title: USS Panay incident

text: In response to the donations, Secretary of State Cordell Hull stated that "neither the American Government nor any agency of it nor any of its nationals should receive sums of money thus offered or take direct benefit therefrom." However, Hull noted that since "a flat rejection of such offers would produce some misunderstanding of our general attitude and offend those Japanese who make such a gesture, the Department is of the opinion that some method should be found whereby Japanese who wish to give that type of expression to their feelings may do so."


title: USS Panay incident

text: The United States State Department expressed the desire that any necessary arrangements should be made promptly. Hull did not wish to keep the Japanese people waiting for a decision on what was to become of the money they donated. A prolonged delay could lead to misunderstanding, especially if a decision was reached months later to return the money to the donors.


title: USS Panay incident

text: A temporary solution was reached to allow only the American ambassador in Japan and the American ambassador in China to accept donations related to the "Panay" incident. Several American consulates were receiving money, including consulates at Nagoya, Kobe, Nagasaki and Osaka, in Japan; Taipei, Taiwan; Keijo (Seoul), Korea; Dairen, Manchuria; and São Paulo, Brazil. These contributions were eventually forwarded to the ambassador in Tokyo. Grew kept all money received related to the "Panay" incident in the embassy safe until the State Department could find a solution.


title: USS Panay incident

text: Despite this policy, a local newspaper in Nagasaki, the "Nagasaki Minyu Shimbun", published stories about some Japanese donations to the American consulate in Nagasaki, including an excerpt from a letter attached to a schoolboy's donation. Arthur F. Tower, the American consul in Nagasaki, informed Ambassador Grew of the article, which had been published on January 7. Tower also informed Grew that a reporter of another newspaper—the Tokyo and Osaka "Asahi Shimbun", had called on him on 23 December to discuss the "Panay" contributions. Towers reassured Grew that "this consulate has not sought to give publicity to the donations received or offered and has furnished information concerning them on two occasions only, when requested." However, the newspaper stories may nonetheless have increased contributions to the location.


title: USS Panay incident

text: A final solution to the donations was reached by creating the Japan-America Trust in the name of the "Panay" survivors and relatives of those who lost their lives. The trust would be used to care for the graves of American sailors buried in Japan, dating back to the graves of sailors involved in the Perry Expedition in 1853. The formation of the trust allowed the State Department to avoid returning donations or directly distributing them to the U.S. government or individuals.


title: USS Panay incident

text: Fireman First Class John L. Hodge and Lieutenant Clark G. Grazier were presented with the Navy Cross for their actions during the "Panay" incident.


title: USS Panay incident

text: The Navy Cross was also presented to two British naval officers, Vice Admiral Lewis Eyre Crabbe and Lieut. Commander Harry Barlow, for their assistance in recovering survivors from the USS "Panay".


title: USS Panay incident

text: Modern historians believe that the attack may have been intentional. According to John Prados, Navy cryptographers had intercepted and decrypted traffic relating to the attacking planes which clearly indicated that they were under orders during the attack and that it had not been a mistake of any kind. This information was not released at the time for obvious secrecy reasons. Writer Nick Sparks believes that the chaos in Nanking created an opportunity for renegade factions within the Japanese army who wanted to force the U.S. into an active conflict so that the Japanese could once and for all drive the U.S. out of China.


title: USS Panay incident

text: Fon Huffman, the last survivor of the incident, died in 2008. The last surviving Japanese pilot who participated in the attack was Kaname Harada, who died in 2016.


title: USS Panay incident

text: The episode has been cited by Philip K. Dick in his novel "The Man in the High Castle", depicted in a collectible picture-card of the 1940s, in the series "Horrors of War" with the title "The sinking of the Panay."


title: USS Panay incident

text: The incident features in the novel "A Winter in China" by the British writer Douglas Galbraith. It is also described in the historical fiction novel "" by Newt Gingrich and William R. Forstchen.


title: USS Panay incident

text: The Panay incident is an important part of the background in Own Sela's thriller "An Exchange of Eagles". In the book, the only son of Max Schroeder, a Military Intelligence Colonel, was killed on board the "Panay". Schroeder nurses a deep grudge against President Roosevelt, whom he considers to have sent his son to die in vain. That makes Schroeder willing, in 1940, to contemplate assassinating Roosevelt in order to prevent American soldiers being sent to die in Europe.


title: USS Panay incident

text: Matt Zullo's 2020 novel "The U.S Navy's On-the-Roof Gang, Vol. 1" carries the narrative of the Navy intercept operators in Hawaii who followed Japanese communications before and during the attack.


title: Transport Tycoon

text: Transport Tycoon is a video game designed and programmed by Chris Sawyer, and published by MicroProse on 15 November 1994 for DOS. It is a business simulation game, presented in an isometric view in 2D with graphics by Simon Foster, in which the player acts as an entrepreneur in control of a transport company, and can compete against rival companies to make as much profit as possible by transporting passengers and various goods by road, rail, sea and air.


title: Transport Tycoon

text: Transport Tycoon Deluxe is an expanded and improved version of the original game, released in 1995. A version for Android and iOS was released on 3 October 2013 based on the sequel, "Chris Sawyer's Locomotion". A fan-made game engine recreation "OpenTTD" is also available.


title: Transport Tycoon

text: To start building a transport empire, the player must construct transport routes, consisting of stations near industries or towns, and in the case of trains or road vehicles, near physical routes. One transport route can utilize several different forms of transport, e.g. truck→ship→train. The player's company and the individual stations each have ratings that depend largely on their efficiency at moving goods from one stations to the other. A station with high ratings may attract more goods.


title: Transport Tycoon

text: The game begins in 1930, and ends in 2030. The player starts out by borrowing money to finance construction of transport facilities, and is charged interest until the loan is repaid. As the user plays the game and earns revenues, they have the choice of expanding service along existing routes, or expanding their transportation network. The game features a progression of technology: in any particular year of the game generally only contemporary types of technology are available. For example, railroad signals which allow more than one train to use a section of track are initially semaphores. Later, they are replaced by red and green traffic-light signals. Similarly, in the beginning there are only steam engines, but later diesel and electric engines are introduced. In the game year 1999, monorails become available. These require a separate track system from railroads. If the player remains in business until 2030, the game announces that they have won, allows them to post their name on the "hall of fame" and then continues. At this point, the year stays 2030 and never goes any higher, although the game can continue indefinitely. Playing the entire 100-year campaign takes about 40 hours. The game allows the player to save at any time, and multiple saves of a particular game at any point are possible.


title: Transport Tycoon

text: Vehicles in the game must be constructed at corresponding depots, which must be connected to the road or rail networks. Towns and cities have their own road networks, but extra roads may be needed to connect them to other towns, or to various resources.


title: Transport Tycoon

text: The player earns revenue by picking up resources or passengers at a certain station, and delivering them to another station where there is a demand for them. Demand is determined by the area which surrounds the station; for example stations close to towns will demand passengers. The revenues will depend on the delivery time, distance, and quantity delivered. The influence of these factors on revenue varies according to the type of goods being delivered. For example, mail will rapidly fall in value, meaning that it can only be delivered profitably over short distances, or over long distances very fast. On the other hand, coal loses value very slowly, so it can be transported in bulk over long distances whilst remaining profitable.


title: Transport Tycoon

text: At times, subsidies are offered to the first company to move a particular resource from one place to another. This encourages the player to create a larger more complex transport network, rather than focusing on previously profitable routes.


title: Transport Tycoon

text: The game features a system of Local Authority. Each city has a rating for every transport company based on the impact of their transport network. When the rating falls too low, the player will no longer be able to demolish buildings or construct new stations. The rating depends on, among others, the level of service and the deforestation caused by the company.


title: Transport Tycoon

text: In the course of a game cities develop and expand according to various economic factors, and new industries (demand) or other resource sites (supply) may appear. Some natural resources may also eventually be exhausted and industries without adequate transport service may shut down. Also, new models of vehicles are introduced and eventually come to replace older models. At introduction such a new model will likely have improved characteristics, but may suffer from reliability issues.


title: Transport Tycoon

text: The music in "Transport Tycoon" are original compositions by John Broomhall. It features old-style blues and jazz tunes including parts of Herbie Hancock's Cantaloupe Island.


title: Transport Tycoon

text: A reviewer for "Next Generation" gave the DOS version four out of five stars, commenting, "The best economic sim since "Civilization", Microprose's new "Transport Tycoon" has all the features of Sid Meier's "Railroad Tycoon" mixed with the look and ease of Maxis' "SimCity 2000" and a host of new features ... that give the game a feel that is all its own." He further lauded the game for its graphics, "pleasant" music, sound effects, addictive play, and realistic simulation of the growth of cities and towns.


title: Transport Tycoon

text: "Next Generation" reviewed the "Transport Tycoon Scenario", rating it three stars out of five, and stated that "A solid upgrade for a great game."


title: Transport Tycoon

text: A "World Editor" expansion pack was also released for the original "Transport Tycoon", but was overshadowed by the Deluxe version released shortly afterward. It featured an alternative, Martian set of graphics, which did "not" appear in TTD.


title: Transport Tycoon

text: The primary difference between the games is how signals operate. The original "Transport Tycoon" allows only "bi-directional signals", which allow trains to pass in either direction. The deluxe version introduced "uni-directional signals", that only allow a train to pass in a single direction. The change in gameplay from this alteration to signals is significant, as the old bi-directional signals would allow a train to travel in both directions. This is similar in concept to having a single lane street that would allow traffic from either end. Unsurprisingly, it was possible for two trains to try to travel in opposing directions towards each other on the same run of track. While this would not result in crashes on a properly signaled route, it required either the building of extra track to allow the trains to pass each other, or the building of a great many tracks in parallel to avoid the problem in the first place.


title: Transport Tycoon

text: The new uni-directional signals allowed one-way tracks to be built, which gives the player much greater control over how the railway network could be run. This allowed for efficient routes to be built, and prevented trains from trying to travel the "wrong way" down a section of track. By incorporating both uni-directional and bi-directional signals, effective switching yards, junctions, and other useful designs could be built. It also unlocked the ability to build continental-length railroad systems by incorporating one-way rails in both directions and the ability to merge other rails with the main one. This is a highly used strategy because it allows for intercontinental transport of goods which results in high return rates for the player.


title: Transport Tycoon

text: The deluxe version also expanded the game to provide tropical, Arctic, and toy-town environments, as well as the classic temperate environment. The new environments came with different industries and challenges. For example, towns in the Arctic environment would not grow without regular deliveries of food, and those in the tropical environment also need access to fresh water. The main game runs over the course of a century, from 1950 to 2050.


title: Transport Tycoon

text: Due to trademark issues with using names of real vehicles in the original "Transport Tycoon", the default names were replaced with fictional ones in "Transport Tycoon Deluxe". Players however are allowed to rename their vehicles and stations as they please, which can be useful for identifying individual services in a network. Players are also able to rename towns, which provides for a more personalized game play.


title: Transport Tycoon

text: After the success of "Transport Tycoon Deluxe", Chris Sawyer turned his attention towards a sequel, but during development he changed his mind and produced "RollerCoaster Tycoon", which turned out to be a runaway hit. After "RollerCoaster Tycoon 2" was done, work on the third version was left to another development team, and Sawyer returned to work on a "Transport Tycoon" sequel, "Chris Sawyer's Locomotion". It was released in September 2004 and was described by Sawyer as the "spiritual successor to "Transport Tycoon"".


title: Transport Tycoon

text: It received poor reviews and was deemed a commercial failure on release, but sales through the digital rereleases are unknown. Regardless, there is an active "Locomotion" community that continues to produce modifications.


title: Transport Tycoon

text: On 15 July 2013, Sawyer's 31X Ltd and Origin8 Technologies announced that they were working on a mobile version of Transport Tycoon. Sawyer was originally focusing on funding for the game, but ended up overseeing the design and helped with the debugging. The game was released for iOS and Android on 3 October 2013. The game is single player and is primarily based on "Chris Sawyer's Locomotion".


title: Transport Tycoon

text: Several development teams are currently working to improve "Transport Tycoon". "TTDPatch" provides gameplay enhancements and numerous bugfixes to "TTD" by patching the original binary.


title: Transport Tycoon

text: "OpenTTD" is an open source complete recreation of "Transport Tycoon Deluxe", achieved by reverse engineering the original game. It delivers many bug fixes and general enhancements to the game, like making it possible to run "TTD" on multiple platforms, including Mac, Linux, PSP, and Android. While both games allow new graphic sets for vehicles and terrain to be used, at present, "TTDPatch" still requires the original "TTD" graphics, sounds, binary and music files to run. While "OpenTTD" can still use the original "TTD" graphics and sounds, it does not need any of the "TTD" files to run as it has free graphics and sounds.


title: Teenage Dream: The Complete Confection

text: Teenage Dream: The Complete Confection is a reissue of American singer-songwriter Katy Perry's third studio album, "Teenage Dream" (2010). It was released on March 23, 2012, by Capitol Records, nearly two years after the original album. Perry collaborated with producers including Tricky Stewart to refine leftover material from the recording sessions at Playback Recording Studio for "Teenage Dream". The final product features three newly recorded songs, which incorporate pop styles previously seen in the original album, an acoustic version of "The One That Got Away" and three additional official remixes.


title: Teenage Dream: The Complete Confection

text: Upon its release, "Teenage Dream: The Complete Confection" was met with generally favorable reviews from music critics, who were ambivalent towards the new songs' production but questioned the decision to reissue "Teenage Dream". As an independent release, the reissue reached the top ten in Australia, New Zealand, the United Kingdom and the United States. It has sold one million copies globally by the end of 2012.


title: Teenage Dream: The Complete Confection

text: Two singles were released from "Teenage Dream: The Complete Confection". The lead single, "Part of Me", debuted at number one on the U.S. "Billboard" Hot 100, and was eventually certified double-platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), while the second single, "Wide Awake", peaked at number two in the country. The record was further promoted with live performances during the 54th Annual Grammy Awards and the 2012 "Billboard" Music Awards, in addition to the autobiographical documentary film "" (2012).


title: Teenage Dream: The Complete Confection

text: In August 2010, Perry released her third studio album "Teenage Dream". While recording the record, she collaborated with producers including Dr. Luke and Max Martin. Following its release, "Teenage Dream" became a worldwide commercial success; it debuted at number one on both the U.S. "Billboard" 200 and the UK Albums Chart, and charted highly in other international territories. The project was met with generally mixed reviews from music critics, receiving an average score of 52, based on 19 reviews on Metacritic, indicating "generally mixed or average reviews". After its singles "California Gurls", "Teenage Dream", "Firework", "E.T.", and "Last Friday Night (T.G.I.F.)" each reached the top of the U.S. "Billboard" Hot 100, "Teenage Dream" became the second album in history to produce five number-one singles on the chart after Michael Jackson's "Bad".


title: Teenage Dream: The Complete Confection

text: In October 2011, producer Tricky Stewart confirmed that he was working with Perry to refine leftover material from "Teenage Dream" recording sessions for "something special she has going on". Perry officially announced "Teenage Dream: The Complete Confection" in February 2012, describing it as the "complete story" of the original album. She added that the expanded album would contain three newly recorded songs and four additional remixes to supplement the standard edition of the original album. "It was an incredible honor to tie [Jackson's] "Billboard" Hot 100 record, but I'm moving forward and had a few things left to get off my chest," she said.


title: Teenage Dream: The Complete Confection

text: Tricky Stewart stated that he and Perry "always knew that the records [they] created were special [and] at the time it was more contractual obligation [that they did not make the album]". He elaborated that they were originally excluded from the project to balance the original record with tracks from other producers, in addition to Perry not needing more songs at the time. The expanded album begins with the twelve tracks included on the standard version of "Teenage Dream". The newly recorded material for the reissue, which is made just for the album, begins with an acoustic rendition of "The One That Got Away" as the thirteenth track. "Part of Me" is a power pop song that lyrically acts as an "emotional breakup anthem". It was speculated that its concept was inspired by Perry's relationship with her ex-husband Russell Brand.


title: Teenage Dream: The Complete Confection

text: "Wide Awake" is a mid-tempo pop ballad that sees inspiration from electronic and dance-pop; it lyrically discusses the end of a relationship, and was also reportedly influenced by Perry's experience with Brand. "Dressin' Up" is an uptempo, dance-rock and techno song that sees the inclusion of "over-sexualized" lyrical content. The seventeenth track is a remix of "E.T." with new verses provided by Kanye West, while the eighteenth song is a remix of "Last Friday Night (T.G.I.F.)" featuring Missy Elliott. The nineteenth and final track "Tommie Sunshine's Megasix Smash-Up" incorporates elements of Perry's earlier singles "California Gurls", "Teenage Dream", "Firework", "E.T.", "Last Friday Night (T.G.I.F.)", and "The One That Got Away".


title: Teenage Dream: The Complete Confection

text: "Part of Me" was serviced as the lead single from "Teenage Dream: The Complete Confection" on February 13, 2012. It was met with generally favorable reviews from music critics, and became the twentieth song in the history of "Billboard" to debut at number one on the U.S. "Billboard" Hot 100, and was also certified double-platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) for exceeding sales of two million copies. The track also peaked at number one in New Zealand, and performed moderately in other international territories. "Wide Awake" was released as the second and final single from "The Complete Confection" on May 22, 2012. It peaked at number two on the "Billboard" Hot 100, and charted moderately worldwide. The track was nominated for the Grammy Award for Best Pop Solo Performance at the 2013 ceremony, but lost to "Set Fire to the Rain" by Adele.


title: Teenage Dream: The Complete Confection

text: Perry performed "Part of Me" at the 54th Annual Grammy Awards on February 12, 2012, and sang "Wide Awake" at the 2012 "Billboard" Music Awards on May 20. "The Complete Confection" was also promoted through the feature film "" (2012), which followed Perry during her California Dreams Tour. A golden ticket to attend the premiere of the film was placed inside one American copy and one Canadian copy of the record.


title: Teenage Dream: The Complete Confection

text: Melissa Maerz of "Entertainment Weekly" opined that the newly recorded material "runs stale", but stated that the disc contained "some delectable musical snacks" including "Dressin' Up" and the acoustic version of "The One That Got Away". Writing for "PopMatters", Jesse Fox felt that the record is "obviously not perfect", but suggested that its enjoyable nature helped Perry "[pull] it off like a bright, flamboyant, short-lived, explosive, nearly abrasive, gasps-inspiring firework." A writer for Blogcritics appreciated "The Complete Confection"s musical diversity, and thought that the lyrical content made the album a "journey in love, life and everything in between."


title: Teenage Dream: The Complete Confection

text: In the United States, "Teenage Dream: The Complete Confection" boosted sales of the original "Teenage Dream", which consequently re-entered the top-ten of the "Billboard" 200 at number seven with first-week sales of 33,000 copies. This resulted in a 190%-increase from the previous tracking week, in which the original album stood at number 31. A similar situation occurred on the UK Albums Chart, where "The Complete Confection" helped "Teenage Dream" rise from number 34 to number six after the former was released. "The Complete Confection" peaked at number two on the Official New Zealand Music Chart, aided by the combined sales of the two versions.


title: Teenage Dream: The Complete Confection

text: Elsewhere, "The Complete Confection" performed moderately as an independently charting release. In Europe, the album respectively peaked at numbers 14 and 29 on the Belgian Flanders and Wallonia charts, both managed by Ultratop. It also reached number four on the French Albums Chart and number 18 on The Official Finnish Charts. The project was less successful on the Dutch MegaCharts and the Swedish Sverigetopplistan, where it respectively peaked at numbers 44 and 48. In Oceania, it peaked at number five on the Australian ARIA Charts. According to the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry (IFPI), the album was the 50th highest selling release of 2012 with 1 million copies sold.


title: History of scientific method

text: The history of scientific method considers changes in the methodology of scientific inquiry, as distinct from the history of science itself. The development of rules for scientific reasoning has not been straightforward; scientific method has been the subject of intense and recurring debate throughout the history of science, and eminent natural philosophers and scientists have argued for the primacy of one or another approach to establishing scientific knowledge. Despite the disagreements about approaches, scientific method has advanced in definite steps.


title: History of scientific method

text: Rationalist explanations of nature, including atomism, appeared both in ancient Greece in the thought of Leucippus and Democritus, and in ancient India, in the Nyaya, Vaisesika and Buddhist schools, while Charvaka materialism rejected inference as a source of knowledge in favour of an empiricism that was always subject to doubt. Aristotle pioneered scientific method in ancient Greece alongside his empirical biology and his work on logic, rejecting a purely deductive framework in favour of generalisations made from observations of nature.


title: History of scientific method

text: Some of the most important debates in the history of scientific method center on: rationalism, especially as advocated by René Descartes<nowiki>;</nowiki> inductivism, which rose to particular prominence with Isaac Newton and his followers; and hypothetico-deductivism, which came to the fore in the early 19th century. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, a debate over realism vs. antirealism was central to discussions of scientific method as powerful scientific theories extended beyond the realm of the observable, while in the mid-20th century some prominent philosophers argued against any universal rules of science at all.


title: History of scientific method

text: There are few explicit discussions of scientific methodologies in surviving records from early cultures. The most that can be inferred about the approaches to undertaking science in this period stems from descriptions of early investigations into nature, in the surviving records. An Egyptian medical textbook, the Edwin Smith papyrus, (c. 1600 BCE), applies the following components: examination, diagnosis, treatment and prognosis, to the treatment of disease, which display strong parallels to the basic empirical method of science and according to G. E. R. Lloyd played a significant role in the development of this methodology. The Ebers papyrus (c. 1550 BCE) also contains evidence of traditional empiricism.


title: History of scientific method

text: By the middle of the 1st millennium BCE in Mesopotamia, Babylonian astronomy had evolved into the earliest example of a scientific astronomy, as it was "the first and highly successful attempt at giving a refined mathematical description of astronomical phenomena." According to the historian Asger Aaboe, "all subsequent varieties of scientific astronomy, in the Hellenistic world, in India, in the Islamic world, and in the West – if not indeed all subsequent endeavour in the exact sciences – depend upon Babylonian astronomy in decisive and fundamental ways."


title: History of scientific method

text: The early Babylonians and Egyptians developed much technical knowledge, crafts, and mathematics used in practical tasks of divination, as well as a knowledge of medicine, and made lists of various kinds. While the Babylonians in particular had engaged in the earliest forms of an empirical mathematical science, with their early attempts at mathematically describing natural phenomena, they generally lacked underlying rational theories of nature.


title: History of scientific method

text: Greek-speaking ancient philosophers engaged in the earliest known forms of what is today recognized as a rational theoretical science, with the move towards a more rational understanding of nature which began at least since the Archaic Period (650 – 480 BCE) with the Presocratic school. Thales was the first known philosopher to use natural explanations, proclaiming that every event had a natural cause, even though he is known for saying "all things are full of gods" and sacrificed an ox when he discovered his theorem. Leucippus, went on to develop the theory of atomism – the idea that everything is composed entirely of various imperishable, indivisible elements called atoms. This was elaborated in great detail by Democritus.


title: History of scientific method

text: Similar atomist ideas emerged independently among ancient Indian philosophers of the Nyaya, Vaisesika and Buddhist schools. In particular, like the Nyaya, Vaisesika, and Buddhist schools, the Cārvāka epistemology was materialist, and skeptical enough to admit perception as the basis for unconditionally true knowledge, while cautioning that if one could only infer a truth, then one must also harbor a doubt about that truth; an inferred truth could not be unconditional.


title: History of scientific method

text: Towards the middle of the 5th century BCE, some of the components of a scientific tradition were already heavily established, even before Plato, who was an important contributor to this emerging tradition, thanks to the development of deductive reasoning, as propounded by his student, Aristotle. In "Protagoras" (318d-f), Plato mentioned the teaching of arithmetic, astronomy and geometry in schools. The philosophical ideas of this time were mostly freed from the constraints of everyday phenomena and common sense. This denial of reality as we experience it reached an extreme in Parmenides who argued that the world is one and that change and subdivision do not exist.


title: History of scientific method

text: In the 3rd and 4th centuries BCE, the Greek physicians Herophilos (335–280 BCE) and Erasistratus of Chios employed experiments to further their medical research; Erasistratus at one time repeatedly weighing a caged bird, and noting its weight loss between feeding times.


title: History of scientific method

text: Aristotle's inductive-deductive method used inductions from observations to infer general principles, deductions from those principles to check against further observations, and more cycles of induction and deduction to continue the advance of knowledge.


title: History of scientific method

text: The "Organon" (Greek: , meaning "instrument, tool, organ") is the standard collection of Aristotle's six works on logic. The name "Organon" was given by Aristotle's followers, the Peripatetics.


title: History of scientific method

text: The order of the works is not chronological (the chronology is now difficult to determine) but was deliberately chosen by Theophrastus to constitute a well-structured system. Indeed, parts of them seem to be a scheme of a lecture on logic. The arrangement of the works was made by Andronicus of Rhodes around 40 BCE.


title: History of scientific method

text: Aristotle's "Metaphysics" has some points of overlap with the works making up the "Organon" but is not traditionally considered part of it; additionally there are works on logic attributed, with varying degrees of plausibility, to Aristotle that were not known to the Peripatetics.


title: History of scientific method

text: Aristotle has been called the founder of modern science by De Lacy O'Leary. His demonstration method is found in "Posterior Analytics". He provided another of the ingredients of scientific tradition: empiricism. For Aristotle, universal truths can be known from particular things via induction. To some extent then, Aristotle reconciles abstract thought with observation, although it would be a mistake to imply that Aristotelian science is empirical in form. Indeed, Aristotle did not accept that knowledge acquired by induction could rightly be counted as scientific knowledge. Nevertheless, induction was for him a necessary preliminary to the main business of scientific enquiry, providing the primary premises required for scientific demonstrations.


title: History of scientific method

text: Aristotle largely ignored inductive reasoning in his treatment of scientific enquiry. To make it clear why this is so, consider this statement in the "Posterior Analytics":


title: History of scientific method

text: We suppose ourselves to possess unqualified scientific knowledge of a thing, as opposed to knowing it in the accidental way in which the sophist knows, when we think that we know the cause on which the fact depends, as the cause of that fact and of no other, and, further, that the fact could not be other than it is.


title: History of scientific method

text: It was therefore the work of the philosopher to demonstrate universal truths and to discover their causes. While induction was sufficient for discovering universals by generalization, it did not succeed in identifying causes. For this task Aristotle used the tool of deductive reasoning in the form of syllogisms. Using the syllogism, scientists could infer new universal truths from those already established.


title: History of scientific method

text: Aristotle developed a complete normative approach to scientific inquiry involving the syllogism, which he discusses at length in his "Posterior Analytics". A difficulty with this scheme lay in showing that derived truths have solid primary premises. Aristotle would not allow that demonstrations could be circular (supporting the conclusion by the premises, and the premises by the conclusion). Nor would he allow an infinite number of middle terms between the primary premises and the conclusion. This leads to the question of how the primary premises are found or developed, and as mentioned above, Aristotle allowed that induction would be required for this task.


title: History of scientific method

text: Thus it is clear that we must get to know the primary premises by induction; for the method by which even sense-perception implants the universal is inductive. [...] it follows that there will be no scientific knowledge of the primary premises, and since except intuition nothing can be truer than scientific knowledge, it will be intuition that apprehends the primary premises. [...] If, therefore, it is the only other kind of true thinking except scientific knowing, intuition will be the originative source of scientific knowledge.


title: History of scientific method

text: The account leaves room for doubt regarding the nature and extent of Aristotle's empiricism. In particular, it seems that Aristotle considers sense-perception only as a vehicle for knowledge through intuition. He restricted his investigations in natural history to their natural settings, such as at the Pyrrha lagoon, now called Kalloni, at Lesbos. Aristotle and Theophrastus together formulated the new science of biology, inductively, case by case, for two years before Aristotle was called to tutor Alexander. Aristotle performed no modern-style experiments in the form in which they appear in today's physics and chemistry laboratories.


title: History of scientific method

text: Induction is not afforded the status of scientific reasoning, and so it is left to intuition to provide a solid foundation for Aristotle's science. With that said, Aristotle brings us somewhat closer an empirical science than his predecessors.


title: History of scientific method

text: In his work Kαvώv ('canon', a straight edge or ruler, thus any type of measure or standard, referred to as 'canonic'), Epicurus laid out his first rule for inquiry in physics: 'that the "first concepts be seen", and that they "not require demonstration" '.


title: History of scientific method

text: His second rule for inquiry was that prior to an investigation, "we are to have self-evident concepts", so that we might infer [ἔχωμεν οἷς σημειωσόμεθα] both what is expected [τò προσμένον], and also what is non-apparent [τò ἄδηλον].


title: History of scientific method

text: Epicurus applies his method of inference (the use of observations as signs, Asmis' summary, p. 333: "the method of using the phenomena as signs (σημεῖα) of what is unobserved") immediately to the atomic theory of Democritus. In Aristotle's "Prior Analytics", Aristotle himself employs the use of signs. But Epicurus presented his 'canonic' as rival to Aristotle's logic. See: Lucretius (c. 99 BCE – c. 55 BCE) "De rerum natura" ("On the nature of things") a didactic poem explaining Epicurus' philosophy and physics.


title: History of scientific method

text: During the Middle Ages issues of what is now termed science began to be addressed. There was greater emphasis on combining theory with practice in the Islamic world than there had been in Classical times, and it was common for those studying the sciences to be artisans as well, something that had been "considered an aberration in the ancient world." Islamic experts in the sciences were often expert instrument makers who enhanced their powers of observation and calculation with them. Starting in the early ninth century, early Muslim scientists such al-Kindi (801–873) and the authors writing under the name of Jābir ibn Hayyān (writings dated to c. 850–950) started to put a greater emphasis on the use of experiment as a source of knowledge. Several scientific methods thus emerged from the medieval Muslim world by the early 11th century, all of which emphasized experimentation as well as quantification to varying degrees.


title: History of scientific method

text: The Arab physicist Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) used experimentation to obtain the results in his "Book of Optics" (1021). He combined observations, experiments and rational arguments to support his intromission theory of vision, in which rays of light are emitted from objects rather than from the eyes. He used similar arguments to show that the ancient emission theory of vision supported by Ptolemy and Euclid (in which the eyes emit the rays of light used for seeing), and the ancient intromission theory supported by Aristotle (where objects emit physical particles to the eyes), were both wrong.


title: History of scientific method

text: Experimental evidence supported most of the propositions in his "Book of Optics" and grounded his theories of vision, light and colour, as well as his research in catoptrics and dioptrics. His legacy was elaborated through the 'reforming' of his "Optics" by Kamal al-Din al-Farisi (d. c. 1320) in the latter's "Kitab Tanqih al-Manazir" ("The Revision of" [Ibn al-Haytham's] "Optics").


title: History of scientific method

text: Alhazen viewed his scientific studies as a search for truth: "Truth is sought for its own sake. And those who are engaged upon the quest for anything for its own sake are not interested in other things. Finding the truth is difficult, and the road to it is rough. ...


title: History of scientific method

text: Alhazen's work included the conjecture that "Light travels through transparent bodies in straight lines only", which he was able to corroborate only after years of effort. He stated, "[This] is clearly observed in the lights which enter into dark rooms through holes. ... the entering light will be clearly observable in the dust which fills the air." He also demonstrated the conjecture by placing a straight stick or a taut thread next to the light beam.


title: History of scientific method

text: Ibn al-Haytham also employed scientific skepticism and emphasized the role of empiricism. He also explained the role of induction in syllogism, and criticized Aristotle for his lack of contribution to the method of induction, which Ibn al-Haytham regarded as superior to syllogism, and he considered induction to be the basic requirement for true scientific research.


title: History of scientific method

text: Something like Occam's razor is also present in the "Book of Optics". For example, after demonstrating that light is generated by luminous objects and emitted or reflected into the eyes, he states that therefore "the extramission of [visual] rays is superfluous and useless." He may also have been the first scientist to adopt a form of positivism in his approach. He wrote that "we do not go beyond experience, and we cannot be content to use pure concepts in investigating natural phenomena", and that the understanding of these cannot be acquired without mathematics. After assuming that light is a material substance, he does not further discuss its nature but confines his investigations to the diffusion and propagation of light. The only properties of light he takes into account are those treatable by geometry and verifiable by experiment.


title: History of scientific method

text: The Persian scientist Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī introduced early scientific methods for several different fields of inquiry during the 1020s and 1030s. For example, in his treatise on mineralogy, "Kitab al-Jawahir" ("Book of Precious Stones"), al-Biruni is "the most exact of experimental scientists", while in the introduction to his study of India, he declares that "to execute our project, it has not been possible to follow the geometric method" and thus became one of the pioneers of comparative sociology in insisting on field experience and information. He also developed an early experimental method for mechanics.


title: History of scientific method

text: Al-Biruni's methods resembled the modern scientific method, particularly in his emphasis on repeated experimentation. Biruni was concerned with how to conceptualize and prevent both systematic errors and observational biases, such as "errors caused by the use of small instruments and errors made by human observers." He argued that if instruments produce errors because of their imperfections or idiosyncratic qualities, then multiple observations must be taken, analyzed qualitatively, and on this basis, arrive at a "common-sense single value for the constant sought", whether an arithmetic mean or a "reliable estimate." In his scientific method, "universals came out of practical, experimental work" and "theories are formulated after discoveries", as with inductivism.


title: History of scientific method

text: In the "On Demonstration" section of "The Book of Healing" (1027), the Persian philosopher and scientist Avicenna (Ibn Sina) discussed philosophy of science and described an early scientific method of inquiry. He discussed Aristotle's "Posterior Analytics" and significantly diverged from it on several points. Avicenna discussed the issue of a proper procedure for scientific inquiry and the question of "How does one acquire the first principles of a science?" He asked how a scientist might find "the initial axioms or hypotheses of a deductive science without inferring them from some more basic premises?" He explained that the ideal situation is when one grasps that a "relation holds between the terms, which would allow for absolute, universal certainty." Avicenna added two further methods for finding a first principle: the ancient Aristotelian method of induction ("istiqra"), and the more recent method of examination and experimentation ("tajriba"). Avicenna criticized Aristotelian induction, arguing that "it does not lead to the absolute, universal, and certain premises that it purports to provide." In its place, he advocated "a method of experimentation as a means for scientific inquiry."


title: History of scientific method

text: Earlier, in "The Canon of Medicine" (1025), Avicenna was also the first to describe what is essentially methods of agreement, difference and concomitant variation which are critical to inductive logic and the scientific method. However, unlike his contemporary al-Biruni's scientific method, in which "universals came out of practical, experimental work" and "theories are formulated after discoveries", Avicenna developed a scientific procedure in which "general and universal questions came first and led to experimental work." Due to the differences between their methods, al-Biruni referred to himself as a mathematical scientist and to Avicenna as a philosopher, during a debate between the two scholars.


title: History of scientific method

text: During the European Renaissance of the 12th century, ideas on scientific methodology, including Aristotle's empiricism and the experimental approaches of Alhazen and Avicenna, were introduced to medieval Europe via Latin translations of Arabic and Greek texts and commentaries. Robert Grosseteste's commentary on the "Posterior Analytics" places Grosseteste among the first scholastic thinkers in Europe to understand Aristotle's vision of the dual nature of scientific reasoning. Concluding from particular observations into a universal law, and then back again, from universal laws to prediction of particulars. Grosseteste called this "resolution and composition". Further, Grosseteste said that both paths should be verified through experimentation to verify the principles.


title: History of scientific method

text: Roger Bacon was inspired by the writings of Grosseteste. In his account of a method, Bacon described a repeating cycle of "observation", "hypothesis", "experimentation", and the need for independent "verification". He recorded the way he had conducted his experiments in precise detail, perhaps with the idea that others could reproduce and independently test his results.


title: History of scientific method

text: About 1256 he joined the Franciscan Order and became subject to the Franciscan statute forbidding Friars from publishing books or pamphlets without specific approval. After the accession of Pope Clement IV in 1265, the Pope granted Bacon a special commission to write to him on scientific matters. In eighteen months he completed three large treatises, the "Opus Majus", "Opus Minus", and "Opus Tertium" which he sent to the Pope. William Whewell has called "Opus Majus" at once the Encyclopaedia and Organon of the 13th century.


title: History of scientific method

text: Aristotle's ideas became a framework for critical debate beginning with absorption of the Aristotelian texts into the university curriculum in the first half of the 13th century. Contributing to this was the success of medieval theologians in reconciling Aristotelian philosophy with Christian theology. Within the sciences, medieval philosophers were not afraid of disagreeing with Aristotle on many specific issues, although their disagreements were stated within the language of Aristotelian philosophy. All medieval natural philosophers were Aristotelians, but "Aristotelianism" had become a somewhat broad and flexible concept. With the end of Middle Ages, the Renaissance rejection of medieval traditions coupled with an extreme reverence for classical sources led to a recovery of other ancient philosophical traditions, especially the teachings of Plato. By the 17th century, those who clung dogmatically to Aristotle's teachings were faced with several competing approaches to nature.


title: History of scientific method

text: The discovery of the Americas at the close of the 15th century showed the scholars of Europe that new discoveries could be found outside of the authoritative works of Aristotle, Pliny, Galen, and other ancient writers.


title: History of scientific method

text: Galen of Pergamon (129 – c. 200 AD) had studied with four schools in antiquity — Platonists, Aristotelians, Stoics, and Epicureans, and at Alexandria, the center of medicine at the time. In his "Methodus Medendi", Galen had synthesized the empirical and dogmatic schools of medicine into his own method, which was preserved by Arab scholars. After the translations from Arabic were critically scrutinized, a backlash occurred and demand arose in Europe for translations of Galen's medical text from the original Greek. Galen's method became very popular in Europe. Thomas Linacre, the teacher of Erasmus, thereupon translated "Methodus Medendi" from Greek into Latin for a larger audience in 1519. Limbrick 1988 notes that 630 editions, translations, and commentaries on Galen were produced in Europe in the 16th century, eventually eclipsing Arabic medicine there, and peaking in 1560, at the time of the scientific revolution.


title: History of scientific method

text: By the late 15th century, the physician-scholar Niccolò Leoniceno was finding errors in Pliny's "Natural History". As a physician, Leoniceno was concerned about these botanical errors propagating to the materia medica on which medicines were based. To counter this, a botanical garden was established at Orto botanico di Padova, University of Padua (in use for teaching by 1546), in order that medical students might have empirical access to the plants of a pharmacopia. Other Renaissance teaching gardens were established, notably by the physician Leonhart Fuchs, one of the founders of botany.


title: History of scientific method

text: The first published work devoted to the concept of method is Jodocus Willichius, "De methodo omnium artium et disciplinarum informanda opusculum" (1550).


title: History of scientific method

text: In 1562 "Outlines of Pyrrhonism" by the ancient Pyrrhonist philosopher Sextus Empiricus (c. 160-210 AD) was published in a Latin translation (from Greek), quickly placing the arguments of classical skepticism in the European mainstream. These arguments establish seemingly insurmountable challenges for the possibility of certain knowledge. Descartes' famous "Cogito" argument is an attempt to overcome skepticism and reestablish a foundation for certainty but other thinkers responded by revising what the search for knowledge, particularly physical knowledge, might be.


title: History of scientific method

text: The first of these, philosopher and physician Francisco Sanches, was led by his medical training at Rome, 1571–73, to search for a true method of knowing ("modus sciendi"), as nothing clear can be known by the methods of Aristotle and his followers — for example, 1) syllogism fails upon circular reasoning; 2) Aristotle's modal logic was not stated clearly enough for use in medieval times, and remains a research problem to this day. Following the physician Galen's "method of medicine", Sanches lists the methods of judgement and experience, which are faulty in the wrong hands, and we are left with the bleak statement "That Nothing is Known" (1581, in Latin "Quod Nihil Scitur"). This challenge was taken up by René Descartes in the next generation (1637), but at the least, Sanches warns us that we ought to refrain from the methods, summaries, and commentaries on Aristotle, if we seek scientific knowledge. In this, he is echoed by Francis Bacon who was influenced by another prominent exponent of skepticism, Montaigne; Sanches cites the humanist Juan Luis Vives who sought a better educational system, as well as a statement of human rights as a pathway for improvement of the lot of the poor.


title: History of scientific method

text: "Sanches develops his scepticism by means of an intellectual critique of Aristotelianism, rather than by an appeal to the history of human stupidity and the variety and contrariety of previous theories." —, as cited by


title: History of scientific method

text: Francis Bacon (1561–1626) entered Trinity College, Cambridge in April 1573, where he applied himself diligently to the several sciences as then taught, and came to the conclusion that the methods employed and the results attained were alike erroneous; he learned to despise the current Aristotelian philosophy. He believed philosophy must be taught its true purpose, and for this purpose a new method must be devised. With this conception in his mind, Bacon left the university.


title: History of scientific method

text: Bacon attempted to describe a rational procedure for establishing causation between phenomena based on induction. Bacon's induction was, however, radically different than that employed by the Aristotelians. As Bacon put it,


title: History of scientific method

text: [A]nother form of induction must be devised than has hitherto been employed, and it must be used for proving and discovering not first principles (as they are called) only, but also the lesser axioms, and the middle, and indeed all. For the induction which proceeds by simple enumeration is childish. —"Novum Organum" section CV


title: History of scientific method

text: Bacon's method relied on experimental "histories" to eliminate alternative theories. Bacon explains how his method is applied in his "Novum Organum" (published 1620). In an example he gives on the examination of the nature of heat, Bacon creates two tables, the first of which he names "Table of Essence and Presence", enumerating the many various circumstances under which we find heat. In the other table, labelled "Table of Deviation, or of Absence in Proximity", he lists circumstances which bear resemblance to those of the first table except for the absence of heat. From an analysis of what he calls the "natures" (light emitting, heavy, colored, etc.) of the items in these lists we are brought to conclusions about the "form nature", or cause, of heat. Those natures which are always present in the first table, but never in the second are deemed to be the cause of heat.


title: History of scientific method

text: The role experimentation played in this process was twofold. The most laborious job of the scientist would be to gather the facts, or 'histories', required to create the tables of presence and absence. Such histories would document a mixture of common knowledge and experimental results. Secondly, "experiments of light", or, as we might say, crucial experiments would be needed to resolve any remaining ambiguities over causes.


title: History of scientific method

text: Bacon showed an uncompromising commitment to experimentation. Despite this, he did not make any great scientific discoveries during his lifetime. This may be because he was not the most able experimenter. It may also be because hypothesising plays only a small role in Bacon's method compared to modern science. Hypotheses, in Bacon's method, are supposed to emerge during the process of investigation, with the help of mathematics and logic. Bacon gave a substantial but secondary role to mathematics ""which ought only to give definiteness to natural philosophy, not to generate or give it birth"" ("Novum Organum XCVI"). An over-emphasis on axiomatic reasoning had rendered previous non-empirical philosophy impotent, in Bacon's view, which was expressed in his "Novum Organum":


title: History of scientific method

text: XIX. There are and can be only two ways of searching into and discovering truth. The one flies from the senses and particulars to the most general axioms, and from these principles, the truth of which it takes for settled and immoveable, proceeds to judgment and to the discovery of middle axioms. And this way is now in fashion. The other derives axioms from the senses and particulars, rising by a gradual and unbroken ascent, so that it arrives at the most general axioms last of all. This is the true way, but as yet untried.


title: History of scientific method

text: Lastly, we have three that raise the former discoveries by experiments into greater observations, axioms, and aphorisms. These we call interpreters of nature.


title: History of scientific method

text: In 1619, René Descartes began writing his first major treatise on proper scientific and philosophical thinking, the unfinished "Rules for the Direction of the Mind". His aim was to create a complete science that he hoped would overthrow the Aristotelian system and establish himself as the sole architect of a new system of guiding principles for scientific research.


title: History of scientific method

text: This work was continued and clarified in his 1637 treatise, "Discourse on Method", and in his 1641 "Meditations". Descartes describes the intriguing and disciplined thought experiments he used to arrive at the idea we instantly associate with him: "I think therefore I am".


title: History of scientific method

text: From this foundational thought, Descartes finds proof of the existence of a God who, possessing all possible perfections, will not deceive him provided he resolves "[...] never to accept anything for true which I did not clearly know to be such; that is to say, carefully to avoid precipitancy and prejudice, and to comprise nothing more in my judgment than what was presented to my mind so clearly and distinctly as to exclude all ground of methodic doubt."


title: History of scientific method

text: This rule allowed Descartes to progress beyond his own thoughts and judge that there exist extended bodies outside of his own thoughts. Descartes published seven sets of objections to the "Meditations" from various sources along with his replies to them. Despite his apparent departure from the Aristotelian system, a number of his critics felt that Descartes had done little more than replace the primary premises of Aristotle with those of his own. Descartes says as much himself in a letter written in 1647 to the translator of Principles of Philosophy,


title: History of scientific method

text: a perfect knowledge [...] must necessarily be deduced from first causes [...] we must try to deduce from these principles knowledge of the things which depend on them, that there be nothing in the whole chain of deductions deriving from them that is not perfectly manifest.


title: History of scientific method

text: And again, some years earlier, speaking of Galileo's physics in a letter to his friend and critic Mersenne from 1638,


title: History of scientific method

text: without having considered the first causes of nature, [Galileo] has merely looked for the explanations of a few particular effects, and he has thereby built without foundations.


title: History of scientific method

text: Whereas Aristotle purported to arrive at his first principles by induction, Descartes believed he could obtain them using reason only. In this sense, he was a Platonist, as he believed in the innate ideas, as opposed to Aristotle's blank slate ("tabula rasa"), and stated that the seeds of science are inside us.


title: History of scientific method

text: Unlike Bacon, Descartes successfully applied his own ideas in practice. He made significant contributions to science, in particular in aberration-corrected optics. His work in analytic geometry was a necessary precedent to differential calculus and instrumental in bringing mathematical analysis to bear on scientific matters.


title: History of scientific method

text: During the period of religious conservatism brought about by the Reformation and Counter-Reformation, Galileo Galilei unveiled his new science of motion. Neither the contents of Galileo's science, nor the methods of study he selected were in keeping with Aristotelian teachings. Whereas Aristotle thought that a science should be demonstrated from first principles, Galileo had used experiments as a research tool. Galileo nevertheless presented his treatise in the form of mathematical demonstrations without reference to experimental results. It is important to understand that this in itself was a bold and innovative step in terms of scientific method. The usefulness of mathematics in obtaining scientific results was far from obvious. This is because mathematics did not lend itself to the primary pursuit of Aristotelian science: the discovery of causes.


title: History of scientific method

text: Whether it is because Galileo was realistic about the acceptability of presenting experimental results as evidence or because he himself had doubts about the epistemological status of experimental findings is not known. Nevertheless, it is not in his Latin treatise on motion that we find reference to experiments, but in his supplementary dialogues written in the Italian vernacular. In these dialogues experimental results are given, although Galileo may have found them inadequate for persuading his audience. Thought experiments showing logical contradictions in Aristotelian thinking, presented in the skilled rhetoric of Galileo's dialogue were further enticements for the reader.


title: History of scientific method

text: In his 1991 survey of developments in the modern accumulation of knowledge such as this, Charles Van Doren considers that the Copernican Revolution really is the Galilean Cartesian (René Descartes) or simply the Galilean revolution on account of the courage and depth of change brought about by the work of Galileo.


title: History of scientific method

text: Both Bacon and Descartes wanted to provide a firm foundation for scientific thought that avoided the deceptions of the mind and senses. Bacon envisaged that foundation as essentially empirical, whereas Descartes provides a metaphysical foundation for knowledge. If there were any doubts about the direction in which scientific method would develop, they were set to rest by the success of Isaac Newton. Implicitly rejecting Descartes' emphasis on rationalism in favor of Bacon's empirical approach, he outlines his four "rules of reasoning" in the "Principia",


title: History of scientific method

text: To explain all nature is too difficult a task for any one man or even for any one age. 'Tis much better to do a little with certainty, and leave the rest for others that come after you, than to explain all things.


title: History of scientific method

text: Newton's work became a model that other sciences sought to emulate, and his inductive approach formed the basis for much of natural philosophy through the 18th and early 19th centuries. Some methods of reasoning were later systematized by Mill's Methods (or Mill's canon), which are five explicit statements of what can be discarded and what can be kept while building a hypothesis. George Boole and William Stanley Jevons also wrote on the principles of reasoning.


title: History of scientific method

text: Attempts to systematize a scientific method were confronted in the mid-18th century by the problem of induction, a positivist logic formulation which, in short, asserts that nothing can be known with certainty except what is actually observed. David Hume took empiricism to the skeptical extreme; among his positions was that there is no logical necessity that the future should resemble the past, thus we are unable to justify inductive reasoning itself by appealing to its past success. Hume's arguments, of course, came on the heels of many, many centuries of excessive speculation upon excessive speculation not grounded in empirical observation and testing. Many of Hume's radically skeptical arguments were argued against, but not resolutely refuted, by Immanuel Kant's "Critique of Pure Reason" in the late 18th century. Hume's arguments continue to hold a strong lingering influence and certainly on the consciousness of the educated classes for the better part of the 19th century when the argument at the time became the focus on whether or not the inductive method was valid.


title: History of scientific method

text: Hans Christian Ørsted, (Ørsted is the Danish spelling; "Oersted" in other languages) (1777–1851) was heavily influenced by Kant, in particular, Kant's "Metaphysische Anfangsgründe der Naturwissenschaft" ("Metaphysical Foundations of Natural Science"). The following sections on Ørsted encapsulate our current, common view of scientific method. His work appeared in Danish, most accessibly in public lectures, which he translated into German, French, English, and occasionally Latin. But some of his views go beyond Kant:


title: History of scientific method

text: Ørsted's "First Introduction to General Physics" (1811) exemplified the steps of observation, hypothesis, deduction and experiment. In 1805, based on his researches on electromagnetism Ørsted came to believe that electricity is propagated by undulatory action (i.e., fluctuation). By 1820, he felt confident enough in his beliefs that he resolved to demonstrate them in a public lecture, and in fact observed a small magnetic effect from a galvanic circuit (i.e., voltaic circuit), "without rehearsal";


title: History of scientific method

text: In 1831 John Herschel (1792–1871) published "A Preliminary Discourse on the study of Natural Philosophy", setting out the principles of science. Measuring and comparing observations was to be used to find generalisations in "empirical laws", which described regularities in phenomena, then natural philosophers were to work towards the higher aim of finding a universal "law of nature" which explained the causes and effects producing such regularities. An explanatory hypothesis was to be found by evaluating true causes (Newton's "vera causae") derived from experience, for example evidence of past climate change could be due to changes in the shape of continents, or to changes in Earth's orbit. Possible causes could be inferred by analogy to known causes of similar phenomena. It was essential to evaluate the importance of a hypothesis; "our next step in the verification of an induction must, therefore, consist in extending its application to cases not originally contemplated; in studiously varying the circumstances under which our causes act, with a view to ascertain whether their effect is general; and in pushing the application of our laws to extreme cases."


title: History of scientific method

text: William Whewell (1794–1866) regarded his "History of the Inductive Sciences, from the Earliest to the Present Time" (1837) to be an introduction to the "Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences" (1840) which analyzes the method exemplified in the formation of ideas. Whewell attempts to follow Bacon's plan for discovery of an effectual art of discovery. He named the hypothetico-deductive method (which "Encyclopædia Britannica" credits to Newton); Whewell also coined the term "scientist". Whewell examines ideas and attempts to construct science by uniting ideas to facts. He analyses induction into three steps:


title: History of scientific method

text: Upon these follow special techniques applicable for quantity, such as the method of least squares, curves, means, and special methods depending on resemblance (such as pattern matching, the method of gradation, and the method of natural classification (such as cladistics).


title: History of scientific method

text: But no art of discovery, such as Bacon anticipated, follows, for "invention, sagacity, genius" are needed at every step. Whewell's sophisticated concept of science had similarities to that shown by Herschel, and he considered that a good hypothesis should connect fields that had previously been thought unrelated, a process he called consilience. However, where Herschel held that the origin of new biological species would be found in a natural rather than a miraculous process, Whewell opposed this and considered that no natural cause had been shown for adaptation so an unknown divine cause was appropriate.


title: History of scientific method

text: John Stuart Mill (1806–1873) was stimulated to publish "A System of Logic" (1843) upon reading Whewell's "History of the Inductive Sciences". Mill may be regarded as the final exponent of the empirical school of philosophy begun by John Locke, whose fundamental characteristic is the duty incumbent upon all thinkers to investigate for themselves rather than to accept the authority of others. Knowledge must be based on experience.


title: History of scientific method

text: In the mid-19th century Claude Bernard was also influential, especially in bringing the scientific method to medicine. In his discourse on scientific method, "An Introduction to the Study of Experimental Medicine" (1865), he described what makes a scientific theory good and what makes a scientist a true discoverer. Unlike many scientific writers of his time, Bernard wrote about his own experiments and thoughts, and used the first person.


title: History of scientific method

text: William Stanley Jevons' "The Principles of Science: a treatise on logic and scientific method" (1873, 1877) Chapter XII "The Inductive or Inverse Method", Summary of the Theory of Inductive Inference, states "Thus there are but three steps in the process of induction :-


title: History of scientific method

text: Jevons then frames those steps in terms of probability, which he then applied to economic laws. Ernest Nagel notes that Jevons and Whewell were not the first writers to argue for the centrality of the hypothetico-deductive method in the logic of science.


title: History of scientific method

text: In the late 19th century, Charles Sanders Peirce proposed a schema that would turn out to have considerable influence in the further development of scientific method generally. Peirce's work quickly accelerated the progress on several fronts. Firstly, speaking in broader context in "How to Make Our Ideas Clear" (1878), Peirce outlined an objectively verifiable method to test the truth of putative knowledge on a way that goes beyond mere foundational alternatives, focusing upon both Deduction and Induction. He thus placed induction and deduction in a complementary rather than competitive context (the latter of which had been the primary trend at least since David Hume a century before). Secondly, and of more direct importance to scientific method, Peirce put forth the basic schema for hypothesis-testing that continues to prevail today. Extracting the theory of inquiry from its raw materials in classical logic, he refined it in parallel with the early development of symbolic logic to address the then-current problems in scientific reasoning. Peirce examined and articulated the three fundamental modes of reasoning that play a role in scientific inquiry today, the processes that are currently known as abductive, deductive, and inductive inference. Thirdly, he played a major role in the progress of symbolic logic itself – indeed this was his primary specialty.


title: History of scientific method

text: Charles S. Peirce was also a pioneer in statistics. Peirce held that science achieves statistical probabilities, not certainties, and that chance, a veering from law, is very real. He assigned probability to an argument's conclusion rather than to a proposition, event, etc., as such. Most of his statistical writings promote the frequency interpretation of probability (objective ratios of cases), and many of his writings express skepticism about (and criticize the use of) probability when such models are not based on objective randomization. Though Peirce was largely a frequentist, his possible world semantics introduced the "propensity" theory of probability. Peirce (sometimes with Jastrow) investigated the probability judgments of experimental subjects, pioneering decision analysis.


title: History of scientific method

text: Peirce was one of the founders of statistics. He formulated modern statistics in "Illustrations of the Logic of Science" (1877–1878) and "A Theory of Probable Inference" (1883). With a repeated measures design, he introduced blinded, controlled randomized experiments (before Fisher). He invented an optimal design for experiments on gravity, in which he "corrected the means". He used logistic regression, correlation, and smoothing, and improved the treatment of outliers. He introduced terms "confidence" and "likelihood" (before Neyman and Fisher). (See the historical books of Stephen Stigler.) Many of Peirce's ideas were later popularized and developed by Ronald A. Fisher, Jerzy Neyman, Frank P. Ramsey, Bruno de Finetti, and Karl Popper.


title: History of scientific method

text: Karl Popper (1902–1994) is generally credited with providing major improvements in the understanding of the scientific method in the mid-to-late 20th century. In 1934 Popper published "The Logic of Scientific Discovery", which repudiated the by then traditional observationalist-inductivist account of the scientific method. He advocated empirical falsifiability as the criterion for distinguishing scientific work from non-science. According to Popper, scientific theory should make predictions (preferably predictions not made by a competing theory) which can be tested and the theory rejected if these predictions are shown not to be correct. Following Peirce and others, he argued that science would best progress using deductive reasoning as its primary emphasis, known as critical rationalism. His astute formulations of logical procedure helped to rein in the excessive use of inductive speculation upon inductive speculation, and also helped to strengthen the conceptual foundations for today's peer review procedures.


title: History of scientific method

text: Ludwik Fleck, a Polish epidemiologist who was contemporary with Karl Popper but who influenced Kuhn and others with his "Genesis and Development of a Scientific Fact" (in German 1935, English 1979). Before Fleck, scientific fact was thought to spring fully formed (in the view of Max Jammer, for example), when a gestation period is now recognized to be essential before acceptance of a phenomenon as fact.


title: History of scientific method

text: Critics of Popper, chiefly Thomas Kuhn, Paul Feyerabend and Imre Lakatos, rejected the idea that there exists a "single" method that applies to all science and could account for its progress. In 1962 Kuhn published the influential book "The Structure of Scientific Revolutions" which suggested that scientists worked within a series of paradigms, and argued there was little evidence of scientists actually following a falsificationist methodology. Kuhn quoted Max Planck who had said in his autobiography, "a new scientific truth does not triumph by convincing its opponents and making them see the light, but rather because its opponents eventually die, and a new generation grows up that is familiar with it."


title: History of scientific method

text: A well quoted source on the subject of the scientific method and statistical models, George E. P. Box (1919-2013) wrote "Since all models are wrong the scientist cannot obtain a correct one by excessive elaboration. On the contrary following William of Occam he should seek an economical description of natural phenomena. Just as the ability to devise simple but evocative models is the signature of the great scientist, so over-elaboration and over-parameterization is often the mark of mediocrity" and "Since all models are wrong the scientist must be alert to what is importantly wrong. It is inappropriate to be concerned about mice when there are tigers abroad."


title: History of scientific method

text: These debates clearly show that there is no universal agreement as to what constitutes "the" "scientific method". There remain, nonetheless, certain core principles that are the foundation of scientific inquiry today.


title: History of scientific method

text: In "Quod Nihil Scitur" (1581), Francisco Sanches refers to another book title, "De modo sciendi" (on the method of knowing). This work appeared in Spanish as "Método universal de las ciencias".


title: History of scientific method

text: In 1833 Robert and William Chambers published their 'Chambers's information for the people'. Under the rubric 'Logic' we find a description of investigation that is familiar as scientific method,


title: History of scientific method

text: Investigation, or the art of inquiring into the nature of causes and their operation, is a leading characteristic of reason [...] Investigation implies three things – Observation, Hypothesis, and Experiment [...] The first step in the process, it will be perceived, is to observe...


title: History of scientific method

text: In 1885, the words "Scientific method" appear together with a description of the method in Francis Ellingwood Abbot's 'Scientific Theism',


title: History of scientific method

text: Now all the established truths which are formulated in the multifarious propositions of science have been won by the use of Scientific Method. This method consists in essentially three distinct steps (1) observation and experiment, (2) hypothesis, (3) verification by fresh observation and experiment.


title: History of scientific method

text: The Eleventh Edition of "Encyclopædia Britannica" did not include an article on scientific method; the Thirteenth Edition listed scientific management, but not method. By the Fifteenth Edition, a 1-inch article in the "Micropædia" of Britannica was part of the 1975 printing, while a fuller treatment (extending across multiple articles, and accessible mostly via the index volumes of Britannica) was available in later printings.


title: History of scientific method

text: In the past few centuries, some statistical methods have been developed, for reasoning in the face of uncertainty, as an outgrowth of methods for eliminating error. This was an echo of the program of Francis Bacon's "Novum Organum" of 1620. Bayesian inference acknowledges one's ability to alter one's beliefs in the face of evidence. This has been called belief revision, or defeasible reasoning: the models in play during the phases of scientific method can be reviewed, revisited and revised, in the light of further evidence. This arose from the work of Frank P. Ramsey


title: History of scientific method

text: The question of how science operates and therefore how to distinguish genuine science from pseudoscience has importance well beyond scientific circles or the academic community. In the judicial system and in public policy controversies, for example, a study's deviation from "accepted scientific practice" is grounds for rejecting it as junk science or pseudoscience. However, the high public perception of science means that pseudoscience is widespread. An advertisement in which an actor wears a white coat and product ingredients are given Greek or Latin sounding names is intended to give the impression of scientific endorsement. Richard Feynman has likened pseudoscience to cargo cults in which many of the external forms are followed, but the underlying basis is missing: that is, fringe or alternative theories often present themselves with a pseudoscientific appearance to gain acceptance.


title: Normalized difference vegetation index

text: The normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) is a simple graphical indicator that can be used to analyze remote sensing measurements, often from a space platform, assessing whether or not the target being observed contains live green vegetation.


title: Normalized difference vegetation index

text: The exploration of outer space started in earnest with the launch of Sputnik 1 by the Soviet Union on 4 October 1957. This was the first man-made satellite orbiting the Earth. Subsequent successful launches, both in the Soviet Union (e.g., the Sputnik and Cosmos programs), and in the U.S. (e.g., the Explorer program), quickly led to the design and operation of dedicated meteorological satellites. These are orbiting platforms embarking instruments specially designed to observe the Earth's atmosphere and surface with a view to improve weather forecasting. Starting in 1960, the TIROS series of satellites embarked television cameras and radiometers. This was later (1964 onwards) followed by the Nimbus satellites and the family of Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer instruments on board the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) platforms. The latter measures the reflectance of the planet in red and near-infrared bands, as well as in the thermal infrared. In parallel, NASA developed the Earth Resources Technology Satellite (ERTS), which became the precursor to the Landsat program. These early sensors had minimal spectral resolution, but tended to include bands in the red and near-infrared, which are useful to distinguish vegetation and clouds, amongst other targets.


title: Normalized difference vegetation index

text: With the launch of the first ERTS satellite – which was soon to be renamed Landsat 1 – on July 23, 1972 with its MultiSpectral Scanner (MSS) NASA funded a number of investigations to determine its capabilities for Earth remote sensing. One of those early studies was directed toward examining the spring vegetation green-up and subsequent summer and fall dry-down (the so-called “vernal advancement and retrogradation”) throughout the north to south expanse of the Great Plains region of the central U.S. This region covered a wide range of latitudes from the southern tip of Texas to the U.S.-Canada border, which resulted in a wide range of solar zenith angles at the time of the satellite observations.


title: Normalized difference vegetation index

text: The researchers for this Great Plains study (PhD student Donald Deering and his advisor Dr. Robert Hass) found that their ability to correlate, or quantify, the biophysical characteristics of the rangeland vegetation of this region from the satellite spectral signals was confounded by these differences in solar zenith angle across this strong latitudinal gradient. With the assistance of a resident mathematician (Dr. John Schell), they studied solutions to this dilemma and subsequently developed the ratio of the difference of the red and infrared radiances over their sum as a means to adjust for or “normalize” the effects of the solar zenith angle. Originally, they called this ratio the “Vegetation Index” (and another variant, the square-root transformation of the difference-sum ratio, the “Transformed Vegetation Index”); but as several other remote sensing researchers were identifying the simple red/infrared ratio and other spectral ratios as the “vegetation index,” they eventually began to identify the difference/sum ratio formulation as the normalized difference vegetation index. The earliest reported use of NDVI in the Great Plains study was in 1973 by Rouse et al. (Dr. John Rouse was the Director of the Remote Sensing Center of Texas A&M University where the Great Plains study was conducted). However, they were preceded in formulating a normalized difference spectral index by Kriegler et al. in 1969. Soon after the launch of ERTS-1 (Landsat-1), Compton Tucker of NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center produced a series of early scientific journal articles describing uses of the NDVI.


title: Normalized difference vegetation index

text: Thus, NDVI was one of the most successful of many attempts to simply and quickly identify vegetated areas and their "condition," and it remains the most well-known and used index to detect live green plant canopies in multispectral remote sensing data. Once the feasibility to detect vegetation had been demonstrated, users tended to also use the NDVI to quantify the photosynthetic capacity of plant canopies. This, however, can be a rather more complex undertaking if not done properly, as is discussed below.


title: Normalized difference vegetation index

text: Live green plants absorb solar radiation in the photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) spectral region, which they use as a source of energy in the process of photosynthesis. Leaf cells have also evolved to re-emit solar radiation in the near-infrared spectral region (which carries approximately half of the total incoming solar energy), because the photon energy at wavelengths longer than about 700 nanometers is too large to synthesize organic molecules. A strong absorption at these wavelengths would only result in overheating the plant and possibly damaging the tissues. Hence, live green plants appear relatively dark in the PAR and relatively bright in the near-infrared. By contrast, clouds and snow tend to be rather bright in the red (as well as other visible wavelengths) and quite dark in the near-infrared.


title: Normalized difference vegetation index

text: The pigment in plant leaves, chlorophyll, strongly absorbs visible light (from 400 to 700 nm) for use in photosynthesis. The cell structure of the leaves, on the other hand, strongly reflects near-infrared light (from 700 to 1100 nm). The more leaves a plant has, the more these wavelengths of light are affected.


title: Normalized difference vegetation index

text: Since early instruments of Earth Observation, such as NASA's ERTS and NOAA's AVHRR, acquired data in visible and near-infrared, it was natural to exploit the strong differences in plant reflectance to determine their spatial distribution in these satellite images.


title: Normalized difference vegetation index

text: where Red and NIR stand for the spectral reflectance measurements acquired in the red (visible) and near-infrared regions, respectively. These spectral reflectances are themselves ratios of the reflected radiation to the incoming radiation in each spectral band individually, hence they take on values between 0 and 1. By design, the NDVI itself thus varies between -1 and +1. NDVI is functionally, but not linearly, equivalent to the simple infrared/red ratio (NIR/VIS). The advantage of NDVI over a simple infrared/red ratio is therefore generally limited to any possible linearity of its functional relationship with vegetation properties (e.g. biomass). The simple ratio (unlike NDVI) is always positive, which may have practical advantages, but it also has a mathematically infinite range (0 to infinity), which can be a practical disadvantage as compared to NDVI. Also in this regard, note that the VIS term in the numerator of NDVI only scales the result, thereby creating negative values. NDVI is functionally "and linearly" equivalent to the ratio NIR / (NIR+VIS), which ranges from 0 to 1 and is thus never negative nor limitless in range. But the most important concept in the understanding of the NDVI algebraic formula is that, despite its name, it is a transformation of a spectral ratio (NIR/VIS), and it has no functional relationship to a spectral difference (NIR-VIS).


title: Normalized difference vegetation index

text: In general, if there is much more reflected radiation in near-infrared wavelengths than in visible wavelengths, then the vegetation in that pixel is likely to be dense and may contain some type of forest. Subsequent work has shown that the NDVI is directly related to the photosynthetic capacity and hence energy absorption of plant canopies. Although the index can take negative values, even in densely populated urban areas the NDVI usually has a (small) positive value. Negative values are more likely to be observed in the atmosphere and some specific materials.


title: Normalized difference vegetation index

text: It can be seen from its mathematical definition that the NDVI of an area containing a dense vegetation canopy will tend to positive values (say 0.3 to 0.8) while clouds and snow fields will be characterized by negative values of this index. Other targets on Earth visible from space include:


title: Normalized difference vegetation index

text: In addition to the simplicity of the algorithm and its capacity to broadly distinguish vegetated areas from other surface types, the NDVI also has the advantage of compressing the size of the data to be manipulated by a factor 2 (or more), since it replaces the two spectral bands by a single new field (eventually coded on 8 bits instead of the 10 or more bits of the original data).


title: Normalized difference vegetation index

text: The NDVI has been widely used in applications for which it was not originally designed. Using the NDVI for quantitative assessments (as opposed to qualitative surveys as indicated above) raises a number of issues that may seriously limit the actual usefulness of this index if they are not properly addressed. The following subsections review some of these issues.


title: Normalized difference vegetation index

text: Also, the calculation of the NDVI value turns out to be sensitive to a number of perturbing factors including


title: Normalized difference vegetation index

text: A number of derivatives and alternatives to NDVI have been proposed in the scientific literature to address these limitations, including the Perpendicular Vegetation Index, the Soil-Adjusted Vegetation Index, the Atmospherically Resistant Vegetation Index and the Global Environment Monitoring Index. Each of these attempted to include intrinsic correction(s) for one or more perturbing factors. A current alternative adopted by USGS is the enhanced vegetation index (EVI), correcting for soil effects, canopy background, and aerosol influences.


title: Normalized difference vegetation index

text: It is not until the mid-1990s, however, that a new generation of algorithms were proposed to estimate directly the biogeophysical variables of interest (e.g., the fraction of absorbed photosynthetically active radiation, FAPAR), taking advantage of the enhanced performance and characteristics of modern sensors (in particular their multispectral and multiangular capabilities) to take all the perturbing factors into account. In spite of many possible perturbing factors upon the NDVI, it remains a valuable quantitative vegetation monitoring tool when the photosynthetic capacity of the land surface needs to be studied at the appropriate spatial scale for various phenomena.


title: Normalized difference vegetation index

text: Within precision agriculture, NDVI data provides a measurement of crop health. Today, this often involves agricultural drones, which are paired with NDVI to compare data and recognize crop health issues. One example of this is agriculture drones from PrecisionHawk and Sentera, which allow agriculturalists to capture and process NDVI data within one day, a change from the traditional NDVI uses and their long lag times. Many of the research done currently has proved that the NDVI images can even be obtained using the normal digital RGB cameras by some modifications in order to obtain the results similar to those obtained from the multispectral cameras and can be implemented effectively in the crop health monitoring systems.


title: Attorney–client privilege

text: Attorney–client privilege or lawyer–client privilege is the name given to the common law concept of legal professional privilege in the United States. Attorney–client privilege is "[a] client's right to refuse to disclose and to prevent any other person from disclosing confidential communications between the client and the attorney."


title: Attorney–client privilege

text: The attorney–client privilege is one of the oldest privileges for confidential communications. The United States Supreme Court has stated that by assuring confidentiality, the privilege encourages clients to make "full and frank" disclosures to their attorneys, who are then better able to provide candid advice and effective representation.


title: Attorney–client privilege

text: Although there are minor variations, the elements necessary to establish the attorney–client privilege generally are:


title: Attorney–client privilege

text: A corollary to the attorney–client privilege is the joint defense privilege, which is also called the common interest rule. The common interest rule "serves to protect the confidentiality of communications passing from one party to another party where a joint defense or strategy has been decided upon and undertaken by the parties and their respective counsel."


title: Attorney–client privilege

text: An attorney speaking publicly in regard to a client's personal business and private affairs can be reprimanded by the bar and/or disbarred, regardless of the fact that he or she may be no longer representing the client. Discussing a client's or past client's criminal history, or otherwise, is viewed as a breach of confidentiality.


title: Attorney–client privilege

text: The attorney–client privilege is separate from and should not be confused with the work-product doctrine.


title: Attorney–client privilege

text: When an attorney is not acting primarily as an attorney but, for instance, as a business advisor, member of the Board of Directors, or in another non-legal role, then the privilege generally does not apply.


title: Attorney–client privilege

text: The privilege protects the confidential communication, and not the underlying information. For instance, if a client has previously disclosed confidential information to a third party who is not an attorney, and then gives the same information to an attorney, the attorney–client privilege will still protect the communication to the attorney, but will not protect the communication with the third party.


title: Attorney–client privilege

text: The crime–fraud exception can render the privilege moot when communications between an attorney and client are themselves used to further a crime, tort, or fraud. In "Clark v. United States", the U.S. Supreme Court stated that "A client who consults an attorney for advice that will serve him in the commission of a fraud will have no help from the law. He must let the truth be told." The crime–fraud exception also "does" require that the crime or fraud discussed between client and attorney be carried out to be triggered. U.S. courts have not yet conclusively ruled how little knowledge an attorney can have of the underlying crime or fraud before the privilege detaches and the attorney's communications or requisite testimony become admissible.


title: Attorney–client privilege

text: Lawyers may disclose confidential information relating to the retainer where they are reasonably seeking to collect payment for services rendered. This is justified on policy grounds. If lawyers were unable to disclose such information, many would undertake legal work only where payment is made in advance. This would arguably adversely affect the public's access to justice.


title: Attorney–client privilege

text: Lawyers may also breach the duty where they are defending themselves against disciplinary or legal proceedings. A client who initiates proceedings against a lawyer effectively waives rights to confidentiality. This is justified on grounds of procedural fairness—a lawyer unable to reveal information relating to the retainer would be unable to defend themselves against such action.


title: Attorney–client privilege

text: Another case is for the probate of a last will and testament. Previously confidential communications between the lawyer and testator may be disclosed in order to prove that a will represented the intent of the now deceased decedent. In many instances, the will, codicil, or other parts of the estate plan require explanation or interpretation through other proof (extrinsic evidence), such as the attorney's file notes or correspondence from the client.


title: Attorney–client privilege

text: In certain cases, the client may desire or consent to revelation of personal or family secrets only after his or her death; for example, the will may leave a legacy to a paramour or a natural child.


title: Attorney–client privilege

text: Courts have occasionally revoked the privilege after the death of the client if it is deemed that doing so serves the client's intent, such as in the case of resolving testamentary disputes among heirs.


title: Attorney–client privilege

text: In the United States, communications between accountants and their clients are usually not privileged. A person who is worried about accusations of questionable accounting, such as tax evasion, may decide to work only with an attorney or only with an accountant who is also an attorney; some or all of the resulting communications may be privileged provided that all the requirements for the attorney–client privilege are met. The mere fact that the practitioner is an attorney will not create a valid attorney–client privilege with respect to a communication. For example, if the practitioner provides business or accounting advice rather than legal advice attorney–client privilege might not be established.


title: Attorney–client privilege

text: Under federal tax law in the United States, for communications on or after July 22, 1998, there is a limited federally authorized accountant–client privilege that may apply to certain communications with non-attorneys.


title: Attorney–client privilege

text: If a case arises in the federal court system, the federal court will apply Rule 501 of the Federal Rules of Evidence to determine whether to apply the privilege law of the relevant state or federal common law. If the case is brought to the federal court under diversity jurisdiction, the law of the relevant state will be used to apply the privilege. If the case involves a federal question, the federal court will apply the federal common law of attorney–client privilege; however, Rule 501 grants flexibility to the federal courts, allowing them to construe the privilege "in light of experience and reason".


title: Attorney–client privilege

text: FRE 502(b) provides that inadvertent disclosures during a federal proceeding or to a federal office or agency do not act as a waiver of the privilege if the holder of the privilege "took reasonable steps to prevent disclosure" in the first place and "promptly took reasonable steps to rectify the error." Parties cannot merely state that they took "reasonable steps to prevent disclosure," instead they must give the court a detailed account of the procedures they took. Further, merely sending a letter demanding the return of privileged documents after discovering their inadvertent disclosure may not satisfy the requisite prompt response required.


title: Mariana van Zeller

text: Mariana van Zeller (born May 7, 1976) is a Peabody Award-winning Portuguese journalist and correspondent for National Geographic Channel. She is also chief correspondent for Fusion and is a former correspondent for the "Vanguard" documentary series on the former Current TV.


title: Mariana van Zeller

text: Born on May 7, 1976, in Cascais, Portugal, van Zeller studied international relations at the Universidade Lusíada de Lisboa. After graduation, she says she spent two years working at SIC, which was at that time the first and largest Portuguese private television network. She began working in the travel and international departments of the main networks channel and later joined SIC Notícias, the network's news channel.