title: Big Brother 13 (American season)

text: The Gay & Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation (GLAAD) responded to the controversy by referring to Jeff as an "openly anti-gay reality star". After recounting the various programs he has taken part of (a contestant in ""The Amazing Race"", host of the second season of "Around the World for Free" web series and two seasons of "Big Brother"), GLAAD alleged that the network knew Jeff would bring his "openly anti-gay attitudes" back to the program and questioned if the network had cast him for that purpose.


title: Big Brother 13 (American season)

text: After Jeff was evicted in a double eviction week on Day 55, Shelly Moore received heavy criticism from the show's fans, who held her responsible for his eviction. Her family later received phone calls that contained violent threats, including some aimed at her 8-year-old daughter, while her employer has also received phone calls calling for her termination. Allison Grodner, the executive producer of "Big Brother", posted a message on her Twitter account regarding the incidents.


title: Big Brother 13 (American season)

text: During Week 8, a controversial Pandora's Box twist left fans wondering if production was fixing the game for certain players. As Head of Household for the week, Porsche Briggs openly identified her targets as the last two returning HouseGuests, Jordan Lloyd and Rachel Reilly. But when Porsche opened Pandora's Box, she unleashed the return of the duos twist, making both Rachel and Jordan a duo. Only one of them needed to win the Power of Veto to keep both of them safe from eviction. Fans suspected that the return of the duos twist was a ploy by production to keep both women in the game, as the remaining HouseGuests had made a contingency plan to vote out whichever veteran did not win the Power of Veto. These suspicions heightened after the Power of Veto competition was merely a redux of an earlier competition that Reilly had won. Houseguest Kalia Booker even suspected that the competition had not been properly tested, suggesting it had been thrown together at the last minute. Rachel would go on to win the veto competition, saving herself and Jordan while forcing Porsche to nominate Adam Poch and Shelly Moore by default, as they were the only pair left for Porsche to put on the block. Rachel would later go on to win the season while Porsche finished in 2nd place, and Jordan finished in 4th.


title: Big Brother 13 (American season)

text: "Rating" is the estimated percentage of all televisions tuned to the show, and "share" is the percentage of all televisions "in use" that are tuned in. "Viewers" is the estimated number of viewers that watched a program either while it was broadcast or watched via DVR on the same day the program was broadcast. This is the most successful season of Big Brother since 2004, Big Brother 5. It has won every time slot in viewers and key demographics facing non-sports programming.


title: Killing of Justine Damond

text: On July 15, 2017, Justine Damond (née Ruszczyk), a 40-year-old Australian-American woman, was fatally shot by 33-year-old Somali-American Minneapolis Police Department officer Mohamed Noor after she had called 9-1-1 to report the possible assault of a woman in an alley behind her house. Occurring weeks after a high-profile manslaughter trial acquittal in the 2016 police killing of Philando Castile, also in the Minneapolis–Saint Paul metropolitan area, the shooting exacerbated existing tensions and attracted national and international press.


title: Killing of Justine Damond

text: In April 2019, Noor was tried before a jury on charges of second-degree murder, third-degree murder, and second-degree manslaughter. Noor claimed self defense. The jury convicted Noor of third-degree murder and second-degree manslaughter, but he was acquitted on the charge of intentional second degree murder. In June 2019, Noor was sentenced to 12.5 years in prison. Noor's conviction on third-degree murder was overturned by the Minnesota Supreme Court on September 15, 2021. In October 2021, his sentence was revised to 4.75 years in prison, with credit for time served. Noor was released from custody on June 27, 2022, and was ordered to remain on supervised release until January 24, 2024.


title: Killing of Justine Damond

text: Damond's family brought a civil lawsuit against the City of Minneapolis alleging violation of Damond's civil rights, which the city settled for US$20 million in 2019.


title: Killing of Justine Damond

text: Justine Maia Damond (April 4, 1977 – July 15, 2017) grew up in the Northern Beaches area of Sydney, New South Wales, and attended Manly High School. She graduated in 2002 from the University of Sydney as a veterinarian, then worked as a spiritual healer and meditation coach. She met Don Damond, a U.S. citizen, while attending a neuroscience workshop. The couple became engaged on December 29, 2014, and planned to marry in August 2017. Damond stopped using her surname Ruszczyk and took the Damond's family name ahead of their marriage. Damond held dual Australian and United States citizenship, as her father, John Ruszczyk, holds US citizenship.


title: Killing of Justine Damond

text: Mohamed Mohamed Noor (born October 20, 1985, in Qoryoley, Somalia) was the officer who shot Damond. Noor's partner, Matthew Harrity (then 25 years old), was the driver of their squad car. Noor had been lauded in the past by Minneapolis mayor Betsy Hodges and the local Somali community as one of the first Somali-American police officers in the area. At the time of the shooting, Noor had been with the Minneapolis Police Department for 21 months; Harrity had been on the force for one year.


title: Killing of Justine Damond

text: In two years as a police officer, Noor had three formal complaints against him, two of which, in September 2017, were pending resolution. In a separate case from May 2017, he was being sued for allegedly assaulting a woman while on duty.


title: Killing of Justine Damond

text: Following the deadly shooting of Damond, the "Star Tribune" reported Noor's police training had been "fast tracked", making reference to the seven-month immersive training program for cadets; some suburban police departments see the cadet programs as a way to quickly diversify their police forces. Noor's police training had been part of the cadet program for the Minneapolis Police Department, an accelerated seven-month program aimed at candidates who already have a college degree and wish to enter law enforcement. Former police chief Janeé Harteau stood by Noor's training:


title: Killing of Justine Damond

text: We have a very robust training and hiring process ... This officer completed that training very well, just like every officer. He was very suited to be on the street ... I believe the actions in question go against who we are as a department, how we train, and the expectations we are as a department. These were the actions of one individual.


title: Killing of Justine Damond

text: On July 23, 2017, the Minneapolis Police Department and Minneapolis City Council Member Elizabeth Glidden denied news reports of there being a "fast-track" seven-month police training program.


title: Killing of Justine Damond

text: In September 2018, it was reported that in 2015, two psychiatrists and other training officers had raised concerns about Noor's fitness for police duty. Two months before the shooting, Noor allegedly pointed a gun at the head of a driver he had pulled over for a minor traffic violation.


title: Killing of Justine Damond

text: On the night of the shooting, Damond called 9-1-1 at 11:27p.m. and again at 11:35p.m. She reported that she thought she heard a woman either having sex or being raped. Dispatchers categorized the call as "unknown trouble: female screaming"—a relatively low priority. Officers Noor and Harrity responded to the low-crime neighborhood of Fulton, in southwestern Minneapolis, drove their police Ford Explorer with lights off through the alley and found no suspects or signs of the suspected rape that had prompted Damond's calls.


title: Killing of Justine Damond

text: As the officers prepared to leave, Noor "entered 'Code Four' into the cruiser's computer, meaning the scene was safe". Harrity would later indicate "that he was startled by a loud sound near the squad" and, just then, Damond approached the police car's driver-side window. Harrity drew his weapon, but pointed it downward and did not fire. Noor, however, fired once through the open window, fatally striking an unarmed and barefoot Damond in the abdomen. The officers attempted cardiopulmonary resuscitation to no avail; Damond died 20 minutes later. Harrity later told a supervisor "We both got spooked."


title: Killing of Justine Damond

text: At Noor's trial, Harrity testified of hearing "something hit the car and I also hear some sort of murmur" and that he feared an "ambush" but deemed it "premature" to use deadly force. Noor testified that he did not see Damond's hand or any object in it, but nonetheless believed that his partner "feared for his life" and "there was a threat". The prosecutors presented evidence that Damond's fingerprints were not on the police car, suggesting she had never made contact with it, and called two expert witnesses on police use of force, who testified that Noor's decision to shoot was unreasonable.


title: Killing of Justine Damond

text: Both officers had their body cameras switched off. Minneapolis introduced police body cameras in 2016, but their activation was not mandatory in all situations. No audio or video recordings captured the killing, although a 16-year-old bicyclist took cell-phone video of the scene after the shooting.


title: Killing of Justine Damond

text: Harrity's attorney Fred Bruno told the "Star Tribune" "it's certainly reasonable" to assume any officer would be concerned about an ambush. He referred to the recent death of a New York City officer killed in her squad car.


title: Killing of Justine Damond

text: Damond's family retained attorney Robert Bennett, the same lawyer who represented the family of Philando Castile. In a televised interview, he dismissed the claims of Harrity's attorney (that it was reasonable for the officers to fear ambush) as "disinformation".


title: Killing of Justine Damond

text: The day after the killing, a vigil in Damond's memory was held at the site of her death in the alleyway entrance located on the north side of West 51st Street between Xerxes Avenue South and Washburn Avenue South in Minneapolis. Several days after the killing, hundreds marched to Beard's Plaisance Park in Minneapolis, in memory of Damond. A memorial service for Damond was held on 11 August 2017, on the shore of Lake Harriet in Minneapolis. The service was at the bandshell and there was a silent walk around the lake afterwards. It was attended by Damond's family and fiancé, and about 1,000 mourners.


title: Killing of Justine Damond

text: The American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) issued a statement calling the non-use of body cameras "unacceptable". The Minneapolis Police Conduct Oversight Commission concurred with the ACLU opinion that "body cameras should be on at all times."


title: Killing of Justine Damond

text: Former U.S. Representative Michele Bachmann from Minnesota alleged in a speech on July 19, 2017, that Noor was an "affirmative-action hire". Speaking to "World Net Daily", Bachmann said, "Noor comes from the mandated cover-up women culture. That's why I'm wondering if they'll ask whether his cultural views led him to shoot her. That's something, if true, I can't imagine the progressives would allow to get out."


title: Killing of Justine Damond

text: Malcolm Turnbull, the prime minister of Australia, said that the Australian government wanted answers:


title: Killing of Justine Damond

text: Damond's family and friends held a sunrise vigil for her at Freshwater Beach on July 19, 2017. A further sunrise vigil was conducted at the same beach on July 15, 2018.


title: Killing of Justine Damond

text: An application for a search warrant to search the alley where the shooting occurred, referring to the shooting incident, stated "Upon police arrival, a female 'slaps' the back of the patrol squad. After that, it is unknown to BCA agents what exactly happened, but the female became deceased in the alley." Among items collected were fingerprints from the rear cargo door window of the squad car.


title: Killing of Justine Damond

text: Hours after the shooting, Minnesota Bureau of Criminal Apprehension investigators controversially obtained a second search warrant and carried out a search of Damond's home for evidence, including "'bodily fluids, controlled substances, and writings". They did not take anything from the property. Noor refused to speak with investigators, invoking his right against self-incrimination. Noor and Harrity were then on paid administrative leave.


title: Killing of Justine Damond

text: Minneapolis Chief of Police Janeé Harteau was on vacation leave at the time of Damond's killing and returned to Minneapolis four days later. At a press conference after her return, Harteau said, "Justine didn't have to die...The death of Justine should not have happened." Regarding Noor's refusal to speak to investigators, Harteau said, "I would prefer Officer Noor would speak."


title: Killing of Justine Damond

text: In February 2018, a grand jury was convened to investigate Damond's death. On February 15, 2018, Harrity appeared before the grand jury.


title: Killing of Justine Damond

text: On March 20, 2018, a warrant was issued for third-degree murder and second-degree manslaughter charges, and Noor turned himself in to police. He also resigned from the Minneapolis Police Department. Bail was set at $400,000, and Noor was released from jail on March 22. With the approval of the court, prosecutors later upgraded the charges against Noor to second-degree intentional murder.


title: Killing of Justine Damond

text: On April 30, 2019, following a jury trial, Noor was convicted of third-degree murder and second-degree manslaughter. Under Minnesota law, third-degree murder is defined as "a person causing the death of another by perpetrating an act eminently dangerous to others and without regard for human life, but without intent to cause the death of any person"; second-degree manslaughter is defined as "whoever by culpable negligence, whereby he creates an unreasonable risk and consciously takes the chance of causing death or great bodily harm to another person, causes the death of another is guilty of manslaughter in the second degree". After the verdict, his bail was revoked and he was taken to jail to await sentencing.


title: Killing of Justine Damond

text: The Somali-American Police Association issued a statement after the verdict claiming that racial bias contributed to Noor's conviction.


title: Killing of Justine Damond

text: On June 7, 2019, Noor was sentenced to 12½ years in prison. He was initially incarcerated at Oak Park Heights prison, but was transferred out of state to North Dakota State Penitentiary in Bismarck in July 2019 for his safety.


title: Killing of Justine Damond

text: On February 1, 2021, the Minnesota Court of Appeals affirmed Noor's conviction of third-degree murder. Noor then appealed to the Minnesota Supreme Court, arguing that the facts did not support a conviction on that charge. On September 15, 2021, the Minnesota Supreme Court reversed Noor's third-degree murder conviction on the basis that the state failed to prove that he committed murder with a "depraved mind" which is a "generalized indifference to human life" as required for the offense of third-degree murder. As the conduct in this case did not meet that standard, the Supreme Court directed the trial court to vacate the conviction of third-degree murder and sentence Noor for the lesser offense of second-degree manslaughter.


title: Killing of Justine Damond

text: On remand following the successful appeal, the trial court during an October 2021 proceeding resentenced Noor to 57 months in prison, the maximum presumptive sentence under Minnesota's sentencing guidelines. Noor was released from the North Dakota State Penitentiary on June 27, 2022, after serving two-thirds of the sentence incarcerated, with the remaining 19 months of his sentence to be served on supervised release. Noor's release was not an unusual move in Minnesota, where most defendants are moved to supervised release after serving two-thirds of their sentence incarcerated. Damond's family expressed disappointment in the length of Noor's incarceration calling it "trivial" and "disrespectful" to community expectations about improvements to police behavior and culture.


title: Killing of Justine Damond

text: Damond's family brought a civil lawsuit against the City of Minneapolis alleging violation of Damond's civil rights, which the city settled in May 2019 for US$20 million, one of the largest-ever settlements in a suit involving a police killing. At the time, the amount of Damond's settlement was the largest in Minneapolis history, and held this record until it was surpassed by the March 2021 settlement of $27 million which the city approved for the family of George Floyd.


title: Killing of Justine Damond

text: Less than a week after Damond's killing, Police Chief Janeé Harteau was ousted, after Mayor Betsy Hodges said that she and the city had lost confidence in Harteau's ability to lead. The police shootings were a contributing factor in Hodges losing her bid for re-election in 2017.


title: Killing of Justine Damond

text: Following the shooting, Minneapolis acting police chief Medaria Arradondo announced in July 2017 that police officers would be required to turn on body-worn cameras during all calls and traffic stops. Bob Kroll, the president of the Minneapolis police officers' union, objected to having cameras recording while officers are on the way to a call, saying that officers' discussion of tactics "while responding to a call should not be publicly disseminated".


title: Killing of Justine Damond

text: George Floyd's murder in Minneapolis on May 25, 2020, was compared to the killing of Damond and the successful criminal case against Noor. Some felt that the local judicial system was inconsistent and that it did not hold white police officers who killed black men accountable for their actions.


title: Killing of Justine Damond

text: "Without Rhyme or Reason", a documentary on the life and death of Damond, was shown on "Australian Story" in November 2017.


title: The Discovery of India

text: The Discovery of India was written by the Indian Independence leader, Jawaharlal Nehru (later India's first Prime Minister) during his incarceration in 1942–1945 at Ahmednagar fort in present day Indian state of Maharashtra by British colonial authorities before the independence of India. The book was written in 1944 but published in 1946.


title: The Discovery of India

text: The journey in "The Discovery of India" begins from ancient history, leading up to the last years of the British Raj. Nehru uses his knowledge of the Upanishads, Vedas, and textbooks on ancient history to introduce to the reader the development of India from the Indus Valley civilization, through the changes in socio-political scenario every foreign invader brought, to the present day conditions.


title: The Discovery of India

text: Nehru was jailed for his participation in the Quit India Movement along with other Indian leaders, and he used this time to write down his thoughts and knowledge about India's history. The book provides a broad view of Indian history, philosophy and culture, as viewed from the eyes of an Indian fighting for the independence of his country. He wrote the book during his imprisonment.


title: The Discovery of India

text: In "The Discovery of India", Nehru argued that India was a historic nation with a right to sovereignty. This book also analyses in depth the philosophy of Indian life. It has 10 chapters.


title: The Discovery of India

text: Nehru attributes some of the content of the book to his fellow prisoners at Ahmednagar jail. He gives special mention to four of them namely Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, Govind Ballabh Pant, Narendra Deva and Asaf Ali. All his fellow prisoners (eleven of them) were political prisoners from various parts of the country, having deep knowledge about the various aspects of India which the book discusses. They also participated in proofreading Nehru's work and providing him with creative suggestions.


title: The Discovery of India

text: The book is presently published by the 'Jawaharlal Nehru Memorial Fund' and the copyright for the book is held by his grand daughter-in-law Sonia Gandhi.


title: The Discovery of India

text: The book became the basis of the 53-episode Indian television series "Bharat Ek Khoj" (1988), directed by Shyam Benegal, first broadcast in 1988 on state-run Doordarshan channel.


title: Dino Baggio

text: Dino Baggio (born 24 July 1971) is an Italian former professional footballer who played as a defensive midfielder.


title: Dino Baggio

text: Throughout his career, he played for several Italian clubs, and won the UEFA Cup three times, twice with Parma and once with Juventus. He also had a spell in England with Blackburn Rovers. At international level, he obtained 60 caps for Italy between 1991 and 1999, scoring seven goals, and was part of the team that reached the final of the 1994 FIFA World Cup; he later also represented Italy at UEFA Euro 1996, and at the 1998 FIFA World Cup.


title: Dino Baggio

text: Despite sharing a last name, he has no relation to fellow Italian former footballer and teammate Roberto Baggio.


title: Dino Baggio

text: Baggio began his football career at age five in Tombolo, a province of Padova. He was spotted by Torino scouts at the age of 13 and taken into the Torino youth system. He made his debut in Serie A as a 19-year-old against Lazio and became a regular member of the starting line-up, making a name for himself as a promising youngster. He emerged as a tenacious, hardworking, consistent, and versatile defensive midfielder during his time at the club, who was capable of playing in several positions. With Torino, he won the 1989–90 Serie B title, followed by the 1991 Mitropa Cup. He was loaned to Inter Milan at the age of 20 in 1991 for the 1991–92 season, making 27 appearances and scoring 1 goal.


title: Dino Baggio

text: At the end of the 1991–92 season, Juventus bought the promising youngster for 10 billion Italian Lire, and during his time at the club, Dino Baggio would play alongside his unrelated namesake Roberto Baggio for two seasons, forming a notable friendship; Dino was often called "Baggio 2" or "the other Baggio" earlier on in his career, to distinguish the two players, as he was younger, and initially less well-known. As Dino Baggio had previously played for city rivals Torino, however, the Juventus fans were not initially pleased by the transfer. His solid and consistent play soon won them over, however, and he quickly became a mainstay in the Juventus midfield, winning the UEFA Cup in 1993, scoring three goals over the two legs of the final; one of his goals came in the first leg, while the other two came in the return leg. He also helped Juventus to a second-place finish in Serie A during the 1993–94 season.


title: Dino Baggio

text: After Baggio's performances in the 1994 FIFA World Cup and with Juventus, Parma attempted to acquire the midfielder. Baggio initially rejected Parma's offer, stating his intention to stay at Juventus. At the time, Juventus were ready to offer Parma a young forward named Alessandro Del Piero instead of Baggio, in order to retain their defensive midfielder; Parma accepted the offer, but before the transfer could be finalised, Dino Baggio changed his mind, and decided he would make the move to Parma. Del Piero stayed with Juventus, and the following season he underwent a breakthrough with the club, later going on to become a club legend.


title: Dino Baggio

text: Baggio moved to Parma at the beginning of the 1994–95 season for 14 billion Lire. During his first season with his new club under Nevio Scala, he immediately won the UEFA Cup, for the second time in his career, scoring a goal in each leg of the 1995 final against his former team, Juventus, increasing his UEFA Cup Final goal tally to five goals. He also reached the final of the Coppa Italia that season, losing out to his former club, also narrowly missing on the Serie A title to his former club, once again, finishing the league season in third place. Despite their European success under Malesani, Parma were unable to win the Serie A title during these years, with their best finish occurring during the 1996–97 season, where they managed a second-place finish, under manager Carlo Ancelotti.


title: Dino Baggio

text: In a match during the 1998–99 UEFA Cup, Baggio was wounded in the head by a knife thrown by a Wisła Kraków supporter in Kraków, which resulted in Wisła being suspended from European cup play for a year. He would go on to win his third UEFA Cup that season, over Olympique Marseille, also winning the Coppa Italia over Fiorentina, followed by the 1999 Supercoppa Italiana over 1998–99 Serie A champions Milan.


title: Dino Baggio

text: Baggio stayed with Parma until the end of the 1999–2000 season, helping the club to a fourth-place finish, and narrowly missing out on an UEFA Champions League spot following a play-off defeat to Inter. During his final season with the club, he also gained notoriety for a particular incident in a home match against his former club, Juventus, on 9 January 2000. Baggio committed a foul on Gianluca Zambrotta, and was shown a controversial straight red card by referee Stefano Farina. In protest, Baggio made the "money sign" towards the referee, and subsequently spat on the ground close to Farina. Baggio was criticised for his behaviour, and was handed a two match ban, in addition to being fined 20 million lire, by his club, for the gesture. He was also prevented by Luciano Nizzola, the FIGC president at the time, from taking part in Italy's friendly match against Sweden, on 23 February 2000.


title: Dino Baggio

text: In October 2000, Baggio was sold to the newly crowned Serie A champions Lazio for 10 billion Italian lire, along with Nestor Sensini. He was utilized very little during his time at the club in the 2001–02 and the 2002–03 seasons, and the club failed to win any silverware. At the beginning of the 2003–04 season, he was in talks with English club Wolverhampton, who were newly promoted to the FA Premier League, over a possible loan deal, but negotiations fell through; he was eventually loaned to English club Blackburn Rovers for the season in September 2003, following an impressive trial with the team. He made his first appearance for the club as a substitute in a 3–1 home defeat to Liverpool in the Premier League on 13 September, while his first start for the team came on 24 September, in a 3–1 away defeat to Gençlerbirliği, in the first round of the UEFA Cup; the following month, the team exited the competition following a 1–1 draw in the second leg, during which Baggio made a substitute appearance, replacing compatriot Corrado Grabbi. Baggio's manager at Blackburn, Graeme Souness, employed him in an unfamiliar forward role occasion, however, which had a negative impact on his performances. Baggio made 9 appearances for the club in total, scoring once in the league in a 2–1 defeat against Leeds United. Due to his negative performances throughout the first half of the season, Souness attempted to have Baggio return to Italy on loan to newly promoted Serie A side Ancona in January 2004, but the player initially rejected the deal. Soon afterwards, however Lazio loaned him out to Ancona. He made 15 appearances and scored 2 goals, but Ancona finished dead last. He remained with Lazio in 2004–05 season, but did not make a single appearance for the club that season. He retired in 2005 after a short spell with Serie B side Triestina, at the age of 34. In February 2008 it was announced that Dino Baggio decided to come back from retirement and join the Terza Categoria side Tombolo — a team near his hometown, coached by his very first coach, Cesare Crivellaro.


title: Dino Baggio

text: At youth international level, Baggio won the 1992 European U-21 Championship with the "Azzurrini", and in the same year, he took part in the 1992 Summer Olympics in Barcelona with the Italian Under-23 side, under manager Cesare Maldini. Baggio made his international debut with the senior Italian squad under Arrigo Sacchi, on 21 December 1991, at the age of 20, in a 2–0 victory against Cyprus, in Foggia. He featured in the match along with fellow debutant Demetrio Albertini, who would play alongside Baggio in midfield with Italy for much of the 1990s. On 24 February, he scored his first goal for Italy, in Oporto, against Portugal.


title: Dino Baggio

text: After representing Italy during their 1994 FIFA World Cup qualifying campaign, notably scoring the winning goal against Portugal, which allowed Italy to qualify for the tournament, Baggio was named a member of Italy's 1994 FIFA World Cup squad under Arrigo Sacchi. In his first World Cup, he combined with his unrelated namesake Roberto Baggio; together, they helped Italy to reach the 1994 World Cup final, scoring decisive goals, only to lose to Brazil on penalties. Dino scored two goals in the tournament: his first was a decisive match-winning header, assisted by Giuseppe Signori, in Italy's first-round 1–0 victory over Norway, and his second was the opening goal in a 2–1 win against Spain in the quarter-finals, which came from a strike from distance, assisted by Roberto Donadoni. In the final, he started in midfield against Brazil alongside Albertini in the team's 4–4–2 formation, but was later replaced in extra-time by Alberigo Evani; following a 0–0 draw, the match went to a penalty shoot-out, which saw Brazil emerge victorious, with Baggio's namesake Roberto missing the decisive final kick. According to "FIFA.com", the lack of attacking play in the match was in part down to strong holding midfield play by Dino Baggio for Italy, and Dunga and Mauro Silva for Brazil.


title: Dino Baggio

text: Baggio would continue to play in other tournaments for Italy throughout the 1990s, such as Euro '96, in which the Italians were eliminated in the first round. Baggio also played in every game for Italy at the 1998 World Cup under Cesare Maldini, which would prove to be his last major tournament with the Azzurri; Italy were eliminated on penalties once again by hosts and eventual champions France, after reaching the quarter-finals of the tournament. Baggio was initially in Dino Zoff's provisional 26-man Italy squad for Euro 2000, before missing the final cut. He made his final appearance for Italy on 13 November 1999, in a 3–1 home defeat to Belgium in an international friendly match.


title: Dino Baggio

text: In total, Baggio amassed 60 caps and scored 7 goals for the Italian national team between 1991 and 1999. He is remembered as a notable international player of the 90s by the Italian fans due to his World Cup performances, and as he was able to obtain a first-team midfield spot over many other talented players in their prime, such as Roberto Donadoni, Luigi Di Biagio, Demetrio Albertini, Roberto Di Matteo, Nicola Berti, Alberigo Evani, Attilio Lombardo, Diego Fuser, Francesco Moriero, Sandro Cois, Stefano Fiore, Fernando De Napoli, Antonio Conte, Angelo Di Livio, Gianluca Pessotto, Carlo Ancelotti, Giancarlo Marocchi, Giuseppe Giannini, Giuseppe Signori, Roberto Baggio, Roberto Mancini, and Gianfranco Zola, among others.


title: Dino Baggio

text: Baggio was a complete, well-rounded, hard-working, tenacious, and tactically versatile player, who was capable of playing in various midfield positions, and was deployed as a central midfielder as well as a box-to-box midfielder throughout his career, although his primary position was in a defensive midfield role, where he excelled at breaking down the opposition's attacking plays; throughout his career, he was deployed in every position on the pitch. A tall, aggressive, and dynamic defensive midfielder, he was gifted with physical strength, tackling ability, pace, positional sense, and stamina, as well as solid technique, good vision, and reliable distribution, which also enabled him to aid his team creatively and start attacks after winning back possession, despite not being the most naturally gifted player on the ball.


title: Dino Baggio

text: Baggio was regarded as one of the greatest Italian players of his generation, and as one of the most consistent midfielders in Serie A during the 90s. Despite functioning primarily as a ball-winner, who would then supply the ball to more creative midfielders, he was also able to contribute offensively and score goals due to his ability to make late attacking runs into the area, as well as his proficiency in the air and his accuracy with his head; he also had a penchant for scoring from powerful, accurate shots and volleys from distance, courtesy of his striking ability, in particular from outside the penalty box. Because of his eye for goal, he was occasionally deployed out of position as a striker by his manager Souness during his time with Blackburn.


title: Filé powder

text: Filé powder, also called gumbo filé, is a spicy herb made from the dried and ground leaves of the North American sassafras tree "(Sassafras albidum)".


title: Filé powder

text: Filé powder is used in Louisiana Creole cuisine in the making of some types of gumbo, a thick Creole soup or stew often served over rice. Several different varieties exist. In New Orleans, what is known as Creole gumbo generally varies from house to house though still retaining its Native American origins. The Creoles of Cane River make a gumbo focused much more on filé. Filé can provide thickening when okra is not in season, in types of gumbo that use okra or a roux as a thickener for gumbo instead of filé. Sprinkled sparingly over gumbo as a seasoning and a thickening agent, filé powder adds a distinctive, earthy flavor and texture.


title: Filé powder

text: Filé powder is made by harvesting the young leaves and stems of the sassafras tree and grinding them. Filé powder is generally not added until after the vegetables and meats or seafood are finished cooking and removed from the heat source.


title: Filé powder

text: Choctaw Native Americans of the American South (Florida, Mississippi, Alabama, Louisiana) were the first to use dried, ground sassafras leaves as a seasoning. The French word "filé" is the past participle of the verb "filer", meaning (among other things) "to turn into threads", "to become ropy".


title: Filé powder

text: The name "gumbo" may derive from the word "ki ngombo", often shortened to "gombo", which meant okra in the Central Bantu dialect. Okra was a common thickener in soups and stews prepared by the African inhabitants of Louisiana, who were brought to the colony in large numbers beginning in 1719.


title: Filé powder

text: Some scholars have suggested that the gumbo was adapted from the West African soups and stews which were thickened with okra. Eventually, okra was replaced as a thickener with the traditional sassafras. The earliest known mention of the dish is from a transcript of the interrogation of an enslaved African woman named Comba in 1764. In it, she states that she gave "un gombeau" to another slave.


title: Filé powder

text: Other scholars have suggested that the name may derive from the Choctaw word for filé (kombo). Some early 20th century authors, most notably Celestine Eustis, suggested that gumbo including filé powder was an early special-occasion dish for native tribes. This is further implied by a late 18th-century Creole practice. At that time, rice was a luxury for many Creoles. They served gumbo over corn grits, a pairing common in the stews of native tribes.


title: Filé powder

text: Safrole and sassafras oil have been banned by the FDA as a carcinogen since 1960 and cannot be used in food manufacture for this reason. According to a study published in 1997, sassafras leaves (from which filé is produced), do not contain detectable amounts of safrole.


title: Filé powder

text: "Filé gumbo" is famously mentioned in the classic country song by Hank Williams Sr., "Jambalaya (On the Bayou)", which held the number-one position on the U.S. country music charts for fourteen non-consecutive weeks in 1952. It was also mentioned in the song by Gene Watson, "Love in the Hot Afternoon", which was a #3 country hit for the singer in 1975.


title: Death of Paulette Gebara Farah

text: Paulette Gebara Farah was a four year old disabled Mexican girl who disappeared, and was subsequently found dead under suspicious circumstances. She went missing from her bedroom on March 22, 2010, in the municipality of Huixquilucan de Degollado, Mexico. Upon her disappearance, her family began a search campaign utilizing television, advertisements, and social media.


title: Death of Paulette Gebara Farah

text: Paulette's body was found in her own room wrapped in sheets between the mattress and the foot of the bed, the same room where her mother had given interviews. The room had already been searched by experts from various agencies, including search and rescue dogs. Her body was discovered on March 31st due to the smell of putrefaction.


title: Death of Paulette Gebara Farah

text: Her death was ruled accidental by Attorney General of the State of Mexico Alberto Bazbaz whose investigation concluded that Paulette died during the night after she turned herself around in bed and ended up at the foot, dying of asphyxia, “by obstruction of the nasal cavities and thorax-abdominal compression". She was buried at the Panteón Francés de San Joaquín (French Saint Joaquín Cemetery) located in Mexico City in 2010, before her remains were exhumed and cremated on 3 May 2017.


title: Death of Paulette Gebara Farah

text: On the night of March 21, 2010, Paulette Gebara, her sister, and her father, Mauricio Gebara, returned from a Valle de Bravo trip to their Huixquilucan apartment. The mother of the girls, Lizette Farah, stayed up late to put them to bed. On the morning of March 22, one of Gebara's nannies, Erika, entered the room to wake Gebara, but could not find her. She notified Farah and they both began searching the building. Mauricio Gebara informed his sister of the disappearance of his daughter, who informed Huixquilucan authorities. Later, the mayor, Alfredo del Mazo Maza, notified the Attorney General of the State of Mexico, Alberto Bazbaz.


title: Death of Paulette Gebara Farah

text: After the initial search of the apartment building, Paulette's family claimed they could not find her. There were no signs of theft or kidnapping; the locks were intact, as well as the windows and doors. The housing complex had surveillance, but no evidence of Paulette leaving or being taken was found. Paulette could not go out alone, as she had a motor and language disability.


title: Death of Paulette Gebara Farah

text: That afternoon, the attorney general released a poster with a photo of Paulette and information about her age, appearance, and physical disabilities. Gebara's aunt, Arlette Farah, sent emails and uploaded a photo to social media, where the news quickly spread, prompting a large response. In the evening, Lizette Farah released a message on television to the alleged abductor asking that her daughter be returned to her, saying that she could be left in a shopping centre or a crowded place, and there would be no consequences. After the announcement, she distributed flyers with Paulette's face, put up billboards, and placed advertisements on television and public transport.


title: Death of Paulette Gebara Farah

text: Mauricio also appeared in the media, asking that his daughter be returned to him. He recalled that he had gone out to work on the morning of March 22, when Paulette had apparently disappeared. On March 29, the attorney general announced that Paulette's parents, Erika and Martha Casimiro, Paulette's nannies, would be placed under a restriction order, due to falsehoods and inconsistencies in their statements.


title: Death of Paulette Gebara Farah

text: On March 30, Paulette's parents spent several hours at the police station before being transferred to a hotel to comply with the restriction order. The same day, police experts placed blankets at the home for a reconstruction of events.


title: Death of Paulette Gebara Farah

text: On March 31, at around 2:00 AM, Paulette's remains were found in her bedroom. In the leaked video of investigators, one voice is heard saying, "she was severely beaten" whilst examining the stained sheets. However, this statement was almost immediately refuted by General Attorney Bazbaz. Paulette had died accidentally due to "mechanical asphyxia due to obstruction of the nasal cavities and thorax-abdominal compression".


title: Death of Paulette Gebara Farah

text: An autopsy revealed that Paulette slept with an "orthopaedic cloth" over her mouth, which was placed every night to prevent her from sleeping with her mouth open; that her body was not manipulated after her death; and that she had eaten at least five hours before her death. The body had two segments of rectangular adhesive cloth in vertical position on both cheeks, in addition to signs of a blow to the left elbow and knee. The official findings, however, indicated no signs of physical or sexual violence. The autopsy also established that her death occurred between five and nine days before the analysis was made, establishing that she could have died on the first day. This was reported on March 31st, although they did not reveal the exact date and hour of her death.


title: Death of Paulette Gebara Farah

text: The official report also said that no traces of drugs or toxic substances in the body that could have affected the girl's consciousness. The conclusion was that Paulette "by her own means" moved on the bed and accidentally fell headlong into a space at the foot of her bed, where she died of asphyxiation, and subsequently remained unnoticed for nine days.


title: Death of Paulette Gebara Farah

text: On April 3, Farah initiated an amparo proceeding against the restriction order, claiming that she had not been involved in the events that caused her daughter's death. Specialists said that Farah suffered from personality disorders. During the procedure Farah became subject to indictment. On April 4th, a judge granted freedom to Paulette's parents and nannies. Mauricio Gebara left his hotel at 10:20; Farah left hers at 11:00; and the nannies, Erika and Martha Casimiro, at noon. None of them could leave the country due to the inquiries. On April 5th, in separate interviews, Gebara and Farah accused each other; Farah claimed that her husband blamed her for Paulette's death, whilst Gebara claimed that the death could not have been a simple accident, and that he could not completely trust his wife.


title: Death of Paulette Gebara Farah

text: On April 6th, Paulette's body was buried at the Panteón Francés de San Joaquín in Mexico City. The funeral procession was headed by Farah without any member of the Gebara family in attendance due to an "agreement".


title: Death of Paulette Gebara Farah

text: On April 7th, the Gebara family denied Farah's request to see her other daughter, Lizette, who had stayed with her father's family since April 4th. On May 10th, the Attorney General of the Federal District, who also collaborated in the case at the request of her counterpart in the State of Mexico, granted the custody of Paulette's sister to Farah, who brought a complaint against her husband demanding custody of the girl. On May 26, although Bazbaz defended the investigation and conclusions of the case, he resigned his position as Attorney General of the State of Mexico, saying that an attorney general needs confidence to act effectively, and that he had lost this confidence due to the questioning of his actions in the investigation of the death of Paulette Gebara Farah.


title: Death of Paulette Gebara Farah

text: Seven years later on May 3, 2017, Paulette's body was exhumed and cremated, since authorities considered that her remains were no longer objects of evidence for the investigation of the case.


title: Death of Paulette Gebara Farah

text: Paulette's nannies, Ericka and Martha Casimiro, insisted that the girl's body was not under her mattress, with Martha stating:


title: Death of Paulette Gebara Farah

text: A close friend of Farah, Amanda de la Rosa, was allowed to live in the Gebara's apartment for several days immediately following the girl's disappearance. Amanda slept in Paulette's room, which was not secured by the authorities. In the time she stayed in there, the bed was made on a daily basis, and nobody noticed the girl's body nor the bloody stains on the sheets as they appeared on the forensic video. As a result, Amanda was also investigated as a possible suspect, but no charges were filed. At the end of the investigation, she wrote "Where's Paulette?", a book narrating the events from her personal perspective, questioning the discrepancies between the facts and the authorities' statements.


title: Death of Paulette Gebara Farah

text: Nine days after her disappearance, a team of three forensic experts entered Paulette's room at 2:00 AM. and walked to the bed and began taking measurements, loudly stating its characteristics and recording their activities on video. At one point, one of them declared twice that Paulette was "severely beaten" to death, and a few moments after, the forensic expert to his right removed the bed's blanket to reveal two large bloodstains, one of them the size of an adult's head. The same man walked to the front of the bed, with the help of another forensic expert, and removed all the sheets to reveal Paulette's corpse, partially hidden on one side of the mattress.


title: Death of Paulette Gebara Farah

text: Although the local authorities gave the video to the press as a document to prove how the body was found, there are several doubts about its authenticity. Most experts agree that it is a re-enactment, and not a real-time event, which may explain how one of the forensic experts could know that Paulette was beaten before any evidence was found. It would also explain the placement of the camera, and the position of the forensic experts in the exact place to be able to show all the elements to the public without any obstruction. It has also been noted that none of those present seems to show any surprise when discovering the body, and they even continue narrating the events with a mechanical voice, as if they were repeating a script. The time the video was recorded was very unusual as well. Such legal procedures are usually performed in the daytime.


title: Death of Paulette Gebara Farah

text: The biggest controversy regarding the video was that as soon as it was released, Attorney General Bazbaz publicly stated that the images proved that Paulette had accidentally suffocated, avoiding any mention of violence. In later interviews and statements to the press, violence was not mentioned again, and the official cause of death was ruled as an accident.


title: Death of Paulette Gebara Farah

text: During the investigation of the case, a recording between Farah and Lizette, was released, in which Farah instructs her daughter to not say anything of Paulette's disappearance, so that they would not be blamed.


title: Death of Paulette Gebara Farah

text: At first Farah denied this, saying that the recording was edited so it sounded like she was telling her daughter to hide any information. Later, however, she accepted that these were the words she said, stating, "I had the conversation with my daughter, but not in the context they showed it."


title: Death of Paulette Gebara Farah

text: In 2010 a YouTube video titled "The Strange Case of Paulette's Pajamas" became a point of interest and was spread via social media. The video compares photographs of Paulette's body dressed in blue and red reindeer pajamas with an interview with Farah recorded several days before the girl's body was found, in which the same pajamas appear in the girl's room. After this discovery was made public, the television network aired the footage without cuts, including all preparation prior to the interview. As Farah and the interviewing reporter examine various items owned by Paulette, the aforementioned pajamas appear. When asked about them, Farah stated that the pajamas belong to Paulette's sister.


title: Death of Paulette Gebara Farah

text: Despite this claim, these pajamas remained among Paulette's belongings, and as they could be seen in subsequent interviews in Paulette's closet. The authorities were never informed by the family that they had a second set of pajamas identical to the one the girl was wearing at the time of her disappearance. It is unknown what happened to these pajamas.


title: The Outlaw

text: The Outlaw is a 1943 American Western film, directed by Howard Hughes and starring Jack Buetel, Jane Russell, Thomas Mitchell, and Walter Huston. Hughes also produced the film, while Howard Hawks served as an uncredited co-director. The film is notable as Russell's breakthrough role, and she became regarded as a sex symbol and a Hollywood icon. Later advertising billed Russell as the sole star. "The Outlaw" and "The Ox-Bow Incident" (also produced in 1943) are the earliest films in the AllMovie list of psychological Westerns.


title: The Outlaw

text: Sheriff Pat Garrett welcomes his old friend Doc Holliday to Lincoln, New Mexico. Doc is looking for his stolen horse and finds it held by Billy the Kid. Despite this, the two gunfighters take a liking to each other, much to Garrett's disgust. Doc still tries to steal his horse back late that night, but Billy is waiting for him outside the barn.


title: The Outlaw

text: After that, Billy decides to sleep in the barn, and shots are fired at him. He overpowers his ambusher, who turns out to be Rio McDonald, Doc's love-interest. She is out to avenge her dead brother. It is implied that the Kid rapes Rio after ripping off her dress.


title: The Outlaw

text: The next day, a stranger offers to shoot Garrett in the back while the Kid distracts the lawman. But, he is only setting the Kid up. Billy, suspicious as always, guns down the stranger when he draws on him. There are no witnesses, and Garrett tries to arrest Billy. Garrett does not understand when Doc sides with the Kid. As the pair start to leave, Garrett shoots Billy. Doc in response shoots the gun out of his hand and also shoots and kills two of Garrett's men.


title: The Outlaw

text: Doc flees with Billy to the home of Rio and her aunt, Guadalupe. With a posse after them, Doc rides away. Instead of killing the unconscious Kid, Rio instead nurses him to health over the next month. By the time Doc returns, Rio has fallen in love with her patient. Doc is furious that Billy has stolen his girlfriend. After Doc's anger subsides a bit, the Kid gives him a choice: the horse or Rio. To Billy's annoyance, Doc picks the horse. Angered that both men value the animal more than her, Rio fills their canteens with sand. The two ride off without noticing.


title: The Outlaw

text: On the trail, they are pursued by Garrett and a posse. The pair surmise that Rio tipped the sheriff off. Doc kills a few men from long range, but leaves Garrett unharmed.


title: The Outlaw

text: When Doc wakes one morning, he finds Billy gone and Garrett waiting to handcuff him and take him back to town. Stopping at Rio's, the two men find that Billy has left Rio tied up in sight of water in revenge. Suspecting that Billy loves Rio and will return to free her, Garrett waits. Billy indeed returns, and he is captured.


title: The Outlaw

text: On the way back to town, they are surrounded by hostile Mescaleros. Garrett reluctantly frees his prisoners and returns their revolvers, after extracting a promise from Doc that he will give them back and make Billy do the same. They manage to elude the Indians, but Doc refuses to honor his word.


title: The Outlaw

text: As Doc tries to leave with his horse, Billy stops him. The two men decide to have a duel, which Garrett expects Billy to lose. However, as they await the signal (the end of a clock signalling eight o'clock), Billy moves his hands away from his guns. Doc tries to provoke him, inflicting minor wounds in one hand and both ears, but the Kid still will not fire. The two reconcile. Furious, Garrett calls Doc out, despite not having a chance. Doc makes no attempt to shoot his friend and is fatally wounded. Garrett is aghast.


title: The Outlaw

text: After Doc is buried, Garrett offers to give Billy their friend's revolvers. He also persuades Billy to give him his guns, saying that he can claim that it is Billy in the grave, and Billy can leave his past behind him and have a fresh start in life. But Garrett had removed the firing pins from Doc's revolvers. However, while comparing the guns, Billy had inadvertently switched one of Doc's for his, so neither of the men's guns fire. Billy pulls out a second, working gun. He handcuffs Garrett, judging that the lawman will say that Billy is dead rather than admit that Billy left him helpless. As he is riding away, Billy stops and looks back; Rio joins him on his horse.


title: The Outlaw

text: In 1941, while filming "The Outlaw", Hughes felt that the camera did not do justice to Jane Russell's bust. He employed his engineering skills to design a new cantilevered underwire bra to emphasize her figure. Hughes added curved structural steel rods that were sewn into the brassiere under each breast cup and connected to the bra's shoulder straps. This arrangement allowed the breasts to be pushed upward and the bra shoulder straps to be moved away from the neck, exposing more of her bosom. Contrary to many media reports afterward, Russell did not wear the bra during filming; she said in her 1988 autobiography that the bra was so uncomfortable that she secretly discarded it. She wrote that the "ridiculous" contraption hurt so much that she wore it for only a few minutes, and instead wore her own bra. To prevent Hughes from noticing, Russell padded the cups with tissue and tightened the shoulder straps before returning to the set. She later said "I never wore it in "The Outlaw", and he never knew. He wasn’t going to take my clothes off to check if I had it on. I just told him I did." The famed bra ended up in a Hollywood museum—a false witness to the push-up myth.


title: The Outlaw

text: Although the film was completed in February 1941, Hughes had trouble getting it approved by the Hollywood Production Code Administration due to its emphasis on and display of Russell's breasts. The Production Administration set the standards for morally acceptable content in motion pictures, and ordered cuts to the film. Hughes reluctantly removed about 40 feet, or a half-minute, of footage that prominently featured Russell's bosom. However, 20th Century Fox decided to cancel its agreement to release "The Outlaw"; as a result, Hughes stood to lose millions of dollars. Ever the resourceful businessman, he schemed to create a public outcry for his film to be banned.


title: The Outlaw

text: Hughes had his managers call ministers, women's clubs and housewives, informing them about the 'lewd picture' he was about to release. The public responded by protesting and trying to have the film banned, which generated the publicity Hughes needed to establish a demand for the film and get it released. The resulting controversy created enough interest to get "The Outlaw" into theaters for one week in 1943, and then it was pulled due to violations of the Production Code. The film was released widely on April 23, 1946, when RKO Radio Pictures premiered the film in San Francisco, where it became a box-office hit. By the end of 1946, the film had earned $3 million in domestic rentals. Additional re-releases in 1950 and 1952 brought its lifetime rental earnings to $5.075 million.


title: The Outlaw

text: Hughes sued Classic Film Museum, Inc. and Alan J. Taylor for unlawful distribution of "Hell's Angels", "Scarface", and "The Outlaw". When it emerged that "The Outlaw" had fallen into the public domain in 1969 for lack of copyright renewal, the case was settled, with Classic Film Museum agreeing to stop distribution of the two copyrighted titles, and Hughes withdrawing his claim on "The Outlaw".


title: The Outlaw

text: The film was later colorized twice. The first colorization was released by Hal Roach Studios in 1988. The second colorized version, produced by Legend Films, was released to DVD on June 16, 2009, featuring both the newly colorized edition and a restored black-and-white edition of the film. The DVD version also featured an audio commentary by Jane Russell and actress Terry Moore, Hughes's alleged wife. Russell approved of the colorization, stating "The color looked great. It was not too strong, like in many of the early colorized movies that made the films look cheap."


title: EE-9 Cascavel

text: The EE-9 "Cascavel" (, translated to "Rattlesnake") is a six-wheeled Brazilian armoured car developed primarily for reconnaissance. It was engineered by Engesa in 1970 as a replacement for Brazil's ageing fleet of M8 Greyhounds. The vehicle was first fitted with the Greyhound's 37mm main gun, and subsequently, a French turret adopted from the Panhard AML-90. Later models carry unique Engesa turrets with a Belgian 90mm Cockerill Mk.3 cannon produced under licence as the "EC-90".


title: EE-9 Cascavel

text: The Cascavel shares many components with the EE-11 Urutu, its armoured personnel carrier counterpart; both entered production in 1974 and are now operated by over 20 nations in South America, Africa, and the Middle East. Rights to the design were also sold to the United States via the FMC Corporation. About 2,767 Cascavels and Urutus were manufactured before Engesa ceased operations in 1993.


title: EE-9 Cascavel

text: Throughout the early 1960s, Brazil's bilateral defence agreements with the United States ensured easy access to a post-war surplus of American military equipment, including a number of World War II-vintage M8 Greyhound armoured cars. The Brazilian arms industry limited itself to restoring and maintaining this obsolete hardware until 1964 when American involvement in the Vietnam War placed restrictions on the amount of defence technology available for export. Brazil responded by creating an indigenous import substitution programme in 1968 aimed at reproducing US equipment already in service. Already in 1966 an article in the military periodical "A Defesa Nacional" had argued that the state of national automotive industry, highways and Petrobras fuel production made it viable to locally produce an 8–10 ton, 6x6 armoured vehicle, and by 1970 the Brazilian Army was developing an updated Greyhound known simply by its Portuguese initials, CRR ("Carro de Reconhecimento sobre Rodas").


title: EE-9 Cascavel

text: Engesa, then an obscure civilian engineering firm, took over the project and by November 1970 a prototype was completed. The new EE-9 Cascavel entered the pre-production phase between 1972 and 1973. Assembly lines for the Cascavel and its armoured personnel carrier counterpart, the EE-11 Urutu, were opened in 1974. The hulls were purchased by the Brazilian Army but mounted the same antiquated 37mm cannon and turret recycled from its elderly Greyhounds. To compete with more formidable armament available on the international market, Engesa also marketed a heavily modified Cascavel with an automatic transmission and the same 90mm (3.54 in) low-pressure gun found on the Panhard AML. This model, intended for export, drew interest in the Middle East and twenty were immediately purchased by Qatar.


title: EE-9 Cascavel

text: The Qatari Cascavel sale proved to be a major success for Engesa, and Brazil's first successful inroad into the Arabian arms trade. Abu Dhabi followed suit with an order for two hundred Cascavels in 1977. Both Iraq and Libya chose the Cascavel in preference to the Panhard AML-90 or ERC-90 Sagaie, with the former negotiating a $400 million deal for the delivery of two hundred Cascavels and two hundred Urutus. Following the Libyan sale, Engesa unveiled a new production model carrying a Belgian designed, Cockerill main gun manufactured under licence as the "EC-90" in Brazil.


title: EE-9 Cascavel

text: The Armed Forces of the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya successfully deployed a number of EE-9 Cascavels against Egyptian tanks, likely T-54/55s or T-62s, during the Libyan–Egyptian War in 1977. Libyan Cascavels also saw action in Chad, where they engaged AML-90s of the French Foreign Legion and French Marines. An unknown number of these armoured cars were later donated to the Polisario Front and Togo, while others remained in service as late as the 2011 Libyan Civil War. Cascavels were still in use during the 2016 battle of Sirte against the Islamic State.


title: EE-9 Cascavel

text: Chad's Transitional Government of National Unity (GUNT) received five EE-9 Cascavels from Libya in 1986. Over the course of the Chadian–Libyan conflict, seventy-nine ex-Libyan Cascavels were captured or recovered from the Aouzou Strip by the Chadian military, which continues to hold them in storage.


title: EE-9 Cascavel

text: The National Army of Colombia acquired 128 new EE-9 Cascavels in 1982, in order to modernize its equipment in case of an armed conflict with Venezuela. The armoured cars saw their first and most meaningful action during the Palace of Justice siege in 1985, when members of the M-19 guerrilla group took over the Palace of Justice in Bogotá. The EE-9s made some direct hits against the structure's external walls, which started a fire that destroyed the building and killed several hostages.


title: EE-9 Cascavel

text: During the Iran–Iraq War, EE-9 Cascavels were operated by Iraqi garrisons near the Persian Gulf. The armoured cars were frequently able to outmanoeuvre the heavier Iranian tanks and tracked combat vehicles on the relatively flat, sandy terrain near the coastal region. Coalition air strikes later destroyed several north of Kuwait City in Operation Desert Storm. Following the 2003 invasion of Iraq, the surviving fleet was condemned for scrap; however, American technical personnel did restore thirty-five to working order in 2008 and present them to the New Iraqi Army. Locally modified EE-9 were refurbished by Iraqi militias of the Popular Mobilization Forces, with some having their 90mm replaced or supplemented by DShK or ZPU machine guns, 107mm Type 63 rockets or a 2A28 Grom gun. They were used against Islamic State forces.


title: EE-9 Cascavel

text: Zimbabwe procured ninety EE-9 Cascavels in 1984 as a suitable replacement for the Eland Mk7. At least one Zimbabwean Cascavel squadron deployed into Mozambique during the Mozambican Civil War to protect Harare's primary commercial links in Tete Province. The armoured cars provided armed escort for local convoys and patrolled the roads to preempt attacks by South African-backed Mozambican National Resistance (RENAMO) insurgents. During Zimbabwe's intervention in the Second Congo War, Ilyushin Il-76s commandeered from local charter firms were used to airlift twelve Cascavels to N'djili Airport. From there they subsequently engaged Rwandan troops advancing on Kinshasha. Some were abandoned by Zimbabwean troops in the Congo after being sabotaged beyond repair, while four others were captured by rebel factions. Few remain in present service due to lack of funds to source new parts from Brazil.


title: EE-9 Cascavel

text: The EE-9 Cascavel has found favour with many armies due to its simplified design and use of components already ubiquitous to civilian industry. Its low cost next to comparable Western armoured cars makes it an attractive purchase to developing nations in particular. At the height of the Cold War, the strictly commercial nature of Engesa sales—devoid of any political supplier restraints—was also perceived as an acceptable alternative to arms from NATO and the Warsaw Pact.


title: EE-9 Cascavel

text: All EE-9 Cascavels have a similar layout—the driver is seated at the front of the vehicle and to the left, turrets are typically fitted above the centre, with motor and transmission situated at the rear. The Cascavel Mk II has a manual turret, but all later variants have electrically powered traverse. Cascavel Mk IIIs are equipped with an Engesa EC-90 90mm gun firing high explosive (HE), high explosive anti-tank (HEAT) or high explosive squash head (HESH) shells in cartridge form; a coaxial 7.62mm machine gun is also mounted to the left of the main armament. The EC-90 has an elevation of +15° and a depression of -8°. It is not stabilised and only mounts a rudimentary optical fire-control system, which has been upgraded with a laser rangefinder in Brazilian service. Late production Cascavels were fitted with run-flat tyres and a unique central tyre pressure regulator accessible from the driving compartment.


title: EE-9 Cascavel

text: A boxy, boat-shaped vehicle, the EE-9 Cascavel has a steep frontal glacis which slopes upwards and back towards the horizontal hull roof, with recesses for the headlamps and a thick glacis plate over the driver's seat. The hull sides are nearly vertical, but also sloped inwards towards the roof. There is a low, well-rounded turret on the forward section of the hull with a long, tapered gun barrel and a triple baffle muzzle brake.


title: Hundred Family Surnames

text: The Hundred Family Surnames (), commonly known as Bai Jia Xing, also translated as Hundreds of Chinese Surnames, is a classic Chinese text composed of common Chinese surnames. An unknown author compiled the book during the Song dynasty (960–1279). The book lists 507 surnames. Of these, 441 are single-character surnames and 66 are double-character surnames. About 800 names have been derived from the original ones.


title: Hundred Family Surnames

text: In the dynasties following the Song, the 13th-century "Three Character Classic", the "Hundred Family Surnames", and the 6th-century "Thousand Character Classic" came to be known as "San Bai Qian" (Three, Hundred, Thousand), from the first character in their titles. They served as instructional books for children, becoming the almost universal introductory literary texts for students (almost exclusively boys) from elite backgrounds and even for a number of ordinary villagers. Each text was available in many versions, printed cheaply and available to all since they did not become superseded. When a student had memorized all three, he had a knowledge of roughly 2,000 characters. Since Chinese did not use an alphabet, this was an effective, though time-consuming, way of giving a crash course in character-recognition before going on to understanding texts and writing characters.


title: Hundred Family Surnames

text: The work is a rhyming poem in lines of eight characters. The surnames are not listed in order of commonality. According to Song dynasty scholar Wang Mingqing (王明清), the first four surnames listed represent the most important families in the empire at the time:


title: Hundred Family Surnames

text: The next four, Zhou 周, Wu 吳, Zheng 鄭, and Wang 王, were the surnames of the other wives of Qian Chu, the last king of Wuyue.


title: Hundred Family Surnames

text: This text is written in Traditional Chinese. Note that several of these characters may link to the same article.


title: Shinai

text: A is a Japanese sword typically made of bamboo used for practice and competition in "kendo". "Shinai" are also used in other martial arts, but may be styled differently from "kendo shinai", and represented with different characters. The light, soft wood used in a "shinai" distinguishes it from other wooden swords such as a "bokken", which is generally made of heavier, sturdier wood.


title: Shinai

text: The earliest use of a bamboo weapon to train with instead of a sword is credited to Kamiizumi Nobutsuna (1508-1572?) of the Shinkage-ryū. The modern "shinai", with four slats of bamboo, is generally credited to Nakanishi Chuzo Tsugutate (died 1801) of Nakanishi-ha Ittō-ryū. The "shinai" was developed in an effort to reduce the number of practitioners being seriously injured during practice, making a practice weapon that was less dangerous than , the hard wooden swords they were previously using. This is also the motivation behind the development of , the armour that protects the "kendoka".


title: Shinai

text: Due to its lighter weight compared to a "bokken" or a metal katana, a "shinai" can be wielded in a fashion that allows quicker strikes than would be practicable with a heavier sword. This also makes "shinai" popular in producing movies and television shows; a prop "shinai" with a thin metal covering can look similar to a metal sword, while allowing cinematic, showy strikes that are nevertheless fairly safe to perform.


title: Shinai

text: The word ""shinai"" is derived from the verb , meaning "to bend, to flex", and was originally short for "shinai-take" (flexible bamboo). "Shinai" is written with the kanji , meaning "bamboo sword", and is an irregular kanji reading.


title: Shinai

text: In "kendo", it is most common to use a single "shinai", sometimes called "itto" style. Some "kendoka" choose to use two "shinai". This "kendo" style is usually called , a style that has its roots in the two-sword schools of swordsmanship such as Hyōhō Niten Ichi-ryū. A "ni-to" combatant uses a long "shinai" called the , which is usually held in the right hand, and a shorter "shinai", called the , which is usually held in the left hand. The holding position can be switched, however, with the daito in the left hand and the shoto in the right. The "daitō" is shorter and lighter than a "shinai" used in the "itto" style of "kendo". Specifications for "shinai" used in "kendo" competitions that follow the International Kendo Federation (FIK) rules, are below.


title: Shinai

text: Sizes and style of "shinai" vary. For example, an adult may be able to use a "shinai" that is too heavy for a younger person, so "shinai" with different sizes and characteristics are made. "Shinai" are available in many styles and balances. A "shinai" should not be confused with a "bokutō", which has a much more similar shape and length to a Japanese sword and is made from a single piece of wood. However, both "shinai" and "bokken" are used in "kendo".


title: Shinai

text: The slats of a "shinai" are usually made from dried bamboo. Some may also be treated by smoking them, or soaking them in resin. "Shinai" slats are also made of carbon fibre, reinforced resin, or other approved alternative materials.


title: Shinai

text: The "shinai" comprises four slats known as , which are held together by three leather fittings: a hilt (tsuka), or handle wrapping (); a fitting at the tip () and a leather strip () that binds the four slats. The parts are all secured with a string ().


title: Shinai

text: The "nakayui" is tied about one-third of the length of the exposed bamboo from the tip . This holds the slats together and also marks the proper "kendo" striking portion of the "shinai", or .


title: Shinai

text: Inserted between the ends of the slats, under the "saki-gawa", is a plastic plug , and under the "tsuka-gawa" there is a small square of metal , that holds the slats in place.


title: Shinai

text: A hand-guard is then fitted on the "tsuka-gawa" before it ends and the bamboo slats show. This is held in place by a rubber ring .


title: Shinai

text: The "shinai" is useful as a practice sword to simulate the weight and feel of a katana or "bokken" without injuring the user or the target. Upon impact the bundled slats dissipate the force of the strike by flexing/bending along the length of the blade, and expanding slightly, along its cross-sectional area (stress = force/unit area). As a result of this lack of rigidity, along with the relative innocuous nature of bamboo vs razor-sharp steel, the impacted area is less damaged and may experience only bruising, rather than life-threatening deep cuts or puncture wounds, even with strong and forceful strikes.


title: Shinai

text: A "shinai" must be properly taken care of or it can pose a danger to both the user and the people around it. "Shinai" should be inspected for splinters and breaks before and after use, and maintained in a manner considered most appropriate by one's style, "dōjō", or "sensei".


title: Shinai

text: Many people believe that oiling and sanding a "shinai" prior to its first use, and then periodically during use, can greatly extend its life. However, some disagreement exists on what is considered proper "shinai" care.


title: Shinai

text: To properly inspect a "shinai", one first examines the area around the "datotsu-bu", inspecting all sides of the "shinai" for splinters. This is very important, as bamboo splinters can easily cause injury. The "saki-gawa" should be intact and the "tsuru" should be tight so that the "saki-gawa" does not slip off the end of the "shinai" during use. In addition, the "nakayui" should be tight enough as not to rotate easily.


title: Shinai

text: When not in use, "shinai" used in "kendo" practice should be either laid on the floor or leaned vertically against a wall. Some instructors require the base ("kashira") of the handle ("tsuka") on the floor and the tip ("kissaki") leaning against the wall. In kendo, the "shinai" is treated in the same way as a edged or bladed weapon, like an actual metal sword, and competitors are trained to think of it as a dangerous instrument if mis-used.


title: Shinai

text: In "kendo" competitions that follow the FIK rules, there are regulated weights and lengths for the use of "shinai".


title: Shinai

text: "Shinai" are weighed complete with leather fittings, but without "tsuba" or "tsuba-dome". The full length is measured. Maximum diameter of the "tsuba" is 9cm.


title: Shinai

text: The ancestor of the modern kendo "shinai" is the , which is still in use in koryū kenjutsu. This is a length of bamboo, split multiple times on one end, and covered by a leather sleeve. This explains the name "fukuro", which means bag, sack or pouch. Sometimes the older and rarer kanji tō (韜) is used, but has the same meaning as fukuro.


title: Shinai

text: Some schools cover the entire bamboo in the sleeve and add a "tsuba", like Kashima Shinden Jikishinkage-ryū does. In Shinkage-ryū, the sleeve is lacquered Kamakura Red, and rather than covering the entire length, is tied off at the non-split end. This particular kind of "fukuro-shinai" is also called a , or toad-skin "shinai". The name comes from how the leather looks after lacquering; the sleeves are actually made of cow or horse-hide.


title: Shinai

text: "Shinai" are commonly used as a prop in professional wrestling, where they are often referred to as "kendo sticks" or "Singapore canes". Wrestlers are typically struck across the back, stomach, legs and arms, though some are struck in the head or face, sometimes depending upon the wrestling promotion where the match is taking place.


title: Joe Kirby (teacher)

text: Joe Kirby is a British school teacher and deputy head at Jane Austen College, who writes on translating research into the classroom. In 2013, he published "How To Start on Teach First".


title: Joe Kirby (teacher)

text: He created and made popular the use of knowledge organisers, a template used by teachers and their students to clarify what is essential to learn. He is a co-founder of Michaela Community School, where he was one of the 20 teaching staff that contributed to the book "Battle Hymn of the Tiger Teachers", published in 2016.


title: Joe Kirby (teacher)

text: Joe Kirby is from Wimbledon, London. After completing an International Baccalaureate, he attended Warwick University where he was elected president of its student's union. In this role, to integrate home and international students, he persuaded Archbishop Desmond Tutu to attend an event at his university. In addition, to raise funds for prostate cancer, he led a team of student volunteers on a hundred-mile walk across Britain.


title: Joe Kirby (teacher)

text: He has two younger sisters, Juliet and actress Vanessa Kirby. Their mother worked for "Country Living" and their father is the prostate surgeon Roger Kirby.


title: Joe Kirby (teacher)

text: Kirby is an English teacher and deputy head who writes on translating research into the classroom. Prior to becoming vice principal at Jane Austen College, part of the Inspiration Trust, Norwich, he was at Dunraven School in Streatham, and then was one of four deputy heads at Michaela Community School in Wembley, a school he helped establish.


title: Joe Kirby (teacher)

text: He is an active blogger on education, which includes his blog titled "Pragmatic Education". Like a number of other younger British teachers including Tom Bennett and Daisy Christodoulou, Kirby has been inspired by American educator E. D. Hirsch. This has been reflected in his references to Hirsch in a large number of his blogs, popular messages that resulted in promoting Hirsch's's ideas, and increasing Kirby's influence on the debate on education in the UK. In 2013 he was name checked by Michael Gove, British Secretary of State for Education at the time, and the education watchdog Ofsted, and has since been frequently cited and consulted by Gove and politician Nick Gibb.


title: Joe Kirby (teacher)

text: Kirby has written on teaching methods with maximum impact and minimum effort. He has advised that hundreds of words can be taught by explaining how words are formed.


title: Joe Kirby (teacher)

text: At Michaela, he explained that methods were adapted to reduce teacher burnout because "common practices result in heavy workload, high burnout, and very, very high levels of teacher turnover". He rewrote Year 7's study of the "Odyssey", removing the parts he felt were less important to read. His 2015 blog post "Marking is a Hornet", which described teachers' marking of homework as "high-effort" and "low-impact" like a hornet, and recommended saving time by asking pupils to self-assess and quiz themselves using checklists or oral feedback. The responsibility, he explains, lies in self-improvement and a collective sense of working for better outcomes. He was one of the 20 members of Michaela's staff that contributed to the book "Battle Hymn of the Tiger Teachers", published in 2016 by John Catt Educational, edited by Michaela's head Katharine Birbalsingh and endorsed by Roger Scruton. In the book, Kirby explains the curriculum design and how eleven-year-olds are prepared for school in boot camp prior to the beginning of the school year, how the students are taught that "silence in lessons is golden, that it helps us listen and helps us learn", how teaching of factual knowledge is prioritised, and how consistency and simplicity in a "centralised system" allow students to complete homework with the aim of not overloading teachers with marking, thereby reducing burnout.


title: Joe Kirby (teacher)

text: Kirby created the knowledge organiser, a template on a single A4 sheet used by teachers and their pupils to clarify what is essential to learn. He calls the knowledge organiser “the most powerful tool in the arsenal of the curriculum designer”.


title: Rekha Sharma

text: Rekha Shanti Sharma is a Canadian actress of Indo-Fijian descent, best known for her role as Tory Foster on "Battlestar Galactica," and on "".


title: Rekha Sharma

text: Sharma began acting career in her 20s. She has stage experience but also appeared in television series such as "Da Vinci's City Hall", "House M.D.", "The Lone Gunmen", "Smallville", "Supernatural", "John Doe", "Dark Angel", "The Twilight Zone", "Sanctuary", "Hellcats", "The Listener", "", "Battlestar Galactica", and the 2009 re-imagined television series of "V".


title: African-American literature

text: African American literature is the body of literature produced in the United States by writers of African descent. It begins with the works of such late 18th-century writers as Phillis Wheatley. Before the high point of slave narratives, African-American literature was dominated by autobiographical spiritual narratives. The genre known as slave narratives in the 19th century were accounts by people who had generally escaped from slavery, about their journeys to freedom and ways they claimed their lives. The Harlem Renaissance of the 1920s was a great period of flowering in literature and the arts, influenced both by writers who came North in the Great Migration and those who were immigrants from Jamaica and other Caribbean islands. African American writers have been recognized by the highest awards, including the Nobel Prize given to Toni Morrison in 1993. Among the themes and issues explored in this literature are the role of African Americans within the larger American society, African-American culture, racism, slavery, and social equality. African-American writing has tended to incorporate oral forms, such as spirituals, sermons, gospel music, blues, or rap.


title: African-American literature

text: As African Americans' place in American society has changed over the centuries, so has the focus of African-American literature. Before the American Civil War, the literature primarily consisted of memoirs by people who had escaped from slavery; the genre of slave narratives included accounts of life under slavery and the path of justice and redemption to freedom. There was an early distinction between the literature of freed slaves and the literature of free blacks born in the North. Free blacks expressed their oppression in a different narrative form. Free blacks in the North often spoke out against slavery and racial injustices by using the spiritual narrative. The spiritual addressed many of the same themes of slave narratives, but has been largely ignored in current scholarly conversation.


title: African-American literature

text: At the turn of the 20th century, non-fiction works by authors such as W. E. B. Du Bois and Booker T. Washington debated how to confront racism in the United States. During the Civil Rights Movement, authors such as Richard Wright and Gwendolyn Brooks wrote about issues of racial segregation and black nationalism. Today, African-American literature has become accepted as an integral part of American literature, with books such as "" by Alex Haley, "The Color Purple" (1982) by Alice Walker, which won the Pulitzer Prize; and "Beloved" by Toni Morrison achieving both best-selling and award-winning status.


title: African-American literature

text: In broad terms, African-American literature can be defined as writings by people of African descent living in the United States. It is highly varied. African-American literature has generally focused on the role of African Americans within the larger American society and what it means to be an American. As Princeton University professor Albert J. Raboteau has said, all African-American literary study "speaks to the deeper meaning of the African-American presence in this nation. This presence has always been a test case of the nation's claims to freedom, democracy, equality, the inclusiveness of all." African American literature explores the issues of freedom and equality long denied to Blacks in the United States, along with further themes such as African-American culture, racism, religion, slavery, a sense of home, segregation, migration, feminism, and more. African-American literature presents experience from an African-American point of view. In the early Republic, African-American literature represented a way for free blacks to negotiate their identity in an individualized republic. They often tried to exercise their political and social autonomy in the face of resistance from the white public. Thus, an early theme of African-American literature was, like other American writings, what it meant to be a citizen in post-Revolutionary America.


title: African-American literature

text: African-American literature has both been influenced by the great African diasporic heritage and shaped it in many countries. It has been created within the larger realm of post-colonial literature, although scholars distinguish between the two, saying that "African American literature differs from most post-colonial literature in that it is written by members of a minority community who reside within a nation of vast wealth and economic power."


title: African-American literature

text: African-American oral culture is rich in poetry, including spirituals, gospel music, blues, and rap. This oral poetry also appears in the African-American tradition of Christian sermons, which make use of deliberate repetition, cadence, and alliteration. African-American literature—especially written poetry, but also prose—has a strong tradition of incorporating all of these forms of oral poetry. These characteristics do not occur in all works by African-American writers.


title: African-American literature

text: Some scholars resist using Western literary theory to analyze African-American literature. As the Harvard literary scholar Henry Louis Gates, Jr., said: "My desire has been to allow the black tradition to speak for itself about its nature and various functions, rather than to read it, or analyze it, in terms of literary theories borrowed whole from other traditions, appropriated from without." One trope common to African-American literature is "signifying". Gates claims that signifying "is a trope in which are subsumed several other rhetorical tropes, including metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche, and irony, and also hyperbole and litotes, and metalepsis." Signifying also refers to the way in which African-American "authors read and critique other African-American texts in an act of rhetorical self-definition."


title: African-American literature

text: African-American history predates the emergence of the United States as an independent country, and African-American literature has similarly deep roots.


title: African-American literature

text: Lucy Terry is the author of the oldest known piece of African-American literature, "Bars Fight". Terry wrote the ballad in 1746 after a Native American attack on Deerfield, Massachusetts. She was enslaved in Deerfield at the time of the attack, when many residents were killed and more than 100, mostly women and children, were taken on a forced march overland to Montreal. Some were later ransomed and redeemed by their families or community; others were adopted by Mohawk families, and some girls joined a French religious order. The ballad was first published in 1854, with an additional couplet, in "The Springfield Republican" and in 1855 in Josiah Holland's "History of Western Massachusetts".


title: African-American literature

text: The poet Phillis Wheatley (–1784) published her book "Poems on Various Subjects, Religious and Moral" in 1773, three years before American independence. Wheatley was not only the first African American to publish a book, but the first to achieve an international reputation as a writer. Born in Senegal or The Gambia, Wheatley was captured and sold into slavery at around the age of seven. Kidnapped to Massachusetts, she was purchased and owned by a Boston merchant. By the time she was 16, she had mastered her new language of English. Her poetry was praised by many of the leading figures of the American Revolution, including George Washington, who thanked her for a poem written in his honor. Some whites found it hard to believe that a Black woman could write such refined poetry. Wheatley had to defend herself to prove that she had written her own work, so an authenticating preface, or attestation, was provided at the beginning of her book, signed by a list of prominent white male leaders in Massachusetts, affirming her authorship. Some critics cite Wheatley's successful use of this "defensive" authentication document as the first recognition of African-American literature. As a result of the skepticism surrounding her work, "Poems on Various Subjects" was republished with "several introductory documents designed to authenticate Wheatley and her poetry and to substantiate her literary motives."


title: African-American literature

text: Another early African-American author was Jupiter Hammon (1711–1806?), a domestic slave in Queens, New York. Hammon, considered the first published Black writer in America, published his poem "An Evening Thought: Salvation by Christ with Penitential Cries" as a broadside in early 1761. In 1778 he wrote an ode to Phillis Wheatley, in which he discussed their shared humanity and common bonds.


title: African-American literature

text: In 1786, Hammon gave his "Address to the Negroes of the State of New York". Writing at the age of 76 after a lifetime of slavery, Hammon said: "If we should ever get to Heaven, we shall find nobody to reproach us for being black, or for being slaves." He also promoted the idea of gradual emancipation as a way to end slavery. Hammon is thought to have been a slave on Long Island until his death. In the 19th century, his speech was later reprinted by several abolitionist groups.


title: African-American literature

text: William Wells Brown (1814–84) and Victor Séjour (1817–74) produced the earliest works of fiction by African-American writers. Séjour was born free in New Orleans (he was a free person of color) and moved to France at the age of 19. There he published his short story ""Le Mulâtre"" ("The Mulatto") in 1837. It is the first known work of fiction by an African American, but as it was written in French and published in a French journal, it had apparently no influence on later American literature. Séjour never returned to African-American themes in his subsequent works.


title: African-American literature

text: Brown, on the other hand, was a prominent abolitionist, lecturer, novelist, playwright, and historian. Born into slavery in Kentucky, he was working on riverboats based in St. Louis, Missouri, when he escaped to Ohio. He began to work for abolitionist causes, making his way to Buffalo, New York, and later Boston, Massachusetts. He was a prolific writer, beginning with an account of his escape to freedom and experience under slavery. Brown wrote "Clotel; or, The President's Daughter" (1853), considered to be the first novel written by an African American. It was based on the persistent (and later confirmed true) rumor that president Thomas Jefferson had fathered a mixed-race daughter with the enslaved woman Sally Hemings, who Jefferson owned. (In the late 20th century, DNA testing affirmed that Jefferson was the father of six children with Hemings; four survived to adulthood, and he gave all their freedom.) The novel was first published in England, where Brown lived for several years.


title: African-American literature

text: Frank J. Webb's 1857 novel, "The Garies and Their Friends", was also published in England, with prefaces by Harriet Beecher Stowe and Henry, Lord Brougham. It was the first African-American fiction to portray passing, that is, a mixed-race person deciding to identify as white rather than black. It also explored northern racism, in the context of a brutally realistic race riot closely resembling the Philadelphia race riots of 1834 and 1835.


title: African-American literature

text: The first novel published in the United States by an African-American woman was Harriet Wilson's "Our Nig" (1859). It expressed the difficulties of lives of northern free Blacks. "Our Nig" was rediscovered and republished by Henry Louis Gates, Jr., in the early 1980s. He labeled the work fiction and argued that it may be the first novel published by an African American. Parallels between Wilson's narrative and her life have been discovered, leading some scholars to argue that the work should be considered autobiographical. Despite these disagreements, "Our Nig" is a literary work which speaks to the difficult life of free blacks in the North who were indentured servants. "Our Nig" is a counter-narrative to the forms of the sentimental novel and mother-centered novel of the 19th century.


title: African-American literature

text: Another recently discovered work of early African-American literature is "The Bondwoman's Narrative", which was written by Hannah Crafts between 1853 and 1860. Crafts was a fugitive slave from Murfreesboro, North Carolina. If her work was written in 1853, it would be the first African-American novel written in the United States. The novel was published in 2002 with an introduction by Henry Louis Gates, Jr. The work was never published during Crafts' lifetime. Some suggest that she did not have entry into the publishing world. The novel has been described as a style between slave narratives and the sentimental novel. In her novel, Crafts went beyond the genre of the slave narrative. There is some evidence that she read in the library of her master and was influenced by those works: the narrative was serialized and bears resemblances to Charles Dickens' style.– Many critics are still attempting to decode its literary significance and establish its contributions to the study of early African-American literature.


title: African-American literature

text: A genre of African-American literature that developed in the middle of the 19th century is the slave narrative, accounts written by fugitive slaves about their lives in the South and, often, after escaping to freedom. They wanted to describe the cruelties of life under slavery, as well as the persistent humanity of the slaves as persons. At the time, the controversy over slavery led to impassioned literature on both sides of the issue, with novels such as "Uncle Tom's Cabin" (1852) by Harriet Beecher Stowe's representing the abolitionist view of the evils of slavery. Southern white writers produced the "Anti-Tom" novels in response, purporting to truly describe life under slavery, as well as the more severe cruelties suffered by free labor in the North. Examples include "Aunt Phillis's Cabin" (1852) by Mary Henderson Eastman and "The Sword and the Distaff" (1853) by William Gilmore Simms.


title: African-American literature

text: The slave narratives were integral to African-American literature. Some 6,000 former slaves from North America and the Caribbean wrote accounts of their lives, with about 150 of these published as separate books or pamphlets. Slave narratives can be broadly categorized into three distinct forms: tales of religious redemption, tales to inspire the abolitionist struggle, and tales of progress. The tales written to inspire the abolitionist struggle are the most famous because they tend to have a strong autobiographical motif. Many of them are now recognized as the most literary of all 19th-century writings by African Americans, with two of the best-known being Frederick Douglass's autobiography and "Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl" by Harriet Jacobs (1861).


title: African-American literature

text: Jacobs (1813–1897) was born a slave in Edenton, North Carolina and was the first woman to author a slave narrative in the United States. Although her narrative "Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl" was written under the pseudonym "Linda Brent", the autobiography can be traced through a series of letters from Jacobs to various friends and advisors, most importantly to Lydia Maria Child, the eventual editor of "Incidents". The narrative details Jacobs' struggle for freedom, not only for herself, but also for her two children. Jacobs' narrative occupies an important place in the history of African American literature as it discloses through her first hand account specific injustices that black women suffered under slavery, especially their sexual harassment and the threat or actual perpetration of rape as a tool of slavery. Harriet Beecher Stowe was asked to write a foreword for Jacob's book, but refused.


title: African-American literature

text: Frederick Douglass (–1895) first came to public attention in the North as an orator for abolition and as the author of a moving slave narrative. He eventually became the most prominent African American of his time and one of the most influential lecturers and authors in American history.


title: African-American literature

text: Born into slavery in Maryland, Douglass eventually escaped and worked for numerous abolitionist causes. He also edited a number of newspapers. Douglass's best-known work is his autobiography, "Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave", which was published in 1845. At the time some critics attacked the book, not believing that a black man could have written such an eloquent work. Despite this, the book was an immediate bestseller. Douglass later revised and expanded his autobiography, which was republished as "My Bondage and My Freedom" (1855). In addition to serving in a number of political posts during his life, he also wrote numerous influential articles and essays.


title: African-American literature

text: Early African-American spiritual autobiographies were published in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. Authors of such narratives include James Gronniosaw, John Marrant, and George White. William L. Andrews argues that these early narratives "gave the twin themes of the Afro-American 'pregeneric myth'—knowledge and freedom—their earliest narrative form". These spiritual narratives were important predecessors of the slave narratives which proliferated the literary scene of the 19th century. These spiritual narratives have often been left out of the study of African-American literature because some scholars have deemed them historical or sociological documents, despite their importance to understanding African-American literature as a whole.


title: African-American literature

text: African-American women who wrote spiritual narratives had to negotiate the precarious positions of being black and women in early America. Women claimed their authority to preach and write spiritual narratives by citing the Epistle of James, often calling themselves "doers of the word". The study of these women and their spiritual narratives are significant to the understanding of African-American life in the Antebellum North because they offer both historical context and literary tropes. Women who wrote these narratives had a clear knowledge of literary genres and biblical narratives. This contributed to advancing their message about African-American women's agency and countered the dominant racist and sexist discourse of early American society.