title: RMS Majestic (1914)

text: After "Bismarck" was handed to the White Star Line, a team of engineers were sent by Harland and Wolff, White Star's shipbuilders, to supervise completion of the vessel and gather experience on her operation. Two thousand workers, were mobilized on the vessel, which underwent some modifications. The company requested to modify its original propulsion (powered by coal-burning boilers) to consume fuel oil instead, which was more economical. On 5 October 1920, the as-yet uncompleted "Bismarck" was gutted by fire while fitting out at the shipyard and badly damaged. At the time of the fire substantial progress had been made on the vessel and sabotage by shipyard workers was suspected. A number of other German liners that were due to be handed over were also damaged by fire. In February 1921, the assignment of the ship to the White Star was confirmed, and its name was quickly announced: "Majestic", in reference to a previous liner of the same name. The ship's funnels were installed in late May and early June 1921, then work focused on the interiors. Here too, important changes were made with regard to the distribution of passengers. To adapt to a curtailment of migration, the fourth class was abolished, and the ship was decided to carry less than 1,000 emigrants and a total of just over 2,000 passengers, far from the 4,000 of the capacity of the "Imperator".


title: RMS Majestic (1914)

text: The "Bismarck" was completed on 28 March 1922, and Commodore Bertram Hayes and a number of officers were ordered to Hamburg to take command of the vessel prior to the physical handover. The transition, though not friendly, was not openly acrimonious. When Hayes and his men arrived, they found their quarters incomplete, whereas their German colleagues' cabins were finished perfectly. In the case of Captain Hayes, his temporary quarters were being used to store wash basins. These small events bore witness to the climate of tension that accompanied the handover of the ship. She was taken on her sea trials by Captain Hans Ruser of the Hamburg America Line on the afternoon of 28 March 1922. The shipbuilders completed the ship in the colors of the Hamburg-America Line and with the name "Bismarck" painted on her bow and stern. As she departed the Hamburg docks the following day she was watched by a large number of locals in silence. Once down the river, she anchored at Cuxhaven for the night and commenced her trials proper the next day. The basic requirement was that the ship develop and therefore she was steamed for three hours into the North Sea and back again. Briefly she ran aground after leaving at Pagensand, Schleswig-Holstein, but was refloated on the peak of high tide on 30 March and under way again. After another week of work on the accommodation, "Bismarck" was accepted by the British representatives. In early April a chartered steamer arrived at Hamburg with the bulk of her new British crew, they were conveyed on board on one side of the ship, while her German crew were taken off on the other side. Upon boarding, men started re-painting the funnels in White Star colours, and painting out the name "Hamburg, "Bismarck,”" replacing it with "Liverpool, "Majestic"." "Majestic" departed Hamburg on 9 April 1922 and arrived at Southampton at 9 am the next day (10 April). As a curiosity, exactly ten years earlier, the left Southampton at the same day, three hours later on her maiden voyage.


title: RMS Majestic (1914)

text: Upon arrival in Southampton, the "Majestic" became the flagship of the White Star Line fleet. She was placed on the North Atlantic run from Southampton to New York in tandem with and . She sailed on her maiden voyage from Southampton on Wednesday, 11 May 1922 at 11:30 am under the command of Sir Bertram Hayes. She reached New York in 5 days, 14 hours and 45 minutes at an average speed of . When she docked in New York no pier was long enough to take her, and of her stern projected into the Hudson River. On the eastern leg of her maiden voyage, "Majestic" managed to travel from New York (Ambrose Channel Lightship) to Eddystone Light, a distance of in 5 days, 9 hours and 42 minutes at an average speed of .


title: RMS Majestic (1914)

text: On 4 August 1922, "Majestic" arrived at Southampton and her crew were told that the next day they would be departing and anchoring off Cowes, where they would be inspected by the British monarchs George V and Queen Mary. Over night the ship was cleaned, and the next day she arrived at Cowes at 9.00. Not long after arriving a "yeoman of Signals" from the Royal Yacht arrived with the Royal Standard. The launch carrying the King and Queen arrived shortly after 11:00 am and the Royal Standard was broken on the main mast as the visitors came aboard. The guests were received by Harold A Sanderson – the Chairman of the International Merchant Marine, owners of the White Star Line and "Majestic"s captain; Bertram Hayes. They were given an inspection of the ship lasting an hour and a half, viewing the major public rooms and the three classes of accommodation before sitting down to lunch on B-Deck. The visit to a merchant ship by a reigning monarch was considered a great honour at the time; George V had been a naval officer until placed in the direct line of succession by the death of his brother, and took an interest in the merchant marine.


title: RMS Majestic (1914)

text: During the 1920s, the Majestic proved to be extremely popular. After her May 1922 maiden voyage "Majestic" became one of the most booked liners afloat, carrying more passengers in 1923 than any other Atlantic liner. She carried more passengers than her sister ships in 1924, 1926, 1928 and 1930, and earned the affectionate nickname 'Magic Stick' from her crews and passengers.


title: RMS Majestic (1914)

text: This promising career was nevertheless disturbed by various incidents, in particular a collision with the "Berengaria" at the end of 1922, without serious consequences. However, the biggest problem experienced by the "Majestic" came in December 1924, when, due to a structural defect in her topsides, "Majestic" suffered a crack and had to undergo permanent repairs and strengthening along B-deck before returning to service in April 1925. Small cracks were also noted on her sister "Leviathan" around the same time, but only minor repairs were carried out and she developed a similar 100-foot crack five years later. The end of the 1920s saw the Majestic undergo several refits, notably in 1928, in order to adapt the ship to the exhaustion of migratory currents on the North Atlantic. As on other ships of the time, the solution took the form of a tourist class that replaced the second class.


title: RMS Majestic (1914)

text: In 1925, "Majestic" completed an eastbound crossing at 25 knots, which was the fastest she ever managed, and faster than either of her sisters' best efforts. However, her older sister "Leviathan" often had a slightly higher average speed each year than her sister.


title: RMS Majestic (1914)

text: When the Great Depression of 1929 struck, the White Star Line was already weakened by the mismanagement of Lord Kylsant, its president for several years. Despite the success of the "Majestic" and the "Olympic", the company adapted to new circumstances. The two ships then alternated between their transatlantic service and short cruises. The "Majestic" sometimes left New York for three to four day recreational cruises to Halifax, Nova Scotia. In these times of Prohibition in the United States, the "Majestic" also sometimes went on "cruises to nowhere" in order to allow its American passengers to drink alcohol during very short voyages out of territorial waters.


title: RMS Majestic (1914)

text: At the beginning of the 1930s, and while passengers became increasingly scarce, the "Majestic" began to suffer from repeated onboard fires, due to poor quality of her electrical installation. This type of incident was also frequent on the "Berengaria" with often devastating effects, but the damage remained limited on board the "Majestic". However, her structural problems continued to manifest themselves in the form of small cracks noted in the area of the ship already affected since 1924. The situation of the company worsened at the same time, although the "Majestic" found itself briefly in the limelight in 1932, when it transported the British delegation to the Olympic Games in Los Angeles.


title: RMS Majestic (1914)

text: "Berengaria" and "Majestic" remained jointly owned by Cunard/White Star until 1932, when Cunard terminated the joint ownership agreement. As the situation of the British shipping companies worsened, the British government managed to put pressure on White Star Line and Cunard Line in order to merge them, which happened in 1934. The Majestic was among the ships that avoided being sent to the scrapyard that year. She initially continued her service. In 1934 an enormous wave smashed over the bridge of "Majestic" in the North Atlantic, injuring the first officer and White Star's final commodore Edgar J. Trant, who was hospitalised for five weeks and never sailed again.


title: RMS Majestic (1914)

text: It was during this time that the question of the conservation of the "Majestic" arose. The Cunard-White Star had a surplus of liners, and a new flagship was due to arrive in 1936, the . Cuts were made to try to limit spending. The Majestic's à-la-carte restaurant was closed down and its kitchen equipment immediately sold; however, this was not enough to reduce the running costs, and the company decided to dispose of one of the two giants initially built for HAPAG. The "Berengaria" being older, and suffering more problems due to its electrical installation, it seemed logical that it should be sold for scrapping first. However, it turned out that operating the "Majestic" cost significantly more, and the need for further hull repairs remained a likely possibility. It was therefore decided that "Majestic" be withdrawn from service, after her final crossing on 13 February 1936, following only fourteen years in service.


title: RMS Majestic (1914)

text: After being laid up at Southampton, she was sold on 15 May 1936 for £115,000 to Thos. W. Ward for scrap. Her funnels and masts were shortened to allow her to pass under the Forth Bridge, in preparation for her last voyage. However, due to a stipulation in her original agreement of being a prize of war handed over to the White Star Line as compensation for lost tonnage, she could not be sold to Thos W. Ward, so an exchange was set up where the British Admiralty would take possession of the "Majestic" and give the shipbreakers 24 outmoded destroyers as compensation for the equivalent scrap value of "Majestic". In August 1936 the ship was converted into a Boys' and Artificers' training ship and renamed HMS "Caledonia". This transformation involved major changes to the liner's facilities: the lounges were transformed into gymnasiums and messes. Once their partitions have been removed, the luxury cabins became classrooms; the cadets would sleep in hammocks. The radio room was enlarged in order to train large numbers of future operators, and anti-aircraft guns were also installed for training. Only the Pompeian-style swimming pool remained unchanged. This conversion cost the Royal Navy £472,000. The ship was then the largest in the British navy and could accommodate 2,500 people.


title: RMS Majestic (1914)

text: On 8 April 1937, "Caledonia" departed Southampton for her new base in Rosyth, and was commissioned on 23 April 1937 with a capacity of 1,500 trainees. The conversion of the liner allowed for 100 Officers, 180 Chief Petty officers and petty officers, 300 ship's company, 1500 Seamen Boys and 500 Artificer Apprentices to be accommodated on board. By the end of 1937 there were 800 Seamen Boys and 230 Apprentices on the ship's books. At the peak of her training career during 1938–1939, her books were full.


title: RMS Majestic (1914)

text: After the outbreak of World War II, the trainees were removed to accommodation ashore and the ship's berth was emptied for naval use. "Caledonia" was temporarily anchored in the Firth of Forth pending a decision as to her disposal. On 29 September 1939, "Caledonia" caught fire and burnt out, sinking at her moorings. Her wreck was determined to be beyond repair and the British Admiralty sold the wreck in March 1940 to Thos W. Ward for scrap. However, she was not immediately taken to the scrapyard, and between 1940 to 1943 the wreck's superstructure was scrapped in order to lighten her as well as to seal her openings. It was not until 17 July 1943 that the hull was raised and towed to the scrapyard in Inverkeithing. The hull was completely scrapped by 1944. The bell was later placed in St Nicholas Church, Dereham.


title: RMS Majestic (1914)

text: The "Majestic" was the largest ship of her time, measuring 291.3 meters long by 30.5 meters at its widest point, and was assessed at 56,551 gross register tons. The liner had two masts and three funnels. The first two were used to evacuate the smoke produced by the boilers, while the third funnel was used to ventilate engine rooms. Contrary to the usual practice, and according to what has been tested on the "Vaterland", the smoke was not evacuated by large ducts passing through the heart of the ship, but by thinner ducts passing inside its sides. This allowed much larger space for passengers inside the ship.


title: RMS Majestic (1914)

text: The "Majestic" was propelled by a set of quadruple propellers driven by four direct drive Parsons turbines. The port centre propeller shaft was driven by a high-pressure turbine, which exhausted to an intermediate pressure turbine that drove the starboard centre shaft. These two turbines were located in the forward watertight compartment. Exhaust from the intermediate turbine was divided equally and fed into two low-pressure turbines on the outer shafts located in a separate compartment aft. The steam turbines generated approximately when running at 180 rpm. Each one of the low-pressure turbines weighed 375 tons. Steam was supplied to the turbines at 260 psi by 48 Yarrow & Normand water-tube boilers located in four watertight compartments. The boilers had a heating surface of and there was a total of 240 oil burners fitted to them. "Bismarck" was originally designed to burn coal but was converted to oil while being completed at Blohm & Voss. The ship could reach a maximum speed of 25 knots, among the fastest of its time but still slower than the "Mauretania".


title: RMS Majestic (1914)

text: "Majestic"’s main problem was her electrical installation. The cables of German origin installed on the liner and her sister ships suffered from electrical fires, an issue which also plagued the career of the "Berengaria" (ex-"Imperator"), whose facilities were several times partially ravaged by fire, eventually leading to her withdrawal from service. As far as the "Majestic" was concerned, incidents remained limited during its commercial career; however, it was this wiring which triggered the fire onboard the liner after her transformation into a military training ship in September 1939. The Vaterland was the only sister ship to escape these incidents; her entire electrical installation was modified when the Americans took ownership of her and renamed her "Leviathan".


title: RMS Majestic (1914)

text: Similar to her two sister ships, the then-named "Bismarck" was originally designed to offer four classes to its more than 4,000 passengers traveling in conditions ranging from the luxurious Imperial Suite with veranda to the steerage dormitories. In the early 1920s, however, the United States began to tighten its conditions of access to migrants. The accommodation capacity of the "Majestic" when it entered service in 1922 was modified to carry 700 passengers in first class, 545 in second, and 850 in third. Its accommodation was revised in 1926 to accommodate a tourist class, which completely replaced the second class in 1931.


title: RMS Majestic (1914)

text: The interior of the ship was designed by Charles Mewès prior to the start of World War I, but he died in 1914 and never saw the completed ship. Despite this, his plans were suitable for the White Star Line, which did not adapt them until shortly before the ship was put into service. This design was distinguished in particular by its dining room spread over two decks, then the largest ever built on a ship, as well as by its large living room decorated with oak panels, which gave it an aspect similar to the lounge on board , but in much larger dimensions. Another striking installation on the ship was its swimming pool decorated in a Pompeian style, which contrasted with the sober basin installed on the Olympic-class ships. The liner also offered other meeting places for passengers, in particular a veranda café and an à-la-carte restaurant for passengers who wanted meals different from those offered in the main dining room. While the first class cabins and facilities were located in the center of the ship, the second class offered cabins with two to four berths, located aft of the first class. Finally, the third-class facilities extended over three decks, right at the stern.


title: Lazarus and Joannes Baptista Colloredo

text: Lazarus Colloredo and Joannes Baptista Colloredo (1617 – after 1646) were Italian conjoined twins who toured freak shows in 17th-century Europe. They were born in Genoa, Italy.


title: Lazarus and Joannes Baptista Colloredo

text: The upper body and left leg of Joannes Baptista (named after John the Baptist) stuck out of his mobile brother, Lazarus. He did not speak, kept his eyes closed and mouth open all the time, and was a parasitic twin. According to a later account by Copenhagen anatomist Thomas Bartholinus, if someone pushed the breast of Joannes Baptista, he moved his hands, ears, and lips.


title: Lazarus and Joannes Baptista Colloredo

text: To make a living, Lazarus toured around Europe and visited at least Basel, Switzerland, and Copenhagen, Denmark, before he arrived in Scotland in 1642 and later visited the court of Charles I of England.


title: Lazarus and Joannes Baptista Colloredo

text: Contemporary accounts described Lazarus as courteous and handsome, but for his brother who just dangled before him. When Lazarus was not exhibiting himself, he covered his brother with his cloak to avoid unnecessary attention.


title: Lazarus and Joannes Baptista Colloredo

text: Later accounts claim that Lazarus married and sired several children, none with his condition. His engraved portrait depicts him in a costume of a courtier of the period of the House of Stuart.


title: Lazarus and Joannes Baptista Colloredo

text: As reported by Henri Sauval, Lazarus was sentenced to death for killing a man, but averted the execution by pointing out that this would also kill his innocent twin brother.


title: Caprice Bourret

text: Caprice Bourret (born October 24, 1971) is an American businesswoman, singer, model, actress, and television personality. She lives in London where she runs her company, By Caprice.


title: Caprice Bourret

text: Bourret attended the co-ed Catholic Bishop Amat Memorial High School in La Puente, California, and graduated class of 1989.


title: Caprice Bourret

text: Bourret has appeared on more than 250 magazine covers including "Vogue", "GQ", "Cosmopolitan", "Esquire", "Maxim", "FHM", Playboy, and the "Swimsuit Issue" of "Sports Illustrated". She was named the world's sexiest woman by the "News of the World", "GQ"s Woman of the Year, and "Maxim"s International Woman of the Year in three consecutive years. She has been featured in television ad campaigns for Diet Coke and Pizza Hut.


title: Caprice Bourret

text: In 2000, Bourret entered into a licensing agreement with one of the UK's leading department stores, Debenhams, for the use of her name on a lingerie range. Six years later, she bought back the licence and subsequently founded "By Caprice Products", selling internationally to retailers and department stores. She designs, models, and markets lingerie, swimwear, and sleepwear.


title: Caprice Bourret

text: In 2010, Bourret launched "Bedding By Caprice". Bourret has given speeches at business events about the development of her own business, and on topics of general business interest.


title: Caprice Bourret

text: Caprice starred in the films "Hollywood Flies", "Nailing Vienna" and "Jinxed In Love", all produced for HBO. She also appeared in the British soap operas "Hollyoaks" and "Dream Team" and the comedy series "Hospital". In 1998, Bourret hosted another British television series, "Caprice's Travels". The show followed Bourret's tour through several major holiday destinations. Bourret has appeared on "Friday Night's All Wright" and several award shows, including the European MTV awards and the World Music Awards, the British National Television Awards in 1996, 1997, and 1998, and several series for the television channels VH1 and E! Entertainment Television. In 2000, she featured in the Channel 4 documentary "Being Caprice", in which a hidden camera recorded her life for ten days. Also that year, she hosted an evening at The Oscars and the red carpet event for the American Music Awards both of which were broadcast live on ABC Network.


title: Caprice Bourret

text: Bourret was set to take part in the second season of "Celebrity Big Brother UK", but pulled out. She later appeared on the third season of "Celebrity Big Brother". She continued to make appearances on its companion series "Big Brother's Little Brother" until 2010.


title: Caprice Bourret

text: Bourret was a cast member on the fifth season of the VH1 reality series "The Surreal Life" and appeared in other reality shows including "Celebrities Under Pressure", "Celebrities Disfigured", "Three Celebrities and a Baby", and "Road Raja". In June 2006, she starred in the British independent film "Perfect Woman". This followed an earlier appearance in the film "The Man with Rain in His Shoes" alongside Penélope Cruz. In 2007, Bourret was a judge on Sky One's "Project Catwalk" and "Britain's Next Top Model". Three years later she was head judge on TV3's show "Style Wars" in Ireland. On November 13, 2008, she came joint second with Jimmy Osmond in a "Celebrity Come Dine with Me" episode that also featured Nicky Clarke and Nancy Sorrell. In 2017, Bourret competed in series 4 of Channel 4's "The Jump".


title: Caprice Bourret

text: In September 2019, Bourret competed in the second season of the 5Star reality series "Celebs on the Farm", in which she finished as a runner-up. In January 2020, Bourret competed in the twelfth season of "Dancing on Ice" with professional partner Hamish Gaman. Oscar Peter later replaced Gaman as Bourret's partner before they withdrew from the competition a week later.


title: Caprice Bourret

text: Bourret played Maureen in the musical "Rent" at The Prince of Wales Theatre. She also performed in "The Vagina Monologues" at the Arts Theatre in London's West End.


title: Caprice Bourret

text: In 2007, Bourret produced and played the lead role of Lisa, in the off-Broadway production "" at the Tesson Theatre in Johannesburg.


title: Caprice Bourret

text: In 1999, Bourret was signed to Virgin Records and subsequently released her first single, "Oh Yeah" (UK No. 24), and the 2001 follow-up single, "Once Around the Sun" (also UK No. 24).


title: Vicarious embarrassment

text: Vicarious embarrassment (also known as secondhand, empathetic, or third-party embarrassment and also as Spanish shame or Fremdschämen in German) is the feeling of embarrassment from observing the embarrassing actions of another person. Unlike general embarrassment, vicarious embarrassment is not caused by participating in an embarrassing event, but instead by witnessing (verbally and/or visually) another person experience an embarrassing event. These emotions can be perceived as pro-social, and some say they can be seen as motives for following socially and culturally acceptable behavior.


title: Vicarious embarrassment

text: Vicarious embarrassment (German: "Fremdscham") is often seen as an opposite to "schadenfreude", which is the feeling of pleasure or satisfaction at misfortune, humiliation or embarrassment of another person.


title: Vicarious embarrassment

text: Vicarious embarrassment is different from an emotional contagion, which is when a person unconsciously mimics the emotions that others are experiencing. An emotional contagion is experienced by both people, making it a shared emotion. Vicarious embarrassment often occurs even when the individual experiencing the embarrassing event might not be aware of the implications. For an act to be considered an emotional contagion, more than one person must be affected by the emotion, but in vicarious emotions, it is only necessary that the observer experience the emotion. Furthermore, vicarious embarrassment can be experienced even when the observer is completely isolated.


title: Vicarious embarrassment

text: Vicarious embarrassment, like other vicarious emotions, presents symptoms that reflect the original emotion. However, unlike shared emotions, the experience of embarrassment for the observer is dependent on how they normally experience embarrassment. Individuals who experience social anxiety in their own life may experience the familiar symptoms of blushing, excess sweating, trembling, palpitations, and nausea. Other, less severe symptoms may include cringing, looking away, or general discomfort.


title: Vicarious embarrassment

text: Vicarious embarrassment, also known as empathetic embarrassment, is intrinsically linked to empathy. Empathy is the ability to understand the feelings of another and is considered a highly reinforcing emotion to promote selflessness, prosocial behavior, and group emotion, whereas a lack of empathy is related to antisocial behavior. During an embarrassing situation, the observer empathizes with the victim of embarrassment, assuming the feeling of embarrassment. People who have more empathy are more likely to be susceptible to vicarious embarrassment. The capacity to recognize emotions is probably innate, as it may be achieved unconsciously. Yet it can be trained and achieved with various degrees of intensity or accuracy.


title: Vicarious embarrassment

text: Psychological projection is a theory in psychology and psychoanalysis in which humans defend themselves against undesirable emotions by denying their existence in themselves while attributing them to others. Projection is considered a normal and common process in everyday life. Vicarious embarrassment and other vicarious emotions, however, work in the reverse, a process called self-projection. The undesirable emotion is experienced in another person, and the observer projects what they interpret as the appropriate response onto themselves. For example, someone who lies easily might feel vicariously embarrassed if they self-project the experience of someone getting caught in a bad lie.


title: Vicarious embarrassment

text: Embarrassing situations often arise in social situations, as the result of failing to meet a social expectation, and is used to help learn what has been deemed culturally appropriate. While embarrassment isolates the victim based on a cultural bias, vicarious embarrassment is used to promote prosocial behavior between the victim and the observer.


title: Vicarious embarrassment

text: Embarrassing situations have been used for a long time in situational comedy, sketch comedy, dramatic irony, and practical jokes. Traditionally, laugh tracks were used to help cue the audience to laugh at appropriate times. But as laugh tracks were removed from sitcoms, embarrassing situations on television were now accompanied by silence, creating a genre known as cringe comedy, which includes many critically acclaimed sitcom television shows, such as the British television series "The Office".


The United Nations Conference on the Human Environment was held in Stockholm, Sweden, from June 5–16 in 1972.


title: United Nations Conference on the Human Environment

text: When the United Nations General Assembly decided to convene the 1972 Stockholm Conference, taking up the offer of the Government of Sweden to host it, UN Secretary-General U Thant invited Maurice Strong to lead it as Secretary-General of the Conference, as the Canadian diplomat (under Pierre Trudeau) had initiated and already worked for over two years on the project.


text: Sweden first suggested to the United Nations Economic and Social Council ECOSOC in 1968 the idea of having a UN conference to focus on human interactions with the environment. ECOSOC passed resolution 1346 supporting the idea. General Assembly Resolution 2398 in 1969 decided to convene a conference in 1972 and mandated a set of reports from the UN secretary-general suggesting that the conference focus on "stimulating and providing guidelines for action by national government and international organizations" facing environmental issues. Preparations for the conference were extensive, lasting four years, including 114 governments, and costing over $30,000,000.


text: The Soviet Union and other Warsaw Pact nations boycotted the conference due to the lack of inclusion of East Germany, which was not allowed to participate. Neither East or West Germany were members of the UN at that time, as they had not yet accepted each other as states (which they agreed upon later by signing the Basic Treaty in December 1972).


text: The conference was not welcomed by countries like Britain, the US, Italy, Belgium, the Netherlands and France, which formed the so-called "Brussels Group" and attempted to stifle the impact of the conference.


text: At the conference itself, divisions between developed and developing countries began to emerge. The Chinese delegation proved hostile to the United States at the conference, issuing a 17-point memorandum condemning United States policies in Indochina, as well as around the world. This stance emboldened other developing countries, which made up 70 of the 122 countries attending. Multiple countries including Pakistan, Peru, and Chile issued statements that were anti-colonial in nature, further worrying the United States delegation. So harsh was the criticism that Rogers Morton, at that time secretary of the interior, remarked "I wish the Russians were here", to divert the attention of the Chinese criticisms. China being a new member of the United Nations did not take part in the preparational talks. To include their views they reopened at the conference the declaration, which was negotiated at the preparational talks, introducing text to counter language of the declaration regarding population as a threat to the environment and cause of its degradation.


text: In 1972, environmental governance was not seen as an international priority, particularly for the Global South. Developing nations supported its creation of the UNEP, not because they supported environmental governance, but because of its headquarters' location in Nairobi, Kenya, as the UNEP would be the first UN agency to be based in a developing country.


text: The meeting agreed upon a Declaration containing 26 principles concerning the environment and development, an Action Plan with 109 recommendations, and a Resolution.


text: One of the seminal issues that emerged from the conference is the recognition for poverty alleviation for protecting the environment. The Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi in her seminal speech in the conference brought forward the connection between ecological management and poverty alleviation.


text: The Stockholm Conference motivated countries around the world to monitor environmental conditions as well as to create environmental ministries and agencies. Despite these institutional accomplishments, including the establishment of UNEP, the failure to implement most of its action programme has prompted the UN to have follow-up conferences. The succeeding United Nations Conference on Environment and Development convened in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 (the Rio Earth Summit), the 2002 World Summit on Sustainable Development in Johannesburg and the 2012 United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development (Rio+20) all take their starting point in the declaration of the Stockholm Conference.


text: Some argue that this conference, and more importantly the scientific conferences preceding it, had a real impact on the environmental policies of the European Community (that later became the European Union). For example, in 1973, the EU created the Environmental and Consumer Protection Directorate, and composed the first Environmental Action Program. Such increased interest and research collaboration arguably paved the way for further understanding of global warming, which has led to such agreements as the Kyoto Protocol and the Paris Agreement, and has given a foundation of modern environmentalism.


text: In 2022 a report called "Stockholm+50: Unlocking a Better Future" was published by a team of scientists, analyzing the changes made from the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment in 1972 and giving recommendations for the future. The key messages are; "Redefine the relationship between humans and nature, achieve lasting prosperity for all, and invest in a better future.". In addition, youth researchers issued a youth version of the report, called: "Charting a Youth Vision for a Just and Sustainable Future" also making some recommendations. The key messages are: "Health well being and communal solidarity, living in harmony with nature, international solidarity-living as one global family, a world when all humans are equal."


title: Viewtiful Joe

text: The first game in the series was directed by Hideki Kamiya, who had previously directed "Resident Evil 2" and "Devil May Cry". It was the second title to be released under the Capcom Five, developed by a team of developers within Capcom Production Studio 4 known as Team Viewtiful. The game was released for the GameCube on June 26, 2003, in Japan, and in October 2003 in North America and Europe. "Viewtiful Joe" centers around the avid movie-goer Joe, who is thrust into Movie Land, transforms into the superhero "Viewtiful Joe" and sets out to rescue his girlfriend Silvia. The gameplay features traditional 2D platform side-scrolling intermixed with 3D cel-shaded graphics. A PlayStation 2 version was developed in 2004 by Clover Studio featuring Dante from the "Devil May Cry" series as a playable character.


title: Viewtiful Joe

text: The second game in the series was directed by Masaaki Yamada, with Hideki Kamiya writing the story. The game was released for both the GameCube and PlayStation 2 in 2004 in North America and Japan, and in 2005 in Europe and Australia. The game would be the first title to be fully developed by Clover Studio, a new studio within Capcom that was founded in 2004. "Viewtiful Joe 2" features both Viewtiful Joe and Sexy Silvia as playable characters with similar gameplay elements to the first game.


title: Viewtiful Joe

text: Hideki Kamiya has expressed wanting to return to the series since leaving Capcom. In 2017, in an interview with "Dengeki PlayStation", he addressed his former employer that he would want to work on a remake of the first "Viewtiful Joe". During PAX East 2020, Kamiya told attendees to "email Capcom" to get sequels to dormant franchises, including "Viewtiful Joe". He later said he would like to finish the series with a third entry, as well as seeing a Nintendo Switch version of the first game.


title: Viewtiful Joe

text: An anime TV series based on the video game series, simply titled "Viewtiful Joe", was produced by Group TAC and aired from 2004 to 2005. A manga series was published concurrently in "V Jump" magazine.


title: Viewtiful Joe

text: Viewtiful Joe appears as a playable character in the Wii version of the 2008 fighting game "". He also appears as a playable character in the 2011 fighting game "" and "Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3".


title: Viewtiful Joe

text: In Japan, the GameCube version of "Viewtiful Joe" sold through its initial shipment of less than 100,000 copies during the week of its release. Preorders of the GameCube version sold out on Capcom's North American website prior to its ship date, and "Viewtiful Joe" debuted as the tenth best-selling game in the region. The PlayStation 2 version sold a poor 9,912 units in its first week of release in Japan. Worldwide, sales of the game reached 275,000 copies on the GameCube and 46,000 on the PlayStation 2. Sales of the game in both North America and Europe were lower than what Capcom had predicted, but due to its small budget, the game was considered by Inaba to be relatively successful commercially.


title: Fluorescence spectroscopy

text: Fluorescence spectroscopy (also known as fluorimetry or spectrofluorometry) is a type of electromagnetic spectroscopy that analyzes fluorescence from a sample. It involves using a beam of light, usually ultraviolet light, that excites the electrons in molecules of certain compounds and causes them to emit light; typically, but not necessarily, visible light. A complementary technique is absorption spectroscopy. In the special case of single molecule fluorescence spectroscopy, intensity fluctuations from the emitted light are measured from either single fluorophores, or pairs of fluorophores.


title: Fluorescence spectroscopy

text: Molecules have various states referred to as energy levels. Fluorescence spectroscopy is primarily concerned with electronic and vibrational states. Generally, the species being examined has a ground electronic state (a low energy state) of interest, and an excited electronic state of higher energy. Within each of these electronic states there are various vibrational states.


title: Fluorescence spectroscopy

text: In fluorescence, the species is first excited, by absorbing a photon, from its ground electronic state to one of the various vibrational states in the excited electronic state. Collisions with other molecules cause the excited molecule to lose vibrational energy until it reaches the lowest vibrational state from the excited electronic state. This process is often visualized with a Jablonski diagram.


title: Fluorescence spectroscopy

text: The molecule then drops down to one of the various vibrational levels of the ground electronic state again, emitting a photon in the process. As molecules may drop down into any of several vibrational levels in the ground state, the emitted photons will have different energies, and thus frequencies. Therefore, by analysing the different frequencies of light emitted in fluorescent spectroscopy, along with their relative intensities, the structure of the different vibrational levels can be determined.


title: Fluorescence spectroscopy

text: For atomic species, the process is similar; however, since atomic species do not have vibrational energy levels, the emitted photons are often at the same wavelength as the incident radiation. This process of re-emitting the absorbed photon is "resonance fluorescence" and while it is characteristic of atomic fluorescence, is seen in molecular fluorescence as well.


title: Fluorescence spectroscopy

text: In a typical fluorescence (emission) measurement, the excitation wavelength is fixed and the detection wavelength varies, while in a fluorescence excitation measurement the detection wavelength is fixed and the excitation wavelength is varied across a region of interest. An emission map is measured by recording the emission spectra resulting from a range of excitation wavelengths and combining them all together. This is a three dimensional surface data set: emission intensity as a function of excitation and emission wavelengths, and is typically depicted as a contour map.


title: Fluorescence spectroscopy

text: Two general types of instruments exist: filter fluorometers that use filters to isolate the incident light and fluorescent light and spectrofluorometers that use diffraction grating monochromators to isolate the incident light and fluorescent light.


title: Fluorescence spectroscopy

text: Both types use the following scheme: the light from an excitation source passes through a filter or monochromator, and strikes the sample. A proportion of the incident light is absorbed by the sample, and some of the molecules in the sample fluoresce. The fluorescent light is emitted in all directions. Some of this fluorescent light passes through a second filter or monochromator and reaches a detector, which is usually placed at 90° to the incident light beam to minimize the risk of transmitted or reflected incident light reaching the detector.


title: Fluorescence spectroscopy

text: Various light sources may be used as excitation sources, including lasers, LED, and lamps; xenon arcs and mercury-vapor lamps in particular. A laser only emits light of high irradiance at a very narrow wavelength interval, typically under 0.01 nm, which makes an excitation monochromator or filter unnecessary. The disadvantage of this method is that the wavelength of a laser cannot be changed by much. A mercury vapor lamp is a line lamp, meaning it emits light near peak wavelengths. By contrast, a xenon arc has a continuous emission spectrum with nearly constant intensity in the range from 300-800 nm and a sufficient irradiance for measurements down to just above 200 nm.


title: Fluorescence spectroscopy

text: Filters and/or monochromators may be used in fluorimeters. A monochromator transmits light of an adjustable wavelength with an adjustable tolerance. The most common type of monochromator utilizes a diffraction grating, that is, collimated light illuminates a grating and exits with a different angle depending on the wavelength. The monochromator can then be adjusted to select which wavelengths to transmit. For allowing anisotropy measurements, the addition of two polarization filters is necessary: One after the excitation monochromator or filter, and one before the emission monochromator or filter.


title: Fluorescence spectroscopy

text: As mentioned before, the fluorescence is most often measured at a 90° angle relative to the excitation light. This geometry is used instead of placing the sensor at the line of the excitation light at a 180° angle in order to avoid interference of the transmitted excitation light. No monochromator is perfect and it will transmit some stray light, that is, light with other wavelengths than the targeted. An ideal monochromator would only transmit light in the specified range and have a high wavelength-independent transmission. When measuring at a 90° angle, only the light scattered by the sample causes stray light. This results in a better signal-to-noise ratio, and lowers the detection limit by approximately a factor 10000, when compared to the 180° geometry. Furthermore, the fluorescence can also be measured from the front, which is often done for turbid or opaque samples


title: Fluorescence spectroscopy

text: The detector can either be single-channeled or multichanneled. The single-channeled detector can only detect the intensity of one wavelength at a time, while the multichanneled one detects the intensity of all wavelengths simultaneously, making the emission monochromator or filter unnecessary.


title: Fluorescence spectroscopy

text: The most versatile fluorimeters with dual monochromators and a continuous excitation light source can record both an excitation spectrum and a fluorescence spectrum. When measuring fluorescence spectra, the wavelength of the excitation light is kept constant, preferably at a wavelength of high absorption, and the emission monochromator scans the spectrum. For measuring excitation spectra, the wavelength passing through the emission filter or monochromator is kept constant and the excitation monochromator is scanning. The excitation spectrum generally is identical to the absorption spectrum as the fluorescence intensity is proportional to the absorption.


title: Fluorescence spectroscopy

text: At low concentrations the fluorescence intensity will generally be proportional to the concentration of the fluorophore.


title: Fluorescence spectroscopy

text: Unlike in UV/visible spectroscopy, ‘standard’, device independent spectra are not easily attained. Several factors influence and distort the spectra, and corrections are necessary to attain ‘true’, i.e. machine-independent, spectra. The different types of distortions will here be classified as being either instrument- or sample-related. Firstly, the distortion arising from the instrument is discussed. As a start, the light source intensity and wavelength characteristics varies over time during each experiment and between each experiment. Furthermore, no lamp has a constant intensity at all wavelengths. To correct this, a beam splitter can be applied after the excitation monochromator or filter to direct a portion of the light to a reference detector.


title: Fluorescence spectroscopy

text: Additionally, the transmission efficiency of monochromators and filters must be taken into account. These may also change over time. The transmission efficiency of the monochromator also varies depending on wavelength. This is the reason that an optional reference detector should be placed after the excitation monochromator or filter. The percentage of the fluorescence picked up by the detector is also dependent upon the system. Furthermore, the detector quantum efficiency, that is, the percentage of photons detected, varies between different detectors, with wavelength and with time, as the detector inevitably deteriorates.


title: Fluorescence spectroscopy

text: Two other topics that must be considered include the optics used to direct the radiation and the means of holding or containing the sample material (called a cuvette or cell). For most UV, visible, and NIR measurements the use of precision quartz cuvettes is necessary. In both cases, it is important to select materials that have relatively little absorption in the wavelength range of interest. Quartz is ideal because it transmits from 200 nm-2500 nm; higher grade quartz can even transmit up to 3500 nm, whereas the absorption properties of other materials can mask the fluorescence from the sample.


title: Fluorescence spectroscopy

text: Correction of all these instrumental factors for getting a ‘standard’ spectrum is a tedious process, which is only applied in practice when it is strictly necessary. This is the case when measuring the quantum yield or when finding the wavelength with the highest emission intensity for instance.


title: Fluorescence spectroscopy

text: As mentioned earlier, distortions arise from the sample as well. Therefore, some aspects of the sample must be taken into account too. Firstly, photodecomposition may decrease the intensity of fluorescence over time. Scattering of light must also be taken into account. The most significant types of scattering in this context are Rayleigh and Raman scattering. Light scattered by Rayleigh scattering has the same wavelength as the incident light, whereas in Raman scattering the scattered light changes wavelength usually to longer wavelengths. Raman scattering is the result of a virtual electronic state induced by the excitation light. From this virtual state, the molecules may relax back to a vibrational level other than the vibrational ground state. In fluorescence spectra, it is always seen at a constant wavenumber difference relative to the excitation wavenumber e.g. the peak appears at a wavenumber 3600 cm lower than the excitation light in water.


title: Fluorescence spectroscopy

text: Other aspects to consider are the inner filter effects. These include reabsorption. Reabsorption happens because another molecule or part of a macromolecule absorbs at the wavelengths at which the fluorophore emits radiation. If this is the case, some or all of the photons emitted by the fluorophore may be absorbed again. Another inner filter effect occurs because of high concentrations of absorbing molecules, including the fluorophore. The result is that the intensity of the excitation light is not constant throughout the solution. Resultingly, only a small percentage of the excitation light reaches the fluorophores that are visible for the detection system. The inner filter effects change the spectrum and intensity of the emitted light and they must therefore be considered when analysing the emission spectrum of fluorescent light.


title: Fluorescence spectroscopy

text: The fluorescence of a folded protein is a mixture of the fluorescence from individual aromatic residues. Most of the intrinsic fluorescence emissions of a folded protein are due to excitation of tryptophan residues, with some emissions due to tyrosine and phenylalanine; but disulfide bonds also have appreciable absorption in this wavelength range. Typically, tryptophan has a wavelength of maximum absorption of 280 nm and an emission peak that is solvatochromic, ranging from ca. 300 to 350 nm depending in the polarity of the local environment Hence, protein fluorescence may be used as a diagnostic of the conformational state of a protein. Furthermore, tryptophan fluorescence is strongly influenced by the proximity of other residues ("i.e.", nearby "protonated" groups such as Asp or Glu can cause quenching of Trp fluorescence). Also, energy transfer between tryptophan and the other fluorescent amino acids is possible, which would affect the analysis, especially in cases where the Förster acidic approach is taken. In addition, tryptophan is a relatively rare amino acid; many proteins contain only one or a few tryptophan residues. Therefore, tryptophan fluorescence can be a very sensitive measurement of the conformational state of individual tryptophan residues. The advantage compared to extrinsic probes is that the protein itself is not changed. The use of intrinsic fluorescence for the study of protein conformation is in practice limited to cases with few (or perhaps only one) tryptophan residues, since each experiences a different local environment, which gives rise to different emission spectra.


title: Fluorescence spectroscopy

text: Tryptophan is an important intrinsic fluorescent (amino acid), which can be used to estimate the nature of microenvironment of the tryptophan. When performing experiments with denaturants, surfactants or other amphiphilic molecules, the microenvironment of the tryptophan might change. For example, if a protein containing a single tryptophan in its 'hydrophobic' core is denatured with increasing temperature, a red-shifted emission spectrum will appear. This is due to the exposure of the tryptophan to an aqueous environment as opposed to a hydrophobic protein interior. In contrast, the addition of a surfactant to a protein which contains a tryptophan which is exposed to the aqueous solvent will cause a blue-shifted emission spectrum if the tryptophan is embedded in the surfactant vesicle or micelle. Proteins that lack tryptophan may be coupled to a fluorophore.


title: Fluorescence spectroscopy

text: With fluorescence excitation at 295 nm, the tryptophan emission spectrum is dominant over the weaker tyrosine and phenylalanine fluorescence.


title: Fluorescence spectroscopy

text: Fluorescence spectroscopy is used in, among others, biochemical, medical, and chemical research fields for analyzing organic compounds. There has also been a report of its use in differentiating malignant skin tumors from benign.


title: Fluorescence spectroscopy

text: Atomic Fluorescence Spectroscopy (AFS) techniques are useful in other kinds of analysis/measurement of a compound present in air or water, or other media, such as CVAFS which is used for heavy metals detection, such as mercury.


title: Fluorescence spectroscopy

text: Additionally, Fluorescence spectroscopy can be adapted to the microscopic level using microfluorimetry


title: Fluorescence spectroscopy

text: In the field of water research, fluorescence spectroscopy can be used to monitor water quality by detecting organic pollutants. Recent advances in computer science and machine learning have even enabled detection of bacterial contamination of water


title: That Don't Impress Me Much

text: "That Don't Impress Me Much" is a song co-written and recorded by Canadian singer Shania Twain. It was released in December 1998 as the sixth country single, and seventh single overall, from her third studio album, "Come On Over" (1997). It was third to pop and fourth to international markets. The song was written by Robert John "Mutt" Lange and Twain, and was originally released to North American country radio stations in late 1998. It became her third biggest single on the "Billboard" Hot 100 and remains one of Twain's biggest hits worldwide. "That Don't Impress Me Much" has appeared in all of Twain's tours (Come On Over, Up!, Rock This Country and Now). The country version was performed on the Come on Over Tour and the dance version on the Up! Tour. "That Don't Impress Me Much" was named Foreign Hit of the Year at the 2000 Danish Grammy Awards. A dance-pop remix of the song was used as the official song of the 2003 CONCACAF Gold Cup.


title: That Don't Impress Me Much

text: Twain wrote the song on or near Christmas Day. In 2017, during a listening party for her fifth studio album "Now", Twain revealed the reason behind using Brad Pitt's name instead of other suitable male celebrities saying that after she heard about the scandal between Pitt and Gwyneth Paltrow and the subsequent leaking of Pitt's naked photo in "Playgirl" magazine, she was left unimpressed by all the fuss as she found it was normal to see naked people.


title: That Don't Impress Me Much

text: The song describes three self-absorbed suitors with whom Twain, as the title implies, is not impressed: a know-it-all ("Okay, so you're a rocket scientist"), a man obsessed with his looks ("Okay, so you're Brad Pitt"), and another obsessed with his car ("Okay, so you've got a car"). Twain states that brains, looks, and the car "won't keep [her] warm in the middle of the night" and seeks a man with "the touch" that can do so.


title: That Don't Impress Me Much

text: After the single's 1998 country release, "Billboard" magazine wrote that "it doesn't sound remotely country" and criticized the simplistic lyrics, but praised the melody's "quirky appeal, Twain's delivery," and Robert John "Mutt" Lange's "skillful production." After the single's 1999 pop release, in a separate review, the magazine said that the single "could possibly solidify Twain's status as the decade's crossover queen," though they criticized Lange's use of "dated-sounding instrumental elements to 'pop' it up."


title: That Don't Impress Me Much

text: The music video for "That Don't Impress Me Much" was shot in the Mojave Desert at El Mirage Dry Lake and Barstow, California. It was directed by Paul Boyd and shot on November 3 and 4, 1998; it was released on December 2, 1998, on CMT. It depicts Twain hitchhiking in the middle of the desert, in a hooded leopard skin outfit (though in some scenes the hooded outfit is open, showing a matching bra) and matching stiletto-heeled boots, and being approached by several men offering her a ride out of the desert. These include a man in a 1957 Chevy Bel Air, on a motorcycle, in an army jeep, a tanker truck, and on a Friesian horse. One of the men was played by male model John Devoe, previously appeared in her "You're Still the One" video. The video won the Video of the Year award at the Canadian Country Music Awards and the MuchMoreMusic Award at the 1999 MuchMusic Video Awards. Two versions of the video were made, one with the 'Original Album Version', released to country channels, and the 'Dance Mix Edit' released to pop stations. The 'Original Album Version' of the video is available on Twain's compilations "Come On Over: Video Collection" (1999) and "The Platinum Collection" (2001). It ranked number 77 on VH1's "100 Greatest Videos in Rock and Roll" in 2001 and number 45 on CMT's "100 Greatest Videos in Country Music" in 2004, making it the only video to make both lists. It was also named country music's sexiest video in 2006 by CMT Canada. Twain wore a similar leopard skin outfit in a 2020 video for her Orville Peck duet "Legends Never Die".


title: That Don't Impress Me Much

text: "That Don't Impress Me Much" debuted at number 60 on the "Billboard" Hot Country Singles & Tracks chart the week of December 12, 1998, the highest debut of the week. The single spent 20 weeks on the chart and climbed to a peak position of number eight on February 27, 1999, where it remained for one week. The single became Twain's tenth Top 10 (sixth consecutive), and her 12th Top 20 single on the country charts. "That Don't Impress Me Much" also topped the Country Singles Sales chart for five weeks.


title: That Don't Impress Me Much

text: At adult contemporary radio, "That Don't Impress Me Much" debuted at number 22 the week of April 17, 1999, the week's highest debut, as well as Twain's highest debut of all time on the AC chart. The single spent 26 weeks on the chart and quickly climbed to a peak position of number eight on June 5, 1999, where it remained for one week. "That Don't Impress Me Much" became Twain's third consecutive Top 10 single on that chart.


title: That Don't Impress Me Much

text: "That Don't Impress Me Much" was also Twain's third-most successful single on the "Billboard" Hot 100, after "You're Still the One" and "From This Moment On", which peaked at number two and number four, respectively. The song debuted at number 80 on January 23, 1999. It spent 28 weeks on the chart and peaked at number seven for two weeks starting June 12, 1999; it reached number five in airplay and number 11 in sales. It became Twain's third and last top 10 hit.


title: That Don't Impress Me Much

text: Internationally, "That Don't Impress Me Much" became Twain's biggest single in the United Kingdom. It debuted, at its peak, on May 22, 1999, at number three, where it remained for three weeks, and remained in the Top 10 for another seven weeks. It remained on the entire chart for 21 weeks. "That Don't Impress Me Much" became Twain's third (second consecutive) Top 10 in the United Kingdom and the best selling non-number one single of the year in the country. Elsewhere, the song hit number one in Belgium, Ireland, Norway and New Zealand, where it debuted at number one and was later certified gold.


title: That Don't Impress Me Much

text: In all, "That Don't Impress Me Much" hit the Top 10 in 16 different countries: Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, Finland, Germany, Hungary, Ireland, Latvia, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Scotland, Sweden, Switzerland, the United Kingdom, and the United States. In Australia, the song debuted at number five, reaching number two during its third week in, and stayed there for seven weeks as Britney Spears' single "...Baby One More Time" was keeping its top position. The single stayed on the Top 100 for 23 weeks and was Australia's the eighth-highest-selling single of 1999.


title: Battle of Alcácer Quibir

text: The Battle of Alcácer Quibir (also known as "Battle of Three Kings" () or "Battle of Wadi al-Makhazin" () in Morocco) was fought in northern Morocco, near the town of Ksar-el-Kebir (variant spellings: "Ksar El Kebir", "Alcácer-Quivir", "Alcazarquivir", "Alcassar", etc.) and Larache, on 4 August 1578.


title: Battle of Alcácer Quibir

text: A Moroccan victory, the battle has been described as "the greatest military disaster the Portuguese ever suffered in the course of their overseas expansion." It marked an end to Portuguese attempts to reconquer territories it had lost in Morocco.


title: Battle of Alcácer Quibir

text: The combatants were the army of the deposed Moroccan Sultan Abu Abdallah Mohammed II, with his ally, the King of Portugal Sebastian I, against a large Moroccan army under the new Sultan of Morocco (and uncle of Abu Abdallah Mohammed II) Abd Al-Malik I.


title: Battle of Alcácer Quibir

text: The Christian king, Sebastian I, had planned a crusade after Abu Abdallah asked him to help recover his throne. Abu Abdallah's uncle, Abd Al-Malik, had taken it from him with Ottoman support. The defeat of Portugal and disappearance of the childless Sebastian led to the end of the Aviz dynasty, and the integration of the country in the Iberian Union for 60 years under the Philippine Dynasty in a dynastic union with Spain.


title: Battle of Alcácer Quibir

text: Sebastian, who would later be known in Portugal as "the Desired", was the son of the Infante Dom John (son of John III of Portugal) and Joanna, daughter of the Emperor Charles V. His father died before he was born, and he became king at the age of three after the death of his grandfather in 1557. He was educated almost entirely by Jesuits, by his guardian and tutor Aleixo de Meneses and by Catherine of Austria, sister of Charles V and wife of King John III. Some, judging him after his defeat, alleged that under these influences his youthful idealism soon mutated into religious fanaticism, although he never joined the Holy League.


title: Battle of Alcácer Quibir

text: The Portuguese Cortes asked Sebastian several times to go to Morocco and stop the turmoil of the advancing Turkish military presence, because the Ottomans would be a threat to the security of the Portuguese coasts and to the commerce with Guinea, Brazil, and the Atlantic Islands, like the Azores and Madeira. But it was only when Abu Abdallah Mohammed II al-Mutawakkil went to Portugal and asked for Sebastian's help in recovering his throne from his uncle that Sebastian decided to mount a military effort. Sebastian felt driven to revive lost glories by intervening in North Africa, influenced by the events such as the defense of Mazagan in 1562 from a Moroccan siege. Accordingly, in 1568, the kingdom began to prepare for intervention in Morocco.


title: Battle of Alcácer Quibir

text: This policy was not only supported by the mercantile bourgeoisie as it would benefit commerce in this area (primarily, gold, cattle, wheat, and sugar), but also by the nobility. Up to that time Portuguese military action in Africa had been confined to small expeditions and raids; Portugal had built its vast maritime empire from Brazil to the East Indies by a combination of trade, sea exploration, and technological superiority, with Christian conversion of subject peoples being one, but by no means the only, end in view. Sebastian proposed to change this strategy entirely.


title: Battle of Alcácer Quibir

text: In 1574 Sebastian visited some of the Portuguese bases in North Africa and led a successful raid on Muslim territory beyond the then Portuguese city of Tangier, engaging in several skirmishes and in a confrontation of greater magnitude on 21 October. Although in numerical inferiority but with a heavy contingent of cavalry, he was successful, which encouraged him to grander designs against the new Saadian ruler of Morocco. He gave his support to Al-Mutawakkil, who was engaged in a civil war to recover the throne of Morocco from his uncle, the Emir Abd Al-Malik - who was aided by the Ottomans. Despite the admonitions of his mother and his uncle Philip II of Spain (who had become very cautious after the Battle of Djerba), Sebastian was determined to wage a military campaign, and he used much of Portugal's imperial wealth to equip a large fleet and gather an army which included soldiers of several nationalities: 2,000 volunteers from Spain (Castile), 3,000 mercenaries from Flanders and Germany, and 600 Italians initially recruited to aid in an invasion of Ireland under the leadership of the English adventurer, Thomas Stukley. It is said that the expeditionary force numbered 500 ships, and the army in total numbered about 18,000 men, including the flower of the Portuguese nobility.


title: Battle of Alcácer Quibir

text: Morocco, meanwhile, was under the rule of the Saadi (or Saadian) dynasty, a Moroccan Sharifian dynasty. Their rise to power began as a resistance to the Portuguese presence in Agadir and by the 1550s they controlled most of present-day Morocco and had supplanted the earlier Wattasid dynasty. Upon the death of Sultan Abdallah al-Ghalib in 1574 his son Muhammad II al-Mutawakkil inherited the throne, but two years later he was overthrown by his uncle Abd al-Malik. Abd al-Malik had travelled to Istanbul in 1574 and secured Ottoman support from the Sultan there himself. The beylerbey of Algiers provided him with troops and with these Abd al-Malik was able to depose his nephew after winning a decisive victory near Fez. Once on the throne, as an Ottoman vassal he had the Friday prayers and the "khutba" in mosques delivered in the Ottoman sultan's name (Murad III), adopted Ottoman clothing, and organized his army along Ottoman lines with the help of Turkish officers. After this, the Saadi army, whose bulk was recruited from "guich" troops ("military tribes" mobilized to serve as regular levies), combined mounted arquebusiers, infantry armed with rifles, large numbers of light cavalry, and a detachment of artillery; most of which were newly-trained in Ottoman tactics. In addition to his local "guich" troops and Berber contingents, many of the soldiers were recruited from Andalusis previously expelled from the Iberian Peninsula (or descended from those refugees), Berber tribes from the east such as the Zwawa, and from the Turks and ex-Ottoman soldiers in the region.


title: Battle of Alcácer Quibir

text: Indications of the presence of an Ottoman force accompanying the Moroccans to the battlefield vary between sources. Historian Stephen Cory, in reviewing relations between the Saadians and Ottomans in this period, states that the battle was won by the Saadians "without direct Ottoman assistance." Abderrahmane El Moudden, in a large study of Ottoman-Saadian diplomacy in this period, notes that some modern Turkish sources attribute the 1578 victory to Ottoman forces led by Ramazan Pasha on the field – though he also notes that some of these sources are liable to exaggerate Turkish military history.


title: Battle of Alcácer Quibir

text: In an encyclopedic entry about King Sebastian, historian Allen Fromherz indicates the presence of Ottoman forces at the battle, including Janissaries. Historian R. G. Grant states that Abd al-Malik's army was "partly supplied by the Ottoman Turks" and that it combined "Moroccan cavalry with Ottoman musket-armed infantry and cannon". Professor of Islamic Studies, Jamil M. Abun-Nasr, states that the Turks "could not take over the affairs of Morocco after [the Battle of Alcácer's] victory to which they contributed much". He also mentions that Abd al-Malik's army included Turkish troops, that its officers were Turks and so was the commander of his army, who is alleged to have had Abd al-Malik poisoned in order to secure total Ottoman control over Morocco.


title: Battle of Alcácer Quibir

text: After haranguing his troops from the windows of the Church of Santa Maria in Lagos, Sebastian departed that port in his armada on 24 June 1578.


title: Battle of Alcácer Quibir

text: He landed at Arzila, in Portuguese Morocco, where Abu Abdallah joined him with an additional 6,000 Moorish allied troops, and marched into the interior.


title: Battle of Alcácer Quibir

text: Abd al-Malik I, who was gravely ill, had meanwhile collected a large army, rallying his countrymen to jihad against the Portuguese invaders. The two armies approached each other near Ksar-el-Kebir, camping on opposite sides of the Loukkos River.


title: Battle of Alcácer Quibir

text: On 4 August 1578, the Portuguese and Moorish allied troops were drawn up in battle array, and Sebastian rode around encouraging the ranks. But the Moroccans advanced on a broad front, planning to encircle his army.


title: Battle of Alcácer Quibir

text: The Sultan had 10,000 cavalry on the wings, and in the center had placed Moors who had been driven out of Spain and thus bore a special grudge against Christians. Despite his illness, the Sultan left his litter and led his forces on horseback.


title: Battle of Alcácer Quibir

text: The battle started as both sides exchanged several volleys of gunfire from musketry and artillery. Stukley, commanding the Portuguese center, was killed by a cannonball early in the battle. The Moroccan cavalry advanced and began to encircle the Portuguese army. Both armies soon became fully engaged in a melee.


title: Battle of Alcácer Quibir

text: The flanks of the Portuguese army began to give way to the Moorish cavalry, and eventually the center became threatened as well. Seeing the flanks compromised, and having lost its commander early in battle, the Portuguese center lost heart and was overcome.


title: Battle of Alcácer Quibir

text: The battle ended after nearly four hours of heavy fighting and resulted in the total defeat of the Portuguese and Abu Abdallah's army with 8,000 dead, including the slaughter of almost the whole of the Portugal's nobility. 15,000 were captured and sold into slavery, and around 100 survivors escaped to the coast. The body of King Sebastian, who led a charge into the midst of the enemy and was then cut off, was never found.


title: Battle of Alcácer Quibir

text: The Sultan Abd Al-Malik died during the battle from natural causes (the effort of riding was too much for him), but the news was concealed from his troops until total victory had been secured. Abu Abdallah attempted to flee but was drowned in the river. Because of the deaths during the fighting of Sebastian, Abu Abdallah, and Abd Al-Malik, the battle became known in Morocco as the Battle of the Three Kings.


title: Battle of Alcácer Quibir

text: Abd Al-Malik was succeeded as Sultan by his brother Ahmad al-Mansur, also known as Ahmed Addahbi, who conquered Timbuktu, Gao, and Jenne after defeating the Songhai Empire. The Moroccan army which invaded Songhai in 1590–91 was made up mostly of European captives, including a number of Portuguese taken prisoner at the battle of Alcácer Quibir.


title: Battle of Alcácer Quibir

text: For Portugal, the battle was an unmitigated disaster. Sebastian died on the battlefield along with most of the Portuguese nobility. The captive nobles were ransomed, nearly bankrupting Portugal. Despite the lack of a body, Sebastian was presumed dead, at the age of 24. In his piety, he had remained unmarried and had sired no heir. His aged, childless uncle Henry of Portugal, a cardinal of the Roman church, succeeded to the throne as closest legitimate relative. His brief reign (1578–1580) was devoted to attempting to raise the crippling financial reparations demanded by the disastrous Morocco venture. After his death, legitimate claimants to the throne of the House of Aviz, which had ruled Portugal for 200 years, were defeated by a Castilian military invasion. Philip II of Spain, a maternal grandson of Manuel I of Portugal, and nearest male claimant (being an uncle of Sebastian I), invaded with an army of 40,000 men, defeating the troops of Anthony, Prior of Crato at the Battle of Alcântara and was crowned Philip I of Portugal by the Cortes of Tomar in 1581.


title: Battle of Alcácer Quibir

text: Later, at the beginning of his reign, Philip II ordered that the mutilated remains said to be Sebastian's (and so recognized after the battle by some of his close companions), and still in North Africa, be returned to Portugal, where they were buried at the Jerónimos Monastery, in Lisbon. Portugal and its Empire were not "de jure" incorporated into the Spanish Empire, and remained as a separate realm of the Spanish Habsburgs until 1640 when it broke away through the Portuguese Restoration War.


title: Battle of Alcácer Quibir

text: Partly in reaction to the national trauma of this disastrous defeat, a cult of 'Sebastianism' which portrayed the lost monarch in terms similar to King Arthur arose. The legend of Portugal's "Once and Future King" who would some day return to save his nation has ebbed and flowed in Portuguese life ever since.


title: Teru teru bōzu

text: A is a small traditional handmade that originated from the Edo period in Japan, made from white paper or cloth, Japanese farmers began hanging outside of their window by a string. This talisman is supposed to have magical powers to bring good weather and to stop or prevent a rainy day. "Teru" is a Japanese verb which describes sunshine, and a "bōzu" is a Buddhist monk (compare the word bonze), or in modern slang, "bald-headed"; "bōzu" is also used as a term of endearment for addressing little boys.


title: Teru teru bōzu

text: "Teru teru bōzu" became popular during the Edo period among urban dwellers, whose children would make them the day before the good weather was desired and chant, "Fine-weather priest, please let the weather be good tomorrow."


title: Teru teru bōzu

text: Traditionally, if the weather does turn out well, a libation of holy sake is poured over them, and they are washed away in the river. Today, children make "teru teru bōzu" out of tissue paper or cotton and string and hang them from a window when they wish for sunny weather, often before a school picnic day. Hanging it upside-down acts as a prayer for rain. They are a very common superstition in Japan.


title: Teru teru bōzu

text: There is a famous "warabe uta" associated with "teru teru bōzu", written by Kyoson Asahara and composed by Shinpei Nakayama, that was released in 1921.


title: Teru teru bōzu

text: "Tradition" is well practiced and known in Japan, but many "Japanese" have doubts about the origin of the doll. "Teru teru bōzo" seems to have originated from the similarity between "origami" dolls and names described in the literature in the middle of the "Edo period". A reference to teru teru bōzo is written in Kiyu Shoran(嬉遊笑覧) by Nobusetsu Kitamura, a scholar of "Japanese classical literature" in 1830. It is written, "If the weather becomes fine, I write my pupils on the paper, offer "sake" to the gods, and pour it into the river."


title: Teru teru bōzu

text: The "tradition" of weather-watchers and a rich "folk culture" of hiyorimi can be traced with certainty to the "Heian period" (749 – 1185) continuing through the Edo period (1603 to 1867). Teru teru bōzu weather-watching practice tradition originated and was adapted from a Chinese practice during the "Heian period". The practice involved putting the teru teru bōzo on the end of a broom to sweep good spirits your way, and rather than bōzu being a monk, but a young girl with a broom. As the story unfolds, a girl was sacrificed to save the city during a heavy rainfall by ascending symbolically to the "heavens" and sweeping rain clouds from the sky. Since then, the people have commemorated her by making paper cutouts of herself and hanging them outdoors in the hopes of good weather.


title: Ma Baker

text: "Ma Baker" is a song by disco group Boney M., released as a single in 1977. It was the first single off their second album "Love for Sale" and their third consecutive chart-topper in Germany.


title: Ma Baker

text: The song was a huge success in Europe and Latin America, topping the charts in many countries there. It was a number 2 hit in the UK (only surpassed by Donna Summer's "I Feel Love"). In the U.S, the song only reached number 96.


title: Ma Baker

text: Frank Farian's assistant Hans-Jörg Mayer discovered a popular Tunisian folkloric song, "Sidi Mansour" while on holiday, and rewrote the song into a disco track. The lyrics by Fred Jay were inspired by the story of legendary 1930s US outlaw Ma Barker, although the name was changed into "Ma Baker" because "it sounded better".


title: Ma Baker

text: With a structure similar to Boney M.'s breakthrough single "Daddy Cool", using the same gimmick percussion, alternating answer-back vocals, and a spoken mid-part, the song opened with a snarling "Freeze, I'm Ma Baker, put your hands in the air and gimme all your money". Although it has never been officially credited, the voice was that of Linda Blake, the wife of Frank Farian's American friend Bill Swisher, who was a soldier in Germany at the time. Bill Swisher performed the spoken mid-part, announcing a bulletin from the FBI. He was used on several later Boney M. recordings, including "Rasputin" and "El Lute".


title: Ma Baker

text: Farian re-recorded the song with Milli Vanilli in 1988, and reused both spoken voiceovers from the original song in the cover. Boney M.'s version was remixed the same year, 1993 and again in 1998. The song has been covered a number of times, including Banda R-15 and Knorkator. The "ma ma ma ma" chorus vocals were also sampled in Lady Gaga's "Poker Face".


title: Ma Baker

text: Following the remix of "Brown Girl in the Ring", Farian remixed "Ma Baker" in 1993. While a modest club hit, it failed to enter the European charts. "Borsalino" and "The Most Wanted Woman" are two dub mixes of the track. The new remix was included in the compilation album "More Gold - 20 Super Hits Vol. II".


title: Ma Baker

text: In 1998, a new remix of "Ma Baker" by Sash! started to chart as a 12" single. Just as the CD-single was about to follow, it was withdrawn, and a new version appeared, re-titled "Somebody Scream! Ma Baker" featuring Horny United. The single was a Top 30 hit in Germany, Netherlands, Belgium, Switzerland, and even peaked at no. 6 (two weeks) in Finland and no. 10 in Sweden. When released in the UK in April, it peaked at no. 22. The accompanying video featured a young woman, kickboxing, training with a gun, the only relation to the original group being her watching the original 1977 video of "Ma Baker" on a TV set.


title: Jacobi method

text: In numerical linear algebra, the Jacobi method is an iterative algorithm for determining the solutions of a strictly diagonally dominant system of linear equations. Each diagonal element is solved for, and an approximate value is plugged in. The process is then iterated until it converges. This algorithm is a stripped-down version of the Jacobi transformation method of matrix diagonalization. The method is named after Carl Gustav Jacob Jacobi.


title: Jacobi method

text: Then "A" can be decomposed into a diagonal component "D", a lower triangular part "L" and an upper triangular part "U":


title: Jacobi method

text: where formula_5 is the "k"th approximation or iteration of formula_6 and formula_7 is the next or "k" + 1 iteration of formula_6. The element-based formula is thus:


title: Jacobi method

text: The computation of formula_10 requires each element in x except itself. Unlike the Gauss–Seidel method, we can't overwrite formula_11 with formula_10, as that value will be needed by the rest of the computation. The minimum amount of storage is two vectors of size "n".


title: Jacobi method

text: The standard convergence condition (for any iterative method) is when the spectral radius of the iteration matrix is less than 1:


title: Jacobi method

text: A sufficient (but not necessary) condition for the method to converge is that the matrix "A" is strictly or irreducibly diagonally dominant. Strict row diagonal dominance means that for each row, the absolute value of the diagonal term is greater than the sum of absolute values of other terms:


title: Jacobi method

text: We use the equation formula_19, described above, to estimate formula_20. First, we rewrite the equation in a more convenient form formula_21, where formula_22 and formula_23. From the known values


title: Jacobi method

text: This process is repeated until convergence (i.e., until formula_35 is small). The solution after 25 iterations is


title: Jacobi method

text: Using the approximations obtained, the iterative procedure is repeated until the desired accuracy has been reached. The following are the approximated solutions after five iterations.


title: Jacobi method

text: In case that the system matrix formula_44 is of symmetric positive-definite type one can show convergence.


title: BMW M12

text: The BMW M12/13 turbo was a 1499.8 cc 4-cylinder turbocharged Formula One engine, based on the standard BMW M10 engine introduced in 1961, powered the F1 cars of Brabham, Arrows and Benetton. Nelson Piquet won the FIA Formula One Drivers' Championship in 1983 driving a Brabham powered by the BMW M12/13 turbo. It was the first Drivers' Championship to be won using a turbocharged engine. The engine also powered the BMW GTP and in the 2.0-litre naturally-aspirated form, the successful March Engineering Formula Two cars. BMW engineers figured the engine produced around 1,400 hp at maximum boost, however the BMW engine dynamometer could not go beyond 1,280 bhp.


title: BMW M12

text: As BMW M12/7, the engine design since the 1960s became one of the most successful engines in racing. Starting with the European Touring Car Championship, it was also used in Formula 2, expanded to two-litre and fitted with four-valve heads, producing over . In the Deutsche Rennsport Meisterschaft, a 1400 cc variant (with a 1.4 handicap factor equal to 2000cc) was turbocharged by Paul Rosche according to FIA Group 5 rules. At well over from the beginning, it rendered the normally aspirated engines in the two-litre category useless. After some development, power, driveability, and reliability improved, especially in the IMSA car, and BMW began to think about entering F1, where a handicap factor of 2.0 required 1500 cc engines.


title: BMW M12

text: During the season, the Brabham team, then owned by future F1 boss Bernie Ecclestone, used both the older Cosworth DFV V8 engine as well as the turbocharged BMW M12 in selected races in a development program. The BMW proved to be fast in its first year in Formula One, though its reliability with turbocharging still in its infancy was lacking. Reigning World Champion Nelson Piquet recorded the first win for the engine in F1 when he led home Brabham teammate Riccardo Patrese (in the Cosworth-powered car) at the 1982 Canadian Grand Prix.


title: BMW M12

text: In , Brazilian driver Piquet won his second Formula One World Championship driving a Brabham BT52 powered exclusively by the M12, which by that year was producing approximately in qualifying trim and for the races. Piquet, who won the Brazilian, Italian and European Grands Prix that year, won the championship by just two points ahead of Renault's Alain Prost (Renault had pioneered turbocharging in F1 in , but would be destined never to win the World Championship in the original turbo era (1977-1988)). Piquet was the first driver to win a World Championship in a turbo-powered car.


title: BMW M12

text: The main advantage of the inline-4 M12 over its V6 Ferrari and Renault opposition was that, with one fewer turbo, two fewer cylinders, and eight fewer valves, the BMW engine had lower frictional losses and, therefore, produced less waste heat. This allowed Brahbam's lead designer Gordon Murray the luxury of designing the BT52 with smaller radiators, which meant better aerodynamic efficiency and thus better straight-line speed. The BT52 was notable for its very skinny, short sidepods especially compared to the Renault, giving it better penetration through the air on circuits with long straights.


title: BMW M12

text: For , the M12 was upgraded into the M12/13/1. (Bore 89.2 mm X Stroke 60 mm) 374.95 cc and 350 PS per cylinder 933.46 PS/litre This version was claimed to have produced a maximum output of @ 11,000 rpm, and about of torque in qualifying trim, which would make it the most powerful engine ever to race in Formula 1, turbocharged or otherwise. At the time, there was no way to accurately measure horsepower figures over 1,000, and so claimed output figures were generally accepted from the engineers' theoretical calculations; for example, 0.1 bar of turbo boost was rated to be worth approximately ). During the 1986 Italian Grand Prix at Monza, Gerhard Berger's BMW-powered Benetton B186 recorded the highest straight line speed by a turbocharged Formula One car when he was timed at . In fact, the top five cars through the speed trap at Monza (Berger and teammate Teo Fabi, Brabham's Derek Warwick and Riccardo Patrese, and the Arrows of Thierry Boutsen) were all powered by the BMW M12.


title: BMW M12

text: Brabham tilted the upgraded engine sideways by 72° for use in the extremely low BT55, but the concept proved unsuccessful, most likely due to cooling issues in the tight compartment. Instead, Benetton with the more conventional B186 were the leading BMW users in 1986, with Gerhard Berger scoring his and the team's first (and the BMW engine's last) win at the Mexican Grand Prix.


title: BMW M12

text: BMW announced their withdrawal from F1 at the end of 1986, but that they would continue to honour their contract and supply, Brabham, with their tilted M12s for 1987. Arrows team boss Jackie Oliver, with support from the team's primary sponsor USF&G, brokered a deal to continue the use of the upright BMW engines under the name of its subsidiary Megatron, Inc., founded by long-time F1 aficionado John J. Schmidt. The engines were serviced from Switzerland by Arrows' long time engine guru Heini Mader, a former mechanic of Jo Siffert.


title: BMW M12

text: Rebadged as Megatron, the BMW engines were used by the Arrows team for the and seasons, as well as Ligier in 1987. By 1988, Arrows were one of only six teams still running turbocharged engines, and the Megatrons were the oldest turbo engine still in use in Formula One, Ferrari having introduced a brand-new turbo engine the previous year.


title: BMW M12

text: The Megatron programme ended after 1988 as a result of rule changes that banned turbocharged engines from 1989 onwards, with Eddie Cheever scoring the old BMW engine's last podium finish with third place in the 1988 Italian Grand Prix at Monza. This race was also significant as it marked the first time Heini Mader had solved the problems caused by the FIA's boost limit valve, which limited turbo boost pressure to 4.0 bar in 1987 and 2.5 bar in 1988. By moving the valve closer to the engine, the problem of the turbo not delivering enough boost had been solved, and the Arrows A10B was among the fastest cars on the long Monza straights, faster even than the all-conquering McLaren-Hondas into which designer Steve Nichols had effectively incorporated elements of Gordon Murray's low-line Brabham design as well as featuring a more powerful V6 engine.


title: BMW M12

text: With turbos banned from the season, the Arrows team reverted to using , naturally aspirated Ford DFR V8 power plants.


title: BMW M12

text: The M12's major shortcoming as a Formula One engine was its lack of throttle response due to turbo lag. Unlike the V6 and V8 turbocharged engines which ran with twin turbos (one for each bank of cylinders), the inline-4 BMW engine, like the other 4 cylinder turbo engines used in F1 such as the Hart 415T and the Zakspeed 1500/4, only used a single turbocharger. The twin-turbo setups of the "V" engines eliminated much of the turbo lag. However, with only a single turbo, the BMW M12 suffered from approximately 2 seconds of turbo lag, meaning drivers often had to start accelerating through the apex of a corner. The power from the turbo was described by many (including Piquet and Berger) as coming on like a light switch which often induced sudden oversteer. Consequently, the BMW was usually seen at its most competitive at power circuits such as Kyalami, Imola, Paul Ricard, Silverstone, Hockenheim, the Österreichring and Monza. On tighter tracks such as street circuits like Monaco and Detroit which required greater acceleration and less top speed, the BMW-powered cars often lagged behind their major rivals.


title: Z3 (computer)

text: The Z3 was a German electromechanical computer designed by Konrad Zuse in 1938, and completed in 1941. It was the world's first working programmable, fully automatic digital computer. The Z3 was built with 2,600 relays, implementing a 22-bit word length that operated at a clock frequency of about 5–10 Hz. Program code was stored on punched film. Initial values were entered manually.


title: Z3 (computer)

text: The Z3 was completed in Berlin in 1941. It was not considered vital, so it was never put into everyday operation. Based on the work of the German aerodynamics engineer Hans Georg Küssner (known for the Küssner effect), a "Program to Compute a Complex Matrix" was written and used to solve wing flutter problems. Zuse asked the German government for funding to replace the relays with fully electronic switches, but funding was denied during World War II since such development was deemed "not war-important".


title: Z3 (computer)

text: The original Z3 was destroyed on 21 December 1943 during an Allied bombardment of Berlin. That Z3 was originally called V3 ("Versuchsmodell 3" or Experimental Model 3) but was renamed so that it would not be confused with Germany's V-weapons. A fully functioning replica was built in 1961 by Zuse's company, Zuse KG, which is now on permanent display at Deutsches Museum in Munich.


title: Z3 (computer)

text: The Z3 was demonstrated in 1998 to be, in principle, Turing-complete. However, because it lacked conditional branching, the Z3 only meets this definition by speculatively computing all possible outcomes of a calculation.


title: Z3 (computer)

text: Thanks to this machine and its predecessors, Konrad Zuse has often been suggested as the inventor of the computer.


title: Z3 (computer)

text: Zuse designed the Z1 in 1935 to 1936 and built it from 1936 to 1938. The Z1 was wholly mechanical and only worked for a few minutes at a time at most. Helmut Schreyer advised Zuse to use a different technology. As a doctoral student at the Berlin Institute of Technology in 1937 he worked on the implementation of Boolean operations and (in today's terminology) flip-flops on the basis of vacuum tubes. In 1938, Schreyer demonstrated a circuit on this basis to a small audience, and explained his vision of an electronic computing machine – but since the largest operational electronic devices contained far fewer tubes this was considered practically infeasible. In that year when presenting the plan for a computer with 2,000 electron tubes, Zuse and Schreyer, who was an assistant at Telecommunication Institute at the Technical University of Berlin, were discouraged by members of the institute who knew about the problems with electron tube technology. Zuse later recalled: "They smiled at us in 1939, when we wanted to build electronic machines ... We said: The electronic machine is great, but first the components have to be developed." In 1940, Zuse and Schreyer managed to arrange a meeting at the Oberkommando der Wehrmacht (OKW) to discuss a potential project for developing an electronic computer, but when they estimated a duration of two or three years, the proposal was rejected.


title: Z3 (computer)

text: Zuse decided to implement the next design based on relays. The realization of the Z2 was helped financially by Kurt Pannke, who manufactured small calculating machines. The Z2 was completed and presented to an audience of the ("German Laboratory for Aviation") in 1940 in Berlin-Adlershof. Zuse was lucky – this presentation was one of the few instances where the Z2 actually worked and could convince the DVL to partly finance the next design.


title: Z3 (computer)

text: Improving on the basic Z2 machine, he built the Z3 in 1941, which was a highly secret project of the German government. Joseph Jennissen (1905–1977), member of the "Research-Leadership" ("Forschungsführung") in the Reich Air Ministry acted as a government supervisor for orders of the ministry to Zuse's company "ZUSE Apparatebau". A further intermediary between Zuse and the Reich Air Ministry was the aerodynamicist Herbert A. Wagner.


title: Z3 (computer)

text: The Z3 was completed in 1941 and was faster and far more reliable than the Z1 and Z2. The Z3 floating-point arithmetic was improved over that of the Z1 in that it implemented exception handling "using just a few relays", the exceptional values (plus infinity, minus infinity and undefined) could be generated and passed through operations. It further added a square root instruction.


title: Z3 (computer)

text: The Z3, like its predecessors, stored its program on an external punched tape, thus no rewiring was necessary to change programs. However, it did not have conditional branching found in later universal computers.


title: Z3 (computer)

text: On 12 May 1941, the Z3 was presented to an audience of scientists including the professors Alfred Teichmann and Curt Schmieden of the ("German Laboratory for Aviation") in Berlin, today known as the German Aerospace Center in Cologne.


title: Z3 (computer)

text: Zuse moved on to the Z4 design, which he completed in a bunker in the Harz mountains, alongside Wernher von Braun's ballistic missile development. When World War II ended, Zuse retreated to Hinterstein in the Alps with the Z4, where he remained for several years.


title: Z3 (computer)

text: The Z3 operated as a stack machine with a stack of two registers, R1 and R2. The first load operation in a program would load the contents of a memory location into R1; the next load operation would load the contents of a memory location into R2. Arithmetic instructions would operate on the contents of R1 and R2, leaving the result in R1, and clearing R2; the next load operation would load into R2. A store operation would store the contents of R1 into a memory location, and clear R1; the next load operation would load the contents of a memory location into R1.


title: Z3 (computer)

text: A read keyboard operation would read a number from the keyboard into R1 and clear R2. A display instruction would display the contents of R1 and clear R2; the next load instruction would load into R2.


title: Z3 (computer)

text: It was possible to construct loops on the Z3, but there was no conditional branch instruction. Nevertheless, the Z3 was Turing-complete – how to implement a universal Turing machine on the Z3 was shown in 1998 by Raúl Rojas. He proposed that the tape program would have to be long enough to execute every possible path through both sides of every branch. It would compute all possible answers, but the unneeded results would be canceled out (a kind of speculative execution). Rojas concludes, "We can therefore say that, from an abstract theoretical perspective, the computing model of the Z3 is equivalent to the computing model of today's computers. From a practical perspective, and in the way the Z3 was really programmed, it was not equivalent to modern computers."


title: Z3 (computer)

text: This seeming limitation belies the fact that the Z3 provided a "practical" instruction set for the typical engineering applications of the 1940s. Mindful of the existing hardware restrictions, Zuse's main goal at the time was to have a workable device to facilitate his work as a civil engineer.


title: Z3 (computer)

text: The success of Zuse's Z3 is often attributed to its use of the simple binary system. This was invented roughly three centuries earlier by Gottfried Leibniz; Boole later used it to develop his Boolean algebra. Zuse was inspired by Hilbert's and Ackermann's book on elementary mathematical logic "Principles of Mathematical Logic". In 1937, Claude Shannon introduced the idea of mapping Boolean algebra onto electronic relays in a seminal work on digital circuit design. Zuse, however, did not know of Shannon's work and developed the groundwork independently for his first computer Z1, which he designed and built from 1935 to 1938.


title: Z3 (computer)

text: Zuse's coworker Helmut Schreyer built an electronic digital experimental model of a computer using 100 vacuum tubes in 1942, but it was lost at the end of the war.


title: Z3 (computer)

text: An analog computer was built by the rocket scientist Helmut Hölzer in 1942 at the Peenemünde Army Research Center to simulate V-2 rocket trajectories.


title: Z3 (computer)

text: The Tommy Flowers-built Colossus (1943) and the Atanasoff–Berry Computer (1942) used thermionic valves (vacuum tubes) and binary representation of numbers. Programming was by means of re-plugging patch panels and setting switches.


title: Z3 (computer)

text: The ENIAC computer, completed after the war, used vacuum tubes to implement switches and used decimal representation for numbers. Until 1948 programming was, as with Colossus, by patch leads and switches.


title: Z3 (computer)

text: The Manchester Baby of 1948 along with the Manchester Mark 1 and EDSAC both of 1949 were the world's earliest working computers that stored program instructions and data in the same space. In this they implemented the stored-program concept which is frequently (but erroneously) attributed to a 1945 paper by John von Neumann and colleagues. Von Neumann is said to have given due credit to Alan Turing, and the concept had actually been mentioned earlier by Konrad Zuse himself, in a 1936 patent application (that was rejected). Konrad Zuse himself remembered in his memoirs: "During the war it would have barely been possible to build efficient stored program devices anyway." and Friedrich L. Bauer wrote: "His visionary ideas (live programs) which were only to be published years afterwards aimed at the right practical direction but were never implemented by him."


title: Z3 (computer)

text: A modern reconstruction directed by Raúl Rojas and Horst Zuse started in 1997 and finished in 2003. It is now in the Konrad Zuse Museum in Hünfeld, Germany. Memory was halved to 32 words. Power consumption is about 400 W, and weight is about .


title: Z3 (computer)

text: In 2008, Horst Zuse started a reconstruction of the Z3 by himself. It was presented in 2010 in the Konrad Zuse Museum in Hünfeld.


title: Battle of Baltimore

text: The Battle of Baltimore (September 12–15, 1814) was a sea/land battle fought between British invaders and American defenders in the War of 1812. American forces repulsed sea and land invasions off the busy port city of Baltimore, Maryland, and killed the commander of the invading British forces. The British and Americans first met at the Battle of North Point. Though the Americans retreated, the battle was a successful delaying action that inflicted heavy casualties on the British, halted their advance, and consequently allowed the defenders at Baltimore to prepare for an attack properly.


title: Battle of Baltimore

text: The resistance of Baltimore's Fort McHenry during bombardment by the Royal Navy inspired Francis Scott Key to compose the poem "Defence of Fort McHenry," which later became the lyrics for "The Star-Spangled Banner," the national anthem of the United States.