title: Financial transaction

text: A cash transaction is any transaction where money is exchanged for a good, service, or other commodity. Cash transactions can refer to items bought with physical money, such as coins or cash, or with a debit card. These differ from credit transactions because the money is immediately taken from the buyer and given to the seller.


title: Financial transaction

text: Transactions that use credit involve a deferred payment for the goods or services rendered. When something is bought using credit, it gives the seller an asset (the payment at a later date) and gives the buyer a liability (the amount that must be paid at a later date). Credit cards are an example of when credit is used, where the card issuer (usually a bank) gives the customer a line of credit with which they can make purchases. The liabilities the customer accrues with the card are usually paid off at a set date, and any unpaid liabilities create interest for the issuer.


title: Financial transaction

text: Loans and mortgages are examples of credit. The lender agrees to give out a lump sum (the "principal") to the borrower, who pays back the loaned amount over a set period of time (called a "term"). The lender usually charges an additional percentage on top of the initial amount borrowed, called the "interest rate". Mortgages are similar to loans, but are usually for a larger amount of money and over a longer term, often for buying real estate. Mortgages are almost always secured by collateral, most commonly the real estate they are being used to purchase. If the borrower fails to make the necessary payments on the mortgage, the lender has the right to claim and sell the property in a process known as foreclosure.


title: Financial transaction

text: External transactions are any business transactions that involve more than one party. For example, a company buying inventory from a supplier would be considered external. All cash and credit transactions are external, since they affect the finances of more than one person or group. On the other hand, internal transactions only affect one business. Shifting goods between different departments in a business is an internal transaction, since it does not change the overall finances of the company.


title: Michael A. Hess

text: Michael Anthony Hess (born Anthony Lee; 5 July 1952 – 15 August 1995) was an Irish-born American lawyer, deputy chief legal counsel and later chief legal counsel to the Republican National Committee (RNC) in the late 1980s and early 1990s.


title: Michael A. Hess

text: He was born Anthony Lee to Philomena Lee in Ireland, and spent his first years of life in a convent before being adopted by Marge and Doc Hess of St. Louis, Missouri. The issues surrounding his adoption are controversial, as part of a program of forced adoptions practised by some Catholic religious orders in Ireland at the time, and the story of that early part of his life was later told in British journalist Martin Sixsmith's book "The Lost Child of Philomena Lee" and in the film "Philomena".


title: Michael A. Hess

text: Hess's birth mother became pregnant at age 18 at a local carnival by a man named John who worked for the post office. She was disowned by her father and sent to Sean Ross Abbey, a mother and baby home for unwed mothers, which was operated by the Sisters of the Sacred Hearts of Jesus and Mary in Roscrea, County Tipperary, Ireland.


title: Michael A. Hess

text: After she gave birth to Hess, she was able to be with her child until she was 22 and he was three while living in the abbey. As was common practice in Ireland at the time, the nuns sold him to the American couple, Ardo Michael “Doc” Hess and Marjorie “Marge” Lane. Lee did not know where her son was sent by the nuns after she left the Abbey after being pressured into signing the adoption papers.


title: Michael A. Hess

text: Hess grew up in the Midwest and was raised in a Catholic family. He graduated from the University of Notre Dame in 1974 and earned a J.D. degree at George Washington University.


title: Michael A. Hess

text: Hess made three visits to Ireland to try to find his mother but was unsuccessful in persuading the nuns to divulge any information. He requested that his ashes be buried at Roscrea in the hope that his mother would be able to find his grave. Hess never learned who his mother was.


title: Michael A. Hess

text: He died from complications of AIDS, although this was not mentioned at the memorial service held for him. Hess' partner for the last 15 years of his life was Steve Dahllof. Dahllof credited the book "The Lost Child of Philomena Lee" with "about a three out of 10, in terms of accuracy", while the movie "Philomena", "in accuracy of spirit, is 10 out of 10."


title: Michael A. Hess

text: Hess became deputy chief legal counsel to the Republican National Committee, eventually rising to chief legal counsel. He was an important figure in the redistricting battles of the late 1980s and early 1990s, and was admired for his integrity and pursuit of justice on the critical issue of gerrymandering.


title: Michael A. Hess

text: The programme of forced adoptions by some ecclesiastical authorities in Ireland and elsewhere during the 1950s has raised considerable debate, and the Michael Hess case has further highlighted this. Much of the paperwork relating to this programme was later destroyed and access to adoption archives has been cut off.


title: Michael A. Hess

text: A film portraying Hess' adoption and his mother's later search for him was released in 2013. "Philomena", directed by Stephen Frears and based on the book "The Lost Child of Philomena Lee", starred Judi Dench as his mother; Sean Mahon as Hess, and Steve Coogan as Martin Sixsmith, the journalist who helped Philomena Lee identify her son.


title: Michael A. Hess

text: Although Philomena never actually went to the USA - as she is shown to do in the film -, the 'disclaimer' at the end of the movie- "no similarity is to be inferred between characters depicted and real persons" - makes clear that 'dramatic licence' was employed to give the (true) story more impact for audiences.


title: Mr. Deeds Goes to Town

text: Mr. Deeds Goes to Town is a 1936 American comedy-drama romance film directed by Frank Capra and starring Gary Cooper and Jean Arthur in her first featured role. Based on the 1935 short story "Opera Hat" by Clarence Budington Kelland, which appeared in serial form in "The American Magazine", the screenplay was written by Robert Riskin in his fifth collaboration with Frank Capra.


title: Mr. Deeds Goes to Town

text: During the Great Depression, Longfellow Deeds, the co-owner of a tallow works, part-time greeting card poet, and tuba-playing inhabitant of the hamlet of Mandrake Falls, Vermont, inherits 20 million dollars from his late uncle, Martin Semple. Semple's scheming attorney, John Cedar, locates Deeds and takes him to New York City. Cedar gives his cynical troubleshooter, ex-newspaperman Cornelius Cobb, the task of keeping reporters away from Deeds. Cobb is outfoxed by star reporter Louise "Babe" Bennett, who appeals to Deeds' romantic fantasy of rescuing a damsel in distress by masquerading as a poor worker named Mary Dawson. She pretends to faint from exhaustion after "walking all day to find a job" and worms her way into his confidence. Bennett proceeds to write a series of enormously popular articles on Longfellow, portraying him as a yokel who has suddenly inherited riches, and giving him the nickname "Cinderella Man".


title: Mr. Deeds Goes to Town

text: Cedar tries to get Deeds' power of attorney in order to keep his own financial misdeeds secret. Deeds, however, proves to be a shrewd judge of character, easily fending off Cedar and other greedy opportunists. He wins Cobb's wholehearted respect and eventually Babe's love. She quits her job in shame, but before she can tell Deeds the truth about herself, Cobb finds it out and tells Deeds. Deeds is left heartbroken and decides to return to Mandrake Falls. After he has packed and is about to leave, a dispossessed farmer stomps into his mansion and threatens him with a gun. He expresses his scorn for the seemingly heartless, ultra-rich man, who will not lift a finger to help the multitudes of desperate poor. After the intruder comes to his senses, Deeds realizes what he can do with his troublesome fortune. He decides to provide fully equipped farms free to thousands of homeless families if they will work the land for three years.


title: Mr. Deeds Goes to Town

text: Cedar joins forces with Deeds' only other relative, Semple, and his domineering wife, in an attempt to have Deeds declared mentally incompetent. A sanity hearing is scheduled to determine who should control the fortune. During the hearing, Cedar calls an expert who diagnoses Deeds with manic depression based on Babe's articles and witnesses to his recent behavior. Though Deeds has pledged to defend himself, he refuses to speak. Babe speaks up passionately on his behalf, castigating herself for what she did to him. When he realizes that she truly loves him, he begins speaking, systematically punching holes in Cedar's case and then landing one in his face. The judge declares him to be not only sane, but "the sanest man who ever walked into this courtroom". Victorious, Deeds and Babe kiss.


title: Mr. Deeds Goes to Town

text: Originally, Frank Capra intended to make "Lost Horizon" after "Broadway Bill" (1934), but lead actor Ronald Colman could not get out of his other filming commitments. Thus, Capra began adapting "Mr. Deeds Goes to Town". As production began, the two lead actors were cast: Gary Cooper as Longfellow Deeds and Jean Arthur as Louise "Babe" Bennett/Mary Dawson. Cooper was Capra's "first, last and only choice" for the pivotal role of the eccentric Longfellow Deeds.


title: Mr. Deeds Goes to Town

text: Arthur was not the first choice for the role, but Carole Lombard, the original female lead, quit the film just three days before principal photography, in favor of a starring role in "My Man Godfrey". The first scenes shot on the Fox Studios' New England street lot were in place before Capra found his replacement heroine in a rush screening. The opening sequences had to be reshot when Capra decided against the broad comedy approach that had originally been written.


title: Mr. Deeds Goes to Town

text: Despite his penchant for coming in "under budget", Capra spent an additional five shooting days in multiple takes, testing angles and "new" perspectives, treating the production as a type of workshop exercise. Due to the increased shooting schedule, the film came in at $38,936 more than the Columbia budget for a total of $806,774. Throughout pre-production and early principal photography, the project still retained Kelland's original title, "Opera Hat", although Capra tried out some other titles including "A Gentleman Goes to Town" and "Cinderella Man" before settling on a name that was the winning entry in a contest held by the Columbia Pictures publicity department.


title: Mr. Deeds Goes to Town

text: The film was generally treated as likable fare by critics and audiences alike. Novelist Graham Greene, then also a film critic, was effusive that this was Capra's finest film to date, describing Capra's treatment as "a kinship with his audience, a sense of common life, a morality". "Variety" noted "a sometimes too thin structure [that] the players and director Frank Capra have contrived to convert ... into fairly sturdy substance".


title: Mr. Deeds Goes to Town

text: This was the first Capra film to be released separately to exhibitors and not "bundled" with other Columbia features. On paper, it was his biggest hit, easily surpassing "It Happened One Night."


title: Mr. Deeds Goes to Town

text: A radio adaptation of "Mr. Deeds Goes to Town" was originally broadcast on February 1, 1937 on "Lux Radio Theater". In that broadcast, Gary Cooper, Jean Arthur and Lionel Stander reprised their roles from the 1936 film.


title: Mr. Deeds Goes to Town

text: A planned sequel, titled "Mr. Deeds Goes to Washington", eventually became "Mr. Smith Goes to Washington" (1939). Although the latter's screenplay was actually based on an unpublished story, "The Gentleman from Montana", the film was, indeed, meant to be a sequel to "Mr. Deeds Goes to Town", with Gary Cooper reprising his role as Longfellow Deeds. Because Cooper was unavailable, Capra then "saw it immediately as a vehicle for Jimmy Stewart and Jean Arthur", and Stewart was borrowed from MGM.


title: Mr. Deeds Goes to Town

text: A short-lived ABC television series of the same name ran from 1969 to 1970, starring Monte Markham as Longfellow Deeds.


title: Mr. Deeds Goes to Town

text: "Mr. Deeds Goes to Town" was loosely remade as "Mr. Deeds" in 2002, starring Adam Sandler and Winona Ryder.


title: Mr. Deeds Goes to Town

text: The Bengali movie "Raja-Saja" (1960) starring Uttam Kumar, Sabitri Chatterjee, and Tarun Kumar, and directed by Bikash Roy was a Bengali adaptation of this film.


title: Mr. Deeds Goes to Town

text: A Japanese manga adaption of "Mr. Deeds Goes to Town" was made in 2010 by Ogata Hiromi called "Bara no Souzokunin".


title: Mr. Deeds Goes to Town

text: The 1949 Tamil movie "Nallathambi" starring N S Krishnan was an adaptation of this film aimed at promoting social justice and education.


title: Mr. Deeds Goes to Town

text: The bucolic Vermont town of Mandrake Falls, home of Longfellow Deeds, is now considered an archetype of small town America with Kelland creating a type of "cracker-barrel" view of rural values contrasted with that of sophisticated "city folk". The word "pixilated", previously limited to New England (and attested there since 1848), "had a nationwide vogue in 1936" thanks to its prominent use in the film, although its use in the screenplay may not be an accurate interpretation.


title: Mr. Deeds Goes to Town

text: The word "doodle", in its modern specific sense of drawing on paper rather than in its older more general sense of 'fooling around', may also owe its origin – or at least its entry into common usage – to the final courtroom scene in this film. The Longfellow Deeds character, addressing the judge, explains the concept of a "doodler" – which the judge has not heard before – as being "a word we made up back home to describe someone who makes foolish designs on paper while they're thinking."


title: Mr. Deeds Goes to Town

text: The lyrics to the 1977 Rush song "Cinderella Man" on the "A Farewell to Kings" album are based on the story of "Mr. Deeds Goes to Town".


title: History of rail transportation in the United States

text: Wooden railroads, called wagonways, were built in the United States starting from the 1720s. A railroad was reportedly used in the construction of the French fortress at Louisburg, Nova Scotia, in New France (now Canada) in 1720. Between 1762 and 1764, at the close of the French and Indian War (1756–1763), a gravity railroad (mechanized tramway) (Montresor's Tramway) was built by British military engineers up the steep riverside terrain near the Niagara River waterfall's escarpment at the Niagara Portage (which the local Senecas called ""Crawl on All Fours."") in Lewiston, New York.


text: Railroads played a large role in the development of the United States from the industrial revolution in the Northeast (1810–1850) to the settlement of the West (1850–1890). The American railroad mania began with the founding of the first passenger and freight line in the nation of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad in 1827 and the "Laying of the First Stone" ceremonies and beginning of its long construction heading westward over the obstacles of the Appalachian Mountains eastern chain the following year of 1828, and flourished with continuous railway building projects for the next 45 years until the financial Panic of 1873 followed by a major economic depression bankrupted many companies and temporarily stymied and ended growth.


text: Although the antebellum South started early to build railways, it concentrated on short lines linking cotton regions to oceanic or river ports, and the absence of an interconnected network was a major handicap during the Civil War (1861–1865). The North and Midwest constructed networks that linked every city by 1860 before the war. In the heavily settled Midwestern Corn Belt, over 80 percent of farms were within of a railway, facilitating the shipment of grain, hogs, and cattle to national and international markets. A large number of short lines were built, but due to a fast developing financial system based on Wall Street and oriented to railway bonds, the majority were consolidated into 20 trunk lines by 1890. State and local governments often subsidized lines, but rarely owned them.


text: The system was largely built by 1910, but then trucks arrived to eat away the freight traffic, and automobiles (and later airplanes) to devour the passenger traffic. After 1940, the use of diesel electric locomotives made for much more efficient operations that needed fewer workers on the road and in repair shops.


text: A series of bankruptcies and consolidations left the rail system in the hands of a few large operations by the 1980s. Almost all long-distance passenger traffic was shifted to Amtrak in 1971, a government-owned operation. Commuter rail service is provided near a few major cities such as New York City, Chicago, Boston, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and the District of Columbia. Computerization and improved equipment steadily reduced employment, which peaked at 2.1 million in 1920, falling to 1.2 million in 1950 and 215,000 in 2010. Route mileage peaked at in 1916 and fell to in 2011.


text: Freight railroads continue to play an important role in the United States' economy, especially for moving imports and exports using containers, and for shipments of coal and, since 2010, of oil. According to the British news magazine "The Economist," "They are universally recognized in the industry as the best in the world." Productivity rose 172% between 1981 and 2000, while rates rose 55% (after accounting for inflation). Rail's share of the American freight market rose to 43%, the highest for any rich country.


text: A railroad was reportedly used in the construction of the French fortress at Louisburg, Nova Scotia in 1720. Between 1762 and 1764, at the close of the French and Indian War, a gravity railroad (mechanized tramway) (Montresor's Tramway) is built by British military engineers up the steep riverside terrain near the Niagara River waterfall's escarpment at the Niagara Portage (which the local Senecas called ""Crawl on All Fours."") in Lewiston, New York.


text: The animal powered Leiper Railroad followed in 1810 after the preceding successful experiment—designed and built by merchant Thomas Leiper, the railway connected Crum Creek to Ridley Creek, in Delaware County, Pennsylvania. It was used until 1829, when it was temporarily replaced by the Leiper Canal, then it was reopened to replace the canal in 1852. This became the Crum Creek Branch of the Baltimore and Philadelphia Railroad (part of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad) in 1887. This was the first railroad meant to be permanent, and the first to evolve into trackage of a common carrier after an intervening closure.


text: In 1826 Massachusetts incorporated Quincy's Granite Railway as a common freight carrier to primarily haul granite for the construction of the Bunker Hill Monument; operations began later that year, and which still had a section of it operating until the 1940s.


text: Other railroads authorized by states in 1826 and constructed in the following years included the Delaware and Hudson Canal Company's gravity railroad; and the Mohawk and Hudson Railroad, to carry freight and passengers around a bend in the Erie Canal. To link the port of Baltimore to the Ohio River, the state of Maryland in 1827 chartered the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad (B&O), the first section of which opened in 1830. Similarly, the South Carolina Canal and Railroad Company was chartered in 1827 to connect Charleston to the Savannah River, and Pennsylvania built the Main Line of Public Works between Philadelphia and the Ohio River.


text: The Americans closely followed and copied British railroad technology. The Baltimore and Ohio Railroad was the first common carrier and started passenger train service in May 1830, initially using horses to pull train cars. The South Carolina Canal and Rail Road Company was the first to use steam locomotives regularly beginning with the Best Friend of Charleston, the first American-built locomotive intended for revenue service, in December 1830.


text: The B&O started developing steam locomotives in 1829 with Peter Cooper's "Tom Thumb". This was the first American-built locomotive to run in the U.S., although it was intended as a demonstration of the potential of steam traction rather than as a revenue-earning locomotive. Many of the earliest locomotives for American railroads were imported from England, including the "Stourbridge Lion" and the "John Bull", but a domestic locomotive manufacturing industry was quickly established, with locomotives like the "DeWitt Clinton" being built in the 1830s. The B&O's westward route reached the Ohio River in 1852, the first eastern seaboard railroad to do so.


text: By 1850, of railroad lines had been built. The federal government operated a land grant system between 1855 and 1871, through which new railway companies in the west were given millions of acres they could sell or pledge to bondholders. A total of were granted to the railroads before the program ended, supplemented by a further granted by the states, and by various government subsidies. This program enabled the opening of numerous western lines, especially the Union Pacific-Central Pacific with fast service from San Francisco to Omaha and east to Chicago. West of Chicago, many cities grew up as rail centers, with repair shops and a base of technically literate workers.


text: Railroads soon replaced many canals and turnpikes and by the 1870s had significantly displaced steamboats as well. The railroads were superior to these alternative modes of transportation, particularly water routes because they lowered costs in two ways. Canals and rivers were unavailable in the winter season due to freezing, but the railroads ran year-round despite poor weather. And railroads were safer: the likelihood of a train crash was less than the likelihood of a boat sinking. The railroads provided cost-effective transportation because they allowed shippers to have a smaller inventory of goods, which reduced storage costs during winter, and to avoid insurance costs from the risk of losing goods during transit.


text: Likewise, railroads changed the style of transportation. For the common person in the early 1800s, transportation was often traveled by horse or stagecoach. The network of trails along which coaches navigated were riddled with ditches, potholes, and stones. This made travel fairly uncomfortable. Adding to injury, coaches were cramped with little leg room. Travel by train offered a new style. Locomotives proved themselves a smooth, headache free ride with plenty of room to move around. Some passenger trains offered meals in the spacious dining car followed by a good night sleep in the private sleeping quarters. Railroad companies in the North and Midwest constructed networks that linked nearly every major city by 1860. In the heavily settled Corn Belt (from Ohio to Iowa), over 80 percent of farms were within of a railway. A large number of short lines were built, but due to a fast developing financial system based on Wall Street and oriented to railway securities, the majority were consolidated into 20 trunk lines by 1890. Most of these railroads made money and ones that didn't were soon bought up and incorporated in a larger system or "rationalized". Although the transcontinental railroads dominated the media, with the completion of the First transcontinental railroad in 1869 dramatically symbolizing the nation's unification after the divisiveness of the Civil War, most construction actually took place in the industrial Northeast and agricultural Midwest, and was designed to minimize shipping times and costs. The railroads in the South were repaired and expanded and then, after a lot of preparation, changed from a 5-foot gauge to standard gauge of 4 foot 8 ½ inches in two days in May 1886.


text: With its extensive river system, the United States supported a large array of horse-drawn or mule-drawn barges on canals and paddle wheel steamboats on rivers that competed with railroads after 1815 until the 1870s. The canals and steamboats lost out because of the dramatic increases in efficiency and speed of the railroads, which could go almost anywhere year round. The railroads were faster and went to many places a canal would be impractical or too expensive to build or a natural river never went. Railroads also had better scheduling since they often could go year round, more or less ignoring the weather. Canals and river traffic were cheaper if you lived on or near a canal or river that wasn't frozen over part of the year, but only a few did. Long distance transport of goods by wagon to a canal or river was slow and expensive. A railroad to a city made it an inland "port" that often prospered or turned a town into a city.


text: Rail was strategic during the American Civil War, and the Union used its much larger system much more effectively. Practically all the mills and factories supplying rails and equipment were in the North, and the Union blockade kept the South from getting new equipment or spare parts. The war was fought in the South, and Union raiders (and sometimes Confederates too) systematically destroyed bridges and rolling stock — and sometimes bent rails — to hinder the logistics of the enemy.


text: In the South, most railroads in 1860 were local affairs connecting cotton regions with the nearest waterway. Most transports were by boat, not rail, and after the Union blockaded the ports in 1861 and seized the key rivers in 1862, long-distance travel was difficult. The outbreak of war had a depressing effect on the economic fortunes of the railroad companies, for the hoarding of the cotton crop in an attempt to force European intervention left railroads bereft of their main source of income. Many had to lay off employees, and in particular, let go skilled technicians and engineers. For the early years of the war, the Confederate government had a hands-off approach to the railroads. Only in mid-1863 did the Confederate government initiate an overall policy, and it was confined solely to aiding the war effort. With the legislation of impressment the same year, railroads and their rolling stock came under the de facto control of the Confederate military.


text: Conditions deteriorated rapidly in the Confederacy, as there was no new equipment and raids on both sides systematically destroyed key bridges, as well as locomotives and freight cars. Spare parts were cannibalized; feeder lines were torn up to get replacement rails for trunk lines, and the heavy use of rolling stock wore them out. In 1864–65 the Confederate railroad network collapsed; little traffic moved in 1865.


text: The Southern states had blocked westward rail expansion before 1860, but after secession the Pacific Railway Acts were passed in 1862 and 1863, which respectively established the central Pacific route and the standard gauge to be used. With federal financing in the form of bonds and generous land grants and with the heroic help of the mainly Chinese and Irish laborers, Central Pacific Railroad working eastward and Union Pacific Railroad working westward combined to complete in 1869 the major breakthrough First transcontinental railroad, which linked by rail the eastern states with the Pacific coast and made possible moving from New York to San Francisco Bay in only six days. In addition, other transcontinentals were built in the South (Southern Pacific, Santa Fe) and in the North along the Canada–US border (Northern Pacific, Great Northern), accelerating the settlement of the West by offering inexpensive farms and ranches on credit, carrying pioneers and supplies westward, and cattle, wheat and minerals eastward. In 1860 before the transcontinentals, railroads carried less than half as much freight as inland waterways, whereas by 1890 railroads carried five times as much freight as waterways.


text: During the Reconstruction era, Northern money financed the rebuilding and dramatic expansion of railroads throughout the South; they were modernized in terms of track gauge, equipment and standards of service. The Southern network expanded from 11,000 miles (17,700 km) in 1870 to 29,000 miles (46,700 km) in 1890. The lines were owned and directed overwhelmingly by Northerners. Railroads helped create a mechanically skilled group of craftsmen and broke the isolation of much of the region. Passengers were few, however, and apart from hauling the cotton crop when it was harvested, there was little freight traffic.


text: The Panic of 1873 was a major global economic depression which ended rapid rail expansion in the United States. Many lines went bankrupt or were barely able to pay the interest on their bonds, and workers were laid off on a mass scale, with those still employed subject to large cuts in wages. This worsening situation for railroad workers led to strikes against many railroads, culminating in the Great Railroad Strike of 1877.


text: The Great Strike began on July 14 in Martinsburg, West Virginia, in response to the cutting of wages for the second time in a year by the B&O Railroad. The strike, and related violence, spread to Cumberland, Maryland, Baltimore, Pittsburgh, Buffalo, Philadelphia, Chicago and the Midwest. The strike lasted for 45 days, and ended only with the intervention of local and state militias, and federal troops. Labor unrest continued into the 1880s, such as the Great Southwest Railroad Strike of 1886, which involved over 200,000 workers.


text: By 1880 the nation had 17,800 freight locomotives carrying 23,600 tons of freight, and 22,200 passenger locomotives. The U.S. railroad industry was the nation's largest employer outside of the agricultural sector. The effects of the American railways on rapid industrial growth were many, including the opening of hundreds of millions of acres of very good farm land ready for mechanization, lower costs for food and all goods, a huge national sales market, the creation of a culture of engineering excellence, and the creation of the modern system of management.


text: On January 12, 1883 the southern section of the second transcontinental railroad line was completed as the Southern Pacific tracks from Los Angeles met the Galveston, Harrisburg and San Antonio Railway at a location west of the Pecos River near Langtry, Texas.


text: New York financier J.P. Morgan played an increasingly dominant role in consolidating the rail system in the late 19th century. He orchestrated reorganizations and consolidations in all parts of the United States. Morgan raised large sums in Europe, but instead of only handling the funds, he helped the railroads reorganize and achieve greater efficiencies. He fought against the speculators interested in speculative profits, and built a vision of an integrated transportation system. In 1885, he reorganized the New York, West Shore & Buffalo Railroad, leasing it to the New York Central. In 1886, he reorganized the Philadelphia & Reading, and in 1888 the Chesapeake & Ohio. He was heavily involved with railroad tycoon James J. Hill and the Great Northern Railway.


text: Industrialists such as Morgan, Cornelius Vanderbilt and Jay Gould became wealthy through railroad ownerships, as large railroad companies such as the Grand Trunk Railway and the Southern Pacific Transportation Company spanned several states. In response to monopolistic practices and other excesses of some railroads and their owners, Congress passed the Interstate Commerce Act and created the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC) in 1887. The ICC indirectly controlled the business activities of the railroads through the issuance of extensive regulations.


text: Morgan set up conferences in 1889 and 1890 that brought together railroad presidents in order to help the industry follow the new laws and write agreements for the maintenance of "public, reasonable, uniform and stable rates." The conferences were the first of their kind, and by creating a community of interest among competing lines paved the way for the great consolidations of the early 20th century. Congress responded by enacting antitrust legislation to prohibit monopolies of railroads (and other industries), beginning with the Sherman Antitrust Act in 1890.


text: The Panic of 1893 was the largest economic depression in U.S. history at that time. It was the result of railroad overbuilding and shaky railroad financing, which set off a series of bank failures. One-quarter of U.S. railroads had failed by mid-1894, representing over . The failed lines included the Northern Pacific Railway, the Union Pacific Railroad and the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railroad. Acquisitions of the bankrupt companies led to further consolidation of ownership. As of 1906, two-thirds of the rail mileage in the U.S. was controlled by seven entities, with the New York Central, Pennsylvania Railroad (PRR), and Morgan having the largest portions.


text: James J. Hill joined forces with Morgan and others to gain control of the Northern Pacific. Hill formed the Northern Securities Company to consolidate the operations of the Northern Pacific with Hill's own Great Northern, but President Theodore Roosevelt, a trust-buster, strongly disapproved and took it to court. In 1904 the federal courts dissolved the Northern Security company ("see Northern Securities Co. v. United States") and the railroads had to go their separate, competitive ways. By that time Morgan and Hill had ensured the Northern Pacific was well-organized and able to survive easily on its own.


text: In 1901 the Union Pacific Railroad acquired all of the stock of the Southern Pacific. The federal government charged UP with violating the Sherman Act, and in 1913 the Supreme Court ordered UP to divest itself of all SP stock. This ruling was received with considerable alarm throughout the industry, as UP and SP were widely considered at that time not to be significant competitors. (Later in the 20th century, with different economic conditions and changes in the law, UP successfully acquired the SP. "See" Resurgence of freight railroads in the 1980s.)


text: Continuing concern over rate discrimination by railroads led Congress to enact additional laws, giving increased regulatory powers to the ICC. The 1906 Hepburn Act gave the ICC authority to set maximum rates and review the companies' financial records.


text: The United States Railroad Administration (USRA) temporarily took over management of railroads during World War I to address inadequacy in critical facilities throughout the overall system, such as terminals, trackage, and rolling stock. President Woodrow Wilson issued an order for nationalization on December 26, 1917. Management by USRA led to standardization of equipment, reductions of duplicative passenger services, and better coordination of freight traffic. Federal control of the railroads ended in March 1920.


text: In the early 20th century, some members of Congress, the ICC, and some railroad executives developed concerns about inefficiencies in the American railroad system. Memories of the 1893 panic, the continuing proliferation of railroad companies, and duplicative facilities, fueled this concern. To an extent, the need to nationalize the system during the war was an example of this inefficiency. These concerns were the impetus for legislation to consider improvements to the system. The 1920 Esch-Cummins Act directed the ICC to prepare and adopt a plan for the consolidation of the railroad companies into a limited number of systems. In 1929 the ICC published its proposed "Complete Plan of Consolidation," also known as the "Ripley Plan," after its author, William Z. Ripley of Harvard University. The agency held hearings on the plan, but none of the proposed consolidations was ever implemented. Many small railroads failed during the Great Depression of the 1930s. Of those lines that survived, the stronger ones were not interested in supporting the weaker ones. In 1940 Congress formally abandoned the Ripley Plan.


text: During the post-World War II boom many railroads were driven out of business due to competition from airlines and Interstate highways. The rise of the automobile led to the end of passenger train service on most railroads. Trucking businesses had become major competitors by the 1930s with the advent of improved paved roads, and after the war they expanded their operations as the Interstate highway network grew, and acquired increased market share of freight business. Railroads continued to carry bulk freight such as coal, steel and other commodities. However, the ICC continued to regulate railroad rates and other aspects of railroad operations, which limited railroads' flexibility in responding to changing market forces.


text: In 1966, Congress created the Federal Railroad Administration, to issue and enforce rail safety regulations, administer railroad assistance programs, and conduct research and development in support of improved railroad safety and national rail transportation policy. The safety functions were transferred from the ICC. The FRA was established as part of the new federal Department of Transportation.


text: Two of the largest remaining railroads, the Pennsylvania Railroad and the New York Central, merged in 1968 to form the Penn Central. At the insistence of the ICC the New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad was added to the merger in 1969; in 1970 the Penn Central declared bankruptcy, the largest bankruptcy in U.S. history until then. Other bankrupt railroads included the Ann Arbor Railroad (1973), Erie Lackawanna Railway (1972), Lehigh Valley Railroad (1970), Reading Company (1971), Central Railroad of New Jersey (1967) and Lehigh and Hudson River Railway (1972).


text: In 1970 Congress created a government corporation, Amtrak, to take over operation of Penn Central passenger lines and selected inter-city passenger services from other private railroads, under the Rail Passenger Service Act. Amtrak began operations in 1971.


text: Congress passed the "Regional Rail Reorganization Act of 1973" (sometimes called the "3R Act") to salvage viable freight operations from the bankrupt Penn Central and other lines in the northeast, mid-Atlantic and midwestern regions, through the creation of the Consolidated Rail Corporation (ConRail), a government-owned corporation. Conrail began operations in 1976. The 3R Act also formed the United States Railway Association, another government corporation, taking over the powers of the ICC with respect to allowing the bankrupt railroads to abandon unprofitable lines.


text: Amtrak acquired most of the right-of-way and facilities of the Penn Central Northeast Corridor from Washington, D.C. to Boston, under the Railroad Revitalization and Regulatory Reform Act (the "4R Act") of 1976.


text: In addition to freight railroads, Conrail inherited commuter rail operations from several predecessor railroads in the northeast, and these operations continued to be unprofitable. State and local government transportation agencies took over the passenger operations and acquired the various rights-of-way from Conrail in 1983, pursuant to the "Northeast Rail Service Act of 1981." To replace the loss of commuter passenger rail service outside of the northeast region, state and local agencies established their own commuter systems in several metropolitan areas, generally by leasing rail lines from Amtrak or freight railroads.


text: The National Association of Railroad Passengers, a non-profit advocacy group, was organized in the late 1960s to support the operation of passenger trains.


text: Beginning in the late 1970s Amtrak eliminated several of its lightly traveled lines. Ridership stagnated at roughly 20 million passengers per year amid uncertain government aid from 1981 to about 2000. Ridership increased during the first decade of the 21st century after implementation of capital improvements in the Northeast Corridor and rises in automobile fuel costs.


text: In 1980 Congress enacted the Staggers Rail Act to revive freight traffic, by removing restrictive regulations and enabling railroads to be more competitive with the trucking industry. The "Northeast Rail Service Act of 1981" authorized additional deregulation of northeast railroads. Among other things, these laws reduced the role of the ICC in regulating the railroads and allowed the carriers to discontinue unprofitable routes. More railroad companies merged and consolidated their lines in order to remain successful. These changes led to the current system of fewer, but profitable, Class I railroads covering larger regions of the United States.


text: Since the beginning of the current deregulatory era, the following Class I railroads have been involved in mergers:


text: In 1995, when most of the ICC's powers had been eliminated, Congress finally abolished the agency and transferred its remaining functions to a new agency, the Surface Transportation Board.


text: In the early 21st century, several of the railroads, along with the federal government and various port agencies, began to reinvest in freight rail infrastructure, such as intermodal terminals and bridge and tunnel improvements. These projects are designed to increase capacity and efficiency across the national rail network. Two examples are the Heartland Corridor and the National Gateway.


text: Both the Bill Clinton and Barack Obama administrations had announced plans for new high-speed rail lines in their first terms. In the case of Clinton era, the only tangible outcome was the introduction of Amtrak's Acela Express, serving the Northeast Corridor, in 2000. Obama even mentioned his rail plans in his State of the Union address, the first time in decades a President had done so. While several small scale improvements to rail lines were financed by federal money, more ambitious plans in Florida, Ohio and other states failed when newly elected Republican governors stopped existing high-speed rail plans and returned federal funding.


text: In 2015 construction began on the California High-Speed Rail line. The Phase I portion, which would link Los Angeles and San Francisco in under three hours, was originally projected to be completed in 2029 at a cost of $40 billion. By 2018 however, the project experienced numerous delays and cost miscalculations, with an estimated completion date of 2033 and a cost of $98.1 billion.


text: The B&O established its Mount Clare Shops in Baltimore in 1829. This was the first railroad manufacturing facility in the U.S., and the company built locomotives, railroad cars, iron bridges and other equipment there. Following the B&O example, U.S. railroad companies soon became self-sufficient, as thousands of domestic machine shops turned out products and thousands of inventors and tinkerers improved the equipment.


text: In general, U.S. railroad companies imported technology from Britain in the 1830s, particularly strap iron rails, as there were no rail manufacturing facilities in the United States at that time. Heavy iron "T" rails were first manufactured in the U.S. in the mid-1840s at Mount Savage, Maryland and Danville, Pennsylvania. This improved rail design permitted higher train speeds and more reliable operation. Discovery of high-quality iron ores in the mid-19th century, particularly in the Great Lakes region, led to the fabrication of better-quality rails.


text: Steel rails began to replace iron later in the 19th century. Several railroads imported steel rails from England in the 1860s, and the first commercially available steel rails in the U.S. were manufactured in 1867 at the Cambria Iron Works in Johnstown, Pennsylvania. By the mid-1880s U.S. railroads were using more steel rails than iron in building new or replacement tracks.


text: Through the 1830s, 1840s, and 1850s, not only local projects, but long-distance links, were completed, so that by 1860 the eastern half of the continent, especially the Northeast, was linked by a network of connecting railroads. However, although Great Britain had early adopted a standard gauge of , once Americans started building locomotives, they experimented with different gauges, resulting in the standard gauge, or a close approximation, being adopted in the Northeast and Midwest U.S., but a gauge in the South, and a gauge in Canada. In addition, the Erie Railway was built to broad gauge, and in the 1870s a widespread movement looked at the cheaper narrow gauge.


text: The Pacific Railway Act of 1863 established the standard gauge for the first transcontinental railroad. Except for the narrow gauge, gauges were standardized across North America after the end of the Civil War in 1865.


text: In the early years American railroads imported many steam locomotives from England. While the B&O and the PRR built many of their own steam locomotives, other railroads purchased from independent American manufacturers. Prominent among the early steam manufacturers were Norris, Baldwin and Rogers, followed by Lima and Alco later in the 19th and 20th centuries.


text: Diesel locomotives were first developed in Europe after World War I, and U.S. railroads began to use them widely in the 1930s and 1940s. Most U.S. roads discontinued use of steam locomotives by the 1950s. A diesel engine was expensive to build, but was less complex and easier to maintain than a steam locomotive, and required only one person to operate. This meant reduced costs and greater reliability for the railroads. Several companies developed fast streamliner trains, such as the Super Chief and the California Zephyr during the 1930s and 1940s. Their locomotives used either diesel or similar internal combustion engine designs. "See" Dieselisation in North America.


text: Though electric railways expanded in Europe, they never reached the same popularity in North America. They were built primarily in the north-west and the north-east beginning in the late 19th century. While some railroads used electric locomotives for both freight and passenger trains, by the end of the 20th century most freight trains were pulled only by diesel locomotives. The Northeast Corridor, the most heavily traveled passenger line in the US, is one of few long lines currently operating with electrification. "See" Railroad electrification in the United States.


text: Early forms of American railroad signaling and communication were virtually non-existent. Before telegraphs, the American railroads initially managed their train operations using timetables. However, there were no means of communication between drivers and dispatchers, and occasionally, two trains were sent on a collision course, or "cornfield meets." With the advent of the telegraph in the 1840s, a more sophisticated system was developed that allowed the dissemination of alterations to the timetable, known as train orders. These orders overrode the timetable, allowing the cancellation, rescheduling and addition of trains. The earliest recorded use of train orders was by the Erie Railroad in 1851.


text: The development of the electrical track circuit in the 1870s led to the use of systems of block signals, which improved the railroads' speed, safety and efficiency. Mechanical interlockings, which prevent conflicting movements at rail junctions and crossings, were also introduced in the U.S. in the 1870s, after their initial development in Britain. In the late 20th century railroads began installing electronic interlocking systems at newly built junctions and replacing some mechanical interlockings.


text: Railways changed employment practices in many ways. Lines with hundreds or thousands of employees developed systematic rules and procedures, not only for running the equipment but in hiring, promoting, paying and supervising employees. The railway system of management was adopted by all major business sectors. Railways offered a new type of work experience in enterprises vastly larger in size, complexity and management. At first workers were recruited from occupations where skills were roughly analogous and transferable, that is, workshop mechanics from the iron, machine and building trades; conductors from stagecoach drivers, steamship stewards and mail boat captains; station masters from commerce and commission agencies; and clerks from government offices.


text: In response to the strikes of the 1870s and 1880s, Congress passed the "Arbitration Act of 1888," which authorized the creation of arbitration panels with the power to investigate the causes of labor disputes and to issue non-binding arbitration awards. The Act was a complete failure: only one panel was ever convened under the Act, and that one, in the case of the 1894 Pullman Strike, issued its report only after the strike had been crushed by a federal court injunction backed by federal troops.


text: Congress attempted to correct these shortcomings in the Erdman Act, passed in 1898. This law likewise provided for voluntary arbitration, but made any award issued by the panel binding and enforceable in federal court. It also outlawed discrimination against employees for union activities, prohibited "yellow dog" contracts (employee agrees not to join a union while employed), and required both sides to maintain the status quo during any arbitration proceedings and for three months after an award was issued. The arbitration procedures were rarely used. A successor statute, the Newlands Labor Act, was passed in 1913 and proved more effective, but was largely superseded when the federal government nationalized the railroads in 1917.


text: As railroads expanded after the Civil War, so too did the rate of accidents among railroad personnel, especially brakemen. Many accidents were associated with the coupling and uncoupling of railroad cars, and the operation of manually operated brakes (hand brakes). The rise in accidents led to calls for safety legislation, as early as the 1870s. In the 1880s, the number of on-the-job fatalities of railroad workers was second only to those of coal miners. Through that decade, several state legislatures enacted safety laws. However, the specific requirements varied among the states, making implementation difficult for interstate rail carriers, and Congress passed the Safety Appliance Act in 1893 to provide a uniform standard. The law required railroads to install air brakes and automatic couplers on all trains, and led to a sharp drop in accidents.


text: The Esch–Cummins Act of 1920 terminated the nationalization program and created a Railway Labor Board (RLB) to regulate wages and issue non-binding proposals to settle disputes. In 1921 the RLB ordered a twelve percent reduction in employees' wages, which led to the Great Railroad Strike of 1922, involving rail shop workers nationwide, followed by a court injunction to end the strike. Congress passed the Railway Labor Act of 1926 to rectify the shortcomings of the RLB procedures.


text: Congress added railroad worker safety laws throughout the 20th century. Significant among this legislation is the "Federal Railroad Safety Act of 1970," which gave the FRA broad responsibilities over all aspects of rail safety, and expanded the agency's authority to cover all railroads, both interstate and intrastate.


text: First they provided a highly efficient network for shipping freight and passengers across a large national market. The result was a transforming impact on most sectors of the economy including manufacturing, retail and wholesale, agriculture and finance. Supplemented with the Telegraph that added rapid communications, the United States now had an integrated national market practically the size of Europe, with no internal barriers or tariffs, all supported by a common language, and financial system and a common legal system. The railroads at first supplemented, then largely replaced the previous transportation modes of turnpikes and canals, rivers and intracoastal ocean traffic. Highly efficient Northern railroads played a major role in winning the Civil War, while the overburdened Southern lines collapsed in the face of an insurmountable challenge. In the late 19th century pipelines were built for the oil trade, and in the 20th century trucking and aviation emerged.


text: Railroads financing provided the basis of the private (non-governmental) financial system. Construction of railroads was far more expensive than factories or canals. The famous Erie canal, long in upstate New York, cost $7 million of state money, which was about what private investors spent on one short railroad in Western Massachusetts. A new steamboat on the Hudson, Mississippi, Missouri, or Ohio rivers cost about the same as one mile of track.


text: In 1860, the combined total of railroad stocks and bonds was $1.8 billion; 1897 it reached $10.6 billion (compared to a total national debt of $1.2 billion).


text: Funding came from financiers throughout the Northeast, and from Europe, especially Britain. The federal government provided no cash to any other railroads. However it did provide unoccupied free land to some of the Western railroads, so they could sell it to farmers and have customers along the route. Some cash came from states, or from local governments that use money as a leverage to prevent being bypassed by the main line. The larger sound came from the southern states during the Reconstruction era, as they try to rebuild their destroyed rail system. Some states such as Maine and Texas also made land grants to local railroads; the state total was 49 million acres. The emerging American financial system was based on railroad bonds. Boston was the first center, but New York by 1860 was the dominant financial market. The British invested heavily in railroads around the world, but nowhere more so than the United States; The total came to about $3 billion by 1914. In 1914–1917, they liquidated their American assets to pay for war supplies.


text: The third dimension was in designing complex managerial systems that could handle far more complicated simultaneous relationships that could be dreamed of by the local factory owner who could patrol every part of his own factory in a matter of hours. Civil engineers became the senior management of railroads. The leading innovators were the Western Railroad of Massachusetts and the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad in the 1840s, the Erie in the 1850s and the Pennsylvania in the 1860s.


text: After a serious accident, the Western Railroad of Massachusetts put in place a system of responsibility for district managers and dispatchers to keep track of all train movements. Discipline was essential—everyone had to follow the rules exactly to prevent accidents. Decision-making powers had to be distributed to ensure safety and to juggle the complexity of numerous trains running in both directions on a single track, keeping to schedules that could easily be disrupted by weather mechanical breakdowns, washouts or hitting a wandering cow. As the lines grew longer with more and more business originating at dozens of different stations, the Baltimore and Ohio set up more complex system that separated finances from daily operations. The Erie Railroad, faced with growing competition, had to make lower bids for freight movement, and had to know on a daily basis how much each train was costing them. Statistics was the weapon of choice. By the 1860s, the Pennsylvania Railroad—the largest in the world—was making further advances in using bureaucracy under John Edgar Thomson, president 1852–1874. He divided the system into several geographical divisions, which each reported daily to a general superintendent in Philadelphia. All the American railroads copied each other in the new managerial advances, and by the 1870s emerging big businesses in the industrial field likewise copied the railroad model.


text: The fourth dimension was in management of the workforce, both blue-collar workers and white-collar workers. Railroading became a career in which young men entered at about age 18 to 20, and spent their entire lives usually with the same line. Young men could start working on the tracks, become a fireman, and work his way up to the engineer. The mechanical world of the roundhouses have their own career tracks. A typical career path would see a young man hired at age 18 as a shop laborer, be promoted to skilled mechanic at age 24, brakeman at 25, freight conductor at 27, and passenger conductor at age 57. Women were not hired.


text: White-collar careers paths likewise were delineated. Educated young men started in clerical or statistical work and moved up to station agents or bureaucrats at the divisional or central headquarters. At each level, they had more and more knowledge experience and human capital. They were very hard to replace, and were virtually guaranteed permanent jobs and provided with insurance and medical care. Hiring, firing and wage rates were set not by the foreman, but by central administrators, in order to minimize favoritism and personality conflicts. Everything was by the book, and increasingly complex set of rules told everyone exactly what they should do it every circumstance, and exactly what their rank and pay would be. Young men who were first hired in the 1840s and 1850s retired from the same railroad 40 or 50 years later. To discourage them from leaving for another company, they were promised pensions when they retired. Indeed, the railroads invented the American pension system.


text: Boosters in every city worked feverishly to make sure the railroad came through, knowing their urban dreams depended upon it. The mechanical size, scope and efficiency of the railroads made a profound impression; people would dress in their Sunday best to go down to the terminal to watch the train come in. David Nye argues that:


text: Travel became much easier, cheaper and more common. Shoppers from small towns could make day trips to big city stores. Hotels, resorts and tourist attractions were built to accommodate the demand. The realization that anyone could buy a ticket for a thousand-mile trip was empowering. Historians Gary Cross and Rick Szostak argue:


text: The engineers became model citizens, bringing their can-do spirit and their systematic work effort to all phases of the economy as well as local and national government. By 1910, major cities were building magnificent palatial railroad stations, such as the Pennsylvania Station in New York City, and the Union Station in Washington DC.


text: As early as the 1830s, novelists and poets began fretting that the railroads would destroy the rustic attractions of the American landscape. By the 1840s concerns were rising about terrible accidents when speeding trains crashed into helpless wooden carriages. By the 1870s, railroads were vilified by Western farmers who absorbed the Granger movement theme that monopolistic carriers controlled too much pricing power, and that the state legislatures had to impose maximum prices. Local merchants and shippers supported the demand and got some "Granger Laws" passed. Anti-railroad complaints were loudly repeated in late 19th century political rhetoric. The idea of establishing a strong rate fixing federal body was achieved during the Progressive Era, primarily by a coalition of shipping interests. Railroad historians mark the Hepburn Act of 1906 that gave the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC) the power to set maximum railroad rates as a damaging blow to the long-term profitability and growth of railroads. After 1910 the lines faced an emerging trucking industry to compete with for freight, and automobiles and buses to compete for passenger service.


text: Railways also disrupted the natural tendencies of the environment through an increased capacity for transportation. Railroads throughout the United States allowed quicker, more efficient transport of goods and people that were previously unavailable. Agriculture, animals, soldiers, goods, and natural resources were now able to move large distances in much shorter amounts of time. As a result, things that were not harvested before like certain tracts of arable land or animal populations were now being used.


text: During the first half of the 19th century, herds of buffalo were plentiful throughout the Midwestern states of America, but the American people through Manifest Destiny drastically changed the American landscape. Before the Civil War, 8 million buffalo roamed free, but only 4–6 million remained after the war because their hides had become valuable throughout the country and domestic horses and cattle had begun to occupy the same space and graze the same land as the bison. William Hornaday, an influential zoologist and student of the American bison, wrote, "as soon as the railways crossed the buffalo country, the slaughter began." Railroads gave rise to the consumption of buffalo because hunters and businessmen could transport parts of the buffalo to distant parts of the country where demand was high. Before, it was not plausible to commercialize the buffalo because the hide, meat, and bones since it would take so much longer to get to their destination. Since railroads made transportation much quicker, it was now plausible for people to make money off the seemingly endless resource in the plains of the Midwest: the buffalo. So extreme was the mass hunting of buffalo thanks to the new railroads that wolves could not consume all of the carcasses that were left behind.


text: As a result of the rapidly declining bison population, economic opportunities arose through the creation of jobs. Men acquired jobs hunting and skinning bison on the plains, as well as maintaining railroad infrastructure used to transport the valuable bison hides.


text: The aggressive operation of a locomotive at the imaginary “Pile-up station” by fictional engineer “Joe Smashup” formed the basis of a satire that appeared in US newspapers in and around the year 1855.


text: In 1967 Gordon Lightfoot, a Canadian folk singer released a song called, "Canadian Railroad Trilogy" which documents the way he sees nature and how nature has changed because of increasing railways going through North America. He describes the pristine wilderness "long before the white man and long before the wheel" and before pioneers started to build mines, mills, and factories in the verdant land. Because of the optimism for wealth and adventure, Lightfoot claims, "The railroad men grew restless for to hear the hammers ring." He also describes the cost this industry had on nature by penning the line, "Open her heart let the lifeblood flow." He describes nature's heart as being bled by the workers' dreams, which could not be stopped, "Into the muskeg and into the rain." Because man wants to be in control of nature and conquer it, he wants to be able to say,


text: Through hard work technology, pioneers and businessmen adapted the environment for their own commercial needs and quest for power.


text: There is no question about the importance of railroads in American history. Churella finds that back in the 1950s business and economic historians, led by Alfred D. Chandler, Jr. and Robert Fogel, made railroads the centerpiece of advanced historiography. That era has passed as graduate programs have faded away, courses on railroad history do not make the curriculum, and the historiography has shifted away from professional historian to the "railfans"—very well informed amateur writers fascinated by the memorabilia, technology and locomotives of the steam era. Looking at the voluminous output of railfan authors, Klein says:


text: The result is a multiplicity of histories of specific railroads, large and small. Typically they deal with standard topics: the builders and their organizational, legislative and financial dealings; colorful construction crews laying down wood ties and steel rail; the development of locomotives and passenger cars; boosters who sought a stop in their little town else it would die; the 1880–1920 golden age of the passenger long-distance travel and local excursions; the steady erosion of passenger service during the automobile age; the freight agent and the small-town depot. They end with the more recent saga of retrenchment, merger, and abandonment. Klein, Churella, Roth, and Franham all find that the popular writers show little interest in the development of managerial and organizational complexity of the sort that Chandler studied, or the economic impact that concerned Fogel's cohort. From outside the field of railroad history, academic labor historians now deal with the culture of the workers, strikes, the careers for blue collar and white collar men, and racial discrimination. Academic political historians deal with the Granger, Populist and Progressive attacks, and in federal or state regulation.


title: Nina Sky

text: Nina Sky is an American musical duo consisting of identical twins Nicole and Natalie Albino. Their debut single "Move Ya Body", released from their self-titled debut album in 2004, was a success, reaching number four on the "Billboard" Hot 100. Their second album, Nicole & Natalie, was released in July 2012. Their third studio album, "Brightest Gold", was announced for 2016 release through Tommy Boy Entertainment.


title: Nina Sky

text: The Albino sisters were born on March 13, 1986 in Puerto Rico, with Natalie being the older twin. Their parents later moved to New York City and divorced when the girls were young. The sisters grew up in Astoria, Queens in the Marine Terrace area. As a result of their stepfather working as a DJ, the twins were influenced by different types of music at an early age. By the age of 7, the twins had already written their first song, titled "Sisters". By 10, they knew that they wanted to become singers. When they were 13, they learned how to DJ and two years later were playing concerts in many clubs.


title: Nina Sky

text: The twins' parents were very supportive of their daughters' ambitions. Their stepfather provided guitar and drum lessons and took them to auditions. They even performed occasionally on some showcases.


title: Nina Sky

text: The sisters wanted to devise a band name of their own, so they used the first two syllables of their names ("Ni" and "Na"), to come up with Nina. They then added Sky, which for them represented "independent twins".


title: Nina Sky

text: In 2003, The Jettsonz (Elijah Wells & Lionel Bermingham) introduced the girls to Cipha Sounds, a hip hop DJ under the Star Trak label owned by The Neptunes (Pharrell and Chad Hugo). Cipha Sounds was impressed when he heard the duo sing and suggested that they use the "Coolie Dance" riddim. The duo then proceeded to write "Move Ya Body" (alongside The Jettsonz Elijah Wells & Lionel Bermingham, who also produced the record), mixing Caribbean, R&B, and pop rhythms. Eventually, a demo of the song was made. The demo fell into the hands of Eddie O'Loughlin, the president of Next Plateau Entertainment (which is a division of Universal Records). O'Loughlin signed the twins to a contract and they started working on their debut album. On March 18, 2004, they had their first concert under their current name at Club Demara.


title: Nina Sky

text: The single "Move Ya Body" was released on April 27, 2004 and reached number four on the "Billboard" Hot 100, and number 22 on the Billboard Year-End chart. Urban music and rhythmic top 40 stations quickly added the song to their play lists, sending the song up the charts. By July 17, "Move Ya Body" had gone to the top five on both sides of the Atlantic and had also reached the top five of a world combined R&B chart based on the US, UK, Germany, France and Australia. The song had also reached the top 50 of the Australian charts. On June 22, 2004 they released their first self-titled album, featuring Jabba and Betty Wright. The album charted #44 on the US Billboard 200 and number four on the U.S. R&B chart. Another single from the album, titled "Turnin' Me On," was released on November 30, 2004. It didn't have the same success as "Move Ya Body", but charted at #5 on Billboard's Bubbling Under Hot 100 chart and was a minor success in France.


title: Nina Sky

text: Nina Sky continued to work and promote their music. They have contributed to the reggaeton movement with songs such as "Oye Mi Canto", and "Más Maíz" with artist and producer N.O.R.E. They were also a featured artist on Sean Paul's song "Connection" from his album "The Trinity".


title: Nina Sky

text: On October 25, 2005, they released their second mixtape called "La Conexión", influenced by Latin music. The album contained the single "Ladies Night" (released April 17, 2006 and featuring Ivy Queen), released with the songs "Loving You" and "Your Time". It also contained Kassanova's remix of their single "Turnin' Me On." The album features a lot of singers: Pitbull, N.O.R.E., Notch, Richie Rivera, Mackie, and Yaga. It also included Tony Touch's hit "Play That Song," featuring Nina Sky and B-Real, released one month before the mixtape's release. In August 2006, Nina Sky were first featured on the cover of the publication "The FADER", in its 39th issue. In 2006, their third mixtape "80's Babies" was released.


title: Nina Sky

text: Nina Sky collaborated with French singer Kenza Farah for the song "Celle Qu'Il Te Faut", and was released in both French and English versions. The video was shot in New York. Nina Sky were recording their second studio album, "Starting Today". The album was originally due on July 27, 2007. Producers include Stereotypes, Bruno & Phil, Neo da Matrix, Ryan Leslie, Salaam Remi, and more. Guests include Rick Ross and others that have yet to be announced. In late 2007, Nina Sky left their label, Universal, and signed with Polo Grounds Music/J Records.


title: Nina Sky

text: Nina Sky have also put together remixes of popular songs including J. Holiday's "Bed," Elliott Yamin's "Wait For You", Cassidy's "My Drink n My 2 Step, and The-Dream's I Love Your Girl" They have also worked with Brooklyn MC Red Cafe on his street album "The Co-Op", and The Alchemist on his song "Key to the City". In 2008, Nina Sky released two singles, for "Starting Today": "Curtain Call" (featuring Rick Ross) and "On Some Bulls**t". These singles were never a big success. On December 19, 2008 Nina Sky released their first Holiday album, an EP titled "Christmas".


title: Nina Sky

text: Nina Sky appeared on Major Lazer's album, "Guns Don't Kill People... Lazers Do". They were in a battle with their record company Polo Grounds Records over the release of their album "Starting Today". They have said they want to be released from their contract with the label because the label does not support them. In 2010, Nicole Albino revealed she is lesbian and married female fashion designer, Erin Magee. The couple had been dating since 2009. In an interview with "Inked Magazine", Magee revealed that she had her last name legally changed to Nicole's and had gotten a tattoo of the name across her right breast. With a new masculine style, the duo independently released an eight-song EP for digital download in August 2010, entitled "The Other Side", which features production from DJ Yonny, Salaam Remi, Kidz in the Hall and many more. A video for the lead single, "You Ain't Got It (Funk That)" was also released. In early 2011 they worked with Creep on their song "You". On May 16, they released the music video on their official website.


title: Nina Sky

text: On February 2, 2012, Nina Sky released the lead single from their upcoming third studio album, "Nicole and Natalie". The single, entitled "Day Dreaming", was produced by Beau Vallis. The video for the song, directed by Adam Sauermilch, was released on February 28. On June 14, the band released "Heartbeat", the second single from the new album. A month later, on July 27, the video for "Heartbeat" was released. Concerning the video, the band stated: "We knew we wanted it to be more about the feeling of the song and less about the story. The colors, environment, and everyone dancing in their own element creates this surreal feeling of freedom. It’s just about listening to the rhythm inside you and letting that rhythm guide you." On July 31 the album was released. Album had electro, house, pop and R&B elements in songs. The album failed to charts because of independent release. On October 14, 2012, Nina Sky released third and final single from their album "Comatose". In 2012, they finally signed out from recording label Polo Grounds Music/J Records.


title: Nina Sky

text: On June 9, 2012, Nina Sky performed at OUT/LOUD Queer Women's Music Festival in Eugene, Oregon along with artists such as Krudas Cubensi, Tender Forever and Andrea Gibson. Later, on November 15, Nina Sky hosted Women in Business' fourth annual "Dress for Success" fashion show at Baruch College. On March 11, 2013, group released their sixth mixtape, titled "Valentine's Day", hosted by Miss KL. On December 12, group released their new promotional single titled "Overtime" for digital download. The song was produced by Slimmy Neutron, who produced their album Nicole and Natalie, released in 2012.


title: Nina Sky

text: On March 9, 2014, Natalie Albino gave birth to her son, Max. In the same month, Nicole released her first solo project, a mixtape album titled "Currently Vol. 1" which contained her remixes to many popular songs by singers such as Madonna, Beyoncé, R. Kelly, Mariah Carey, etc. On April 17 they announced a new single via their official Facebook site. One day later, their new song "Stoners", featuring Smoke DZA was out. Single had better success than the previous one, released in 2013. It reached top 10 on "New Electronic Music" chart. The official music video for the single was released on July 25, via their official profiles. The extended remix for the song, made by Trayze, was also released. After the music video was released, they announced more of new music and new projects (and probably their third studio album) coming in 2015. On October 22, 2014, Nina Sky featured on Lady Bee's single "Do It All Again" from their album "What Is a Jeffree?". Music video was also released.


title: Nina Sky

text: After finishing their Euro Tour in May 2015, on June 2, their Vito Fun and Spaceplant produced electropop single titled "Forever" was released from their upcoming extended play Brightest Gold, set to release in September 2015. "We wanted something that was smooth but also had a bounce," Nina Sky told The FADER in an email. "Spaceplant finessed the verses with a modern '90s freestyle beat pattern and built up the hook just enough that song still has its original sweet vibe but if you drop it at the right time in a club, it will still go off!" twins added. EP will also be produced by Vito Fun and Spaceplant. Another tracks, including "The Brightest Gold", "Nancy", "Zero Gravity", "Champion Lover" and "Lock and Key" will also be on EP. The sample of "Champion Lover" was released on Nina Sky's official Instagram account, and is reported to be released as the second single from EP. In 2016, the twins signed a recording contract with Warner Music Group's independent recording label Tommy Boy Entertainment.


title: Sex tourism in Ukraine

text: Sex tourism in Ukraine is visiting the country for the purposes of sexual activity. It is on rise as the country attracts many foreign visitors. The main reason for the situation stem from the combined effect of various factors. Currently, in Ukraine, the effect is constituted by a high level of the population poverty and its feminization, limited options for social mobility and very active system of organized crime.


title: Sex tourism in Ukraine

text: The majority of the Ukrainian sex industry exists underground and prospers due to poor law enforcement and widespread corruption. Despite making the criminal penalties for human trafficking and coerced prostitution tougher, the laws criminalizing organized prostitution have had little effect.


title: Sex tourism in Ukraine

text: Sex tourism within Ukrainian borders has grown considerably, raising concern in Ukrainian society and attracting condemnation from feminist activists such as FEMEN.


title: Sex tourism in Ukraine

text: The Ukrainian magazine, Korrespondent, had reported that after the government launched the visa-free policy with Western Europe, the number of western visitors traveling to Ukraine went up and continued to rise. In 2004, the total number of tourists was around 8 million, in 2006 it was 16 million, and in 2008 it had gone up to 20 million. Each foreigner spends about €106 (₴3,388) per day in Ukraine. For many people who travel to the Ukraine for sex, the reputation of the country became a rival to that of Thailand.


title: Sex tourism in Ukraine

text: According to Ukrainian mass media, the country became a center for motley hordes of sexual adventurers because the price of a visit to Ukraine does not exceed US$1,500 (₴40,456). After the Euromaidan protests of late 2013 to early 2014, salaries plummeted, while inflation skyrocketed. As a result, an hourly rate for sex with local women typically ranges from $10 (₴270) to $75 (₴2,023), and is much lower than in other European countries. It was noted that after the political turmoil of 2014 and the war in Eastern Ukraine, the Western guests started to perceive the country as an "unstable black hole." Nevertheless, Ukraine became a very popular destination for Turkey's middle-class visitors, who have a special predilection for Slavic women. The trips to Ukraine for sex tourism created a stereotype in Turkish culture promoted by movies and books. American former pickup artist Roosh V published a travel guide describing his experience of dating Ukrainian women. After public release, the manual attracted a lot of coverage in Ukrainian media and outrage from feminist organizations.


title: Sex tourism in Ukraine

text: An aspect of sex tourism in Ukraine is related to the business of marriage. Marriage agencies run scams throughout the country, emptying tourists' wallets as they go. With regards to the situation, the United States embassy published a list of typical local fraud techniques for Americans who visit Ukraine to meet their prospective spouses.


title: Sex tourism in Ukraine

text: Ukraine along with Moldova and Portugal reportedly became a European center of child sex tourism. An involvement of adolescent boys into prostitution has risen a number of special concerns.


title: Sex tourism in Ukraine

text: It was noted that the Ukrainian legislation system has no such term as "sexual exploitation of children in travel and tourism". In addition to this, low living standards, neglected white-skinned children, ubiquitous corruption and social consumerism make Ukraine a fast-growing market for child sex services. The problem is aggravated by many other reasons, such as geographical situation in the heart of the European continent, large economic gaps between the home countries of sex tourists and locals, absence of visas for many tourists, low prices for alcohol, reputation of a corrupted society and high chance to avoid any kind of criminal prosecution.


title: Sex tourism in Ukraine

text: According to the collected statistics, 26% of Ukrainian families with one child and 39% families with two children (4.4 and 6.6 million correspondingly) are struggling to survive whilst living below the poverty line. Poverty leaves no other option to many people except providing sex services for rich and wealthy foreign guests.


title: Sex tourism in Ukraine

text: A 2008 research of the Ukrainian sex workers' lifestyle revealed that 39% of them do not use condoms regularly and that 22% are drug users. Most part of Ukrainian sex workers are prostituting in tourist resorts of the Black Sea during the summer season, around 30 — 40% of them are between 11 and 18 years old. A strong link connecting the prostitution of Ukrainian children and child sex tourism can be seen within the country.


title: Sex tourism in Ukraine

text: Ukrainian media regularly covers the topics of human trafficking, prostitution, and sex tourism in Ukraine. Especially, a great amount of media attention was brought to these issues in regard to final rounds of European Football Championship 2012. For example, in the Polish press, all football fans traveling to Ukraine were depicted as sex tourists and all Ukrainian women as potential sexual targets. Also, the Ukrainian people were derogatorily labeled by the Polish media as poor, corrupt, criminal, HIV-positive and undemocratic. As a result, in 2012 there was an outbreak of hysteria over "sex tourism" among Ukrainian soccer fans. At the peak of the obsession, roving gangs of local vigilantes even attacked foreigners who ordered prostitutes, and posted the videos of beatings online.


title: Marybeth Tinning

text: Marybeth Roe Tinning (born September 11, 1942) is an American murderer and suspected serial killer who was convicted in New York State of the murder of her ninth child, daughter Tami Lynne, on December 20, 1985. She is suspected to be similarly involved in the previous deaths of her eight children, all of which took place within the span of fourteen years.


title: Marybeth Tinning

text: The causes of death for Tinning's first eight children was initially thought to be genetic. Even when their sixth child, Michael who was adopted and not of blood relation died in 1981, authorities failed to open an investigation. Eventually, Schenectady County prosecutors had enough evidence a laboratory test indicating death from asphyxia by suffocation to charge Tinning in Tami Lynne's death. In July 1987, she was convicted of second-degree murder and sentenced to twenty years to life in prison. An appeal to the New York Supreme Court argued that her confession was coerced and there was insufficient evidence to convict her, was denied.


title: Marybeth Tinning

text: It is unclear if Tinning has ever been diagnosed with Munchausen syndrome by proxy (MSbP). Some believe that her pattern of behavior aligns perfectly with the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition's (DSM-5) Development and Course section on the disorder: "In individuals with recurrent episodes of falsification of signs and symptoms of illness and/or induction of injury, this pattern of successive deceptive contact with medical personnel, including hospitalizations, may become lifelong."


title: Marybeth Tinning

text: Tinning was incarcerated at Taconic Correctional Facility in Bedford Hills, New York. She was denied parole six times, but was granted parole at her seventh hearing in July 2018 and was released on August 21 of that year.


title: Marybeth Tinning

text: Marybeth Roe was born to Ruth and Alton Lewis Roe on September 11, 1942, in the small town of Duanesburg, New York. There is little information available regarding her formative years. During some of this time, Marybeth's father was deployed overseas fighting in World War II, while her mother worked. Because both parents were frequently absent, Marybeth was occasionally shuffled among relatives; one elderly relative told her that she was an unwanted, accidental child. When her little brother reached adolescence, Marybeth told him, "You were the one they wanted, not me."


title: Marybeth Tinning

text: On completion of his active duty, Marybeth's father worked as a press operator in a nearby General Electric factory, which was the area's largest employer at the time. As an adult, she once claimed that her father abused her when she was a child. During a police interview in 1986, she told one investigator that her father had beaten her and locked her in a closet. During court testimony, she denied that her father had bad intentions. "My father hit me with a flyswatter," she told the court, "because he had arthritis and his hands were not of much use. And when he locked me in my room, I guess he thought I deserved it.”


title: Marybeth Tinning

text: Marybeth was an average student at Duanesburg High School, from which she graduated in 1961. Following high school, she worked at various low-paying, unskilled jobs. She eventually settled on a job as a nursing assistant at Ellis Hospital in Schenectady, New York, ten miles north of Duanesburg.


title: Marybeth Tinning

text: In 1963, Marybeth met Joseph Tinning on a blind date. They married in 1965 and their first child, Barbara, was born in May 1967, followed in January 1970 by Joseph Jr. In October 1971, Marybeth's father died of a heart attack.


title: Marybeth Tinning

text: In 1974, Joseph was admitted to the hospital with a near-fatal case of barbiturate poisoning. Later, he and Marybeth acknowledged that, when this incident occurred, their marriage was in heavy turmoil. This led to her placing barbiturate pills, which she took from a friend with an epileptic daughter, into Joseph's grape juice. He declined to press charges against her.


title: Marybeth Tinning

text: On December 26, 1971, the Tinnings' third child, Jennifer, was born at St. Clare's Hospital. She had hemorrhagic meningitis and multiple brain abscesses that had developed "in utero". She lived for only a week and never left the hospital; she died on January 3, 1972.


title: Marybeth Tinning

text: Two weeks after Jennifer's death, Tinning took two-year-old Joseph Jr. to the Ellis Hospital emergency room in Schenectady, claiming that he had experienced a seizure and choked on his own vomit. Doctors found nothing wrong with him; he stayed in the hospital for several days under observation and was released. On January 20, a few hours after his release, Marybeth brought him back to the emergency room. He was dead on arrival, and his death was attributed to cardiopulmonary arrest.


title: Marybeth Tinning

text: On March 1, Marybeth rushed Barbara, now almost five years old, to Ellis Hospital because she had gone into convulsions. The next day, she died after being in a comatose state for several hours; her death was attributed to Reye syndrome.


title: Marybeth Tinning

text: On November 22, 1973, Tinning gave birth to son Timothy; on December 10, he was brought back to the hospital, dead. Tinning told doctors she found him lifeless in his crib. Doctors attributed his death to sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS). In March 1975, Tinning's fifth child, Nathan, was born; that autumn, he died in the car while out with her.


title: Marybeth Tinning

text: In August 1978, the Tinnings adopted newborn Michael; on October 29, Marybeth gave birth to her sixth child, Mary Frances. In January 1979, she rushed her to the emergency room, directly across the street from their apartment, saying she was having a seizure. The staff was able to revive her, reporting "aborted SIDS". A month later, Tinning returned to the hospital with her in full cardiac arrest; she was revived but had irreversible brain damage. She died two days later after being taken off life support. The Tinnings' eighth child, Jonathan, was born in fall 1979; he died in March 1980, after being kept on life support in Albany for four weeks.


title: Marybeth Tinning

text: In February 1981, Michael fell down the stairs and suffered a concussion. On March 2, Tinning took him to the doctor because he wouldn't wake up; he was already dead when she arrived. Since he was adopted, the long-suspected belief that the deaths in the Tinning family was of genetic origin was discarded.


title: Marybeth Tinning

text: Tami Lynne was born on August 22, 1985; on December 20, she died of being smothered. On that day, the Tinnings were visited by Betsy Mannix of Schenectady County's Department of Social Services, and by Bob Imfeld of the Schenectady Police Department, concerning Tami Lynne's death.


title: Marybeth Tinning

text: The causes of the children's deaths were listed diversely, as natural, undetermined, or SIDS. Six autopsies of them took place after Tami Lynne's death, but they did not reveal any signs of abuse. Prior to Tami Lynne's death, there had been no suspicion found in the sequence of deaths. "There were so many of us in on it, I guess," said Dr. Robert L. Sullivan, Schenectady County's Chief Medical Examiner. "If anyone is negligent, I suppose I am. I probably should have said, 'There must be more to it than this.' But we all think, and don't do."


title: Marybeth Tinning

text: Marybeth and Joseph Tinning were separately taken to the Schenectady Police Department for questioning about Tami Lynne's death. During the police interrogation, Marybeth signed a document confessing that she had murdered Tami Lynne, Timothy, and Nathan. She was arrested and charged with Tami Lynne's murder. Marybeth later claimed that her confession was made under duress, that police had threatened her, and that her repeated requests for a lawyer were denied.


title: Marybeth Tinning

text: Dr. Michael M. Baden, the lead forensic pathologist and member of the New York State Police's special forensic unit, determined that Tami Lynne's death was a result of smothering. After charging Marybeth in the killing, officials said that they considered the deaths of the eight other Tinning children to be suspicious.


title: Marybeth Tinning

text: Tinning's murder trial began in Schenectady County Court on June 22, 1987. Dr. Bradley Ford, Tami Lynne's pediatrician, testified on behalf of the prosecution, saying Tinning had dismissed his suggestion that, due to her previous children's deaths, she should install a specialized alarm device enabling the monitoring of the baby's breathing and heart rate. Two additional prosecution witnesses, Dr. Marie Valdes-Dapena of the SIDS Foundation, and Schenectady County medical examiner Thomas Oram, testified that they had concluded that Tami Lynne was smothered to death with a soft object.


title: Marybeth Tinning

text: After the six-week trial, the jury deliberated for twenty-three hours across three days, and found Tinning guilty of on one count of second-degree murder. During their deliberation, jurors called for a read-back of the portions of Joseph's testimony recounting his wife's alleged confession to State Police. In his testimony, Joseph said that he had a five-minute conversation with his wife after the police questioning, and she told him, "I killed Tami". Marybeth was acquitted by the seven-man, five-woman jury of the count of "deliberately" causing the infant's death, but was convicted of murder by "depraved-indifference to human life" count. Tinning placed her hands over her eyes and sobbed quietly as the verdict was announced. Joseph later said, "I still think she's innocent." Judge Clifford Harrigan vacated Tinning's $100,000 bail, ordering that she be held in the Schenectady County Jail pending her sentencing trial.


title: Marybeth Tinning

text: Tinning received a sentence of twenty years to life in prison, five years shorter than the maximum penalty for the crime. She was imprisoned at the Bedford Hills Correctional Facility for Women. She appealed on the grounds that her confession was not voluntarily given and that her conviction was not supported by sufficient evidence. In 1988, her appeal was denied by the New York State Supreme Court's Appellate Division.


title: Marybeth Tinning

text: Tinning's first attempt at parole was in March 2007. At the parole board meeting, Tinning said, "I have to be honest, and the only thing that I can tell you is that I know that my daughter is dead. I live with it every day. I have no recollection and I can't believe that I harmed her. I can't say any more than that." Her parole was denied.


title: Marybeth Tinning

text: In late January 2009, Tinning went before the parole board for the second time. She stated "I was going through bad times" when she killed her daughter. The parole board again denied her parole, stating that her remorse was "superficial at best".


title: Marybeth Tinning

text: Tinning became eligible for parole again in January 2011. At that hearing, Tinning said: "After the deaths of my other children … I just lost it. (I) became a damaged worthless piece of person and when my daughter was young, in my state of mind at that time, I just believed that she was going to die also. So I just did it." For this hearing, Tinning was supported by people from Georgetown University Law Center and people she worked with in prison, who described her as the "most loving, most generous, caring person that they have ever met." She was denied parole due to her lack of remorse.


title: Marybeth Tinning

text: At her next appearance before the parole board, in 2013, when questioned about Tami Lynne's murder, she said "It's just — I can't remember. I mean, I know I did it, but I can't tell you why. There is no reason." The parole board stated, "This was an innocent, vulnerable victim who was entrusted in your care as her mother, and you viciously violated that trust causing a senseless loss of this young life." The board then said "...discretionary release would so deprecate the severity of the crime as to undermine respect for the law, as you placed your own interest above those of society's youth."


title: Marybeth Tinning

text: Tinning's next opportunity for parole was in February 2015. The parole board again denied her release, finding that she continued to demonstrate no understanding or remorse for taking her child's life. She was denied parole for the sixth time in January 2017.


title: Marybeth Tinning

text: Tinning, 76, was released on parole on August 21, 2018, after serving 31 years. Her husband, Joseph, who had supported her throughout her imprisonment, was present for her release. As part of her release, Tinning was ordered to remain under parole supervision for the rest of her life. A Department of Corrections spokesperson stated Tinning lives in Schenectady County. She has a curfew and must attend domestic violence counseling.


title: Marybeth Tinning

text: "MOM: The Killer" (2011), written by detective Mark Gado, probes the mind of Marybeth Tinning and the neglect and unsolved deaths of her children.


title: Marybeth Tinning

text: Investigative author Joyce Egginton details the case in her book, "From Cradle to Grave: The Short Lives and Strange Deaths of Marybeth Tinning's Nine Children" (1990).


title: Marybeth Tinning

text: "Unnatural Death, Confessions of a Forensic Pathologist" (1989), authored by Michael M. Baden with Judith Adler Hennessee, provides a complete first-person account of Baden's career in forensic pathology and addresses his findings of Tinning's crimes.


title: Marybeth Tinning

text: The Home Box Office (HBO) network reported the Tinning case on the first episode of the crime documentary series "Autopsy" sub-titled "Autopsy - Confessions of a Medical Examiner" (1994). After the passing of the ninth child Dr. Michael Baden requests the files of all the children's autopsy reports. His findings finally bring Tinning to justice; he clearly reflects his analysis of her history as being in-line with Munchausen syndrome by proxy (MSBP).


title: Marybeth Tinning

text: The Investigation Discovery network covered Tinning's case in the forensic series "Most Evil" sub-titled "Most Evil - Murderous Women", Season 1; Episode 3. In the episode, forensic psychiatrist Michael H. Stone, probes into what motivates women who kill. Tinning's case depicts one of the striking differences between male and female killers. In this episode, Dr. Michael Stone, forensic psychologist, Columbia University uses his own mental health scale from 1-22, with 22 being the most dangerous ranking. Dr. Stone's assessment of Tinning is diagnosed at Level-7: Highly Narcissistic & Attention-Seeking. He outlines, in detail, how he reaches his assessment leading to Tinning's ranking.


title: Marybeth Tinning

text: The Investigation Discovery network released another episode, via the documentary drama series "Deadly Women", disclosing the tragedies that each of her children experienced. The episode is sub-titled "Deadly Women - Sacrifice Their Blood," ; Episode 9. Initially the local community seeks to understand and show compassion to her. The community's sympathy turns to bitterness and calls out to authorities for action, when she goes one step too far with her ninth child's death.


title: Timeline of electrical and electronic engineering

text: The following timeline tables list the discoveries and inventions in the history of electrical and electronic engineering.


text: The following list of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) milestones represent key historical achievements in electrical and electronic engineering.


title: Winslow Fegley

text: Winslow Burke Fegley (born January 23, 2009) is an American child actor. He has starred in the films "" (2020), "Nightbooks" and "8-Bit Christmas" (both 2021), and "Lyle, Lyle, Crocodile" (2022).


title: Winslow Fegley

text: Fegley was born on January 23, 2009 in Allentown, Pennsylvania, the son of Michael Fegley and Mercedes Fegley (née Tonne). He is the younger brother of Oakes Fegley, also an actor.


title: Spermarche

text: Spermarche—also known as semenarche—is the beginning of development of sperm in boys' testicles at puberty. It is the counterpart of menarche in girls. Depending on their upbringing, cultural differences, and prior sexual knowledge, boys may have different reactions to spermarche, ranging from fear to excitement. Spermarche is one of the first events in the life of a male leading to sexual maturity. It occurs at the time when the secondary sex characteristics are just beginning to develop. The age when spermarche occurs is not easy to determine. However, researchers have tried to determine the age in various populations by taking urine samples of boys and determining the presence of spermatozoa. The presence of sperm in urine is referred to as spermaturia.


title: Spermarche

text: "1986 Year Book of Pediatrics" stated "Fish [Hirsch - n.n.] et al. (J. Adolesc. Health Care 6:35, 1985) have suggested that spermarche is present in 38% of boys at age 12 and 70% of boys at age 13."


title: Spermarche

text: Planned Parenthood says that the age of spermarche is between 10 and 12 years old, "though some start a little sooner and others a little later".


title: Spermarche

text: In one study, boys were asked the circumstances in which their first ejaculation occurred. Most commonly this occurred via a nocturnal emission, with a significant number experiencing semenarche via masturbation, which is very common at that stage. Less commonly, the first ejaculation occurred during sexual intercourse with a partner.