title: Ancient Greek temple

text: The first temples were mostly mud, brick, and marble structures on stone foundations. The columns and superstructure (entablature) were wooden, door openings and were protected with wooden planks. The mud brick walls were often reinforced by wooden posts, in a type of half-timbered technique. The elements of this simple and clearly structured wooden architecture produced all the important design principles that were to determine the development of Greek temples for centuries.


title: Ancient Greek temple

text: Near the end of the 7th century BCE, the dimensions of these simple structures were increased considerably. Temple C at Thermos is the first of the , temples with a length of . Since it was not technically possible to roof broad spaces at that time, these temples remained very narrow, at 6 to 10 metres in width.


title: Ancient Greek temple

text: To stress the importance of the cult statue and the building holding it, the was equipped with a canopy, supported by columns. The resulting set of colonnade surrounding the temple on all sides (the "peristasis") was exclusively used for temples in Greek architecture.


title: Ancient Greek temple

text: The combination of the temple with colonnades ("ptera") on all sides posed a new aesthetic challenge for the architects and patrons: the structures had to be built to be viewed from all directions. This led to the development of the "peripteros", with a frontal "pronaos" (porch), mirrored by a similar arrangement at the back of the building, the "opisthodomos", which became necessary for entirely aesthetic reasons.


title: Ancient Greek temple

text: After the reintroduction of stone architecture, the essential elements and forms of each temple, such as the number of columns and of column rows, underwent constant change throughout Greek antiquity.


title: Ancient Greek temple

text: In the 6th century BCE, Ionian Samos developed the double-colonnaded "dipteros" as an alternative to the single . This idea was later copied in Didyma, Ephesos and Athens. Between the 6th and the late 4th century BCE, innumerable temples were built; nearly every "polis", every Greek colony contained one or several. There were also temples at extra-urban sites and at major sanctuaries like Olympia and Delphi.


title: Ancient Greek temple

text: The observable change of form indicates the search for a harmonious form of all architectural elements: the development led from simpler early forms which often appear coarse and bulky up to the aesthetic perfection and refinement of the later structures; from simple experimentation to the strict mathematical complexity of ground plans and superstructures.


title: Ancient Greek temple

text: From the early Hellenistic period onwards, the Greek peripteral temple lost much of its importance. With very few exceptions, Classical temple construction ceased both in Hellenistic Greece and in the Greek colonies of Magna Graecia. Only the west of Asia Minor maintained a low level of temple construction during the 3rd century BCE. The construction of large projects, such as the temple of Apollo at Didyma near Miletus and the Artemision at Sardis did not make much progress.


title: Ancient Greek temple

text: The 2nd century BCE saw a revival of temple architecture, including peripteral temples. This is partially due to the influence of the architect Hermogenes of Priene, who redefined the principles of Ionic temple construction both practically and through theoretical work. At the same time, the rulers of the various Hellenistic kingdoms provided copious financial resources. Their self-aggrandisation, rivalry, desires to stabilise their spheres of influence, as well as the increasing conflict with Rome (partially played out in the field of culture), combined to release much energy into the revival of complex Greek temple architecture. During this phase, Greek temples became widespread in southern Asia Minor, Egypt and Northern Africa.


title: Ancient Greek temple

text: But in spite of such examples and of the positive conditions produced by the economic upturn and the high degree of technical innovation in the 3rd and 2nd centuries BCE, Hellenistic religious architecture is mostly represented by a multitude of small temples "in antis" and "prostyle" temples, as well as tiny shrines ("naiskoi"). The latter had been erected in important places, on market squares, near springs and by roads, since the Archaic period, but reached their main flourish now. This limitation to smaller structures led to the development of a special form, the "pseudoperipteros", which uses engaged columns along the "naos" walls to produce the illusion of a peripteral temple. An early case of this is temple L at Epidauros, followed by many prominent Roman examples, such as the Maison Carrée at Nîmes.


title: Ancient Greek temple

text: In the early 1st century BCE, the Mithridatic Wars led to changes of architectural practice. The role of sponsor was increasingly taken by Roman magistrates of the Eastern provinces, who rarely demonstrated their generosity by building temples. Nevertheless, some temples were erected at this time, e.g. the Temple of Aphrodite at Aphrodisias.


title: Ancient Greek temple

text: The introduction of the principate lead to few new buildings, mostly temples for the imperial cult or to Roman deities, e.g. the temple of Jupiter at Baalbek. Although new temples to Greek deities still continued to be constructed, e.g. the Tychaion at Selge they tend to follow the canonical forms of the developing Roman imperial style of architecture or to maintain local non-Greek idiosyncrasies, like the temples in Petra or Palmyra. The increasing romanisation of the east entailed the end of Greek temple architecture, although work continued on the completion of unfinished large structures like the temple of Apollo at Didyma or the Olympieion at Athens into the later 2nd century AD.


title: Ancient Greek temple

text: The edicts of Theodosius I and his successors on the throne of the Roman Empire, banning pagan cults, led to the gradual closure of Greek temples, or their conversion into Christian churches.


title: Ancient Greek temple

text: Thus ends the history of the Greek temples' original purpose, although many of them remained in use for a long time afterwards. For example, the Athenian Parthenon, first reconsecrated as a church was turned into a mosque after the Ottoman conquest and remained structurally unharmed until the 17th century AD. Only the unfortunate impact of a Venetian cannonball into the building, then used to store gunpowder, led to the destruction of much of this important temple, more than 2,000 years after it was built.


title: Ancient Greek temple

text: Canonical Greek temples maintained the same basic structure throughout many centuries. The Greeks used a limited number of spatial components, influencing the plan, and of architectural members, determining the elevation.


title: Ancient Greek temple

text: The central cult structure of the temple is the or "cella", which usually contained a cult statue of the deity. In Archaic temples, a separate room, the so-called "adyton" was sometimes included after the for this purpose. In Sicily, this habit continued into the Classical period.


title: Ancient Greek temple

text: In front of the , there is a porch, the "pronaos", created by the protruding side walls of the (the "antae)", and two columns placed between them. A door allows the to be accessed from the . A similar room at the back of the is called the "opisthodomos". There is no door connecting the with the ; its existence is necessitated entirely by aesthetic considerations: to maintain the consistency of the peripteral temple and to ensure its visibility from all sides, the execution of the front has to be repeated at the rear. A restricted space, the , may be included at the far end of the , backing up on the .


title: Ancient Greek temple

text: The complex formed by the , , and possibly the is enclosed on all four sides by the "peristasis", usually a single row, rarely a double one, of columns. This produces a surrounding colonnade, the "pteron", which offered shelter to visitors of the sanctuary and room for cult processions.


title: Ancient Greek temple

text: These components allowed the realisation of a variety of different plan types in Greek temple architecture. The simplest example of a Greek temple is the , a small rectangular structure sheltering the cult statue. In front of the , a small porch or was formed by the protruding walls, the "antae". The was linked to the by a door. To support the superstructure, two columns were placed between the (distyle "in antis"). When equipped with an "opisthodomos" with a similar design, this is called a double temple. A variant of that type has the at the back of the indicated merely by half-columns and shortened , so that it can be described as a .


title: Ancient Greek temple

text: If the porch of a temple has a row of usually four or six columns in front of its whole breadth, the temple is described as a or prostyle temples. The whole may be omitted in this case or just leave the without columns. An "amphiprostylos" or amphiprostyle repeats the same column setting at the back.


title: Ancient Greek temple

text: In contrast, the term "peripteros" or peripteral designates a temple surrounded by "ptera" (colonnades) on all four sides, each usually formed by a single row of columns. This produces an unobstructed surrounding portico, the "peristasis", on all four sides of the temple. A Hellenistic and Roman form of this shape is the "pseudoperipteros", where the side columns of the are indicated only by engaged columns or pilasters directly attached to the external walls.


title: Ancient Greek temple

text: A or "dipteral" is equipped with a double colonnade on all four sides, sometimes with further rows of columns at the front and back. A has engaged columns in the inner row of columns at the sides.


title: Ancient Greek temple

text: Circular temples form a special type. If they are surrounded by a colonnade, they are known as peripteral "tholoi". Although of sacred character, their function as a temple can often not be asserted. A comparable structure is the "monopteros", or "cyclostyle" which, however, lacks a .


title: Ancient Greek temple

text: To clarify ground plan types, the defining terms can be combined, producing terms such as: peripteral double temple, prostyle , peripteral amphiprostyle, etc.


title: Ancient Greek temple

text: An additional definition, already used by Vitruvius (IV, 3, 3) is determined by the number of columns at the front. Modern scholarship uses the following terms:


title: Ancient Greek temple

text: The term is only used for the 12-column hall at the Didymaion. No temples with facades of that width are known.


title: Ancient Greek temple

text: Very few temples had an uneven number of columns at the front. Examples are Temple of Hera I at Paestum, Temple of Apollo A at Metapontum, both of which have a width of nine columns (enneastyle), and the Archaic temple at Thermos with a width of five columns (pentastyle).


title: Ancient Greek temple

text: The elevation of Greek temples is always subdivided in three zones: the "crepidoma", the columns and the entablature.


title: Ancient Greek temple

text: Stereobate, and form the substructure of the temple. The underground foundation of a Greek temple is known as the stereobate. It consists of several layers of squared stone blocks. The uppermost layer, the "euthynteria", partially protrudes above the ground level. Its surface is carefully smoothed and levelled. It supports a further foundation of three steps, the "crepidoma". The uppermost level of the provides the surface on which the columns and walls are placed; it is called stylobate.


title: Ancient Greek temple

text: Placed on the stylobate are the vertical column shafts, tapering towards the top. They are normally made of several separately cut column drums. Depending on the architectural order, a different number of flutings are cut into the column shaft: Doric columns have 18 to 20 flutings, Ionic and Corinthian ones normally have 24. Early Ionic columns had up to 48 flutings. While Doric columns stand directly on the stylobate, Ionic and Corinthian ones possess a base, sometimes additionally placed atop a plinth.


title: Ancient Greek temple

text: In Doric columns, the top is formed by a concavely curved neck, the "hypotrachelion", and the capital, in Ionic columns, the capital sits directly on the shaft. In the Doric order, the capital consists of a circular torus bulge, originally very flat, the so-called "echinus", and a square slab, the "abacus". In the course of their development, the "echinus" expands more and more, culminating in a linear diagonal, at 45° to the vertical. The of Ionic columns is decorated with an egg-and-dart band followed by a sculpted pillow forming two volutes, supporting a thin . The eponymous Corinthian capital of the Corinthian order is crowned by rings of stylised acanthus leaves, forming tendrils and volutes that reach to the corners of the .


title: Ancient Greek temple

text: The capitals support the entablature. In the Doric order, the entablature always consists of two parts, the architrave and the Doric frieze (or triglyph frieze). The Ionic order of Athens and the Cyclades also used a frieze above an architrave, whereas the frieze remained unknown in the Ionic architecture of Asia Minor until the 4th century BCE. There, the architrave was directly followed by the "dentils". The frieze was originally placed in front of the roof beams, which were externally visible only in the earlier temples of Asia Minor. The Doric frieze was structured by triglyphs. These were placed above the axis of each column, and above the centre of each intercolumniation. The spaces between the triglyphs contained metopes, sometimes painted or decorated with relief sculpture. In the Ionic or Corinthian orders, the frieze possesses no triglyphs and is simply left flat, sometimes decorated with paintings or reliefs. With the introduction of stone architecture, the protection of the porticos and the support of the roof construction was moved upwards to the level of the "geison", depriving the frieze of its structural function and turning it into an entirely decorative feature. Frequently, the is also decorated with architrave and frieze, especially at the front of the "pronaos".


title: Ancient Greek temple

text: Above the frieze, or an intermediate member, e.g. the dentil of the Ionic or Corinthian orders, the cornice protrudes notably. It consists of the "geison" (on the sloped sides or pediments of the narrow walls a sloped ), and the "sima". On the long side, the , often elaborately decorated, was equipped with water spouts, often in the shape of lions' heads. The pedimental triangle or "tympanon" on the narrow sides of the temple was created by the Doric introduction of the gabled roof, earlier temples often had hipped roofs. The was usually richly decorated with pedimental sculpture of mythical scenes or battles. The corners and ridges of the roof were decorated with "acroteria", originally geometric, later floral or figural decorations.


title: Ancient Greek temple

text: As far as topographically possible, the temples were freestanding and designed to be viewed from all sides. They were not normally designed with consideration for their surroundings, but formed autonomous structures. This is a major difference from Roman temples which were often designed as part of a planned urban area or square and had a strong emphasis on being viewed frontally.


title: Ancient Greek temple

text: The foundations of Greek temples could reach dimensions of up to 115 by 55 m, i.e. the size of an average football pitch. Columns could reach a height of 20 m. To design such large architectural bodies harmoniously, a number of basic aesthetic principles were developed and tested already on the smaller temples. The main measurement was the foot, varying between 29 and 34 cm from region to region. This initial measurement was the basis for all the units that determined the shape of the temple. Important factors include the lower diameter of the columns and the width of their plinths. The distance between the column axes (intercolumniation or bay) could also be used as a basic unit. These measurements were in set proportions to other elements of design, such as column height and column distance. In conjunction with the number of columns per side, they also determined the dimensions of stylobate and "peristasis", as well as of the "naos" proper. The rules regarding vertical proportions, especially in the Doric order, also allow for a deduction of the basic design options for the entablature from the same principles. Alternatives to this very rational system were sought in the temples of the late 7th and early 6th centuries BCE, when it was attempted to develop the basic measurements from the planned dimensions of or stylobate, i.e. to reverse the system described above and deduce the smaller units from the bigger ones. Thus, for example, the length was sometimes set at (100 is a sacred number, also known from the "hecatomb", a sacrifice of 100 animals), and all further measurements had to be in relation to this number, leading to aesthetically quite unsatisfactory solutions.


title: Ancient Greek temple

text: Another determining design feature was the relationship linking and . In the original temples, this would have been subject entirely to practical necessities, and always based on axial links between walls and columns, but the introduction of stone architecture broke that connection. Nevertheless, it did survive throughout Ionic architecture. In Doric temples, however, the wooden roof construction, originally placed behind the frieze, now started at a higher level, behind the . This ended the structural link between frieze and roof; the structural elements of the latter could now be placed independent of axial relationships. As a result, the walls lost their fixed connection with the columns for a long time and could be freely placed within the . Only after a long phase of developments did the architects choose the alignment of the outer wall face with the adjacent column axis as the obligatory principle for Doric temples. Doric temples in Greater Greece rarely follow this system.


title: Ancient Greek temple

text: The basic proportions of the building were determined by the numeric relationship of columns on the front and back to those on the sides. The classic solution chosen by Greek architects is the formula "frontal columns : side columns = n : (2n+1)", which can also be used for the number of intercolumniations. As a result, numerous temples of the Classical period in Greece ( to 336 BCE) had 6 × 13 columns or 5 × 11 intercolumniations. The same proportions, in a more abstract form, determine most of the Parthenon, not only in its 8 × 17 column , but also, reduced to 4:9, in all other basic measurements, including the intercolumniations, the stylobate, the width-height proportion of the entire building, and the (here reversed to 9:4).


title: Ancient Greek temple

text: Since the turn of the 3rd and 2nd centuries BCE, the proportion of column width to the space between columns, the intercolumnium, played an increasingly important role in architectural theory, reflected, for example, in the works of Vitruvius. According to this proportion, Vitruvius (3, 3, 1 ff) distinguished between five different design concepts and temple types:


title: Ancient Greek temple

text: The determination and discussion of these basic principles went back to Hermogenes, whom Vitruvius credits with the invention of the . The Temple of Dionysos at Teos, normally ascribed to Hermogenes, does indeed have intercolumnia measuring 2 1/6 of the lower column diameters.


title: Ancient Greek temple

text: To loosen up the mathematical strictness and to counteract distortions of human visual perception, a slight curvature of the whole building, hardly visible with the naked eye, was introduced. The ancient architects had realised that long horizontal lines tend to make the optical impression of sagging towards their centre. To prevent this effect, the horizontal lines of stylobate and/or entablature were raised by a few centimetres towards the middle of a building. This avoidance of mathematically straight lines also included the columns, which did not taper in a linear fashion, but were refined by a pronounced "swelling" ("entasis") of the shaft. Additionally, columns were placed with a slight inclination towards the centre of the building. Curvature and "entasis" occur from the mid 6th century BCE onwards.


title: Ancient Greek temple

text: The most consistent use of these principles is seen in the Classical Parthenon on the Athenian Acropolis. Its curvature affects all horizontal elements up to the , even the walls reflect it throughout their height. The inclination of its columns (which also have a clear "entasis"), is continued by architrave and triglyph frieze, the external walls of the also reflect it. Not one block of the building, not a single architrave or frieze element could be hewn as a simple rectilinear block. All architectural elements display slight variations from the right angle, individually calculated for each block. As a side effect, each preserved building block from the Parthenon, its columns, walls or entablature, can be assigned its exact position today. In spite of the immense extra effort entailed in this perfection, the Parthenon, including its sculptural decoration, was completed in the record time of sixteen years (447 to 431 BCE).


title: Ancient Greek temple

text: Only three basic colours were used: white, blue and red, occasionally also black. The , columns, and architrave were mostly white. Only details, like the horizontally cut grooves at the bottom of Doric capitals (), or decorative elements of Doric architraves (e.g. "taenia" and "guttae") might be painted in different colours. The frieze was clearly structured by use of colours. In a Doric triglyph frieze, blue triglyphs alternated with red metopes, the latter often serving as a background for individually painted sculptures. Reliefs, ornaments, and pedimental sculptures were executed with a wider variety of colours and nuances. Recessed or otherwise shaded elements, like mutules or triglyph slits could be painted black. The paint was mostly applied to parts that were not load-bearing, whereas structural parts like columns or the horizontal elements of architrave and were left unpainted (if made of high-quality limestone or marble) or covered with a white stucco.


title: Ancient Greek temple

text: Greek temples were often enhanced with figural decorations. especially the frieze areas offered space for reliefs and relief slabs; the pedimental triangles often contained scenes of free-standing sculpture. In Archaic times, even the architrave could be relief-decorated on Ionic temples, as demonstrated by the earlier temple of Apollo at Didyma. Here, the architrave corners bore gorgons, surrounded by lions and perhaps other animals. On the other hand, the Ionic temples of Asia Minor did not possess a separate frieze to allow space for relief decoration. The most common area for relief decoration remained the frieze, either as a typical Doric triglyph frieze, with sculpted metopes, or as a continuous frieze on Cycladic and later on Eastern Ionic temples.


title: Ancient Greek temple

text: The metopes, separate individual tableaux that could usually not contain more than three figures each, usually depicted individual scenes belonging to a broader context. It is rare for scenes to be distributed over several metopes; instead, a general narrative context, usually a battle, is created by the combination of multiple isolated scenes. Other thematical contexts could be depicted in this fashion. For example, the metopes at the front and back of the Temple of Zeus at Olympia depicted the Twelve Labours of Heracles. Individual mythological scenes, like the abduction of Europa or a cattle raid by the Dioscuri could be thus depicted, as could scenes from the voyage of the Argonauts or the Trojan War. The battles against the centaurs and Amazons, as well as the gigantomachy, all three depicted on the Parthenon, were recurring themes on many temples.


title: Ancient Greek temple

text: Battle scenes of all kinds were also a common theme of Ionic friezes, e.g. the Gigantomachy on the temple of Hekate at Lagina, or the Amazonomachy on the temple of Artemis at Magnesia on the Maeander, both from the late 2nd century BCE. Complex compositions visualised the back and forth of fighting for the viewer. Such scenes were contrasted by more quiet or peaceful ones: The Assembly of the gods and a procession dominate the 160 m long frieze that is placed on top of the walls of the Parthenon.


title: Ancient Greek temple

text: Special attention was paid to the decoration of the pediments, not least because of their size and frontal position. Pedimental sculpture was originally in massive relief figures, as in the earliest to survive, from shortly after 600 BCE, on the temple of Artemis at Kerkyra, where the west pediment is taken up by the gorgon Medusa and her children at the centre, flanked by panthers. Smaller scenes are displayed in the low corners of the pediments, including Zeus with a thunderbolt, fighting a Giant.


title: Ancient Greek temple

text: The pedimental sculpture of the first peripteral temple on the Athenian Acropolis, from , is nearly free-standing sculpture, but remains dominated by a central scene of fighting lions. Again, the corners contain separate scenes, including Heracles fighting Triton. After the mid-6th century BCE, the compositional scheme changes: animal scenes are now placed in the corners, soon they disappear entirely. The central composition is now taken over by mythological fights or by rows of human figures, and the figures become free-standing, as in the Elgin Marbles from the Parthenon.


title: Ancient Greek temple

text: The high regard in which the Greeks held pedimental sculptures is demonstrated by the discovery of the sculptures from the Late Archaic temple of Apollo at Delphi, which had received a veritable burial after the temple's destruction in 373 BCE. The themes of the individual pedimental scenes are increasingly dominated by myths connected with the locality. Thus, the east pediment at Olympia depicts the preparations for a chariot race between Pelops and Oinomaos, the mythical king of nearby Pisa. It is the foundation myth of the sanctuary itself, displayed here in its most prominent position. A similarly direct association is provided by the birth of Athena on the east pediment of the Parthenon, or the struggle for Attica between her and Poseidon on its west pediment. The pediment of the later temple of the Kabeiroi at Samothrace, late 3rd century BCE, depicted a probably purely local legend, of no major interest to Greece as a whole.


title: Ancient Greek temple

text: The roofs were crowned by "acroteria", originally in the form of elaborately painted clay disks, from the 6th century BCE onwards as fully sculpted figures placed on the corners and ridges of the pediments. They could depict bowls and tripods, griffins, sphinxes, and especially mythical figures and deities. For example, depictions of the running Nike crowned the Alcmaeonid temple of Apollo at Delphi, and mounted amazons formed the corner of the temple of Asklepios in Epidauros. Pausanias (5, 10, 8) describes bronze tripods forming the corner and statues of Nike by Paeonios forming the ridge ones on the Temple of Zeus at Olympia.


title: Ancient Greek temple

text: For the sake of completeness, a further potential bearer of sculptural decoration should be mentioned here: the of the Ionic temples at Ephesos and Didyma. Here, already on the Archaic temples, the lower parts of the column shafts were decorated by protruding relief decorations, originally depicting rows of figures, replaced on their late Classical and Hellenistic successors with mythological scenes and battles.


title: Ancient Greek temple

text: The functions of the temple mainly concentrated on the "naos", the "dwelling" of the cult statue. The elaboration of the temple's external aspects served to stress the dignity of the . In contrast, the itself was often finished with some moderation, although by the Roman period some had clearly become rather cluttered with other statues, military trophies and other gifts. Often, the only source of light for and cult statue was the ""'s frontal door, and oil lamps within. Thus, the interior only received a limited amount of light. Exceptions are found in the temples of Apollo at Bassae and of Athena at Tegea, where the southern wall had a door, potentially allowing more light into the interior. A special situation applies to the temples of the Cyclades, where the roof was usually of marble tiles. Marble roofs also covered the temple of Zeus at Olympia and the Parthenon at Athens. As marble is not entirely opaque, those may have been permeated with a distinctive diffused light.


title: Ancient Greek temple

text: For cultic reasons, but also to use the light of the rising sun, virtually all Greek temples were oriented with the main door to the east. Another reason for the orientation of temples facing east is because of the west was seen as the entrance to the Underworld, such as seen in the Odyssey. Some exceptions existed, e.g. the west-facing temples of Artemis at Ephesos and at Magnesia on the Maeander, or the north–south oriented temples of Arcadia. Such exceptions are probably connected with cult practice. Study of the soils around temple sites, is evidence that temple sites were chosen with regard to particular deities: for example, amid arable soils for the agricultural deities Dionysos and Demeter, and near rocky soils for the hunter gatherer deities Apollo and Artemis.


title: Ancient Greek temple

text: The cult image normally took the form of a statue of the deity, typically roughly life-size, but in some cases many times life-size, in early days in wood, marble or terracotta, or in the specially prestigious form of a chryselephantine statue using ivory plaques for the visible parts of the body and gold for the clothes, around a wooden framework. The most famous Greek cult images were of this type, including the Statue of Zeus at Olympia, and Phidias's Athena Parthenos in the Parthenon in Athens, both colossal statues now completely lost. Fragments of two chryselephantine statues from Delphi have been excavated. Bronze cult images were less frequent, at least until Hellenistic times.


title: Ancient Greek temple

text: The acrolith was another composite form, this time a cost-saving one with a wooden body. A "xoanon" was a primitive and symbolic wooden image, perhaps comparable to the Hindu lingam; many of these were retained and revered for their antiquity. Many of the Greek statues well known from Roman marble copies were originally temple cult images, which in some cases, such as the Apollo Barberini, can be credibly identified. A very few actual originals survive, for example the bronze Piraeus Athena (2.35 metres high, including a helmet). The image stood on a base, from the 5th century often carved with reliefs.


title: Ancient Greek temple

text: The cult statue was often oriented towards an altar, placed axially in front of the temple. To preserve this connection, the single row of columns often found along the central axis of the in early temples was replaced by two separate rows towards the sides. The central one of the three aisles thereby created was often emphasised as the main one. The dignity of the central aisle of the could be underlined by the use of special elements of design. For example, the oldest known Corinthian capitals are from the "naoi" of Doric temples. The impressiveness of the internal aisle could be emphasised further by having a third row of columns along the back, as is the case at the Parthenon and at the temple of Zeus in Nemea. The Parthenon , also had another impressive feature, namely two tiers of columns atop each other, as did the temple of Aphaia on Aegina. The temple of Athena at Tegea shows another variation, where the two column rows are indicated by half-columns protruding from the side walls and crowned with Corinthian capitals. An early form of this solution can be seen at Bassae, where the central column of the back portico remains free-standing, while the columns along the sides are in fact semi-columns connected with the walls by curved protrusions.


title: Ancient Greek temple

text: Some famous temples, notably the Parthenon, the Temple of Zeus at Olympia, and the Temple of Asclepius, Epidaurus, had much of the floor occupied by a very shallow pool filled with water (Parthenon) or olive oil at Olympia. All these had chryselephantine images, and Pausanias was perhaps correct to link the Parthenon one with the maintenance of the proper humidity, but they probably increased the light, and perhaps gave it attractive effects of reflections.


title: Ancient Greek temple

text: It used to be thought that access to the of a Greek temple was limited to the priests, and it was entered only rarely by other visitors, except perhaps during important festivals or other special occasions. In recent decades this picture has changed, and scholars now stress the variety of local access rules. Pausanias was a gentlemanly traveller of the 2nd-century AD who declares that the special intention of his travels around Greece was to see cult images, which he usually managed to do.


title: Ancient Greek temple

text: It was typically necessary to make a sacrifice or gift, and some temples restricted access either to certain days of the year, or by class, race, gender (with either men or women forbidden), or even more tightly. Garlic-eaters were forbidden in one temple, in another women unless they were virgins; restrictions typically arose from local ideas of ritual purity or a perceived whim of the deity. In some places visitors were asked to show they spoke Greek; elsewhere Dorians were not allowed entry. Some temples could only be viewed from the threshold. Some temples are said never to be opened at all. But generally Greeks, including slaves, had a reasonable expectation of being allowed into the . Once inside the it was possible to pray to or before the cult image, and sometimes to touch it; Cicero saw a bronze image of Heracles with its foot largely worn away by the touch of devotees. Famous cult images such as the Statue of Zeus at Olympia functioned as significant visitor attractions.


title: Ancient Greek temple

text: Sometimes, the divine character of the cult image was stressed even more by removing it further into a separate space within the , the "adyton". Especially in Magna Graecia, this tradition continued for a long time. Over the decades and centuries, numerous votive offerings could be placed in the , giving it a museum-like character (Pausanias 5, 17).


title: Ancient Greek temple

text: The back room of the temple, the , usually served as a storage space for cult equipment. It could also hold the temple treasury. For some time, the of the Athenian Parthenon contained the treasury of the Delian League, thus directly protected by the deity. and were often closed off from the by wooden barriers or fences.


title: Ancient Greek temple

text: Like the , the could serve the display and storage of votives, often placed between the columns. In some cases, votive offerings could also be directly affixed to the columns, as is visible e.g. on the Temple of Hera at Olympia. The could also be used for cult processions, or simply as shelter from the elements, a function emphasised by Vitruvius (III 3, 8f).


title: Ancient Greek temple

text: The sponsors of Greek temples usually belonged to one of two groups: on the one hand public sponsors, including the bodies and institutions that administrated important sanctuaries; on the other hand influential and affluent private sponsors, especially Hellenistic kings. The financial needs were covered by income from taxes or special levies, or by the sale of raw materials like silver. The collection of donations also occurred, especially for supra-regional sanctuaries like Delphi or Olympia. Hellenistic monarchs could appear as private donors in cities outside their immediate sphere of influence and sponsor public buildings, as exemplified by Antiochos IV, who ordered the rebuilding of the Olympieion at Athens. In such cases, the money came from the private treasury of the donor.


title: Ancient Greek temple

text: Building contracts were advertised after a popular or elected assembly had passed the relevant motion. An appointed committee would choose the winner among the submitted plans. Afterwards, another committee would supervise the building process. Its responsibilities included the advertising and awarding of individual contracts, the practical supervision of the construction, the inspection and acceptance of completed parts, and the paying of wages. The original advert contained all the information necessary to enable a contractor to make a realistic offer for completing the task. Contracts were normally awarded to the competitor offering the most complete service for the cheapest price. In the case of public buildings, the materials were normally provided by the public sponsor, exceptions were clarified in the contract. Contractors were usually only responsible for specific parts of the overall construction, as most businesses were small. Originally, payment was by person and day, but from the 5th century BCE onward, payment by piece or construction stage became common.


title: Ancient Greek temple

text: The costs could be immense. For example, surviving receipts show that in the rebuilding of the Artemision of Ephesos, a single column cost 40,000 drachmas. Considering that a worker was paid about two drachmas, that equals nearly two million euro (at a modern western European wage scale). Since the overall number of columns required for the design was 120, even this aspect of the building would have caused costs equivalent to those of major projects today (circa 360 million euro).


title: Ancient Greek temple

text: One of the criteria by which Greek temples are classified is the Classical order chosen as their basic aesthetic principle. This choice, which was rarely entirely free, but normally determined by tradition and local habit, would lead to widely differing rules of design. According to the three major orders, a basic distinction can be made between the Doric, the Ionic and the Corinthian temple.


title: Ancient Greek temple

text: The modern image of Greek temple architecture is strongly influenced by the numerous reasonably well-preserved temples of the Doric order. Especially the ruins of Southern Italy and Sicily were accessible to western travellers quite early in the development of Classical studies, e.g. the temples at Paestum, Akragas or Segesta, but the Hephaisteion and the Parthenon of Athens also influenced scholarship and Neoclassical architecture from an early point onward.


title: Ancient Greek temple

text: The beginnings of Greek temple construction in the Doric order can be traced to early in the 7th century BCE. With the transition to stone architecture around 600 BCE, the order was fully developed; from then on, only details were changed, developed and refined, mostly in the context of solving the challenges posed by the design and construction of monumental temples.


title: Ancient Greek temple

text: Apart from early forms, occasionally still with apsidal backs and hipped roofs, the first peripteral temples occur quite soon, before 600 BCE. An example is Temple C at Thermos, , a , surrounded by a of 5 × 15 columns, its divided in two aisles by a central row of columns. Its entirely Doric entablature is indicated by painted clay plaques, probably early example of metopes, and clay triglyphs. It appears to be the case that all temples erected within the spheres of influence of Corinth and Argos in the 7th century BCE were Doric . The earliest stone columns did not display the simple squatness of the high and late Archaic specimens, but rather mirror the slenderness of their wooden predecessors. Already around 600 BCE, the demand of viewability from all sides was applied to the Doric temple, leading to the mirroring of the frontal by an at the back. This early demand continued to affect Doric temples especially in the Greek motherland. Neither the Ionic temples, nor the Doric specimens in Magna Graecia followed this principle. The increasing monumentalisation of stone buildings, and the transfer of the wooden roof construction to the level of the removed the fixed relationship between the and the . This relationship between the axes of walls and columns, almost a matter of course in smaller structures, remained undefined and without fixed rules for nearly a century: the position of the "floated" within the .


title: Ancient Greek temple

text: The Heraion of Olympia () exemplifies the transition from wood to stone construction. This building, initially constructed entirely of wood and mudbrick, had its wooden columns gradually replaced with stone ones over time. Like a museum of Doric columns and Doric capitals, it contains examples of all chronological phases, up to the Roman period. One of the columns in the remained wooden at least until the 2nd century AD, when Pausanias described it. This 6 × 16-column temple already called for a solution to the Doric corner conflict. It was achieved through a reduction of the corner intercolumniations the so-called corner contraction. The Heraion is most advanced in regards to the relationship between and , as it uses the solution that became canonical decades later, a linear axis running along the external faces of the outer walls and through the central axis of the associated columns. Its differentiation between wider intercolumnia on the narrow sides and narrower ones on the long sides was also an influential feature, as was the positioning of the columns within the , corresponding with those on the outside, a feature not repeated until the construction of the temple at Bassae 150 years later.


title: Ancient Greek temple

text: The oldest Doric temple entirely built of stone is represented by the early 6th century BCE Artemis Temple in Kerkyra (modern Corfu). All parts of this building are bulky and heavy, its columns reach a height of barely five times their bottom diameter and were very closely spaced with an intercolumniation of a single column width. The individual members of its Doric orders all differ considerably from the later canon, although all essential Doric features are present. Its ground plan of 8 by 17 columns, probably pseudoperipteral, is unusual.


title: Ancient Greek temple

text: Among the Doric temples, the Peisistratid Olympieion at Athens has a special position. Although this building was never completed, its architect apparently attempted to adapt the Ionic . Column drums built into the later foundations indicate that it was originally planned as a Doric temple. Nonetheless, its ground plan follows the Ionic examples of Samos so closely that it would be hard to reconcile such a solution with a Doric triglyph frieze. After the expulsion of Hippias in 510 BCE, work on this structure was stopped: Democratic Athens had no desire to continue a monument of tyrannical self-aggrandisation.


title: Ancient Greek temple

text: Apart from this exception and some examples in the more experimental poleis of Greater Greece, the Classical Doric temple type remained the . Its perfection was a priority of artistic endeavour throughout the Classical period.


title: Ancient Greek temple

text: The canonical solution was found fairly soon by the architect Libon of Elis, who erected the Temple of Zeus at Olympia around 460 BCE. With its 6 × 13 columns or 5 × 12 intercolumniations, this temple was designed entirely rationally. Its column bays (axis to axis) measured , a triglyph + metope , a plus the adjacent space () , the tile width of the marble roof was . Its columns are powerful, with only a slight ; the echinus of the capitals is already nearly linear at 45°. All of the superstructure is affected by curvature. The measures exactly 3 × 9 column distances (axis to axis), its external wall faces are aligned with the axes of the adjacent columns.


title: Ancient Greek temple

text: The Classical proportion, 6 × 13 columns, is taken up by numerous temples, e.g. the Temple of Apollo on Delos (), the Temple of Hephaistos at Athens and the temple of Poseidon on Cape Sounion. A slight variation, with 6 × 12 columns or 5 × 11 intercolumniations occurs as frequently.


title: Ancient Greek temple

text: The Parthenon maintains the same proportion at a larger scale of 8 × 17 columns, but follows the same principles. In spite of the eight columns on its front, the temple is a pure , its external walls align with the axes of the second and seventh columns. In other regards, the Parthenon is distinguished as an exceptional example among the mass of Greek by many distinctive aesthetic solutions in detail.


title: Ancient Greek temple

text: For example, the of and are shortened so as to form simple pillars. Instead of longer , there are "prostyle" colonnades inside the on the front and back, reflecting Ionic habits. The execution of the , with a western room containing four columns, is also exceptional. The Parthenon's Archaic predecessor already contained such a room. All measurements in the Parthenon are determined by the proportion 4:9. It determines column width to column distance, width to length of the stylobate, and of the without . The temple's width to height up to the is determined by the reverse proportion 9:4, the same proportion squared, 81:16, determines temple length to height. All of this mathematical rigour is relaxed and loosened by the optical refinements mentioned above, which affect the whole building, from layer to layer, and element to element. 92 sculpted metopes decorate its triglyph frieze: centauromachy, amazonomachy and gigantomachy are its themes. The external walls of the are crowned with a figural frieze surrounding the entire and depicting the Panathenaic procession as well as the Assembly of the Gods. Large format figures decorate the pediments on the narrow sides. This conjunction of strict principles and elaborate refinements makes the Parthenon the paradigmatic Classical temple. The Temple of Hephaistos at Athens, erected shortly after the Parthenon, uses the same aesthetic and proportional principles, without adhering as closely to the 4:9 proportion.


title: Ancient Greek temple

text: In the 4th century BCE, a few Doric temples were erected with 6 × 15 or 6 × 14 columns, probably referring to local Archaic predecessors, e.g. the Temple of Zeus in Nemea and that of Athena in Tegea. Generally, Doric temples followed a tendency to become lighter in their superstructures. Columns became narrower, intercolumniations wider. This shows a growing adjustment to the proportion and weight of Ionic temples, mirrored by a progressive tendency among Ionic temples to become somewhat heavier. In the light of this mutual influence it is not surprising that in the late 4th century BCE temple of Zeus at Nemea, the front is emphasised by a two intercolumniations deep, while the is suppressed. Frontality is a key feature of Ionic temples. The emphasis on the already occurred in the slightly older temple of Athena at Tegea, but there it was repeated in the . Both temples continued the tendency towards more richly equipped interiors, in both cases with engaged or full columns of the Corinthian order.


title: Ancient Greek temple

text: The increasing reduction of the number of columns along the long sides, clearly visible on Ionic temples, is mirrored in Doric constructions. A small temple at Kournó has a of merely 6 × 7 columns, a stylobate of only 8 × 10 m and corners executed as pilasters towards the front. The of monumental Doric temples is merely hinted at here; the function as a simple canopy for the shrine of the cult statue is clear.


title: Ancient Greek temple

text: Sicily and Southern Italy hardly participated in these developments. Here, most temple construction took place during the 6th and 5th centuries BCE. Later, the Western Greeks showed a pronounced tendency to develop unusual architectural solutions, more or less unthinkable in the mother of their colonies. For example, there are two examples of temples with uneven column numbers at the front, Temple of Hera I at Paestum and Temple of Apollo A at Metapontum. Both temples had fronts of nine columns.


title: Ancient Greek temple

text: The technical possibilities of the western Greeks, which had progressed beyond those in the motherland, permitted many deviations. For example, innovations regarding the construction of the entablature developed in the west allowed the spanning of much wider spaces than before, leading to some very deep and broad . The often had a depth of two column distances, e.g. at Temple of Hera I, Paestum, and temples C, F and G at Selinus, classifying them as . The only played a subsidiary role, but did occur sometimes, e.g. at the temple of Poseidon in Paestum. Much more frequently, the temples included a separate room at the back end of the , entrance to which was usually forbidden, the "adyton". In some cases, the was a free-standing structure within the , e.g. temple G in Selinus. If possible, columns inside the were avoided, allowing for open roof constructions of up to 13 m width.


title: Ancient Greek temple

text: The largest such structure was the Olympieion of Akragas, an 8 × 17 columns , but in many regards an absolutely "un-Greek" structure, equipped with details such as engaged, figural pillars (Telamons), and a partially closed off by walls. With external dimensions of 56 × 113 m, it was the largest Doric building ever to be completed. If the colonies showed remarkable independence and will to experiment in basic terms, they did so even more in terms of detail. For example, the lower surfaces of Doric could be decorated with coffers instead of "mutuli".


title: Ancient Greek temple

text: Although a strong tendency to emphasize the front, e.g. through the addition of ramps or stairs with up to eight steps (at Temple C in Selinus), or a depth of 3.5 column distances (temple of Apollo at Syracuse) had become a key principle of design, this was relativised by the broadening of column distances on the long sides, e.g. Temple of Hera I at Paestum. Only in the colonies could the Doric corner conflict be ignored. If South Italian architects tried to solve it, they used a variety of solutions: broadening of the corner metopes or triglyphs, variation of column distance or metopes. In some cases, different solutions were used on the broad and narrow sides of the same building.


title: Ancient Greek temple

text: For the early period, before the 6th century BCE, the term Ionic temple can, at best, designate a temple in the Ionian areas of settlement. No fragments of architecture belonging to the Ionic order have been found from this time. Nonetheless, some early temples in the area already indicate the rational system that was to characterise the Ionic system later on, e.g. the Heraion II on Samos. Thus, even at an early point, the axes of the walls aligned with the column axes, whereas in Doric architecture, the external wall faces do so. The early temples also show no concern for the typical Doric feature of visibility from all sides, they regularly lack an ; the only became widespread in the area in the 4th century BCE. In contrast, from an early point, Ionic temples stress the front by using double porticos. Elongated became a determining element. At the same time, the Ionic temples were characterised by their tendency to use varied and richly decorated surfaces, as well as the widespread use of light-shade contrasts.


title: Ancient Greek temple

text: As soon as the Ionic order becomes recognisable in temple architecture, it is increased to monumental sizes. The temple in the Heraion of Samos, erected by Rhoikos around 560 BCE, is the first known , with outside dimensions of 52 × 105 m. A double portico of 8 × 21 columns enclosed the , the back even had ten columns. The front used differing column distances, with a wider central opening. In proportion to the bottom diameter, the columns reached three times the height of a Doric counterpart. 40 flutings enriched the complex surface structure of the column shafts. Samian column bases were decorated with a sequence of horizontal flutings, but in spite of this playfulness they weighed 1,500 kg a piece. The capitals of this structure were probably still entirely of wood, as was the entablature. Ionic volute capitals survive from the outer of the later rebuilding by Polycrates. The columns of the inner had leaf decoration and no volutes.


title: Ancient Greek temple

text: In the Cyclades, there were early temples entirely built of marble. Volute capitals have not been found associated with these, but their marble entablatures belonged to the Ionic order.


title: Ancient Greek temple

text: Roughly beginning with the erection of the older Artemision of Ephesos around 550 BCE the quantity of archaeological remains of Ionic temples increases. The Artemision was planned as a , its architect Theodoros had been one of the builders of the Samian Heraion. With a substructure of 55 × 115 m, the Artemision outscaled all precedents. Its was executed as unroofed internal peristyle courtyard, the so-called . The building was entirely of marble. The temple was considered as one of the seven wonders of the ancient world, which may be justified, considering the efforts involved in its construction.


title: Ancient Greek temple

text: The columns stood on ephesian bases, 36 of them were decorated with life-sized friezes of human figures at the bottom of the shaft, the so-called . The columns had between 40 and 48 flutings, some of them cut to alternate between a wider and a narrower fluting. The oldest marble architraves of Greek architecture, found at the Artemision, also spanned the widest distances ever achieved in pure stone. The middle architrave block was 8.74 m long and weighed 24 metric tons; it had to be lifted to its final position, 20 m above ground, with a system of pulleys. Like its precedents, the temple used differentiated column widths in the front, and had a higher number of columns at the back. According to ancient sources, Kroisos was one of the sponsors. An inscription referring to his sponsorship was indeed found on one of the columns. The temple was burnt down by Herostratos in 356 BCE and reerected soon thereafter. For the replacement, a "crepidoma" of ten or more steps was erected. Older Ionic temples normally lacked a specific visible substructure. This emphasised basis had to be balanced out be a heightened entablature, producing not only a visual contrast to, but also a major weight upon the slender columns.


title: Ancient Greek temple

text: The temple of Apollo at Didyma near Miletus, begun around 540 BCE, was another with open internal courtyard. The interior was structured with powerful pilasters, their rhythm reflecting that of the external . The columns, with 36 flutings, were executed as with figural decoration, like those at Ephesos. Construction ceased around 500 BCE, but was restarted in 331 BCE and finally completed in the 2nd century BCE. The enormous costs involved may have been one of the reasons for the long period of construction. The building was the first Ionic temple to follow the Attic tradition of uniform column distances, the frontal differentiation was not practised any more.


title: Ancient Greek temple

text: Ionic were usually somewhat smaller and shorter in their dimensions than Doric ones. E.g., the temple of Zeus at Labraunda had only 6 × 8 columns, the temple of Aphrodite in Samothrace only 6 × 9. The temple of Athena Polias at Priene, already considered in antiquity as the classical example of an Ionic temple, has partially survived. It was the first monumental of Ionia, erected between 350 and 330 BCE by Pytheos. It is based on a grid (the exact dimensions of its plinths). The temple had 6 × 11 columns, i.e. a proportion of 5:10 or 1:2 intercolumnia. Walls and columns were aligned axially, according to Ionic tradition. The was of equal depth on all sides, eliminating the usual emphasis on the front, an , integrated into the back of the , is the first proper example in Ionic architecture. The evident rational-mathematical aspect to the design suits Ionic Greek culture, with its strong tradition of natural philosophy. Pytheos was to be of major influence far beyond his lifetime. Hermogenes, who probably came from Priene, was a deserving successor and achieved the final flourish of Ionic architecture around 200 BCE.


title: Ancient Greek temple

text: One of the projects led by Hermogenes was the Artemision of Magnesia on the Maeander, one of the first . other early include the temple of Aphrodite at Messa on Lesbos, belonging to the age of Hermogenes or earlier, the temple of Apollo Sminthaios on Chryse and the temple of Apollo at Alabanda. The arrangement of the , omitting the interior row of columns while maintaining a with the width of two column distances, produces a massively broadened portico, comparable to the contemporaneous hall architecture. The grid of the temple of Magnesia was based on a square. The was surrounded by 8 × 15 columns or 7 × 14 intercolumniations, i.e. a 1:2 proportion. The consisted of a of four column depths, a four-column , and a two-column . Above the architrave of the , there was a figural frieze of 137 m length, depicting the amazonomachy. Above it lay the dentil, the Ionic and the .


title: Ancient Greek temple

text: Although Athens and Attica were also ethnically Ionian, the Ionic order was of minor importance in this area. The Temple of Nike Aptera on the Acropolis, a small amphiprostyle temple completed around 420 BCE, with Ionic columns on plinthless Attic bases, a triple-layered architrave and a figural frieze, but without the typical Ionic dentil, is notable. The east and north halls of the Erechtheion, completed in 406 BCE, follow the same succession of elements.


title: Ancient Greek temple

text: An innovative Ionic temple was that of Asklepios in Epidaurus, one of the first of the type. This small ionic prostyle temple had engaged columns along the sides and back, the was thus reduced to a mere hint of a full portico facade.


title: Ancient Greek temple

text: There is very little evidence of Ionic temples in Magna Graecia. One of the few exceptions is the early Classical Temple D, an 8 × 20-column , at Metapontum. Its architect combined the dentils, typical of Asia Minor, with an Attic frieze, thus proving that the colonies were quite capable of partaking in the developments of the motherland. A small Ionic Hellenistic prostyle temple was found on the Poggetto San Nicola at Agrigento.


title: Ancient Greek temple

text: Ruins of a provincial Ionic temple with a design very similar to those in the main Greek world survives at Jandial in modern Pakistan. The temple is considered semi-classical, with a plan essentially that of a Greek temple, with a , and an at the back. Two Ionic columns at the front are framed by two "anta" walls as in a Greek distyle in antis layout. It seems that the temple had an outside wall with windows or doorways, in a layout similar to that of a Greek encircling row of columns (peripteral design). It has been called "the most Hellenic structure yet found on Indian soil".


title: Ancient Greek temple

text: The youngest of the three Classical Greek orders, the Corinthian order came to be used for the external design of Greek temples quite late. After it had proved its adequacy, e.g. on a mausoleum of at modern-day Belevi (near Ephesos), it appears to have found increasing popularity in the last half of the 3rd century BCE. Early examples probably include the Serapeum of Alexandria and a temple at Hermopolis Magna, both erected by Ptolemaios III. A small temple of Athena Limnastis at Messene, definitely Corinthian, is only attested through drawings by early travellers and very scarce fragments. It probably dates to the late 3rd century BCE.


title: Ancient Greek temple

text: The first dateable and well-preserved presence of the Corinthian temple is the Hellenistic rebuilding of the Olympieion of Athens, planned and started between 175 and 146 BCE. This mighty with its 110 × 44 m substructure and 8 × 20 columns was to be one of the largest Corinthian temples ever. Donated by Antiochus IV Epiphanes, it combined all elements of the Asian/Ionic order with the Corinthian capital. Its Asian elements and its conception as a made the temple an exception in Athens.


title: Ancient Greek temple

text: Around the middle of the 2nd century BCE, a 6 × 12-column Corinthian was built in Olba-Diokaisarea in Rugged Cilicia. Its columns, mostly still upright, stand on Attic bases without plinths, exceptional for the period. The 24 flutings of the columns are only indicated by facets in the lower third. Each of the Corinthian capitals is made of three separate parts, an exceptional form. The entablature of the temple was probably in the Doric order, as is suggested by fragments of scattered among the ruins. All of these details suggest an Alexandrian workshop, since Alexandria showed the greatest tendency to combine Doric entablatures with Corinthian capitals and to do without the plinth under Attic bases.


title: Ancient Greek temple

text: A further plan option is shown by the temple of Hekate at Lagina, a small of 8 × 11 columns. Its architectural members are entirely in keeping with the Asian/Ionic canon. Its distinctive feature, a rich figural frieze, makes this building, erected around 100 BCE, an architectural gem. Further late Greek temples in the Corinthian order are known e.g. at Mylasa and, on the middle gymnasium terrace at Pergamon.


title: Ancient Greek temple

text: The few Greek temples in the Corinthian order are almost always exceptional in form or ground plan and are initially usually an expression of royal patronage. The Corinthian order permitted a considerable increase of the material and technical effort invested in a building, which made its use attractive for the purposes of royals' self-aggrandisement. The demise of the Hellenistic monarchies and the increasing power of Rome and her allies placed mercantile elites and sanctuary administrations in the positions of building sponsors. The construction of Corinthian temples became a typical expression of self-confidence and independence. As an element of Roman architecture, the Corinthian temple came to be widely distributed in all of the Graeco-Roman world, especially in Asia Minor, until the late Imperial period.


title: Ancient Greek temple

text: Though extremely solidly built, apart from the roof, relatively few Greek temples have left very significant remains; these are often those which were converted to other uses such as churches or mosques. There are many where the platforms are reasonably complete, and some round drum elements of the columns, which were harder for later builders to re-use. The somewhat controversial practice of anastylosis, or re-erecting fallen materials, has sometimes been used. The rectangular wall blocks have usually been carried off for re-use, and some buildings have been destroyed or weakened merely to get the bronze pins linking blocks. Marble sculpture has often been removed to make lime for mortar, and any that has survived has usually been removed to a museum, not always a local one.


title: Ancient Greek temple

text: The most complete remains are concentrated in Athens and southern Italy; several are described in more detail above, under their orders. Athens has the Parthenon and the even better preserved Doric Temple of Hephaestus, both once churches, as well two small temples on the Acropolis and a corner of the large Corinthian Temple of Olympian Zeus. The small temple of Apollo Epicurius at Bassae survived in a rural location with most of its columns and main architrave blocks in place, amid a jumble of fallen stone. From this British antiquaries extracted the Bassae Frieze in 1812, which was soon in the British Museum.


title: Ancient Greek temple

text: In Italy, Paestum, some way south of Naples near what was once the northern limit of Magna Graecia (Greek Italy), has three early Doric temples in a row, amid the mostly Roman ruins of the city. In Sicily the Valle dei Templi near Agrigento has an even larger group, with the main structure of the Temple of Concordia especially well-preserved. Along the coast Selinunte was destroyed about 250 BCE by the Carthaginians and has the tumbled ruins of five temples, of which one has been rebuilt from the original material. Not far away, Segesta has a single Doric temple whose main structure is largely intact.


title: Cyril Smith

text: Sir Cyril Richard Smith (28 June 1928 – 3 September 2010) was a prominent British politician who after his death was revealed to have been a prolific serial sex offender against children. A member of the Liberal Party, he was Member of Parliament (MP) for Rochdale from 1972 to 1992. After his death, numerous allegations of child sexual abuse by Smith emerged, leading law enforcement officials to believe he had been guilty of sex offences.


title: Cyril Smith

text: Smith was first active in local politics as a Liberal in 1945 before switching to Labour in 1950; he served as a Labour councillor in Rochdale, Lancashire, from 1950 and became mayor in 1966. He subsequently switched parties again and entered Parliament as a Liberal in 1972, winning his Rochdale seat on five further occasions. Smith was appointed the Liberal Chief Whip in June 1975 but later resigned on health grounds. In his later years as an MP, Smith opposed an alliance with the Social Democratic Party and did not stand for re-election in 1992; however, he remained loyal to the Liberal Democrats upon the parties' merger. Throughout much of his career, he maintained a high profile in the media and became a well-known public figure.


title: Cyril Smith

text: In later years, Smith's public esteem was considerably marred by the allegation that he had been involved in a cover-up of a health risk at a local asbestos factory. In 2008, there were calls for Smith to be stripped of his knighthood after it was revealed that he had asked the asbestos company Turner & Newall to prepare a speech for him in 1981 in which he declared that "the public at large are not at risk from asbestos". It was later revealed that Smith owned 1,300 shares in the company. In 2008, Smith said that 4,000 asbestos-related deaths a year in the UK was "relatively low".


title: Cyril Smith

text: In 2012, following allegations of child sexual abuse, the Crown Prosecution Service formally admitted that Smith should have been charged with such abuse during his lifetime. In November 2012, Greater Manchester Police (GMP) Assistant Chief Constable Steve Heywood said there was "overwhelming evidence" that young boys were sexually and physically abused by Smith.


title: Cyril Smith

text: In April 2014, it was reported that there had been 144 complaints against Smith from victims as young as eight years of age. Attempts to prosecute Smith had been blocked. Public authorities—including Rochdale Borough Council, the police, and intelligence services–have been implicated in covering up Smith's alleged crimes. In 2015, it emerged that Smith had been arrested in the early 1980s in relation to some of these offences; however, a high-level cover-up reportedly led to destruction of evidence, Smith's rapid release within hours, and the invocation of the Official Secrets Act to prevent the investigating officers from discussing the matter.


title: Cyril Smith

text: Cyril Smith was born in Rochdale, Lancashire, a mill town near Manchester that is known as the birthplace of the co-operative movement. Smith described himself as "illegitimate, deprived and poor". Though he never knew the name of his father, he commented, "I suspect I know who he was." Smith lived with his mother Eva, grandmother and two half-siblings, Eunice and Norman, in a one-up one-down cottage (demolished in 1945) on Falinge Road. Eva Smith, was a domestic worker for a local cotton mill–owning family.


title: Cyril Smith

text: Smith was educated at Rochdale Grammar School for Boys. After leaving school, he began work at the Rochdale Inland Revenue Tax Office. In the 1945 general election, aged 16, he gave a public speech in support of Liberal candidate Charles Harvey. Smith said he was given an ultimatum by his manager in the tax office to either choose the civil service or politics. He left his job at the tax office and then worked as an office boy at Fothergill & Harvey's mill in Littleborough. The mill was owned by the Harveys, a notable Liberal family, but Smith claimed the director Charles Harvey knew nothing of his job application.


title: Cyril Smith

text: Smith was a lifelong member of the Rochdale Unitarian Church. Contemporaries remembered him expressing, as a teenager, the desire to be both mayor and Member of Parliament (MP). Smith served in many roles, including as Sunday School superintendent, trustee, and chair of the trustees. His Unitarian faith intersected with his Liberal politics. Smith credited the church with "helping develop his fiercely independent and anti-establishment streak".


title: Cyril Smith

text: Smith joined the Liberal Party in 1945 and was a member of the National Executive Committee of the Young Liberals in 1948 and 1949. From 1948 to 1950, he was Liberal agent in Stockport, but after the party suffered poor election results in 1950 and 1951, he was advised by the losing Liberal candidate for Stockport, Reg Hewitt, to join the Labour Party.


title: Cyril Smith

text: In 1952, Smith was elected a Labour councillor for the Falinge ward of Rochdale. By 1954, he was chairman of Rochdale Council's Establishment Committee. In 1963 Smith switched committee roles to be responsible for Estates which included overseeing residential and town centre development. He was appointed the Labour Mayor of Rochdale in 1966, with his mother, Eva, acting as mayoress (she retained her job as a cleaner in Rochdale Town Hall whilst in the post). In her work as a cleaner at the town hall, Smith's mother was banned from entering the police station – likewise based in the building – because she would search through its bins for information to help her son.


title: Cyril Smith

text: Smith's mayoral duties were filmed for the BBC's "Man Alive" documentary series, in an episode titled "Santa Claus for a Year". In 1966 he was appointed chairman of the Education Committee overseeing the introduction of comprehensive education in the district. In the same year he was appointed Member of the Order of the British Empire (MBE) in the Queen's Birthday Honours. According to his autobiography, Smith was found guilty of an offence relating to public lotteries and bound over to keep the peace for twelve months.


title: Cyril Smith

text: In 1966, Smith resigned the Labour whip when the party refused to vote for an increase in council house rents and sat with four other councillors as independents until 1970. His subsequent return to the Liberal Party, and his election as a Liberal MP, caused surprise after his role in opposing Ludovic Kennedy, the Liberal candidate in the 1958 Rochdale by-election. Controversy was sparked by Rochdale Liberals when the parliamentary candidate, Garth Pratt, was deselected to make way for Smith's return to the party.


title: Cyril Smith

text: During the 1960s Smith was active on many Rochdale Council committees regarding youth activities. These included: Rochdale Youth Orchestra, Rochdale Youth Theatre Workshop, governorship of 29 Rochdale schools and chairmanship of the Youth Committee, Youth Employment Committee and the Education Committee.


title: Cyril Smith

text: Having been Liberal candidate in Rochdale at the 1970 general election when he took the party to second place, Smith won the seat at the 1972 by-election with a large swing from Labour to the Liberals, and a majority of 5,171.


title: Cyril Smith

text: Smith was appointed as the party Chief Whip in June 1975, and faced pressure from the press in the wake of a scandal involving party leader Jeremy Thorpe. Smith was in hospital when Thorpe sacked him, just before he himself was forced to resign. Speaking to Granada Television in 2003, David Steel reflected on events in the 1970s with the conclusion: "Cyril was not an ideal Chief Whip because he did not handle a crisis well and had a tendency to say anything to a news camera." Smith was the only Liberal MP during his parliamentary career to oppose abortion and advocate the return of the death penalty. One of his constituents was jailed for sixteen years for the sexual murder of a child, in what turned out to be a miscarriage of justice. The man's mother repeatedly approached Smith for help, but he declined to take the case on.


title: Cyril Smith

text: In 1978, Smith approached former Conservative Prime Minister Ted Heath to discuss forming a new centrist party. In 1980, Smith described UK unemployment figures of two million jobless people as "a disgrace", stating: "They represent a sick society, and are not acceptable to live with." In 1981, he was involved in moves to create "a party with a new image" but, according to the "Rochdale Observer", at the foundation of the Social Democratic Party (SDP) in 1981 he warned Liberal colleagues to move with caution. Smith was quoted as being "opposed to an alliance at any price". He would later express the view that the Liberal Party would have been "better off" without being "shackled to the SDP". After David Alton's 1988 bill to reduce the time limit for abortions was talked out by MPs, he referred to other members as "murderers in the womb". The speaker of the House of Commons forced Smith to apologise for the comment.


title: Cyril Smith

text: In 2008 the "New Statesman" accused Smith of improper conduct in his connection with the company Turner & Newall (T&N), which was based in his constituency, and was once the world's largest manufacturer of materials using asbestos. In the summer recess of 1981, Smith wrote to Sydney Marks, head of personnel at T&N, informing him that EEC regulations were coming up for debate in the next parliamentary session. A House of Commons speech Smith delivered was almost identical to one prepared for him by the company. He said "the public at large are not at risk from asbestos" in his speech of a substance then long known as lethal if inhaled. A year later he revealed he owned 1,300 shares in T&N. Interviewed in September 2008 by a local BBC news programme, Smith responded to the claims he had helped cover up the dangers of asbestos as "absolute rubbish". After his death, he was described by journalist Oliver Kamm in his blog in "The Times" as "a corrupt, mendacious mountain of flesh".


title: Cyril Smith

text: The controversy led in November 2008 to a parliamentary early day motion calling for Smith to be stripped of the knighthood he had been granted in 1988. Kevin Maguire of the "Daily Mirror" supported the motion.


title: Cyril Smith

text: After leaving Westminster and the death of his mother Eva in 1994, Smith was invited by a lifelong friend, a public relations manager at the Cunard Line, to become a guest lecturer on the cruise liner "Queen Elizabeth 2". Smith liked to spend his holidays at Lytham St Annes, a seaside resort near Blackpool.


title: Cyril Smith

text: In February 2006, Smith was taken to hospital after collapsing at his Rochdale home. He had been weakened by dehydration and low potassium levels.


title: Cyril Smith

text: Smith died of cancer in a Rochdale nursing home on 3 September 2010. He had made detailed plans for his own funeral, which was held in the Great Hall of Rochdale Town Hall and included David Alton, the MEP Chris Davies, and former MP Paul Rowen as speakers. Of all the many tributes, the then-current leader of Rochdale Council summed him up: "He simply was politics for Rochdale." The service was led by the minister of his local Unitarian church, of which he had been a lifelong member.


title: Cyril Smith

text: Smith's younger brother Norman followed him into local politics, as councillor, mayor, and president of the local Liberal Democrat chapter.


title: Cyril Smith

text: Smith's large size and capacity for blunt speaking and popular touch made him one of the most recognisable British politicians of the 1970s and 1980s. His nickname, "Big Cyril", was the title of his autobiography. Smith made many popular television appearances: he sang "She's a Lassie from Lancashire" on his friend Jimmy Savile's early-1970s TV show "Clunk Click", appeared in an advert for a "greatest hits" album by 1980s pop group Bananarama, and sang a duet with Don Estelle in a 1999 recording of the Laurel and Hardy song "The Trail of the Lonesome Pine". Like several other prominent British MPs in the 1980s, he was regularly parodied in the satirical television show "Spitting Image".


title: Cyril Smith

text: Smith is believed to have been the heaviest British MP ever: at 6'2" (188 cm), he was reported to weigh 29 stone 12 pounds (about 190 kilogrammes or 418 pounds). A common joke on the size of the Parliamentary Liberal Party in the early 1970s was that only one taxi would be needed to transport the entire party; after Smith's election, the party could fill two taxis.


title: Cyril Smith

text: A lifelong bachelor, Smith told "You" magazine: "I haven't had a lot of time for courting women ... I've tended to be married to politics". Smith was a friend of the mother of broadcasters Andy and Liz Kershaw; she described him as dependent on Valium, but he denied these allegations.


title: Cyril Smith

text: In May 1979, a local underground magazine, the "Rochdale Alternative Press", alleged that in the 1960s Smith had spanked and sexually abused teenage boys in a hostel he co-founded. The matter was investigated by the police, but Smith was not prosecuted. The story was repeated in the same month by the magazine "Private Eye". Smith never publicly denied the accusations of abuse or took legal action in response to those accusations. After his death, the allegations were denied by his family. The Press Office of the leader of the Liberal Party, David Steel, commented, "All he seems to have done is spanked a few bare bottoms".


title: Cyril Smith

text: In November 2012, speaking in the House of Commons, Simon Danczuk, the Labour MP for Rochdale, Smith's former seat, called for an inquiry into alleged acts of abuse by Sir Cyril Smith.


title: Cyril Smith

text: Rossendale councillor Alan Neal alleged that at the age of eleven in 1964, during Smith's membership of the Labour Party, he was beaten by Smith at a hostel for boys. Neal said: "I'm speaking now because someone has taken a right decision to raise this issue with the authorities". He added that he told police about the incident in 1968 when he left the school, but that when he did so, "everyone made the same comment that the person in question was a very important, powerful man". Neal said that he lost two front teeth and needed stitches to a head wound after Smith assaulted him for refusing to eat a potted meat sandwich.


title: Cyril Smith

text: Another alleged victim of abuse by Smith waived his right to anonymity in November 2012 to claim that Smith smacked him and stroked his buttocks when he was a teenager at a Rochdale care home in the 1960s. Barry Fitton said he was spanked "very, very hard" by Smith and that he was left in tears by the alleged incident.


title: Cyril Smith

text: On 21 November 2012, Greater Manchester Police (GMP) announced it would investigate allegations that Smith had sexually abused boys at a hostel in Rochdale after 1974, and Lancashire Police would investigate claims dating from before 1974. The police said it would look at whether investigations had taken place into Smith during the 1980s and 1990s.


title: Cyril Smith

text: On 27 November 2012, the Crown Prosecution Service (CPS) said that Smith should have been charged with crimes of abuse more than 40 years earlier. In a statement, the GMP said Smith had committed "physical and sexual abuse". Smith was never charged, although investigations were undertaken in 1970, 1998, and 1999. The method of assessing the probability of a conviction has changed since 1970, and the decision not to charge Smith then necessitated the outcome of the 1998 investigation. Following the sexual abuse allegations, Rochdale Council removed a blue plaque to Smith from the town hall. GMP Assistant Chief Constable Steve Heywood said: "Although Smith cannot be charged or convicted posthumously, from the overwhelming evidence we have it is right and proper we should publicly recognise that young boys were sexually and physically abused".


title: Cyril Smith

text: On 28 November 2012, an alleged victim waived his right to anonymity in a television interview with Sky News to say that he was sexually abused by Smith at a council-run residential special school. Chris Marshall broke down in tears during his interview when describing the sexual abuse he said took place at Knowl View school in Rochdale in the early 1980s. He said that as a nine-year-old boy he was taken to a room and made to perform oral sex on Smith and one other man. Smith was a governor at the school and allegedly had his own set of keys. Liberal Democrat leader Nick Clegg said: "I am deeply shocked and horrified by these terrible allegations and my thoughts are with the victims who had the courage to speak out".


title: Cyril Smith

text: In November 2012, Tony Robinson, a former Special Branch officer with Lancashire Police in the 1970s, said that a dossier of sexual abuse allegations against Smith which police claimed was "lost" was actually seized by MI5. Robinson said that he was asked by MI5 to send to London a police dossier that had been kept in a safe in his office which he said was "thick" with allegations from boys claiming they had been abused by Smith.


title: Cyril Smith

text: In December 2012, Rochdale MP Simon Danczuk alleged that Smith raped some of his victims. Danczuk said: "There is no doubt that Cyril Smith seriously sexually abused young boys: why the CPS didn't prosecute more recently is puzzling".


title: Cyril Smith

text: Following claims by MP Tom Watson of "a powerful paedophile network linked to Parliament and No 10", it was reported that Scotland Yard detectives investigating allegations of child abuse at the Elm Guest House were looking into allegations that senior politicians abused children in the 1980s and escaped justice.


title: Cyril Smith

text: In January 2013, "The Independent on Sunday" reported that police were investigating claims that Smith sexually abused boys at the London guest house. A spokesman for the Metropolitan Police later said: "We can confirm Cyril Smith visited the premises." A 16-year-old boy was allegedly sexually abused by Smith at Elm Guest House. MP Simon Danczuk said he was convinced that there was a "network of paedophiles" operating in the House of Commons who helped to protect Smith.


title: Cyril Smith

text: In September 2013, a Channel 4 "Dispatches" programme "The Paedophile MP: How Cyril Smith Got Away With It" quoted the Crown Prosecution Service as claiming that they had not prosecuted Smith for crimes of abuse because he had been given an assurance in 1970 that he would not be prosecuted, and that prevented them from subsequently reopening the investigation under the law at the time. Political journalist Francis Wheen said that he found this explanation incomprehensible.


title: Cyril Smith

text: Danczuk, with researcher and campaigner Matthew Baker, published "Smile for the Camera: The Double Life of Cyril Smith", an exposé of the child abuse committed by Smith. Danczuk alleged that Smith was part of a high-level paedophile ring and that Smith had used his influence to escape prosecution. Danczuk said: "Once you looked beyond the jolly clown playing for the camera, there was a sickening, dark heart. This wasn't just about abuse, it was about power – and a cover-up that reached from Rochdale all the way to the very top of the Establishment." Danczuk said that in the 1980s police discovered child pornography belonging to Smith, but he escaped justice. Danczuk described Smith as "a predatory paedophile and a prolific offender who would target the most vulnerable boys." He said: "A lot of manpower went into investigating Smith over the years, but the only thing he was ever convicted for was mis-selling a lottery ticket."


title: Cyril Smith

text: In 2014, The Baron Steel of Aikwood, the former Liberal leader, said he had confronted Smith about his "unusual" behaviour with boys at a hostel in Rochdale. Following allegations published in 1979, Lord Steel of Aikwood said that Smith confessed to spanking boys and conducting intimate "medical examinations" on them but was allowed to remain as a Liberal MP. Steel said: "I asked Cyril Smith about it. I was half expecting him to say it was all wrong, and I would have been urging him to sue to save his reputation. To my surprise he said the report was correct." Steel said that Smith had a supervisory role in institutions in Rochdale where he was involved in corporal punishment. Steel said of the abuse allegations: "They had been investigated by the police, as "Private Eye" stated, and no action had been taken on them. So there was nothing more I could do."


title: Cyril Smith

text: In April 2014, following reports that there had been 144 complaints against Smith and that attempts to prosecute him had always been blocked, the President of the Liberal Democrats, Tim Farron, said that his party needed to answer "serious questions" about who knew that Smith had faced allegations of sexual assault. However, Liberal Democrat leader Nick Clegg refused to hold an inquiry into what he called the "repugnant" actions of Smith. Clegg said: "My party, the Liberal Democrats, did not know about these actions." Clegg stated that the child abuse allegations were a matter for the police.


title: Cyril Smith

text: In May 2014, it was alleged that Smith had molested an 11-year-old boy at the National Liberal Club in London in 1978. Smith allegedly insisted that the boy remove his underpants before attempting to fondle him. A spokesman for the Liberal Democrats said: "Cyril Smith's acts were vile and repugnant and we have nothing but sympathy for those whose lives he ruined."


title: Cyril Smith

text: In June 2014, Detective Chief Superintendent Russ Jackson of Greater Manchester Police admitted the force's previous investigations into abuse linked to Smith at Rochdale Knowl View residential school "fell well short" of what would be expected today. Allegations were made that a paedophile ring had been operating for decades in the town of Rochdale and that men from as far away as Sheffield were travelling to Rochdale to have sex with Knowl View boys aged between eight and thirteen. Greater Manchester Police said there were 21 suspects, 14 of whom it had identified, including Smith. In July 2014, Rochdale council's inquiry into child abuse linked to Smith at Knowl View residential school was halted at the request of police. Greater Manchester Police asked the authority to suspend their inquiry while detectives investigated claims of an institutional cover-up.


title: Cyril Smith

text: In July 2014, it was reported that Smith had put pressure on the BBC in 1976 by asking the corporation not to investigate the "private lives of certain MPs". According to letters in the National Archives, Smith wrote to BBC Director-General Sir Charles Curran in September 1976 saying he was "deeply concerned about the investigative activities of the BBC", especially relating to "the private lives of certain MPs". Former children's minister Tim Loughton described Smith's letters as "bully-boy tactics". Loughton said: "It was an abuse of position that somebody as an MP was saying, 'You shouldn't look at us, we're above the law.'"


title: Cyril Smith

text: A report released by the Crown Prosecution Service in July 2014 showed that in 1970 a police detective investigating Smith presented evidence to his superior of Smith's abuse of young boys at a care home in Rochdale, but no action was taken.


title: Cyril Smith

text: In March 2015, Cabinet Office papers were released confirming that Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher was made aware of allegations against Smith before he was knighted in 1988, although she gave him the "benefit of the doubt" because the Director of Public Prosecutions had previously investigated him and had decided not to prosecute him due to lack of evidence. Shortly after, a BBC investigation on "Newsnight" revealed that Smith had been arrested in the early 1980s in relation to his participation in a paedophile ring, but a high-level cover-up reportedly led to him being released within hours, the evidence destroyed and the investigating officers prevented from discussing the matter under the Official Secrets Act. Theresa May, the Home Secretary, called for immunity for whistle-blowers in the case. Reports also emerged of Smith's arrest by Northamptonshire Police, where he was again released in mysterious circumstances.


title: Cyril Smith

text: In 2015, a retired police officer said that he was threatened with the Official Secrets Act after he found Smith in the home of a known sex offender with two drunk teenage boys and a police sergeant in civilian clothes. The retired officer said that he was summoned to a meeting with a senior officer at Stockport Police Station and told "in no uncertain terms" not to say anything about it. The alleged incident took place in 1988 at a house in Stockport after a complaint that the occupant had committed a lewd act in his window in front of a newspaper boy.


title: Cook Out (restaurant)

text: Cook Out is a privately owned American fast-food restaurant chain operating in North Carolina, South Carolina, Alabama, Georgia, Kentucky, Maryland, Tennessee, Virginia, West Virginia, and Mississippi. Founded in Greensboro, North Carolina in 1989, the chain has since expanded and now has restaurants in over 100 cities. The chain itself has grown in size with many locations now spread throughout the Southeastern US.


title: Cook Out (restaurant)

text: The standard format of the restaurant features two drive-thru lanes and a walk-up window, but no indoor seating. Some newer locations have an indoor dining room and counter service similar to a traditional fast-food restaurant, but most still only have drive-thru and walk-up service. The restaurant specializes in hamburgers, milkshakes, and North Carolina-style pork barbecue.


title: Cook Out (restaurant)

text: Cook Out was founded by Morris Reaves in 1989. He is currently the owner of the company, with his son, Jeremy Reaves, serving as the CEO.


title: Cook Out (restaurant)

text: The first Cook Out location opened in Greensboro, North Carolina in 1989. After opening the first location, over 50 more locations opened in the state of North Carolina before expanding out of the state. As of May 2021, there are 290 locations operating in ten states.


title: Cook Out (restaurant)

text: The company opened its first out-of-state store in Spartanburg, South Carolina, on July 30, 2010. Cook Out opened in Clemson and Orangeburg, South Carolina, in 2010. At the very end of 2011, Cook Out opened restaurants in Columbia, South Carolina; Blacksburg, Virginia; and Radford, Virginia. In March 2012, Cook Out opened its first location in Lynchburg, Virginia, and shortly thereafter in Harrisonburg, Virginia. 2013 saw new Cook Out locations in Georgia, and in 2014, there are plans to launch several more Georgia Cook Out locations. In 2016, Cook Out expanded into the state of Mississippi with stores in Oxford, Jackson, Hattiesburg, and Starkville, and the company's first Alabama location, in Tuscaloosa. Other locations in Alabama include Jacksonville (July 2017), Auburn (Dec 2017), Huntsville (Jan 2018), Opelika (May 2018), Troy (June 2018), Mobile (Dec 2018), Montgomery (Jan 2019) & Birmingham (Jan 2021). In 2018, Cook Out expanded its Virginia locations adding Collinsville, Virginia which opened in September 2019.


title: Cook Out (restaurant)

text: Their menu primarily features grilled hamburgers and cheeseburgers, hot dogs, chicken sandwiches, North Carolina barbecue and quesadillas. A signature to their menu is the Cook Out Tray, which features combinations of entrees, sides and a drink or milkshake. Another feature of Cook Out's menu is their selection of more than 40 flavors of milkshake. A featured drink on their menu is Cheerwine, a local North Carolina cherry soda usually only served in North Carolina and surrounding states.


title: Maruti Suzuki Wagon R

text: The Maruti Suzuki Wagon R (or WagonR) is a city car manufactured and marketed by Suzuki through its subsidiary Maruti Suzuki primarily for the Indian market since 1999. The Wagon R was launched in India on 18 December 1999, and has since undergone several upgrades. The second-generation Wagon R model and styling was also shared with the Karimun Wagon R for the Indonesian market and the Wagon R for the Pakistani market, despite several differences.


title: Maruti Suzuki Wagon R

text: While initially the Maruti-built Wagon R shared its platform from the Japanese market Wagon R kei car, the third generation Maruti-built Wagon R is unrelated with the later versions of the Wagon R sold in Japan. Instead, the car was built from ground up above the "HEARTECT" platform.


title: Maruti Suzuki Wagon R

text: The Wagon R built in India is also exported to several neighbouring countries, including Bangladesh, Bhutan, Nepal and Sri Lanka, dropping the "Maruti" moniker.


title: Maruti Suzuki Wagon R

text: The first generation Wagon R was introduced in India on 18 December 1999. Based on the Wagon R kei car offered in Japan, the Wagon R was an answer to the then newly arrived Hyundai Santro. The Wagon R quickly gained popularity in the country as the car came with much interior space, including the ability to seat even taller passengers with ease. The car also offered features like power windows and power steering, which back in 1999 were considered luxuries in India. The car is powered by Suzuki's 1.1-litre F10D petrol engine producing at 6,200 rpm and of torque at 3,500 rpm.


title: Maruti Suzuki Wagon R

text: A minor facelift of this model was introduced in 2003 which received a chrome line in the grille, body-coloured bumpers and clear-lens tail lamps. Inside, the Wagon R has a beige dashboard with many storage spaces. In 2006, Suzuki launched an LPG version called DUO, which was introduced for the F10D engined variants. This gave owners an option of running on petrol and/or LPG. The car also received aesthetic overhauls with a redesigned grille and tailgate, including accents of chrome.


title: Maruti Suzuki Wagon R

text: The second generation Wagon R was introduced on 23 April 2010 in New Delhi, India. Featuring a brand-new platform carried from the fourth generation Japanese Wagon R, the overall length of the second generation Wagon R was increased to 3,595 mm (an increase of 75 mm) with a wheelbase of 2,400 mm. The second generation Wagon R is also wider and taller than its predecessor. While safety enhancements have been implemented in the form of ABS, airbags and fog lamps, these are limited only to the top variant. The trim levels available are LX, LXi and VXi.


title: Maruti Suzuki Wagon R

text: The Indian model (2010) called Wagon R 1.0, is powered by the more efficient three-cylinder 998 cc K10B engine, which can also be found in the Maruti Suzuki A-Star, Maruti Suzuki Estilo, and the Maruti Suzuki Alto K10. The engine delivers at 6,200 rpm, and at 3 500 rpm. Maruti Suzuki launched a new 5-speed vehicle with the same engine and the same body. This version came only in the top model that is the VXi which had ABS as standard. Also, Maruti launched ABS as an option for all Wagon R and Stingray variants. The Wagon R was priced at 4.14 lakh Indian rupees or INR, while Stingray is priced INR 20,000 more than the Wagon R.


title: Maruti Suzuki Wagon R

text: The first facelift for this generation arrived on 14 January 2013. It featured cosmetic changes, including a narrower grille, restyled bumpers with larger vents and a new fog lamp housing. Inside, changes included the dual glove box and an integrated Eagle Wings music system with integrated USB and AUX ports.


title: Maruti Suzuki Wagon R

text: In 2014, Maruti Suzuki introduced the Maruti Suzuki Stingray. It was essentially a restyled second generation Wagon R and it was introduced alongside the regular version. The Stingray features a bolder, dynamic looking fascia. It featured projector headlamps, a first for the segment. Later on, Maruti Suzuki dropped the Stingray moniker and renamed it as Wagon R VXi+ as the top variant of the range.


title: Maruti Suzuki Wagon R

text: In 2015, a 5-speed automated gear shift (AGS, or AMT) was introduced to replace the aging 3-speed automatic transmission.


title: Maruti Suzuki Wagon R

text: The Karimun Wagon R is a rebadged version of the Indian Wagon R to suit the Indonesian government's Low Cost Green Car (LCGC) policy. It was unveiled in its final production form in September 2013 at the 21st Indonesia International Motor Show. Production begun in September 2013 at the Tambun Plant for domestic market and was available to the market in October 2013. It was initially available in three trim levels: GA, GL and GX. The Dilago trim level (based on GL trim with sporty bodykit and additional accessories, positioned above GX trim) went on sale later in June 2014 and discontinued in late 2015. The "Dilago" name was taken from a native Moluccas word meaning "to be the best".


title: Maruti Suzuki Wagon R

text: The sportier version based on the Indian Wagon R Stingray, called the Karimun Wagon R GS, was launched in September 2014. A 5-speed automated gear shift (AGS) variant appeared later in May 2015. The Karimun Wagon R received an update in April 2017 at the 25th Indonesia International Motor Show, and is available in GA, GL and GS trim levels. The car is also available with a by-order blind van variant based on GA and GS trims. A limited edition called 50th Anniversary Edition was launched in October 2020, basically the GS version of the previous 2014 GL Dilago special edition. This model was launched to celebrate 50 years of Suzuki Indomobil's presence in Indonesia.