title: Pitch-accent language

text: One difference between a pitch accent and a stress accent is that it is not uncommon for a pitch accent to be realised over two syllables. Thus in Serbo-Croatian, the difference between a "rising" and a "falling" accent is observed only in the pitch of the syllable following the accent: the accent is said to be "rising" if the following syllable is as high as or higher than the accented syllable, but "falling" if it is lower (see Serbo-Croatian phonology#Pitch accent).


title: Pitch-accent language

text: In Vedic Sanskrit, the ancient Indian grammarians described the accent as being a high pitch ("udātta") followed by a falling tone ("svarita") on the following syllable; but occasionally, when two syllables had merged, the high tone and the falling tone were combined on one syllable.


title: Pitch-accent language

text: In Standard Swedish, the difference between accent 1 and accent 2 can only be heard in words of two or more syllables, since the tones take two syllables to be realised. In Värmland as well as Norrland accent 1 and 2 can be heard in monosyllabic words however. In the central Swedish dialect of Stockholm, accent 1 is an LHL contour and accent 2 is an HLHL contour, with the second peak in the second syllable.


title: Pitch-accent language

text: In Welsh, in most words the accent is realised as a low tone on the penultimate syllable (which is also stressed) followed by a high tone on the final; but in some dialects this LH contour may take place entirely within the penultimate syllable.


title: Pitch-accent language

text: Similarly in the Chichewa language of Malawi a tone on a final syllable often spreads backwards to the penultimate syllable, so that the word is actually pronounced "Chichēwā" with two mid-tones, or "Chichěwā", with a rising tone on the penultimate syllable. Sentence-finally it can become "Chichěwà" with a rising tone on the penultimate and a low tone on the final.


title: Pitch-accent language

text: A phenomenon observed in a number of languages, both fully tonal ones and those with pitch-accent systems, is peak delay. In this, the high point (peak) of a high tone does not synchronise exactly with the syllable itself, but is reached at the beginning of the following syllable, giving the impression that the high tone has spread over two syllables. The Vedic Sanskrit accent described above has been interpreted as an example of peak delay.


title: Pitch-accent language

text: Conversely, a pitch accent in some languages can target just part of a syllable, if the syllable is bi-moraic. Thus in Luganda, in the word "Baganda people" the accent is considered to occur on the first mora of the syllable "ga(n)", but in "Buganda (region)" it occurs on the second half (with spreading back to the first half). In Ancient Greek, similarly, in the word () "houses" the accent is on the first half of the syllable "oi", but in () "at home" on the second half. An alternative analysis is to see Luganda and Ancient Greek as belonging to the type of languages where there is a choice of different contours on an accented syllable.


title: Pitch-accent language

text: In some pitch-accent languages, the high pitch of the accent can be anticipated in the preceding syllable or syllables, for example, Japanese "head", Basque "the friend's grandmother", Turkish "you would not get angry", Belgrade Serbian "pepper", Ancient Greek "it demands".


title: Pitch-accent language

text: Forwards spreading of a tone is also common in some languages. For example, in the Northern Ndebele language of Zimbabwe, the tonal accent on the prefix "ú-" spreads forward to all the syllables in the word except the last two: "to laugh"; "to make one another laugh". Sometimes the sequence HHHH then becomes LLLH, so that in the related language Zulu, the equivalent of these words is and with an accent shifted to the antepenultimate syllable.


title: Pitch-accent language

text: In the Mexican language Yaqui, the accent is signalled by an upstep before the accented syllable. The high pitch continues after the accent, declining slightly, until the next accented syllable. Thus it is the opposite of Japanese, where the accent is preceded by high pitch, and its position is signalled by a downstep after the accented syllable.


title: Pitch-accent language

text: In other languages the high pitch of an accent, instead of dropping to a low on the following syllable, in some circumstances can continue in a plateau to the next accented syllable, as in Luganda "it is in Buganda" (contrast "it is in Bunyoro", in which "Bunyóró" is unaccented apart from automatic default tones).


title: Pitch-accent language

text: Plateauing is also found in Chichewa, where in some circumstances a sequence of HLH can change to HHH. For example, + "with a bicycle" makes with a plateau.


title: Pitch-accent language

text: In Western Basque and Luganda, the default high tones automatically added to accentless words can spread in a continuous plateau through the phrase as far as the first accent, for example, in Basque "John's friend's grandmother", Luganda "people in the city".


title: Pitch-accent language

text: According to the first two criteria above, the Tokyo dialect of Japanese is often considered a typical pitch-accent language, since the pronunciation of any word can be specified by marking just one syllable as accented, and in every word the accent is realised by a fall in pitch immediately after the accented syllable. In the examples below the accented syllable is marked in bold (the particle "ga" indicates that the word is subject):


title: Pitch-accent language

text: In Japanese there are also other high-toned syllables, which are added to the word automatically, but these do not count as accents, since they are not followed by a low syllable. As can be seen, some of the words in Japanese have no accent.


title: Pitch-accent language

text: In Proto-Indo-European and its descendant, Vedic Sanskrit, the system is comparable to Tokyo Japanese and Cupeño in most respects, specifying pronunciation through inherently accented morphemes such as and (Vedic "-rá-" and "-tá-") and inherently unaccented morphemes. The examples below demonstrate the formation of such words using morphemes:


title: Pitch-accent language

text: If there are multiple accented morphemes, the accent is determined by specific morphophonological principles. Below is a comparison of Vedic, Tokyo Japanese and Cupeño regarding accent placement:


title: Pitch-accent language

text: The Basque language has a system very similar to Japanese. In some Basque dialects, as in Tokyo Japanese, there are accented and unaccented words; in other dialects all major words have an accent. As with Japanese, the accent in Basque consists of a high pitch followed by a fall on the next syllable.


title: Pitch-accent language

text: Turkish is another language often considered a pitch-accent language (see Turkish phonology#Word accent). In some circumstances, for example in the second half of a compound, the accent can disappear.


title: Pitch-accent language

text: Persian has also been called a pitch-accent language in recent studies, although the high tone of the accent is also accompanied by stress; and as with Turkish, in some circumstances the accent can be neutralised and disappear. Because the accent is both stressed and high-pitched, Persian can be considered intermediate between a pitch-accent language and a stress-accent language.


title: Pitch-accent language

text: In some simple pitch-accent languages, such as Ancient Greek, the accent on a long vowel or diphthong could be on either half of the vowel, making a contrast possible between a rising accent and a falling one; compare () "at home" vs. () "houses". Similarly in Luganda, in bimoraic syllables a contrast is possible between a level and falling accent: "Buganda (region)", vs. "Baganda (people)". However, such contrasts are not common or systematic in these languages.


title: Pitch-accent language

text: In more complex types of pitch-accent languages, although there is still only one accent per word, there is a systematic contrast of more than one pitch-contour on the accented syllable, for example, H vs. HL in the Colombian language Barasana, accent 1 vs. accent 2 in Swedish and Norwegian, rising vs. falling tone in Serbo-Croatian, and a choice between level (neutral), rising, and falling in Punjabi.


title: Pitch-accent language

text: Other languages deviate from a simple pitch accent in more complicated ways. For example, in describing the Osaka dialect of Japanese, it is necessary to specify not only which syllable of a word is accented, but also whether the initial syllable of the word is high or low.


title: Pitch-accent language

text: In Luganda the accented syllable is usually followed immediately after the HL of the accent by an automatic default tone, slightly lower than the tone of the accent, e.g., "we are going"; however, there are some words such as "they will see", where the automatic default tone does not follow the accent immediately but after an interval of two or three syllables. In such words it is therefore necessary to specify not only which syllable has the accent, but where the default tone begins.


title: Pitch-accent language

text: Because of the number of ways languages can use tone some linguists, such as the tonal languages specialist Larry Hyman, argue that the category "pitch-accent language" can have no coherent definition, and that all such languages should simply be referred to as "tonal languages".


title: Pitch-accent language

text: The dead language Proto-Indo-European, the putative ancestor of most European, Iranian and North Indian languages, is usually reconstructed to have been a free pitch-accent system. ("Free" here refers to the position of the accent since its position was unpredictable by phonological rules and so could be on any syllable of a word, regardless of its structure.) From comparisons with the surviving Indo-European daughter languages, it is generally believed that the accented syllable was higher in pitch than the surrounding syllables. Among daughter languages, a pitch-accent system is found in Vedic Sanskrit, Ancient Greek, the Baltic languages and some South Slavic languages, although none of them preserves the original system intact.


title: Pitch-accent language

text: Vedic Sanskrit, the earliest form of the Indian language Sanskrit, is believed to have had a pitch accent that was very similar to that of ancestor language Proto-Indo-European. Most words had exactly one accented syllable, but there were some unaccented words, such as finite verbs of main clauses, non-initial vocatives, and certain pronouns and particles. Occasionally, a compound word occurred with two accents: "ápa-bhartávai" "to take away".


title: Pitch-accent language

text: The ancient Indian grammarians describe the accented syllable as being "raised" ("udātta"), and it appears that it was followed in the following syllable by a downwards glide, which the grammarians refer to as "sounded" ("svarita"). In some cases, language change merged an accented syllable with a following svarita syllable, and the two were combined in a single syllable, known as "independent svarita".


title: Pitch-accent language

text: The precise descriptions of ancient Indian grammarians imply that the "udātta" was characterised by rising pitch and the "svarita" by falling pitch. In the tradition represented by the Rigveda, a collection of hymns, the highest point of the accent appears not to have been reached until the beginning of the "svarita" syllable. In other words, it was an example of "peak delay" (see above).


title: Pitch-accent language

text: In the later stages of Sanskrit, the pitch accent was lost and a stress accent remained. The stress in Sanskrit, however, was weaker than that in English and not free but predictable. The stress was heard on the penultimate syllable of the word if it was heavy, on the antepenultimate if the antepenultimate was heavy and the penultimate light, and otherwise on the pre-antepenultimate.


title: Pitch-accent language

text: In Ancient Greek, one of the final three syllables of a word carried an accent. Each syllable contained one or two vocalic morae, but only one can be accented, and accented morae were pronounced at a higher pitch. In polytonic orthography, accented vowels were marked with the acute accent. Long vowels and diphthongs are thought to have been bimoraic and, if the accent falls on the first mora, were marked with the circumflex. Long vowels and diphthongs that were accented on the first mora had a high–low (falling) pitch contour and, if accented on the second mora, may have had a low–high (rising) pitch contour:


title: Pitch-accent language

text: The Ancient Greek accent was melodic, as is suggested by descriptions by ancient grammarians but also by fragments of Greek music such as the Seikilos epitaph, in which most words are set to music that coincides with the accent. For example, the first syllable of the word () is set to three notes rising in pitch, the middle syllable of () is higher in pitch than the other two syllables, and the circumflex accent of () has two notes, the first a third higher than the second.


title: Pitch-accent language

text: In addition to the two accents mentioned above (the acute and the circumflex), Ancient Greek also had a grave accent. It was used only on the last syllable of words, as an alternative to an acute. The acute was used when the word was cited in isolation or came before a pause, such as a comma or a full stop, or an enclitic. Otherwise, a grave was written. The exact interpretation of the grave is disputed: it may have indicated that the accent was completely suppressed or that it was partly suppressed but not entirely absent.


title: Pitch-accent language

text: By comparing the position of the Ancient Greek and Vedic Sanskrit accents, the accent of the ancestor language Proto-Indo-European can often be reconstructed. For example, in the declension of the word for "father" in these two languages, the position of the accent in some cases is identical:


title: Pitch-accent language

text: In later stages of Greek, the accent changed from a pitch accent to a stress accent, but remained largely on the same syllable as in Ancient Greek. The change is thought to have taken place by the 4th century AD. Thus, the word () ("man, person"), which is believed to have been pronounced in ancient times with the first syllable always higher than the other two, is now pronounced with the first syllable either higher or lower than the other two.


title: Pitch-accent language

text: Two languages of the Baltic branch of the Indo-European family survive today: Lithuanian and Latvian. (Another Baltic language, Old Prussian, died out in the 18th century.) Both languages have a tonal accent that is believed to derive from the ancestral Proto-Indo-European language.


title: Pitch-accent language

text: Baltic tones are often classified as either "acute" or "circumflex." However, these labels indicate a diachronic correspondence rather than a phonetic one. For example, the "acute" accent is falling in Lithuanian but a high level tone in Latvian and is presumed to have been rising in Old Prussian and Classical Greek. The "circumflex" is rising in Lithuanian but falling in Latvian, Prussian and Classical Greek.


title: Pitch-accent language

text: In the tree diagram on the right, as adopted from Poljakov, names for (original) Baltic tones have been equated with those of modern Standard Lithuanian and the falling tone in Latvian is depicted as derived from a Baltic rising tone. According to some it was Lithuanian that "switched the places" of the Baltic tones. This might explain why most languages call a rising tone "acute" while in Baltic terminology a falling tone is "acute." Some controversy surrounds Poljakov's model, and it has been harshly criticized by Frederik Kortlandt. Kortlandt contends that broken tone in Latvian and Žemaitian is a reflex of a now disappeared glottal stop in Balto-Slavic not preserved in Aukštaitian (Standard Lithuanian) or Slavic languages and not a recent development of acute.


title: Pitch-accent language

text: Long segments in Lithuanian can take one of two accents: rising or falling. "Long segments" are defined as either long vowels, diphthongs or a sequence of a vowel followed by a sonorant if they are in a stressed position. Pitch can serve as the only distinguishing characteristic for minimal pairs that are otherwise orthographically identical, e.g., "kar̃tų" 'time:gen.pl' vs. "kártų" 'hang:irr.3' (rising and falling tone indicated by a tilde and an acute accent respectively.)


title: Pitch-accent language

text: In Latvian, long segments (the same criteria as in Lithuanian) can take on one of three pitches ("intonācijas" or more specifically "zilbes intonācijas") either "stiepta" ("level"), "lauzta" ("broken") or "krītoša" ("falling") indicated by Latvian linguists with a tilde, circumflex or a grave accent respectively (in IPA, however, the tilde is replaced by a macron because the former is already reserved to denote nasalized vowels.) Some authors note that the level pitch is realized simply as "ultra long" (or overlong.) Endzelīns (1897) identifies "level diphthongs" as consisting of 3 moras not just two. Broken pitch is, in turn, a falling pitch with superadded glottalization. And, indeed, the similarity between the Latvian broken pitch and Danish stød has been described by several authors. At least in Danish phonology, stød (unlike Norwegian and Swedish pitch accents) is not considered a pitch accent distinction but, rather, variously described as either glottalization, laryngealization, creaky voice or vocal fry. Some authors point out that the so-called broken pitch is not a pitch accent but a "pitch register" distinction similar to the "ngã" register of Northern Vietnamese.


title: Pitch-accent language

text: Outside of Central Vidzeme (Standard Latvian), the three-way system has been simplified, in Eastern Latvian (Latgale) only broken and falling pitches are distinguished. Speakers of Rīga Latvian and other more westward varieties differentiate only between level and broken pitches with the falling pitch being merged with the broken one. Thus the Standard Latvian "minimal triplet" or "minimal set" of (hall), (grass) and (medicine) in Rīga Latvian would be reduced to "hall" (level pitch) and "grass" (broken pitch) and "medicine" would be pronounced with a broken pitch just like "grass." Speakers around Ērgļi tend to have just levelled pitch.


title: Pitch-accent language

text: The extinct Livonian language is a Finnic language rather than Baltic but was influenced by Latvian. In the late 19th century, Danish linguist Vilhelm Thomsen identified a characteristic in the speech of a Livonian sailor that to him seemed very similar to the Danish "stød". The feature was later the subject of research by several Finno-Ugricists. Although the (Indo-European) Latvian and (Uralic) Livonian are phylogenetically unrelated (being from different language families) both have influenced each other heavily in terms of phonology. Whether Livonian acquired this feature from Latvian or vice versa is debated; however, owing to the fact that Livonian is the only Finno-Ugric language to have this feature, the majority of researchers believe it was a product of Latvian influence on Livonian and not the other way around. It is possible that "Livonian stød" would be classified as a pitch accent only by Latvian classification just like the identical Latvian "lauztā intonācija", otherwise it would be considered a pitch register, glottalization or similar categories as discussed above.


title: Pitch-accent language

text: The Livonian-Estonian-Latvian dictionary at www.murre.ut.ee uses an apostrophe after a vowel to indicate broken pitch, for example, "Mi’nnõn u’m vajāg" instead of just "Minnõn um vajāg".


title: Pitch-accent language

text: Norwegian and Swedish are stress-accent languages, but in addition to the stress, two-syllable words in most dialects also have differences in tone. There are two kinds of tonal accent, referred to as the acute and grave accents, but they are also called "accent 1" and "accent 2" or "tone 1" and "tone 2". Over 150 two-syllable word pairs are differentiated only by their use of the accent. Accent 1 is used generally for words whose second syllable is the definite article and for words that were monosyllabic in Old Norse.


title: Pitch-accent language

text: For example, in many East Norwegian dialects, the word (farmers) is pronounced with tone 1, while (beans or prayers) uses tone 2. Differences in spelling occasionally let readers distinguish written words, but most minimal pairs are written alike. An example in Swedish is the word , which means "the duck" when using tone 1 and "the spirit" when using tone 2.


title: Pitch-accent language

text: In some dialects of Swedish, including those spoken in Finland, the distinction is absent. There are significant variations in the realization of pitch accent between dialects. Thus, in most of western and northern Norway (the so-called high-pitch dialects), accent 1 is falling, and accent 2 is rising in the first syllable and falling in the second syllable or somewhere around the syllable boundary.


title: Pitch-accent language

text: The word accents give Norwegian and Swedish a "singing" quality that makes them easy to distinguish from other languages. In Danish (except for some southern dialects), the pitch accent of Swedish and Norwegian corresponds to the glottalization phenomenon known as stød.


title: Pitch-accent language

text: A pitch accent is found in the following Franconian languages or dialects: Limburgish, Ripuarian and Moselle Franconian (excluding Luxembourgish). They are sometimes collectively referred to as West Central German tonal languages.


title: Pitch-accent language

text: In these dialects there is a distinction between two different tonal contours, known as "tonal accent 1" and "tonal accent 2". As with Lithuanian, the distinction is made only in stressed syllables and, for the most part, only when the syllable contains a long vowel or diphthong or vowel that is followed in the same syllable by a sonorant ("r, l, m, n, ŋ"). No distinction of tones is made in stressed syllables containing a short vowel only. Although the accentual system resembles that of Swedish, the two are thought to have arisen independently. Unlike Swedish, where the distinction in tones is not made in monosyllables (except for in northern and western dialects), in the Franconian dialects it very frequently occurs in monosyllables, e.g., (Ripuarian dialect) "zɛɪ" "sieve" vs. "zɛɪ" "she".


title: Pitch-accent language

text: The tonal accents are referred to under a variety of names. Tonal accent 1 is called ' ("thrusting tone") in Dutch or ' in German, while tonal accent 2 is named "" ("slurring tone") in Dutch and "Schleifton" in German, apparently referring to the double peak it has in areas such as Limburg.


title: Pitch-accent language

text: The two accents have different realisations in different dialects. For example, in Cologne, accent 1 has a sharp fall near the beginning of the syllable, and accent 2 remains level for a while before falling. In Arzbach, near Koblenz, on the other hand, accent 1 rises slightly or remains level, while it is accent 2 that falls sharply, that is, more or less the reverse of the Cologne pattern. In Hasselt in Belgian Limburg, accent 1 rises then falls, and with accent 2 there is a fall and then a rise and another fall. The three types are known as Rule A, Rule B and Rule 0, respectively. Although traditionally accent 2 has been analysed as the marked variant, in certain Rule A areas (especially Cologne, where accent 2's realization is nigh-indistinguishable from an unpitched long vowel) accent 1 is thought of as the marked variant. Grammars of the Cologne dialect will treat the pitches as ""ungeschärft"" (accent 2) and ""geschärft"" (accent 1). Adam Wrede's influential dictionary of the Cologne dialect also treats accent 2 as indistinct; the above examples "zɛɪ" "sieve" and "zɛɪ" "she," "they" are transcribed (zeiː) and (zei) respectively. (The differing transcriptions of the vowel are due to the pronunciation being different in Cologne than the surrounding dialects)


title: Pitch-accent language

text: It has recently been observed that in interrogative sentences, however, all three types have nearly identical intonations. In all dialects in accent 1, there is then a rise and then a fall. In accent 2, there is then a fall, a rise and then another fall.


title: Pitch-accent language

text: Since the contour of the accent changes in different contexts, from declarative to interrogative, those dialects apparently contradict Hayes's proposed criterion for a pitch-accent language of the contour of a pitch-accent remaining stable in every context.


title: Pitch-accent language

text: The West South Slavic languages include Serbo-Croatian (Bosnian-Croatian-Montenegrin-Serbian) and Slovenian, spoken in the former Yugoslavia.


title: Pitch-accent language

text: The late Proto-Slavic accentual system was based on a fundamental opposition of a short/long circumflex (falling) tone, and an acute (rising) tone, the position of the accent being free as was inherited from Proto-Balto-Slavic. Common Slavic accentual innovations significantly reworked the original system primarily with respect to the position of the accent (Dybo's law, Illič-Svityč's law, Meillet's law etc.), and further developments yielded some new accents, such as the so-called neoacute (Ivšić's law), or the new rising tone in Neoštokavian dialects (the so-called "Neoštokavian retraction").


title: Pitch-accent language

text: As opposed to other Slavic dialect subgroups, West South Slavic dialects have largely retained the Proto-Slavic system of free and mobile tonal accent (including the dialect used for basis of Modern Standard Slovene and the Neoštokavian dialect used for the basis of standard varieties of Serbo-Croatian: Bosnian, Croatian and Serbian), though the discrepancy between the codified norm and actual speech may vary significantly.


title: Pitch-accent language

text: The Neoštokavian dialect used for the basis of standard Bosnian, Croatian and Serbian distinguishes four types of pitch accents: short falling (ȅ), short rising (è), long falling (ȇ), and long rising (é). There are also unaccented vowels: long (ē) and short (e). The accent is said to be relatively free, as it can be manifested on any syllable except the last. The long accents are realized by pitch change within the long vowel; the short ones are realized by the pitch difference from the subsequent syllable.


title: Pitch-accent language

text: Accent alternations are very frequent in inflectional paradigms by both types of accent and placement in the word (the so-called "mobile paradigms", which were present in the PIE itself but became much more widespread in Proto-Balto-Slavic). Different inflected forms of the same lexeme can exhibit all four accents: "lònac" 'pot' (nominative sg.), "lónca" (genitive sg.), "lȏnci" (nominative pl.), "lȍnācā" (genitive pl.).


title: Pitch-accent language

text: Restrictions on the distribution of the accent depend on the position of the syllable but also on its quality, as not every kind of accent is manifested in every syllable.


title: Pitch-accent language

text: Thus, monosyllables generally have falling tone, and polysyllabic words generally have falling or rising tone on the first syllable and rising in all the other syllables except the last. The tonal opposition rising vs. falling is generally possible only in the first accented syllable of polysyllabic words, but the opposition by length, long vs. short, is possible even in the nonaccented syllable and the post-accented syllable (but not in the preaccented position).


title: Pitch-accent language

text: Proclitics (clitics that latch on to a following word), on the other hand, can "steal" a falling tone (but not a rising tone) from the following monosyllabic or disyllabic words (as seen in the examples /vîdiːm/→/ně‿vidiːm/, /ʒěliːm/→/ne‿ʒěliːm/). The stolen accent is always short and may end up being either falling or rising on the proclitic. That phenomenon is obligatory in Neoštokavian idiom and therefore in all three standard languages, but it is often lost in spoken dialects because of the influence of other dialects (such as in Zagreb because of the influence of Kajkavian dialect).


title: Pitch-accent language

text: In Slovenian, there are two concurrent standard accentual systems: the older, tonal, with three "pitch accents", and the younger, dynamic (i.e., stress-based), with louder and longer syllables. The stress-based system was introduced because two thirds of Slovenia has lost its tonal accent. In practice, however, even the stress-based accentual system is just an abstract ideal, and speakers generally retain their own dialect even when they try to speak Standard Slovenian. For example, speakers of urban dialects in the west of Slovenia without distinctive length fail to introduce a quantitative opposition when they speak the standard language.


title: Pitch-accent language

text: The older accentual system is tonal and free ("jágoda" 'strawberry', "malína" 'raspberry', "gospodár" 'master, lord'). There are three kinds of accents: short falling (è), long falling (ȇ) and long rising (é). Non-final syllables always have long accents: "rakîta" 'crustacea', "tetíva" 'sinew'. The short falling accent is always in the final syllable: "bràt" 'brother'. Three-way opposition among accents can only then be present: "deskà" 'board' : "blagọ̑"  'goods, ware' : "gospá" 'lady'. Accent can be mobile throughout the inflectional paradigm: "dȃr" — "darȗ", "góra — gorẹ́" — "goràm", "bràt — bráta" — "o brȃtu", "kráva — krȃv", "vóda — vodọ̑" — "na vọ̑do"). The distinction is made between open "-e-" and "-o-" (either long or short) and closed "-ẹ-" and "-ọ-" (always long).


title: Pitch-accent language

text: The Basque language of northeastern Spain and southwestern France has a number of different dialects and a number of accentual patterns. Only western varieties seem to have a tonal accent, and eastern varieties have a stress accent (the stress-accent dialects also differ one from another). According to an analysis first suggested by J.R. Hualde, Northern Bizkaian has most nouns accentless in their absolutive singular form, but they have a default high tone (shown by underlining below), which continues throughout the word except for the first syllable. These examples come from the Gernika (Guernica) dialect:


title: Pitch-accent language

text: There are, however, a few nouns (often borrowings) with a lexical accent. As in Japanese, the accent consists of a high tone, followed by a low one:


title: Pitch-accent language

text: In addition, some suffixes (including all plural suffixes) are preaccenting and so cause an accent on the syllable before the suffix:


title: Pitch-accent language

text: The accent from Ondarroa is similar but the accent of the word, if any, always appears on the penultimate syllable:


title: Pitch-accent language

text: Intonation studies show that when an accentless word is spoken either in isolation or before a verb, it acquires an accent on its last syllable (or, in Ondarroa, on its penultimate syllable). However, that is an intonational accent, rather than a lexical accent:


title: Pitch-accent language

text: When an accentless word in those dialects of Basque is followed by an accented word, the automatic high tones continue in a plateau as far as the accent:


title: Pitch-accent language

text: That also applies if the accent is intonational. In the following sentence, all words are unaccented apart from the intonational accent before the verb:


title: Pitch-accent language

text: When an accented word is focused, the pitch of the accented syllable is raised, but if the word is accentless, there is no rise in pitch on that word but only on the accented word. In the following phrase, only the word "amúma" "grandmother" is thus accented, whether the focus is on "John", "friend", or "grandmother", or none of these:


title: Pitch-accent language

text: Another pitch accent area in Basque is found in western Navarre, near the border with France in the towns of Goizueta and Leitza. There is a strong stress accent there on the second or the first syllable of every word, like with central dialects of Basque, but there is also a pitch contrast superimposed on the stress: "mendik" (rise-dip-rise) "the mountain" vs. "mendik" (rise-fall) "the mountains".


title: Pitch-accent language

text: Although the Turkish accent is traditionally referred to as "stress", recent studies have pointed out that the main correlate of lexical accent is actually pitch. In a word like "sözcükle" "with a word", the accented second syllable is thus higher than the other two but has less intensity (loudness).


title: Pitch-accent language

text: Turkish word-accent is found especially in geographical names ("İstanbul", Ankara", "Yunanistan" "Greece", "Adana"), foreign borrowings ("salata" "salad", "lokanta" "restaurant"), some proper names (Erdoğan", "Kenedi"), compound words ("başkent" "capital city"), some words referring to relatives ("anne" "mother"), and certain adverbs ("şimdi" "now", "yalnız" "only"). It is also caused by certain suffixes, some of which are "pre-accenting" and so cause an accent on the syllable preceding them, such as negative "-me-/-ma-", question particle "mi?", or copula "-dir" "it is" ("gelmedi" "he did not come", "geldi mi?" "did he come?", "güzeldir" "it is beautiful"). The accented syllable is slightly higher in pitch than the following syllable. All other words, when pronounced in isolation, either have a slightly raised pitch on the final syllable or are pronounced with all the syllables level.


title: Pitch-accent language

text: Turkish also has a phrase-accent and focus-accent. An accent on the first word of a phrase usually causes an accent in the following words or suffixes to be neutralised, e.g., "çoban salatası" "shepherd salad", "Ankara'dan da" "also from Ankara", "telefon ettiler" "they telephoned", with only one accent.


title: Pitch-accent language

text: A controversy exists over whether Turkish has accentless words, like Japanese and Basque. Some scholars, such as Levi (2005) and Özçelik (2016), see the final raised pitch sometimes heard in words such as "arkadaş" ("friend") or "geldi" ("he came") as a mere phrasal tone or boundary tone. Others, such as Kabak (2016), prefer the traditional view that the final accent in such words is a kind of stress.


title: Pitch-accent language

text: The accent of Persian words used to be always referred to as "stress" but is recognised as a pitch accent in recent works. Acoustic studies show that accented syllables have some of the characteristics of stressed syllables in stress-accent languages (slightly more intensity, more length, more open vowels), but that effect is much less than would normally be expected in stress-accent languages. The main difference is one of pitch, with a contour of (L)+H*.


title: Pitch-accent language

text: Persian nouns and adjectives are always accented on the final syllable. Certain suffixes, such as the plural "-ha", shift the accent to themselves:


title: Pitch-accent language

text: In the vocative ("xânom!" "madam") and sometimes elsewhere, such as "bale!" "yes" or "agar" "if", the accent is also on the first syllable.


title: Pitch-accent language

text: However, other researchers claim that the pitch of post-focus words is reduced but sometimes still audible.


title: Pitch-accent language

text: Standard Japanese and certain other varieties of Japanese are described as having a pitch accent, which differs significantly among dialects. In Standard Japanese, the "accent" may be characterized as a downstep rather than as pitch accent. The pitch of a word rises until it reaches a downstep and then drops abruptly. In a two-syllable word, a contrast thus occurs between "high–low" and "low–high". Accentless words are also "low–high", but the pitch of following enclitics differentiates them.


title: Pitch-accent language

text: The Ōsaka accent (Kansai dialect) (marked red on the map to the right) differs from the Tokyo accent in that in some words, the first syllable of the word (always "low" in Tokyo Japanese unless accented) can be "high". To give a full description of the accent of a word, therefore, it is necessary to specify not only the position of the accent (downstep) but also the height of the first syllable.


title: Pitch-accent language

text: Standard (Seoul) Korean uses pitch only for prosody. However, several other dialects retain a Middle Korean pitch-accent system.


title: Pitch-accent language

text: In the dialect of North Gyeongsang, in southeastern South Korea, any syllable and the initial two syllables may have a pitch accent in the form of a high tone. For example, in trisyllabic words, there are four possible tone patterns:


title: Pitch-accent language

text: Not counting closed syllables (those with a final glottal stop), a monosyllabic Shanghainese may carry one of three tones: "high", "mid", "low". The tones have a contour in isolation, but for the following purposes, it can be ignored. However, "low" tone always occurs after voiced consonants and only then. Thus, the only tonal distinction is after voiceless consonants and in vowel-initial syllables, and there is only a two-way distinction between "high" tone and "mid" tone.


title: Pitch-accent language

text: In a polysyllabic word, the tone of the first syllable determines the tone of the entire word. If the first tone is "high", the following syllables are mid. If it is "mid" or "low," the second syllable is "high", and any following syllables are "mid". Thus, a mark for the high tone is all that is needed to note the tone in Shanghainese:


title: Pitch-accent language

text: The Bantu languages are a large group of some 550 languages, spread over most of south and central Africa. Proto-Bantu is believed to have had two tones: H and L. However, it does not appear to have had a pitch-accent system, as defined above, since words with such forms as HL, HH, LH, and LL were all found: *"káda" "charcoal", *"cómbá" "fish", *"nyangá" "horn" and *"tope" "mud". In other words, some words like *"cómbá" could have two high tones, and others had one tone or none.


title: Pitch-accent language

text: However, in the course of time, processes such as Meeussen's Rule, by which sequences such as HHH became HLL, LHL, or LLH, tended to eliminate all but one tone in a word in many Bantu languages, making them more accent-like. Thus in Chichewa, the word for "fish" ("nsómba") now has HL tones, exactly like the word for "charcoal" ("khála").


title: Pitch-accent language

text: Another process that makes for culminativity in some Bantu languages is the interaction between stress and tone. The penultimate syllable of a word is stressed in many Bantu languages, and some of them have a tendency for high tones to be on the penultimate. For example, in Chitumbuka, every phonological phrase is accented with a falling tone on the penultimate: "ti-ku-phika sî:ma" "we are cooking porridge". In other languages, such as Xhosa, the high tone is attracted to the antepenultimate although the penultimate being stressed.


title: Pitch-accent language

text: Ciluba and Ruund, in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, are two Bantu languages thaty are interesting for their "tone reversal". Low tone is phonologically active in places that other languages of the same family have a high tone. Thus, in a word like *"mukíla" "tail", most other Bantu languages have a high tone on the second syllable, but Chiluba has "mukìla" and Ruund has "mukìl", with a low-toned accent.


title: Pitch-accent language

text: Luganda, a language of Uganda, has some words with apparent tonal accents. They can be either high or falling (rising tones do not occur in Luganda). Falling tones are found on bimoraic syllables or word-finally:


title: Pitch-accent language

text: However, accentless words are not always without tones but usually receive a default tone on all syllables except the first one or the first mora:


title: Pitch-accent language

text: A double consonant at the beginning of a word counts as a mora. In such words, the first syllable also can have a default tone:


title: Pitch-accent language

text: Default tones are also heard on the end of accented words if there is a gap of at least one mora after the accent (the default tones are lower in pitch than the preceding accent):


title: Pitch-accent language

text: The default tones are not always heard but disappear in certain contexts, such as if a noun is the subject of a sentence or used before a numeral:


title: Pitch-accent language

text: In some contexts such as affirmative verb + location, or phrases with "of"), the high tone of an accent (or of a default tone) can continue in a plateau all the way until the next accented syllable:


title: Pitch-accent language

text: The situation with verbs is more complicated, however, since some of the verbal roots have their own inherent word-accent, but also, the prefixes added to the verb also often have an accent. Also, some tenses (such as negative tenses and relative clause tenses) add an accent on the final syllable.


title: Pitch-accent language

text: When two or three accents come in a row in a verb, H-H becomes H-L, and H-H-H becomes H-L-L. However, the default tones are not added on the syllables with deleted accents, which leads to forms like "bálilabá" (from "*bá-lí-lába") "they will see". There, not one but two low-toned syllables follow the accent.


title: Pitch-accent language

text: Another rule is that if two accents in the same verb are not next to each other, they form a plateau. Thus, the negative tense "tágulâ" "he does not buy" is pronounced 'tágúlâ"'", with a plateau.


title: Pitch-accent language

text: Chichewa, a language widely spoken in Malawi, is tonal but has accentual properties. Most Chichewa simple nouns have only one high tone, usually on one of the last three syllables. (See Chichewa tones.)


title: Pitch-accent language

text: However, many number of nouns have no high tone but are accentless. Unlike the accentless words in Luganda, however, they do not acquire any default tones but are pronounced with all the syllables low:


title: Pitch-accent language

text: A few nouns (often but not always compounds) have two high tones. If they are separated by only one syllable, they usually join in a plateau:


title: Pitch-accent language

text: Most verbal roots in Chichewa are accentless. However, a few verbs also have lexical accents, but they are not inherited from Proto-Bantu. When there is an accent, it is always heard on the final "-a" of the verb:


title: Pitch-accent language

text: Some accents are added by prefixes and suffixes. For example, the infinitive prefix "ku-" is postaccenting, adding a tone on the following syllable, while the suffix "-nso" "again/also" is preaccenting:


title: Pitch-accent language

text: The verbal system is complicated by the fact that overlying the tones of the verb and suffixes is a series of tonal patterns that changes by tense. There are at least eight patterns for affirmative tenses and other different patterns for relative clause verbs and negative verbs.


title: Pitch-accent language

text: For example, the present habitual tense has tones on the first and penultimate syllables, the recent past has a tone after the tense-marker -"na"-, the subjunctive has a tone on the final syllable and the potential is toneless. The tones apply, with minor variations, to all verbs, whether the stem is long or short:


title: Pitch-accent language

text: When a verb has a penultimate accent, most other tones tend to be suppressed. For example, in the negative future, both the tone of the future-tense marker, "-dzá-", and the tone of the negative marker, "sí-" (both normally high), are neutralised:


title: Pitch-accent language

text: Those and other processes cause most verb tenses to have only one or two high tones, which are at the beginning, the penultimate or the final of the verb stem or at a prefix or sometimes even both. That gives the impression that the tones in the resultant words have a clearly-accentual quality.


title: Pitch-accent language

text: Most dialects of English are classified as stress-accent languages. However, there are some dialects in which tone can play a part in the word accent.


title: Pitch-accent language

text: Lexical words in Hong Kong English are assigned at least one H (high) tone. Disyllabic words may have the tone pattern H-o (clóckwise), H-H (sómetímes), o-H (creáte), where "o" stands for tonelessness. Trisyllabic words receive any one of seven possible tone assignments H-H-H (kángároo), H-H-o (hándwríting), H-o-H (róundabóut), H-o-o (thréátening), o-H-H (abóut-túrn), o-H-o (esséntial), o-o-H (recomménd). Toneless syllables receive other pitch assignments depending on their positions: word-initial toneless syllables are M(id)-toned, utterance-final toneless syllables are Low, and word-medial toneless syllables vary across two major sub-dialects in the community surfacing as either H or M. Because lexical stipulation of Hong Kong English tones are {H, o} privative, one is easily misled into thinking of Hong Kong English as a pitch-accented language. It is, however, probably more accurate to think of Hong Kong English as a language with lexical tones.


title: Pitch-accent language

text: In Broad South African English, (phonetically ) is often deleted, such as in word-initial stressed syllables (as in "house"), but at least as often, it is pronounced even if it seems to be deleted. The vowel that follows in the word-initial syllable often carries a low or low rising tone. In rapid speech, that can be the only trace of the deleted . Potentially minimal tonal pairs are thus created, like "oh" (neutral or high falling ) vs. "hoe" (low or low rising ).


title: Pitch-accent language

text: A distinctive feature of Welsh English is the rising pitch on the last syllable of major words, imitating the rising pitch of word-final syllables in Welsh (see below). An important factor in the realisation of stress in both Welsh and Welsh English is the length of the post-stress consonant, which tends to be longer than the stressed vowel itself.


title: Pitch-accent language

text: In Welsh a stress accent usually comes on the penultimate syllable (with a few exceptions accented on the final, such as the word "Cymraeg" "Welsh"), and is usually on a low pitch followed by a rising pitch. "In Welsh, the stressed syllable is associated with lower pitch than less stressed or unstressed syllables ... However, the post-stress syllable in Welsh is typically produced on a higher pitch." It is believed that this came about because late Brythonic (the ancestor of Welsh) had a penultimate accent that was pronounced with a high pitch. When the final vowels of words were lost, the high pitch remained on what was now the final syllable, but the stress moved to the new penultimate. Thus LHL changed to LH, with the stress on the low syllable.


title: Pitch-accent language

text: Although it is usually said that the high pitch is in the final syllable of the word, an acoustic study of Anglesey Welsh found that in that dialect at least the peak of the tone was actually in the penultimate syllable, thus the last two syllables were L+H* L.


title: Pitch-accent language

text: The Yaqui are a native American people living mostly in Mexico but also in Arizona. About 17,000 people are said to speak Yaqui, which is a Uto-Aztecan language.


title: Pitch-accent language

text: Yaqui has a tonal accent in which the accent is on the first or the second mora of the word. A long vowel has two moras in Yaqui, and a short vowel or diphthong has one mora. After the accent, the high tone continues with a very slight decline until the end of the word.


title: Pitch-accent language

text: In some words with a long first vowel, the accent moves to the second syllable, and the vowel of the first syllable then becomes short:


title: Pitch-accent language

text: In a certain kind of reduplication, the accent moves to the first mora, and the next consonant is then usually doubled. At the same time, since a long vowel cannot follow the accent, the vowel after the accent is also shortened:


title: Pitch-accent language

text: To an English-speaker, the first high tone in Yaqui "sounds very much like a stress". However, acoustic studies show that the amplitude of the accented syllable is not really greater than the other syllables in the word are.


title: Deep packet inspection

text: Deep packet inspection (DPI) is a type of data processing that inspects in detail the data being sent over a computer network, and may take actions such as alerting, blocking, re-routing, or logging it accordingly. Deep packet inspection is often used to baseline application behavior, analyze network usage, troubleshoot network performance, ensure that data is in the correct format, check for malicious code, eavesdropping, and internet censorship, among other purposes. There are multiple headers for IP packets; network equipment only needs to use the first of these (the IP header) for normal operation, but use of the second header (such as TCP or UDP) is normally considered to be shallow packet inspection (usually called stateful packet inspection) despite this definition.


title: Deep packet inspection

text: There are multiple ways to acquire packets for deep packet inspection. Using port mirroring (sometimes called Span Port) is a very common way, as well physically inserting a network tap which duplicates and sends the data stream to an analyzer tool for inspection.


title: Deep packet inspection

text: Deep Packet Inspection (and filtering) enables advanced network management, user service, and security functions as well as internet data mining, eavesdropping, and internet censorship. Although DPI has been used for Internet management for many years, some advocates of net neutrality fear that the technique may be used anticompetitively or to reduce the openness of the Internet.


title: Deep packet inspection

text: DPI is used in a wide range of applications, at the so-called "enterprise" level (corporations and larger institutions), in telecommunications service providers, and in governments.


title: Deep packet inspection

text: DPI technology boasts a long and technologically advanced history, starting in the 1990s, before the technology entered what is seen today as common, mainstream deployments. The technology traces its roots back over 30 years, when many of the pioneers contributed their inventions for use among industry participants, such as through common standards and early innovation, such as the following:


title: Deep packet inspection

text: Essential DPI functionality includes analysis of packet headers and protocol fields. For example, Wireshark offers essential DPI functionality through its numerous dissectors that display field names and content and, in some cases, offer interpretation of field values.


title: Deep packet inspection

text: Some security solutions that offer DPI combine the functionality of an intrusion detection system (IDS) and an Intrusion prevention system (IPS) with a traditional stateful firewall. This combination makes it possible to detect certain attacks that neither the IDS/IPS nor the stateful firewall can catch on their own. Stateful firewalls, while able to see the beginning and end of a packet flow, cannot catch events on their own that would be out of bounds for a particular application. While IDSs are able to detect intrusions, they have very little capability in blocking such an attack. DPIs are used to prevent attacks from viruses and worms at wire speeds. More specifically, DPI can be effective against buffer overflow attacks, denial-of-service attacks (DoS), sophisticated intrusions, and a small percentage of worms that fit within a single packet.


title: Deep packet inspection

text: DPI-enabled devices have the ability to look at Layer 2 and beyond Layer 3 of the OSI model. In some cases, DPI can be invoked to look through Layer 2-7 of the OSI model. This includes headers and data protocol structures as well as the payload of the message. DPI functionality is invoked when a device looks or takes other action based on information beyond Layer 3 of the OSI model. DPI can identify and classify traffic based on a signature database that includes information extracted from the data part of a packet, allowing finer control than classification based only on header information. End points can utilize encryption and obfuscation techniques to evade DPI actions in many cases.


title: Deep packet inspection

text: A classified packet may be redirected, marked/tagged (see quality of service), blocked, rate limited, and of course, reported to a reporting agent in the network. In this way, HTTP errors of different classifications may be identified and forwarded for analysis. Many DPI devices can identify packet flows (rather than packet-by-packet analysis), allowing control actions based on accumulated flow information.


title: Deep packet inspection

text: Initially security at the enterprise level was just a perimeter discipline, with a dominant philosophy of keeping unauthorized users out, and shielding authorized users from the outside world. The most frequently used tool for accomplishing this has been a stateful firewall. It can permit fine-grained control of access from the outside world to pre-defined destinations on the internal network, as well as permitting access back to other hosts only if a request to the outside world has been made previously.


title: Deep packet inspection

text: Vulnerabilities exist at network layers, however, that are not visible to a stateful firewall. Also, an increase in the use of laptops in enterprise makes it more difficult to prevent threats such as viruses, worms, and spyware from penetrating the corporate network, as many users will connect the laptop to less-secure networks such as home broadband connections or wireless networks in public locations. Firewalls also do not distinguish between permitted and forbidden uses of legitimately-accessed applications. DPI enables IT administrators and security officials to set policies and enforce them at all layers, including the application and user layer to help combat those threats.


title: Deep packet inspection

text: DPI may be used by enterprise for Data Leak Prevention (DLP). When an e-mail user tries to send a protected file, the user may be given information on how to get the proper clearance to send the file.


title: Deep packet inspection

text: In addition to using DPI to secure their internal networks, Internet service providers also apply it on the public networks provided to customers. Common uses of DPI by ISPs are lawful intercept, policy definition and enforcement, targeted advertising, quality of service, offering tiered services, and copyright enforcement.


title: Deep packet inspection

text: Service providers are required by almost all governments worldwide to enable lawful intercept capabilities. Decades ago in a legacy telephone environment, this was met by creating a traffic access point (TAP) using an intercepting proxy server that connects to the government's surveillance equipment. The acquisition component of this functionality may be provided in many ways, including DPI, DPI-enabled products that are "LI or CALEA-compliant" can be used – when directed by a court order – to access a user's datastream.


title: Deep packet inspection

text: Service providers obligated by the service-level agreement with their customers to provide a certain level of service and at the same time, enforce an acceptable use policy, may make use of DPI to implement certain policies that cover copyright infringements, illegal materials, and unfair use of bandwidth. In some countries the ISPs are required to perform filtering, depending on the country's laws. DPI allows service providers to "readily know the packets of information you are receiving online—from e-mail, to websites, to sharing of music, video and software downloads". Policies can be defined that allow or disallow connection to or from an IP address, certain protocols, or even heuristics that identify a certain application or behavior.


title: Deep packet inspection

text: Because ISPs route the traffic of all of their customers, they are able to monitor web-browsing habits in a very detailed way allowing them to gain information about their customers' interests, which can be used by companies specializing in targeted advertising. At least 100,000 United States customers are tracked this way, and as many as 10% of U.S. customers have been tracked in this way. Technology providers include NebuAd, Front Porch, and Phorm. U.S. ISPs monitoring their customers include Knology and Wide Open West. In addition, the United Kingdom ISP British Telecom has admitted testing solutions from Phorm without their customers' knowledge or consent.


title: Deep packet inspection

text: Applications such as peer-to-peer (P2P) traffic present increasing problems for broadband service providers. Typically, P2P traffic is used by applications that do file sharing. These may be any kind of files (i.e. documents, music, videos, or applications). Due to the frequently large size of media files being transferred, P2P drives increasing traffic loads, requiring additional network capacity. Service providers say a minority of users generate large quantities of P2P traffic and degrade performance for the majority of broadband subscribers using applications such as e-mail or Web browsing which use less bandwidth. Poor network performance increases customer dissatisfaction and leads to a decline in service revenues.


title: Deep packet inspection

text: DPI allows the operators to oversell their available bandwidth while ensuring equitable bandwidth distribution to all users by preventing network congestion. Additionally, a higher priority can be allocated to a VoIP or video conferencing call which requires low latency versus web browsing which does not. This is the approach that service providers use to dynamically allocate bandwidth according to traffic that is passing through their networks.


title: Deep packet inspection

text: Mobile and broadband service providers use DPI as a means to implement tiered service plans, to differentiate "walled garden" services from "value added", "all-you-can-eat" and "one-size-fits-all" data services. By being able to charge for a "walled garden", per application, per service, or "all-you-can-eat" rather than a "one-size-fits-all" package, the operator can tailor his offering to the individual subscriber and increase their average revenue per user (ARPU). A policy is created per user or user group, and the DPI system in turn enforces that policy, allowing the user access to different services and applications.


title: Deep packet inspection

text: ISPs are sometimes requested by copyright owners or required by courts or official policy to help enforce copyrights. In 2006, one of Denmark's largest ISPs, Tele2, was given a court injunction and told it must block its customers from accessing The Pirate Bay, a launching point for BitTorrent.


title: Deep packet inspection

text: Instead of prosecuting file sharers one at a time, the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry (IFPI) and the big four record labels EMI, Sony BMG, Universal Music, and Warner Music have sued ISPs such as Eircom for not doing enough about protecting their copyrights. The IFPI wants ISPs to filter traffic to remove illicitly uploaded and downloaded copyrighted material from their network, despite European directive 2000/31/EC clearly stating that ISPs may not be put under a general obligation to monitor the information they transmit, and directive 2002/58/EC granting European citizens a right to privacy of communications.


title: Deep packet inspection

text: The Motion Picture Association of America (MPAA) which enforces movie copyrights, has taken the position with the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) that network neutrality could hurt anti-piracy techniques such as deep packet inspection and other forms of filtering.


title: Deep packet inspection

text: DPI allows ISPs to gather statistical information about use patterns by user group. For instance, it might be of interest whether users with a 2Mbit connection use the network in a dissimilar manner to users with a 5Mbit connection. Access to trend data also helps network planning.


title: Deep packet inspection

text: In addition to using DPI for the security of their own networks, governments in North America, Europe, and Asia use DPI for various purposes such as surveillance and censorship. Many of these programs are classified.


title: Deep packet inspection

text: The Chinese government uses deep packet inspection to monitor and censor network traffic and content that it claims is harmful to Chinese citizens or state interests. This material includes pornography, information on religion, and political dissent. Chinese network ISPs use DPI to see if there is any sensitive keyword going through their network. If so, the connection will be cut. People within China often find themselves blocked while accessing Web sites containing content related to Taiwanese and Tibetan independence, Falun Gong, the Dalai Lama, the Tiananmen Square protests and massacre of 1989, political parties that oppose that of the ruling Communist party, or a variety of anti-Communist movements as those materials were signed as DPI sensitive keywords already. China previously blocked all VoIP traffic in and out of their country but many available VoIP applications now function in China. Voice traffic in Skype is unaffected, although text messages are subject to filtering, and messages containing sensitive material, such as curse-words, are simply not delivered, with no notification provided to either participant in the conversation. China also blocks visual media sites such as YouTube.com and various photography and blogging sites.


title: Deep packet inspection

text: Since 2015, Egypt reportedly started to join the list which was constantly being denied by the Egyptian National Telecom Regulatory Authority (NTRA) officials. However, it came to news when the country decided to block the encrypted messaging app Signal as announced by the application's developer.


title: Deep packet inspection

text: In April 2017, all VoIP applications including FaceTime, Facebook Messenger, Viber, WhatsApp calls and Skype have been all blocked in the country.


title: Deep packet inspection

text: The Indonesian Government via Telkom Indonesia, supported by Cisco Meraki DPI technology, do country wide surveillance, and map it into SSN/NIK(Nomor Induk Kependudukan) of its citizens that registered to the ISP. They use this for filtering porn, hates speech, and reducing tension in West Papua. In most of the case, these data always released to dark web by sub contractor that works for the gov. Indonesian Gov plan to scale up the surveillance to next level until 2030.


title: Deep packet inspection

text: The Iranian government purchased a system, reportedly for deep packet inspection, in 2008 from Nokia Siemens Networks (NSN) (a joint venture Siemens AG, the German conglomerate, and Nokia Corp., the Finnish cell telephone company), now NSN is Nokia Solutions and Networks, according to a report in the "Wall Street Journal" in June, 2009, quoting NSN spokesperson Ben Roome. According to unnamed experts cited in the article, the system "enables authorities to not only block communication but to monitor it to gather information about individuals, as well as alter it for disinformation purposes".


title: Deep packet inspection

text: The system was purchased by the Telecommunication Infrastructure Co., part of the Iranian government's telecom monopoly. According to the "Journal", NSN "provided equipment to Iran last year under the internationally recognized concept of 'lawful intercept,' said Mr. Roome. That relates to intercepting data for the purposes of combating terrorism, child pornography, drug trafficking, and other criminal activities carried out online, a capability that most if not all telecom companies have, he said... The monitoring center that Nokia Siemens Networks sold to Iran was described in a company brochure as allowing 'the monitoring and interception of all types of voice and data communication on all networks.' The joint venture exited the business that included the monitoring equipment, what it called 'intelligence solution,' at the end of March, by selling it to Perusa Partners Fund 1 LP, a Munich-based investment firm, Mr. Roome said. He said the company determined it was no longer part of its core business.


title: Deep packet inspection

text: Questions have been raised about the reporting reliability of the "Journal" report by David Isenberg, an independent Washington, D.C.-based analyst and Cato Institute Adjunct Scholar, specifically saying that Mr. Roome is denying the quotes attributed to him and that he, Isenberg, also had similar complaints with one of the same "Journal" reporters in an earlier story. NSN has issued the following denial: NSN "has not provided any deep packet inspection, web censorship or Internet filtering capability to Iran". A concurrent article in "The New York Times" stated the NSN sale had been covered in a "spate of news reports in April [2009], including "The Washington Times"," and reviewed censorship of the Internet and other media in the country, but did not mention DPI.


title: Deep packet inspection

text: According to Walid Al-Saqaf, the developer of the internet censorship circumventor Alkasir, Iran was using deep packet inspection in February 2012, bringing internet speeds in the entire country to a near standstill. This briefly eliminated access to tools such as Tor and Alkasir.


title: Deep packet inspection

text: The incumbent Malaysian government, headed by Barisan Nasional, was said to be using DPI against a political opponent during the run-up to the 13th general elections held on 5 May 2013.


title: Deep packet inspection

text: The purpose of DPI, in this instance, was to block and/or hinder access to selected websites, e.g. Facebook accounts, blogs and news portals.


title: Deep packet inspection

text: DPI is not yet mandated in Russia. Federal Law No.139 enforces blocking websites on the Russian Internet blacklist using IP filtering, but does not force ISPs into analyzing the data part of packets. Yet some ISPs still use different DPI solutions to implement blacklisting. For 2019, the governmental agency Roskomnadzor is planning a nationwide rollout of DPI after the pilot project in one of the country's regions, at an estimated cost of 20 billion roubles (US$300M).


title: Deep packet inspection

text: Some human rights activists consider Deep Packet inspection contrary to Article 23 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation, though a legal process to prove or refute that has never taken place.


title: Deep packet inspection

text: The state reportedly employs deep packet inspection of Internet traffic, to analyze and block forbidden transit.


title: Deep packet inspection

text: FCC adopts Internet CALEA requirements: The FCC, pursuant to its mandate from the U.S. Congress, and in line with the policies of most countries worldwide, has required that all telecommunication providers, including Internet services, be capable of supporting the execution of a court order to provide real-time communication forensics of specified users. In 2006, the FCC adopted new Title 47, Subpart Z, rules requiring Internet Access Providers to meet these requirements. DPI was one of the platforms essential to meeting this requirement and has been deployed for this purpose throughout the U.S.


title: Deep packet inspection

text: The National Security Agency (NSA), with cooperation from AT&T Inc., has used Deep Packet Inspection to make internet traffic surveillance, sorting, and forwarding more intelligent. The DPI is used to find which packets are carrying e-mail or a Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) telephone call.


title: Deep packet inspection

text: Traffic associated with AT&T's Common Backbone was "split" between two fibers, dividing the signal so that 50 percent of the signal strength went to each output fiber. One of the output fibers was diverted to a secure room; the other carried communications on to AT&T's switching equipment. The secure room contained Narus traffic analyzers and logic servers; Narus states that such devices are capable of real-time data collection (recording data for consideration) and capture at 10 gigabits per second. Certain traffic was selected and sent over a dedicated line to a "central location" for analysis. According to an affidavit by expert witness J. Scott Marcus, a former senior advisor for Internet Technology at the US Federal Communications Commission, the diverted traffic "represented all, or substantially all, of AT&T’s peering traffic in the San Francisco Bay area", and thus, "the designers of the…configuration made no attempt, in terms of location or position of the fiber split, to exclude data sources primarily of domestic data".


title: Deep packet inspection

text: Narus's Semantic Traffic Analyzer software, which runs on IBM or Dell Linux servers using DPI, sorts through IP traffic at 10Gbit/s to pick out specific messages based on a targeted e-mail address, IP address or, in the case of VoIP, telephone number. President George W. Bush and Attorney General Alberto R. Gonzales have asserted that they believe the president has the authority to order secret intercepts of telephone and e-mail exchanges between people inside the United States and their contacts abroad without obtaining a FISA warrant.


title: Deep packet inspection

text: The Defense Information Systems Agency has developed a sensor platform that uses Deep Packet Inspection.


title: Deep packet inspection

text: Vietnam launched its network security center and required ISPs to upgrade their hardware systems to use deep packet inspection to block Internet traffic.


title: Deep packet inspection

text: The Indian ISP Jio, which is also the largest network operator in India has been known to employ sophisticated DPI techniques like SNI-based filtering to enforce censorship.


title: Deep packet inspection

text: People and organizations concerned about privacy or network neutrality find inspection of the content layers of the Internet protocol to be offensive, saying for example, "the 'Net was built on open access and non-discrimination of packets!" Critics of network neutrality rules, meanwhile, call them "a solution in search of a problem" and say that net neutrality rules would reduce incentives to upgrade networks and launch next-generation network services.


title: Deep packet inspection

text: With increased use of HTTPS and privacy tunneling using VPNs, the effectiveness of DPI is coming into question. In response, many web application firewalls now offer "HTTPS inspection", where they decrypt HTTPS traffic to analyse it. The WAF can either terminate the encryption, so the connection between WAF and client browser uses plain HTTP, or re-encrypt the data using its own HTTPS certificate, which must be distributed to clients beforehand. The techniques used in HTTPS/SSL Inspection (also known as HTTPS/SSL Interception) are the same used by man-in-the-middle (MiTM) attacks


title: Deep packet inspection

text: This can be done with any TLS-Terminated connection (not only HTTPS) as long as the firewall product can modify the TrustStore of the SSL-Client


title: Deep packet inspection

text: Traditionally the mantra which has served ISP well has been to only operate at layer 4 and below of the OSI model. This is because simply deciding where packets go and routing them is comparably very easy to handle securely. This traditional model still allows ISPs to accomplish required tasks safely such as restricting bandwidth depending on the amount of bandwidth that is used (layer 4 and below) rather than per protocol or application type (layer 7). There is a very strong and often ignored argument that ISP action above layer 4 of the OSI model provides what are known in the security community as 'stepping stones' or platforms to conduct man in the middle attacks from. This problem is exacerbated by ISP's often choosing cheaper hardware with poor security track records for the very difficult and arguably impossible to secure task of Deep Packet Inspection.


title: Deep packet inspection

text: OpenBSD's packet filter specifically avoids DPI for the very reason that it cannot be done securely with confidence.


title: Deep packet inspection

text: This means that DPI dependent security services such as TalkTalk's former HomeSafe implementation are actually trading the security of a few (protectable and often already protectable in many more effective ways) at a cost of decreased security for all where users also have a far less possibility of mitigating the risk. The HomeSafe service in particular is opt in for blocking but its DPI cannot be opted out of, even for business users.


title: Deep packet inspection

text: nDPI (a fork from OpenDPI which is EoL by the developers of ntop) is the open source version for non-obfuscated protocols. PACE, another such engine, includes obfuscated and encrypted protocols, which are the types associated with Skype or encrypted BitTorrent. As OpenDPI is no longer maintained, an OpenDPI-fork named nDPI has been created, actively maintained and extended with new protocols including Skype, Webex, Citrix and many others.


title: Deep packet inspection

text: L7-Filter is a classifier for Linux's Netfilter that identifies packets based on application layer data. It can classify packets such as Kazaa, HTTP, Jabber, Citrix, Bittorrent, FTP, Gnucleus, eDonkey2000, and others. It classifies streaming, mailing, P2P, VoIP, protocols, and gaming applications. The software has been retired and replaced by the open source Netify DPI Engine.


title: Deep packet inspection

text: Hippie (Hi-Performance Protocol Identification Engine) is an open source project which was developed as Linux kernel module. It was developed by Josh Ballard. It supports both DPI as well as firewall functionality.


title: Deep packet inspection

text: SPID (Statistical Protocol IDentification) project is based on statistical analysis of network flows to identify application traffic. The SPID algorithm can detect the application layer protocol (layer 7) by signatures (a sequence of bytes at a particular offset in the handshake), by analyzing flow information (packet sizes, etc.) and payload statistics (how frequently the byte value occurs in order to measure entropy) from pcap files. It is just a proof of concept application and currently supports approximately 15 application/protocols such as eDonkey Obfuscation traffic, Skype UDP and TCP, BitTorrent, IMAP, IRC, MSN, and others.


title: Deep packet inspection

text: Tstat (TCP STatistic and Analysis Tool) provides insight into traffic patterns and gives details and statistics for numerous applications and protocols.


title: Deep packet inspection

text: Libprotoident introduces Lightweight Packet Inspection (LPI), which examines only the first four bytes of payload in each direction. That allows to minimize privacy concerns, while decreasing the disk space needed to store the packet traces necessary for the classification. Libprotoident supports over 200 different protocols and the classification is based on a combined approach using payload pattern matching, payload size, port numbers, and IP matching.


title: Deep packet inspection

text: A French company called Amesys, designed and sold an intrusive and massive internet monitoring system "Eagle" to Muammar Gaddafi.


title: Deep packet inspection

text: A comprehensive comparison of various network traffic classifiers, which depend on Deep Packet Inspection (PACE, OpenDPI, 4 different configurations of L7-filter, NDPI, Libprotoident, and Cisco NBAR), is shown in the Independent Comparison of Popular DPI Tools for Traffic Classification.


title: Deep packet inspection

text: There is a greater emphasis being placed on deep packet inspection - this comes in light after the rejection of both the SOPA and PIPA bills. Many current DPI methods are slow and costly, especially for high bandwidth applications. More efficient methods of DPI are being developed. Specialized routers are now able to perform DPI; routers armed with a dictionary of programs will help identify the purposes behind the LAN and internet traffic they are routing. Cisco Systems is now on their second iteration of DPI enabled routers, with their announcement of the CISCO ISR G2 router.


title: Mania (Fall Out Boy album)

text: Mania (stylized as M A  N   I    A) is the seventh studio album by American rock band Fall Out Boy, released on January 19, 2018, on Island Records and DCD2 as the follow-up to their sixth studio album, "American Beauty/American Psycho" (2015). The album was produced by Jonny Coffer, Illangelo, Dave Sardy, Jesse Shatkin, and longtime collaborator Butch Walker, as well as self-production from the band. The album sees the group further departing from pop punk and alternative rock sound and having a more "experimental" approach to their newfound electro-pop sound. The album was preceded by five singles; "Young and Menace", "Champion", "The Last of the Real Ones", "Hold Me Tight or Don't", and "Wilson (Expensive Mistakes)".


title: Mania (Fall Out Boy album)

text: Upon the album release, "Mania" received largely mixed reviews from music critics, but fared well commercially, debuting at number-one on the US "Billboard" 200. It is the band's first album since their debut studio album, "Take This to Your Grave" (2003), to not produce a "Billboard" Hot 100 single on the chart. The album was nominated for the category of Best Rock Album at the 61st Annual Grammy Awards.


title: Mania (Fall Out Boy album)

text: Fall Out Boy enjoyed commercial success and worldwide acclaim after releasing their sixth studio album, "American Beauty/American Psycho" (2015). During the extensive touring in support of the album, the group began writing and recording material for a seventh album. The beginning of the production process for "Mania" began after the band's frontman Patrick Stump introduced the song "Young and Menace" to bass guitarist Pete Wentz at Reading and Leeds Festival in 2016, which inspired the musicians to record a full-length. In an interview with "Rolling Stone", Wentz described the vision behind "Mania". "It feels like every once in awhile, you've gotta do a hard restart that clears the cache and erases the hard drive. I think that's what ["Mania"] was – a big palette cleanse," said Wentz.


title: Mania (Fall Out Boy album)

text: After the release of the album's first two singles, "Young and Menace" and "Champion", Patrick Stump issued a statement on Twitter confirming that the band was postponing the release date for "Mania" until January 19, 2018 due to the album "feeling rushed."


title: Mania (Fall Out Boy album)

text: "Mania" was originally scheduled for a release on September 15, 2017, worldwide. However, on August 3, 2017, Patrick Stump announced that the record would be pushed back until January 19, 2018. "The album just really isn't ready, and it felt very rushed," Stump said on Twitter. "I'm never going to put a record out I genuinely don't believe is at least as strong or valid as the one that came before it and in order to do that we need a little bit more time to properly and carefully record solid performances."


title: Mania (Fall Out Boy album)

text: On November 6, 2017, the band announced on social media that the album had been completed and revealed the tracklist. In the lead up to the album's release, it became evident that several streaming platforms had published the tracks of the album out of order. The physical copies retain the order originally released by the band.


title: Mania (Fall Out Boy album)

text: In support of the album, the band has performed the singles on television and has embarked on the Mania Tour in October 2017. The tour, which takes place in both North America, Australia and New Zealand features support from blackbear, Jaden Smith, and Waax. The song "Wilson (Expensive Mistakes)", was debuted live on October 20, 2017, as part of the Mania Tour's setlist.


title: Mania (Fall Out Boy album)

text: To promote their headlining gig at Wrigley Field, M A N I A, as well as their then-just-release EP, "Lake Effect Kid", the band held a pop-up event in Chicago, IL titled "The M A N I A Experience." The M A N I A Experience, according to the band, was the analog to the album. It featured many rooms named after songs from the record, including "Wilson," a dimly-lit jungle with the lyrics "I'll stop wearing black when they make a darker color" on the wall; "Sunshine Riptide," which featured a ball pit with pills and pill bottles with the FOB logo on them, and had "The pills are kicking in" on the wall; Room three was titled "Give Me a Boost", taken from their song "Heaven's Gate." This room was unique as it had headphones for fans to listen to unreleased tracks and remixes, including one version of a song sang by Rivers Cuomo of Weezer. Each set of headphones had a different song that fans could listen to. The room also featured warped mirrors on the wall, as well as spinning faceless ballerinas and a broken music box with the lyrics "One look from you and I'm on that faded love out of my body, and I'm flying up above." The washroom in the facility was also FOB-themed and had posters for their album as well as strands of yarn on the mirrors for fans to take a picture with, a homage to the artwork for their EP "Lake Effect Kid." Room four was "Young and Menace"-themed, and was upside-down. Fans also had the opportunity to listen to music with headphones while feeling upside down. Room five was "Church"-themed, and had gothic themed curtains surrounding a coffin. The coffin was a mirror that had the effect of making it look endless. Room six was in the theme of "HOLD ME TIGHT OR DON'T," with loads of teddybears of various sizes. There was also a room in which Pete Wentz, as well as Andy Hurley, would be in a box writing with headphones on with a sign that read: "Don't Tap on The Glass," which is a reference to their song "Sunshine Riptide." This room also referenced "Church." where fans could write on the wall "confessing their sins."


title: Mania (Fall Out Boy album)

text: During recording sessions for "Mania", the band scrapped three unfinished tracks; "Past Life", "Wrong Side of Paradise", and "Footprints in the Snow". The tracks were released by Fall Out Boy, under the alias Frosty & The Nightmare Making Machines, in the form of an extended play (EP), entitled "Llamania", on February 23, 2018, through physical CD and vinyl.


title: Mania (Fall Out Boy album)

text: The lead single, "Young and Menace", was released on April 27, 2017 alongside its music video. The song has a notable influence from the EDM genre, hinting at another progression of the band's sound with the album. The second single, "Champion", was released on June 22 in the U.S. and on June 23 worldwide with the “visualizer” music video. On July 27, the official music video was released for the song. The third single, "The Last of the Real Ones", was released on September 14, 2017. The fourth single, "Hold Me Tight or Don't", was released on November 15 with its music video, which takes a notable influence from the Mexican holiday Day Of The Dead. "Wilson (Expensive Mistakes)" was released as the fifth single, accompanied with its music video premiere on January 11, 2018. A music video for "Church" was released along with the album on January 19, 2018. On July 23, 2018, a music video for "Bishops Knife Trick" was released.


title: Mania (Fall Out Boy album)

text: "Mania" received mixed reviews from music critics. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalised rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, the album has an average score of 59 based on 12 reviews, indicating "mixed or average reviews".


title: Mania (Fall Out Boy album)

text: "Mania" debuted at number one on the US "Billboard" 200 on February 3, 2018 with 130,000 album-equivalent units, of which 117,000 were pure album sales. It is Fall Out Boy's fourth US number-one album. In Nielsen's mid-year music chart for 2018, "Mania" was the number three rock album in both equivalent units and sales, with 233,000 equivalent units including 162,000 pure sales.


title: Mania (Fall Out Boy album)

text: Upon its initial release to several digital music retailers, the order of the track listing was incorrect. The band later confirmed that the track listing on the physical releases was correct across all versions of the release and that these would soon be corrected.


title: Harlan F. Stone

text: Harlan Fiske Stone (October 11, 1872 – April 22, 1946) was an American attorney and jurist who served as an associate justice of the U.S. Supreme Court from 1925 to 1941 and then as the 12th chief justice of the United States from 1941 until his death in 1946. He also served as the U.S. Attorney General from 1924 to 1925 under President Calvin Coolidge, with whom he had attended Amherst College as a young man. His most famous dictum was: "Courts are not the only agency of government that must be assumed to have capacity to govern."


title: Harlan F. Stone

text: Raised in western Massachusetts, Stone practiced law in New York City after graduating from Columbia Law School. He became the Dean of Columbia Law School and a partner with Sullivan & Cromwell. During World War I, he served on the U.S. Department of War's Board of Inquiry, which evaluated the sincerity of conscientious objectors. In 1924, President Calvin Coolidge appointed Stone as the Attorney General. Stone sought to reform the U.S. Department of Justice in the aftermath of several scandals that occurred during the administration of President Warren G. Harding. He also pursued several antitrust cases against large corporations.


title: Harlan F. Stone

text: In 1925, Coolidge nominated Stone to the Supreme Court to succeed retiring Associate Justice Joseph McKenna, and Stone won U.S. Senate confirmation with little opposition. On the Taft Court, Stone joined with Justices Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr. and Louis Brandeis in calling for judicial restraint and deference to the legislative will. On the Hughes Court, Stone and Justices Brandeis and Benjamin N. Cardozo formed a liberal bloc called the Three Musketeers that generally voted to uphold the constitutionality of the New Deal. His majority opinions in "United States v. Darby Lumber Co." (1941) and "United States v. Carolene Products Co." (1938) were influential in shaping standards of judicial scrutiny.


title: Harlan F. Stone

text: In 1941, President Franklin D. Roosevelt nominated Stone to succeed the retiring Charles Evans Hughes as Chief Justice, and the Senate quickly confirmed Stone. The Stone Court presided over several cases during World War II, and Stone's majority opinion in "Ex parte Quirin" upheld the jurisdiction of a U.S. military tribunal over the trial of eight German saboteurs. His majority opinion in "International Shoe Co. v. Washington" (1945) was influential with regards to personal jurisdiction. Stone was the Chief Justice in "Korematsu v. United States" (1944), ruling the exclusion of Japanese Americans into internment camps as constitutional. Stone served as Chief Justice until his death in 1946. He had one of the shortest terms of any Chief Justice, and was the first Chief Justice not to have served in elected office.


title: Harlan F. Stone

text: Stone was born in Chesterfield, New Hampshire, on October 11, 1872, to Fred Lauson Stone and his wife, Ann Sophia (née Butler) Stone. When Stone was two years old, his family moved to western Massachusetts where he grew up. He graduated from Amherst High School. His father wished him to become a scientific farmer, and Stone matriculated at the Massachusetts Agricultural College where he was expelled in his second year for a scuffle with an instructor. He later enrolled at Amherst College where he graduated Phi Beta Kappa in 1894.


title: Harlan F. Stone

text: From 1894 to 1895, he was the sub master of Newburyport High School in Massachusetts, from which he also taught physics and chemistry. From 1895 to 1896, he was an instructor in history at Adelphi Academy in Brooklyn.


title: Harlan F. Stone

text: Stone attended Columbia Law School from 1895 to 1898, received an LL.B., and was admitted to the New York bar in 1898. Stone practiced law in New York City, initially as a member of the firm Satterlee, Canfield & Stone, and later as a partner in what is now a whiteshoe law firm, Sullivan & Cromwell. From 1899 to 1902 he lectured on law at Columbia Law School. He was a professor there from 1902 to 1905 and eventually served as the school's dean from 1910 to 1923. He lived in The Colosseum, an apartment building near campus.


title: Harlan F. Stone

text: During World War I, Stone served for several months on a War Department Board of Inquiry, with Major Walter Kellogg of the U.S. Army Judge Advocate Corps and Judge Julian Mack, that reviewed the cases of 2,294 men whose requests for conscientious objector status had been denied by their draft boards. The Board was charged with determining the sincerity of each man's principles, but often devoted only a few minutes to interrogation and rendering a decision. Stone was impatient with men who took advantage of the benefits of life in America – using postage stamps was his example – without accepting the burdens of citizenship. In a majority of cases, the Board's subjects either relinquished their claims or were judged insincere. He later summarized his experience with little sympathy: "The great mass of our citizens subordinated their individual conscience and their opinions to the good of the common cause" while "there was a residue whose peculiar beliefs ... refused to yield to the opinions of others or to force." Nevertheless, he recognized the courage required to persist as a conscientious objector: "The Army was not a bed of roses for the conscientious objector; and the normal man who was not supported in his stand by profound moral conviction might well have chosen active duty at the front as the easier lot."


title: Harlan F. Stone

text: At the end of the war, he criticized Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer for his attempts to deport aliens based on administrative action without allowing for any judicial review of their cases. During this time Stone also defended free speech claims for professors and socialists. Columbia soon became a center of a new school of jurisprudence, legal realism. Legal realists rejected formalism and static legal rules; instead, they searched for the experiential and the role of human idiosyncrasy in the development of law. Although Dean Stone encouraged the realists, he was condemned by Columbia President Nicholas Murray Butler as an intellectual conservative who had let legal education at Columbia fall "into the ruts."


title: Harlan F. Stone

text: In 1923, disgusted by his conflict with Butler and bored with "all the petty details of law school administration" that he dubbed "administrivia," Stone resigned the deanship and joined the prestigious Wall Street firm of Sullivan & Cromwell. He received a much higher salary and headed the firm's litigation department, which had a large corporation and estate practice (including J.P. Morgan's interests). In full‑time private practice for only a brief time, Stone was considered a "hard‑working, solid sort of person, willing on occasion to champion the rights of mankind, but safe nevertheless."


title: Harlan F. Stone

text: On April 1, 1924, he was appointed United States Attorney General by his Amherst classmate President Calvin Coolidge, who felt Stone would be perceived by the public as beyond reproach to oversee investigations into various scandals arising under the Harding administration. These scandals had besmirched Harding's Attorney General, Harry M. Daugherty, and forced his resignation. In one of his first acts as Attorney General, Stone fired Daugherty's cronies in the Department of Justice and replaced them with men of integrity. As Attorney General, he was responsible for the appointment of J. Edgar Hoover as head of the Department of Justice's Bureau of Investigation, which later became the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), and directed him to remodel the agency so it would resemble Britain's Scotland Yard and become far more efficient than any other police organization in the country. A pro‑active Attorney General, Stone argued many of his department's cases in the federal courts and launched an anti‑trust investigation of the Aluminum Company of America, controlled by the family of fellow cabinet member Andrew Mellon, Coolidge's Secretary of the Treasury.


title: Harlan F. Stone

text: In the 1924 presidential election, Stone campaigned for Coolidge's re‑election. He especially opposed the Progressive Party's candidate, Robert M. La Follette, who had proposed that Congress be empowered to reenact any law that the Supreme Court had declared unconstitutional. Stone found this idea threatening to the integrity of the judiciary as well as the separation of powers.


title: Harlan F. Stone

text: Shortly after the election, Justice Joseph McKenna resigned from the Supreme Court, and on January 5, 1925, Coolidge nominated Stone to replace McKenna as an associate justice. His nomination was greeted with general approval, although there were rumors that Stone might have been kicked upstairs because of his antitrust activities. Some Senators raised questions about Stone's connection to Wall Street making him a tool of corporate interests. To quiet those fears, Stone proposed that he answer questions of the Senate Judiciary Committee in person. After holding one closed door hearing, however, on January 12, 1925, where they heard testimony from Willard Saulsbury Jr., the committee gave Stone's nomination a favorable recommendation on January 21, 1925. The nomination was returned by the Senate to committee a few days later, and Stone became the first Supreme Court nominee to testify before the Senate Judiciary Committee hearings on their nomination on January 28, 1925. On February 2, 1925, the committee again gave his nomination a favorable recommendation. Stone was confirmed by the Senate on February 5, 1925 by a vote of 71—6 and received his commission the same day. On March 2, 1925, Stone took the oath as an associate justice administered by Chief Justice William Howard Taft. He would ultimately be Coolidge's only Supreme Court appointment.


title: Harlan F. Stone

text: The Supreme Court of the mid‑1920s was primarily concerned with the relationships of business and government. A majority of the justices led by Taft were staunch defenders of business and capitalism free from most government regulation. The Court utilized the doctrines of substantive due process and the fundamental right of "liberty of contract" to oversee attempts at regulation by the national and state governments. Critics of the Court charged that the judiciary had usurped legislative authority and had embodied a particular economic theory, "laissez faire", into its decisions. Despite the fears of progressives, Stone quickly joined the Court's "liberal faction," frequently dissenting with Justices Holmes and Brandeis and later, Cardozo when he took Holmes' seat, from the majority's narrow view of the police powers of the state. The "liberal" justices called for judicial restraint, or deference to the legislative will.


title: Harlan F. Stone

text: During the 1932 to 1937 Supreme Court terms, Stone and his colleagues Justices Brandeis and Cardozo were considered the Three Musketeers of the Supreme Court, its liberal faction. The three were highly supportive of President Roosevelt's New Deal agenda, which many other Supreme Court Justices opposed. For example, he wrote for the court in "United States v. Darby Lumber Co.", , which upheld challenged provisions of the Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938. Stone also authored the Court's opinion in "United States v. Carolene Products Co.", , which, in its famous "Footnote 4," provided a roadmap for judicial review in the post-"Lochner v. New York" era.


title: Harlan F. Stone

text: Stone's support of the New Deal brought him Roosevelt's favor, and on June 12, 1941, President Roosevelt nominated Stone to become chief justice, a position vacated by Charles Evans Hughes. Stone was Hughes’ personal choice for a successor. After it held a single hearing on Stone's nomination on June 21, 1941, the Senate Judiciary Committee gave his nomination a favorable recommendation on June 23, 1941. Stone was confirmed by a voice vote in the Senate on June 27, 1941 and received his commission on July 3, 1941. He remained in this position for the rest of his life.


title: Harlan F. Stone

text: As chief justice, Stone spoke for the Court in upholding the President's power to try Nazi saboteurs captured on American soil by military tribunals in "Ex parte Quirin", . The Court's handling of this case has been the subject of scrutiny and controversy.


title: Harlan F. Stone

text: Stone also wrote one of the major opinions in establishing the standard for state courts to have personal jurisdiction over litigants in "International Shoe Co. v. Washington", .


title: Harlan F. Stone

text: As chief justice, Stone described the Nuremberg court as "a fraud" on Germans, even though his colleague and successor as associate justice, Robert H. Jackson, served as the chief U.S. prosecutor.


title: Harlan F. Stone

text: Stone was the fourth chief justice to have previously served as an Associate Justice and the second to have served in both positions consecutively. To date, Justice Stone is the only justice to have occupied all nine seniority positions on the bench, having moved from most junior associate justice to most senior associate justice and then to chief justice.


title: Harlan F. Stone

text: Stone was suddenly stricken while in an open session of the Supreme Court. He had just (or by some accounts not quite) finished reading aloud his dissent in "Girouard v. United States". Justice Hugo Black called the Court into a brief recess, and physicians were called.