013, Silambarasan accepted to make a cameo appearance in the film. He joined the team in September 2013 to film scenes alongside Babu Antony who plays a landlord. Manikandan said that, it was difficult to capture the real attitude of kids and bring it to the screen. Further, he faced challenges such as to get a similar expression in the next shot, and to avoid night shoots with kids. But he was aware of the challenges and worked on the film. The entire shooting of the film was wrapped up within March 2014.


title: Kaaka Muttai

text: Manikandan said that few scenes of the film had inspired from "Not One Less", "City of God" and "Slumdog Millionaire", based on the visual themes and setting in slums. He had pointed out a scene where the boys' mother (Aishwarya Rajesh) gives an interview to a news channel. But, however, as a similar scene was present in "Not One Less", he had to delete that scene. "The Times of India"-based critic M. Suganth said that Manikandan's earnestness in the filmmaking invites comparison with Iranian films like "Children of Heaven" (1997).


title: Kaaka Muttai

text: Writing for American magazine "The Hollywood Reporter", Jordan Mintzer called "Kaaka Muttai" "an allegory for the vast class differences that persist in India, revealing how people try to profit off a system that leaves little room for advancement." Another reviewer from the "Indo-Asian News Service" called that "the film is filled with layers aimed at different sections of the audience, one of them being urban poverty, the other being discrimination based on class system", but praised director for using humour as a theme to keep the film mostly light hearted, though it deals with a very serious subject. Arpita Bose, writing an article for "The Times of India", said that the "theme is not culture-specific but contemporary and universal. At its core, the film is about the adventures of two slum boys in a world that is taking on a swanky avatar backed by moneyed entrepreneurs, shrewd politicians and loafing opportunists." Writing for the "Film Companion" website, Harsh B. H. Said that the film follows "the themes of class-divide and the perils of consumerism, with just the right amount of irony, without coming off as preachy". In addition to the themes of class-based discrimination, the film was noted for media sensationalism listed by Surendhar M. K. of "Firstpost", in his article about 'How media sensationalism drives diverse narratives in Tamil cinema'.


title: Kaaka Muttai

text: The film's four-song soundtrack and score was composed by G. V. Prakash Kumar. Kumar earlier worked with Manikandan in the short film "Wind", and was brought on board for the project, due to his regular collaborations with Vetrimaaran, the film's producer. Na. Muthukumar penned down the lyrics for the songs in the film. The film's audio was released on 4 May 2015 at Suryan FM Radio Station and Prasad Labs in Chennai. Except for the film's composer, the entire cast and crew, including the producers Dhanush and Vetrimaaran attended the launch event and released the songs. Think Music marketed the soundtrack album.


title: Kaaka Muttai

text: "Behindwoods" rated the album three out of five, stating the album as "an impressive album from G. V. Prakash which speaks of innocence, hope and good days ahead in musical terms." "Indiaglitz" rated the album 3.25 out of five and said "one of Prakash's best works till date" Akilan Nagarajan of Moviecrow wrote the album as "simple, yet convincing tracks from Prakash" and gave three stars out of five. Karthik Srinivasan of "Milliblog" called the album as "GVP's best in a long time!" while Vipin Nair of Music Aloud rated the album 8 stars (out of 10), saying that the tracks are "light and likeable".


title: Kaaka Muttai

text: The film was selected to be screened at the 39th Toronto International Film Festival (TIFF), which was the first film by a debut Tamil director to have its world premiere at Toronto since the festival's inception in 1976. It had its world premiere under the international title "The Crows Egg" on 5 September 2014, and received standing ovation from the audience. In addition, the film was furthermore screened at the Rome Film Festival held during October 2014, and at the Dubai International Film Festival during late-December 2014. The film was further screened at the Brisbane Asia Pacific Film Festival, the Indian Film Festival of Los Angeles on 8 April 2015 (during the inaugural day of the ceremony), and also at the Gold Coast Film Festival.


title: Kaaka Muttai

text: The film's worldwide theatrical rights acquisition was brought by the corporate multi-media production house, Fox Star Studios, in order to ensure a wide reach towards the audience. "Kaaka Muttai"s theatrical trailer was screened during the inaugural day premiere at IFFLA in Los Angeles, during April 2015, and was positively received by audience. Since it is a children's film, the producers planned to release on the occasion of summer holidays, to attract more family audience. In mid-May 2015, the makers announced that the film will be released on 5 June 2015. In addition to the theatrical release in India, the film was also screened at overseas countries, including United Arab Emirates, Malaysia, Singapore and Sri Lanka. The film was theatrically released in Karnataka on 19 June 2015, where the Karnataka Government granted tax-free in the state, becoming the first non-Kannada film to receive tax-exemption in Karnataka. It was theatrically released on Kerala on 26 June 2015.


title: Kaaka Muttai

text: The presenters of the film, Dhanush and Vetrimaaran, along with the distributor Fox Star Studios, associated with charitable non-government organization called Bhumi for the well-being of the actors. The company CEO, Vijay Singh, released a statement saying "The Chennai-based NGO will be entrusted with a substantial sum of money towards the food, education and additional needs of the two child actors. Bhumi will be entrusted with the responsibility of handling the money for the monthly expenses as well as monitoring the progress of the kids till they turn 21. At 21, the entire sum of money will be handed over to the kids for their future needs". The satellite rights of the film were sold to Star Vijay, and was premiered during the occasion of Independence Day (15 August 2015). The film was also released through the OTT-service Hotstar.


title: Kaaka Muttai

text: In the first day of its release, "Kaaka Muttai" collected 90 lakh worldwide, with 40 lakh accounting from the Chennai city box-office collection from 144 shows. The film's collection steadily increased to 1.10 crore upon the second day and 1.35 crore on the third day, totalling up to ₹3.35 crore, as the three-day collection. According to trade analyst Trinath, the number was considered as a "phenomenal" figure, as the film had no star cast. The number of shows steadily increased from 192 screens, owing to the positive response from the audience, which boosted the weekday collections as the film had collected ₹85 lakh (on 8 June) and ₹92 lakh (on 9 June), respectively. The film had collected 7.1 crore, domestically at the first week of its release. Within ten days, the film had earned 8.6 crore, according to Taran Adarsh. The film's overall collection stands at ₹12 crore from three weeks. Its success at the box-office, was noted by trade analysts and film critics, that how content-oriented films triumph over commercial South Indian films. G. Dhananjayan also noted "Kaaka Muttai"s success as an example, that how content-oriented films fare well, as few anticipated big-budget films in Tamil fared badly at the box-office. Many news articles, listed the film as one of the "most profitable films of 2015". "Kaaka Muttai" was listed second at Kollywood's hit-films produced in a limted budget in 2015 according to "The Times of India". The film ran for 50 days in theatres.


title: Kaaka Muttai

text: "Kaaka Muttai" received universal critical acclaim, praising the direction, script, screenplay, performances and other technical aspects of the film. On the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film received an average rating of 86% based on 15 reviews, with an average rating of 7.25/10.


title: Kaaka Muttai

text: In his review for "The Hindu", film critic Baradwaj Rangan called the film as an "outstanding debut" by Manikandan, going on to add, "This is one of the most assured debuts I've seen — one deserving of more than just that consolation-prize-of-a-National-Award [...] "Kaaka Muttai" is so entertaining that it's easy to forget how sad the undercurrents are". Writing for the same publication, Udhav Naig wrote, "Award-winning films have a troubled reputation amongst the general film audience. These films are brushed aside as ‘high-brow’ and ‘slow’. Debutant filmmaker M Manikandan's "Kaaka Muttai" [...] breaks from these imagined prejudices: "Kaaka Muttai" is a highly entertaining film, with a spotlight on poverty". Deepanjana Pal of "Firstpost" wrote, ""Kaakka Muttai" (is) one of the most charming films you'll see this year. It's beautifully shot, without making either slums or poverty look photogenic and exotic". Behindwoods gave 3.5 out of 5 and said " the beautifully made Kaakka Muttai will easily be one of the gems of Tamil cinema that will please all types of audience."


title: Kaaka Muttai

text: M. Suganth of "The Times of India" gave the film 4 stars out of 5 and wrote, "Manikandan's "Kaaka Muttai" is multi-layered; on the surface, it is all warm and inviting — a feel-good film about two kids and their simple desire and the earnestness in the filmmaking invites comparison with Iranian films like "Children of Heaven"...there is a hard base to it as well and from time to time, the film turns into a commentary on the class divide in our society and how it is exploited by wily politicians, an allegory of the effects of globalisation, and even a satire on media's obsession with sensationalism". S. Saraswathi of "Rediff" gave it 4 out of 5, too, calling it a "a delightful entertainer with a subtle message". A reviewer from "Sify" wrote, "(It's) A charming little treat of a film [...] Held together by a sharp screenplay that throws up some pleasant surprises, this film is light, easy and enjoyable. The film works because it is intelligent and uncompromising. "Kaaka Muttai" is a slice of life vibrant film which is sure to put a big smile on your face as you are stepping out of the movie hall."


title: Kaaka Muttai

text: Anupama Subramanian of "Deccan Chronicle" gave it 3.5 stars and wrote, "with unenhanced visuals that gives a sense of verisimilitude, acting that isn't staged and dramatised in any obvious sense, and more importantly, characters that bring alive a subsection of the populace, "Kaakka Muttai" is sure to make you at least a slightly better person than you were before, owing to the reflective power of the film". Writing for "Hindustan Times", Gauthaman Bhaskaran gave 3.5 out of 5 stars wrote "A neatly packaged, well structured narrative with three dimensional characters, Kaaka Muttai (Crow's Egg) is a delight to behold". Uday Bhatia of "Mint" wrote, "the film invites us to admire the resourcefulness of the two siblings without turning them into objects of pity or sentiment. It's the strangest feel-good film you'll see this year: two kids in rags, happily walking past piles of garbage, their heads full of pizza". Shubhra Gupta of "The Indian Express" gave 3.5 out of 5 saying "Like all good films that children can watch, 'Kaakkaa Muttai' has many terrific take-aways, but they are delivered minus hammering." Suhani Singh of India Today wrote ""Kaakka Muttai" celebrates the joys of childhood and the vivid imagination of kids, who find a way to reach their goal even if it is the most arduous one."


title: Kaaka Muttai

text: Reviewing for the British news portal, "The Guardian", Mike McCahill stated "M Manikandan's latter-day parable mines both laughter and tears from the struggles of two young brothers to put food on the table". Paul Byrnes, writing for "The Sydney Morning Herald", said that "The vast Indian film industry produces many films like this – relatively unsophisticated in technique, but rich in observation and character detail. It's rare to see one with so much satirical edge, or such warm characterisation. The boys were recruited from a slum like the one we see. The style is not quite neo-realism, but that is the main ingredient, with large amounts of Tamil flavour." Jordan Mintzer of The Hollywood Reporter said ""The Crow's Egg", is an amusing, energetic, occasionally poignant and somewhat unwieldy, that's part kids movie, part social drama, part Bollywood-style musical montage and part third world farce. And while all the parts do not necessarily form a perfect pie, the film provides some vivid moments and a handful of strong performances, which should help give it a boost". Mythili Ramachandran of "Gulf News" said "Without a star cast or exotic locations, here is a director who dared to present a simple story, without trapping himself in the regular mould of Tamil cinema." Writing for South China Morning Post, James Marsh said "The light-hearted and witty script [...] incorporates everything from political corruption to media manipulation, painting a rich and vibrant portrait of the contemporary Indian experience."


title: Kaaka Muttai

text: Filmmaker Samit Kakkad watched the film at a festival in Mumbai and expressed his interest in adapting the film into Marathi language. Later he worked on that film, which was titled "Half Ticket" and altered the script in a minor way to include certain nuances of the Marathi language, by changed the setting to Mumbai instead of Chennai. G. V. Prakash Kumar retained the tracks of the original counterpart for this film, also making his Marathi debut. The film produced by Video Palace, alongside Fox Star Studios, which distributed the original film, released on 22 July 2016. The title was used in the latest Kannada movie Kaage Moote however the story appears to be inspired from a number of movies.


title: CPanel

text: cPanel is a web hosting control panel software developed by cPanel, LLC. It provides a graphical interface (GUI) and automation tools designed to simplify the process of hosting a web site to the website owner or the "end user". It enables administration through a standard web browser using a three-tier structure. While cPanel is limited to managing a single hosting account, cPanel & WHM allows the administration of the entire server.


title: CPanel

text: In addition to the GUI, cPanel also has command line and API-based access that allows third-party software vendors, web hosting organizations, and developers to automate standard system administration processes. cPanel & WHM is designed to function either as a dedicated server or virtual private server. The latest cPanel & WHM version supports installation on CentOS, Red Hat Enterprise Linux (RHEL), CloudLinux OS, and Ubuntu. cPanel 11.30 is the last major version to support FreeBSD.


title: CPanel

text: cPanel is currently developed by cPanel, L.L.C., a privately owned corporation headquartered in Houston, Texas, United States. It was originally designed in 1996 as the control panel for Speed Hosting, a now-defunct web hosting company. The original author of cPanel, John Nick Koston, had a stake in Speed Hosting. Webking quickly began using cPanel after their merger with Speed Hosting. The new company moved their servers to Virtual Development Inc. (VDI), a now-defunct hosting facility. Following an agreement between Koston and VDI, cPanel was only available to customers hosted directly at VDI. At the time there was little competition in the control panel market, with the main choices being VDI and Alabanza.


title: CPanel

text: Eventually, due to Koston leaving for college, he and William Jensen signed an agreement in which cPanel was split into a separate program called WebPanel; this version was run by VDI. Without the lead programmer, VDI was not able to continue any work on cPanel and eventually stopped supporting it completely. Koston kept working on cPanel while also working at BurstNET. Eventually, he left BurstNET to focus fully on cPanel.


title: CPanel

text: cPanel 3 was released in 1999: main additions over cPanel 2 were an automatic upgrade and the Web Host Manager (WHM). The interface was also improved when Carlos Rego of WizardsHosting made what became the default theme of cPanel.


title: CPanel

text: On August 20, 2018 cPanel L.L.C. announced that it had signed an agreement to be acquired by a group led by Oakley Capital (who also own Plesk and SolusVM). While Koston sold his interest in cPanel, he will continue to be an owner of the company that owns cPanel.


title: CPanel

text: cPanel provides front-ends for a number of common operations, including the management of PGP keys, crontab tasks, mail and FTP accounts, and mailing lists. Several add-ons exist, some for an additional fee, including auto installers such as Installatron, Fantastico, Softaculous, and WHMSonic (SHOUTcast/radio Control Panel Add-on). The add-ons need to be enabled by the server administrator in WHM to be accessible to the cPanel user.


title: CPanel

text: WHM manages some software packages separately from the underlying operating system, applying upgrades to Apache, PHP, MySQL, Exim, FTP, and related software packages automatically. This ensures that these packages are kept up-to-date and compatible with WHM, but makes it more difficult to install newer versions of these packages. It also makes it difficult to verify that the packages have not been tampered with, since the operating system's package management verification system cannot be used to do so.


title: CPanel

text: WHM, short for WebHost Manager, is a web-based tool which is used for server administration. There are at least two tiers of WHM, often referred to as "root WHM", and non-root WHM (or Reseller WHM). Root WHM is used by server administrators and non-root WHM (with fewer privileges) is used by others, like entity departments, and resellers to manage hosting accounts often referred to as cPanel accounts on a web server. WHM is also used to manage SSL certificates (both server self generated and CA provided SSL certificates), cPanel users, hosting packages, DNS zones, themes, and authentication methods. The default automatic SSL (AutoSSL) provided by cPanel is powered by Sectigo (formerly Comodo CA). Additionally, WHM can also be used to manage FTP, Mail (POP, IMAP, and SMTP) and SSH services on the server.


title: CPanel

text: As well as being accessible by the root administrator, WHM is also accessible to users with reseller privileges. Reseller users of cPanel have a smaller set of features than the root user, generally limited by the server administrator, to features which they determine will affect their customers' accounts rather than the server as a whole.


title: CPanel

text: From root WHM, the server administrator can perform maintenance operations such as upgrading and recompiling Apache and PHP, installing Perl modules, and upgrading RPMs installed on the system.


title: CPanel

text: A version of cPanel & WHM for Microsoft Windows, called Enkompass, was declared end-of-life as of February 2014. Version 3 remained available for download, but without further development or support. In the preceding years, Enkompass had been available for free as product development slowed.


title: CPanel

text: On June 27, 2019 cPanel announced a new account-based pricing structure. After backlash from their customers, cPanel issued a second announcement but did not change the new structure.


title: Menstruation in Islam

text: Menstruation in Islam relates to various purity related restrictions in Islamic jurisprudence. The ḥaiḍ (حيض menses) is the religious state of menstruation in Islam. The Qur'an makes specific mention of menstruation in which instructs:


title: Menstruation in Islam

text: The language is taken to clearly imply that sexual relations during menstruation are prohibited. Ibn Kathīr, a muhaddith, narrated a hadith that describes Muhammad's habits with his menstruating wives. This hadith demonstrates that Muhammad gave licence to all forms of spousal intimacy during the period of menstruation with the exception ofintercourse. Women are required to perform ritual cleansing ("ghusl") before resuming religious duties or relations upon completion of their menstruation.


title: Menstruation in Islam

text: intercourse is also prohibited during menstruation, for forty days after childbirth (puerperium), during the daylight hours of the month of Ramadan (i.e. while fasting) and on pilgrimage. While in the sanctuary (in Ahram) at Mecca, pilgrims are not allowed to have intercourse, and marriages performed during the pilgrimage are invalid.


title: Menstruation in Islam

text: Muslim women that are going through menstrual bleeding are exempt from fasting during the Ramadan according to the Hadiths, but have to make them up after menstruation. This was found by hadiths preventing many women from praying during their menses.


title: Menstruation in Islam

text: It is not permissible for a man to have intercourse with menstruating wife. This is written in verse 2:222 of the Quran


title: Menstruation in Islam

text: Verse 2:222 in the Quran implies that relations during menstruation are prohibited. But it does not mention forbidding prayers, however it is mentioned in the hadith which states that women should not pray during menstruation and that they don't have to make up for the missed prayers during this period. God requires prayer to help people stay on the good path away from bad deeds. Despite the verse saying “to segregate the women” and “not go near them,” various hadith indicate that Muhammad considered this to refer only to sexual intercourse. Hadiths are not considered as reliable as the Quran, but there are various references of Muhammad having said that the verse mentioned above means only intercourse and of Muhammad interacting with his wives while they were on their menses. One hadith mentions that Muhammad would lie on his wife Ayesha's lap and recite the Qur'an when she was on her menses. All these hadiths are classified as being sahih, which means they can be trusted.


title: Menstruation in Islam

text: It is prohibited for a man to divorce a menstruating woman during her menses. Women are supposed to maintain proper hygiene and should not perform prayer. They do not have to make up the prayers they missed during menstruation. When the menstruating period is over, women have to perform ritual purification (ghusl).


title: Venera

text: The Venera (, , which means "Venus" in Russian) program was the name given to a series of space probes developed by the Soviet Union between 1961 and 1984 to gather information about the planet Venus. Ten probes successfully landed on the surface of the planet, including the two Vega program and Venera-Halley probes, while thirteen probes successfully entered the Venusian atmosphere. Due to the extreme surface conditions on Venus, the probes could only survive for a short period on the surface, with times ranging from 23 minutes to two hours.


title: Venera

text: The "Venera" program established a number of precedents in space exploration, among them being the first human-made devices to enter the atmosphere of another planet (Venera 3 on 1 March 1966), the first to make a soft landing on another planet (Venera 7 on 15 December 1970), the first to return images from another planet's surface (Venera 9 on 8 June 1975), the first to record sounds on another planet (Venera 13 on 30 October 1981), and the first to perform high-resolution radar mapping scans (Venera 15 on 2 June 1983).


title: Venera

text: The first Soviet attempt at a flyby probe to Venus was launched on 4 February 1961, but failed to leave Earth orbit. In keeping with the Soviet policy at that time of not announcing details of failed missions, the launch was announced under the name Tyazhely Sputnik ("Heavy Satellite"). It is also known as Venera 1VA.


title: Venera

text: As with some of the Soviet Union's other planetary probes, the later versions were launched in pairs, with a second vehicle launched soon after the first.


title: Venera

text: Venera 1 and Venera 2 were intended to fly past Venus without entering orbit. Venera 1 was launched on 12 February 1961. Telemetry on the probe failed seven days after launch. It is believed to have passed within of Venus and remains in heliocentric orbit. Venera 2 launched on November 12, 1965, but also suffered a telemetry failure after leaving Earth orbit.


title: Venera

text: Several other failed attempts at Venus flyby probes were launched by the Soviet Union in the early 1960s, but were not announced as planetary missions at the time, and hence did not officially receive the "Venera" designation.


title: Venera

text: The Venera 3 to 6 probes were similar. Weighing approximately one ton, and launched by the Molniya-type booster rocket, they included a cruise "bus" and a spherical atmospheric entry probe. The probes were optimised for atmospheric measurements, but not equipped with any special landing apparatus. Although it was hoped they would reach the surface still functioning, the first probes failed almost immediately, thereby disabling data transmission to Earth.


title: Venera

text: Venera 3 became the first human-made object to impact another planet's surface as it crash-landed on 1 March 1966. However, as the spacecraft's data probes had failed upon atmospheric penetration, no data from within the Venusian atmosphere were retrieved from the mission.


title: Venera

text: On 18 October 1967, Venera 4 became the first spacecraft to measure the atmosphere of another planet. This spacecraft first showed that the major gas of Venus' atmosphere to be CO. While the Soviet Union initially claimed the craft reached the surface intact, re-analysis, including atmospheric occultation data from the American Mariner 5 spacecraft that flew by Venus the day after its arrival, demonstrated that Venus's surface pressure was 75–100 atmospheres, much higher than Venera 4's 25 atm hull strength, and the claim was retracted.


title: Venera

text: Realizing the ships would be crushed before reaching the surface, the Soviets launched Venera 5 and Venera 6 as atmospheric probes. Designed to jettison nearly half their payload prior to entering the planet's atmosphere, these craft recorded 53 and 51 minutes of data, respectively, while slowly descending by parachute before their batteries failed.


title: Venera

text: Around that time it became increasingly known that Venus was unlikely to have liquid bodies of water, however the designs for the Soviet "Venera" probes still considered the possibility of a water landing as late as 1964.