title: Al-Qaeda in Iraq

text: In September–October 2005, there were signs of a split between homegrown Iraqi Sunni Arab insurgents who wanted Sunni influence in national politics restored, and therefore supported a "no" vote in the 15 October 2005 referendum on a constitution, and al-Zarqawi's Al Qaeda in Iraq, which strove for a theocratic state and threatened to kill those who engaged in the national political process with Shiites and Kurds, including those who would take part in that referendum.


title: Al-Qaeda in Iraq

text: From mid-2006, AQI began to be pushed out of their strongholds in rural Anbar Province, from Fallujah to Qaim, by tribal leaders in open war. That campaign was assisted by the Iraqi government paying cash gifts and alleged salaries to tribal sheikhs of up to $5,000 a month. In September 2006, 30 tribes in Anbar Province formed an alliance called the "Anbar Awakening" to fight AQI.


title: Al-Qaeda in Iraq

text: AQI's efforts to recruit Iraqi Sunni nationalist and secular groups were undermined by its violent tactics against civilians and by its fundamentalist doctrine. In January 2006 it created an umbrella organization called the Mujahideen Shura Council (MSC), in an attempt to unify Sunni insurgents in Iraq.


title: Al-Qaeda in Iraq

text: American military field leaders, in particular, Lt. General Michael Flynn, in late spring 2004, were 'strategically surprised' at the capabilities, scale of operations, and quality of leadership of the subject. Western media suggested that foreign fighters continued to flock to AQI. A secret U.S. Marine Corps intelligence report of August 2006 wrote that Iraq's Sunni minority had been increasingly abandoned by their religious and political leaders who had fled or been assassinated, was "embroiled in a daily fight for survival", feared "pogroms" by the Shiite majority, and was increasingly dependent on Al-Qaeda in Iraq as its only hope against growing Syrian dominance across Baghdad.


title: Al-Qaeda in Iraq

text: In western Iraq, AQI was entrenched, autonomous and financially independent, and therefore the death of AQI leader Al-Zarqawi in June 2006 had little impact on the structure or capabilities of AQI. Illicit oil trading provided them with millions of dollars, and their popularity was rising in western Iraq.


title: Al-Qaeda in Iraq

text: In Anbar, most government institutions had disintegrated by August 2006, and AQI was the dominant power, the U.S. Marine Corps intelligence report said. In 2006, the State Department's Bureau of Intelligence and Research estimated that Al-Qaeda in Iraq's core membership was "more than 1,000".


title: Al-Qaeda in Iraq

text: On 13 October 2006, the MSC declared the establishment of the Islamic State of Iraq (ISI), comprising Iraq's six mostly Sunni Arab governorates: Baghdad, Anbar, Diyala, Kirkuk, Salah al-Din, Ninawa, and "other parts of the governorate of Babel", with Abu Omar al-Baghdadi being announced as the self-proclaimed state's Emir. A Mujahideen Shura Council leader said: "God willing we will set the law of Sharia here and we will fight the Americans"; the Council urged on Sunni Muslim tribal leaders to join their separate Islamic state "to protect our religion and our people, to prevent strife and so that the blood and sacrifices of your martyrs are not lost".


title: Al-Qaeda in Iraq

text: Following the announcement, scores of gunmen took part in military parades in Ramadi and other Anbar towns to celebrate. In reality, the group did not control territory in Iraq.


title: Al-Qaeda in Iraq

text: In November, a statement was issued by Abu Ayyub al-Masri, leader of Mujahideen Shura Council (MSC), announcing the disbanding of the MSC, in favor of the ISI. After this statement, there were a few more claims of responsibility issued under the name of the Mujahideen Shura Council, but these eventually ceased and were totally replaced by claims from the Islamic State of Iraq.


title: Al-Qaeda in Iraq

text: In April 2007, Abu Ayyub al-Masri was given the title of 'Minister of War' within the ISI's ten-member cabinet.


title: Al-Qaeda in Iraq

text: According to a report by US intelligence agencies in May 2007, the ISI planned to seize power in the central and western areas of the country and turn it into a Sunni Islamic state.


title: Al-Qaeda in Iraq

text: By June 2007, the uncompromising brand of extreme fundamentalist Islam of AQI and the ISI had alienated more nationalist Iraqi strands of insurgency.


title: Al-Qaeda in Iraq

text: In November 2004, al-Zarqawi's network was the main target of the US Operation Phantom Fury in Fallujah, but its leadership managed to escape the American siege and subsequent storming of the city.


title: Al-Qaeda in Iraq

text: On 7 June 2006, al-Zarqawi and his spiritual adviser Sheik Abd-Al-Rahman, were both killed by a U.S. airstrike with two 500 lb (230 kg) bombs on a safe house near Baqubah.


title: Al-Qaeda in Iraq

text: U.S. intelligence in October 2005 published an intercepted letter purportedly from Ayman al-Zawahiri questioning AQI's tactic of indiscriminately attacking Shias in Iraq.


title: Al-Qaeda in Iraq

text: In a video that appeared in December 2007, al-Zawahiri defended AQI, but distanced himself from the crimes against civilians committed by "hypocrites and traitors" that he said existed among its ranks.


title: Al-Qaeda in Iraq

text: On 3 December 2004, AQI attempted unsuccessfully to blow up an Iraqi–Jordanian border crossing. In 2006 a Jordanian court sentenced al-Zarqawi and two of his associates to death "in absentia" for their involvement in the plot. AQI claimed to have carried out three attacks outside Iraq in 2005. In the most deadly, suicide bombs killed 60 people in Amman, Jordan on 9 November 2005. They claimed responsibility for the rocket attacks which narrowly missed the American naval ships USS "Kearsarge" and USS "Ashland" in Jordan, and also targeted the city of Eilat in Israel, and for the firing of several rockets into Israel from Lebanon in December 2005. The affiliated groups were linked to regional attacks outside Iraq which were consistent with their stated plan, one example being the 2005 Sharm al-Sheikh bombings in Egypt, which killed 88 people, many of them foreign tourists.


title: Al-Qaeda in Iraq

text: The Lebanese-Palestinian militant group Fatah al-Islam, which was defeated by Lebanese government forces during the 2007 Lebanon conflict, was linked to AQI and led by al-Zarqawi's former companion who had fought alongside him in Iraq. The group may have been linked to the little-known group called "Tawhid and Jihad in Syria", and may have influenced the Palestinian militant group in Gaza called Jahafil Al-Tawhid Wal-Jihad fi Filastin.


title: Black Widow (Marvel Comics)

text: Black Widow is the name of several fictional characters appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. Most of these versions exist in Marvel's main shared universe, known as the Marvel Universe.


title: Black Widow (Marvel Comics)

text: Claire Voyant is the first costumed, superpowered female protagonist in comic books. Created by writer George Kapitan and artist Harry Sahle, she first appeared in "Mystic Comics" #4 (Aug. 1940). She kills evildoers to deliver their souls to Satan, her master. The character is unrelated to the later Marvel Comics superheroines who took on the codename.


title: Black Widow (Marvel Comics)

text: Natasha Romanoff is the first character to take on the Black Widow codename in the modern mainstream Marvel Comics. She was created by editor and plotter Stan Lee, scripter Don Rico and artist Don Heck, and first appeared in "Tales of Suspense" #52 (April 1964). The character has been associated with several superhero teams in the Marvel Universe, including the Avengers, the Defenders, the Champions, S.H.I.E.L.D., and the Thunderbolts. She has appeared in many other forms of media, including the major motion pictures "Iron Man 2", "The Avengers", "", "", "", "", "" and "Black Widow", wherein she is portrayed by Scarlett Johansson.


title: Black Widow (Marvel Comics)

text: Yelena Belova is the second character to take on the Black Widow codename in the modern mainstream comics who debuted briefly in "Inhumans" #5 (March 1999) and was fully introduced in the 1999 Marvel Knights mini-series "Black Widow". A second miniseries, also titled "Black Widow" and featuring Natasha Romanoff and Daredevil, followed in 2001. The next year, she did a solo turn in her own three-issue miniseries titled "Black Widow: Pale Little Spider" under the mature-audience Marvel MAX imprint. This June to August 2002 story arc, by writer Greg Rucka and artist Igor Kordey, was a flashback to the story of her being the second modern Black Widow, in events preceding her "Inhumans" appearance. Florence Pugh portrays Yelena in the MCU film "Black Widow" and the Disney+ miniseries "Hawkeye".


title: Black Widow (Marvel Comics)

text: Black Widow Volume 2 (Marvel Knights; "Breakdown Parts 1-3"; January - March 2001) #1-3 [Legacy #4-6]


title: Black Widow (Marvel Comics)

text: Black Widow Volume 3 "Homecoming" (Marvel Knights, By Morgan & Sienkiewicz; November 2004 - April 2005) #1-6 [Legacy #8-12]


title: Black Widow (Marvel Comics)

text: Black Widow: The Things They Say About Her Volume 1 (Marvel Knights; November 2005 - April 2006) #1-6 [Legacy #13-18]


title: Black Widow (Marvel Comics)

text: Monica Chang-Fury is the second character to use the Black Widow codename in the Ultimate Marvel continuity, debuting in "" #3.


title: Black Widow (Marvel Comics)

text: The futuristic 2099 version of Black Widow is an African-American woman named Tania. She operates as part of the Avengers 2099 at the Alchemax corporation's behest. Like black widow spiders, she literally eats her mates after having sex with them.


title: Black Widow (Marvel Comics)

text: A variation of the futuristic Black Widow named Layla appears in the "Avengers Assemble" episode "Into the Future", voiced by Jennifer Hale. This version is a guerrilla warfare-styled resistance fighter from a future ruled by Kang the Conqueror.


title: The Holy Bible (album)

text: The Holy Bible is the third studio album by Welsh alternative rock band Manic Street Preachers. It was released on 29 August 1994 by record label Epic. While the album was being written and recorded, lyricist and rhythm guitarist Richey Edwards was struggling with severe depression, alcohol abuse, self-harm and anorexia nervosa, and its contents are considered by many sources to reflect his mental state. The songs focus on themes relating to politics and human suffering. "The Holy Bible" was the band's last album released before Edwards' disappearance on 1 February 1995.


title: The Holy Bible (album)

text: Although it reached number 6 in the UK Albums Chart, initially, global sales were disappointing compared to previous albums and the record did not chart in mainland Europe or North America. It was promoted with tours and festival appearances in the UK, Ireland, Germany, Portugal, the Netherlands and Thailand – in part without Edwards. "The Holy Bible" received widespread acclaim from critics and has sold over half a million copies worldwide . It has frequently been featured and listed highly on lists of the best albums of all time by British music publications such as "Melody Maker", "NME" and "Q".


title: The Holy Bible (album)

text: According to drummer Sean Moore, the band felt they had been "going a bit astray" with their previous album, 1993's "Gold Against the Soul", and so the approach to the follow-up was for the band to go back to their "grass roots" and rediscover "a little bit of Britishness that we lacked". Singer and guitarist James Dean Bradfield recalls the band feeling they had become "a bit too rockist [...] we had lost our direction". After the band's first two albums had been dominated by influences such as Guns N' Roses and Alice in Chains, the band decided that the new material should be influenced by the artists that inspired them when they first formed, including Magazine, Wire, Skids, PiL, Gang of Four, Joy Division and Siouxsie and the Banshees.


title: The Holy Bible (album)

text: Epic Records had proposed that the album be recorded in Barbados, but the band had wanted to avoid what Bradfield called "all that decadent rockstar rubbish". It was bassist Nicky Wire's idea, says Bradfield, that the band "should not use everything at its disposal" in recording the album. Instead, recording began with sound engineer Alex Silva at the low-rent, "absolutely tiny" Sound Space Studios in Cardiff. The album was mixed by Mark Freegard, who had previously worked with The Breeders. "She Is Suffering" was produced by Steve Brown. The recording took four weeks.


title: The Holy Bible (album)

text: Bradfield has described the recording of the album as preventing him from having a social life and Alex Silva attributes the break-up of his relationship with his girlfriend at the time to the long hours involved in the recording. Guitarist Richey Edwards attended recording sessions but would, according to Wire, "collapse on the settee and have a snooze" while the other band members did all the recording. He was drinking heavily and frequently crying. "Inevitably", says Bradfield, "the day would start with a 'schhht!'; the sound of a can opening."


title: The Holy Bible (album)

text: The album was constructed with "academic discipline", according to Bradfield, with the band working to headings and structures "so each song is like an essay".


title: The Holy Bible (album)

text: Whereas lyric-writing on the two previous albums was split fairly evenly between Richey Edwards and Nicky Wire, the lyrics on "The Holy Bible" were 70-75% written by Edwards, according to James Dean Bradfield. At the time of the album's 10th anniversary reissue Wire claimed to be largely responsible for "Ifwhiteamericatoldthetruthforonedayit'sworldwouldfallapart" (which cites the actor River Phoenix) and "This Is Yesterday", contributing only titles to some of the other songs. However, on later inspection of his notebooks, Wire was surprised to find he had contributed more lyrics than he had previously remembered, having also written portions of "Of Walking Abortion" and "Mausoleum" and some lines from "Faster". He now believed himself responsible for around 30% of the words on the album.


title: The Holy Bible (album)

text: The album's lyrics deal with subjects including prostitution, American consumerism, British imperialism, freedom of speech, the Holocaust, self-starvation, serial killers, the death penalty, political revolution, childhood, fascism and suicide. According to "Q": "the tone of the album is by turns bleak, angry and resigned". The same magazine commented in 1994 that "even a cursory glance at the titles will confirm that this is not the new Gloria Estefan album".


title: The Holy Bible (album)

text: Sean Moore has described the content of the lyrics as being "as far as Richey's character could go". According to Bradfield: "Some of the lyrics confused me. Some [...] were voyeuristic and some were coming from personal experience [...] I remember getting the lyrics to 'Yes' and thinking 'You crazy fucker, how do I write music for this?'". Critic Simon Price notes that the potential radio-friendliness of the song is undermined by its focus on the subject of prostitution and the recurrence of sexual swearing in the lyric.


title: The Holy Bible (album)

text: Interviewed at the time of the album's release, Nicky Wire said that the track "Ifwhiteamericatoldthetruthforonedayit'sworldwouldfallapart" was "not a completely anti-American song", but instead was about "how the most empty culture in the world can dominate in such a total sense". The title of the song has been repeatedly attributed to Lenny Bruce without any clear source for this claim given. It is possible that an error of attribution has arisen as a result of the band's discussion around Bruce, free speech and 'PCP'.


title: The Holy Bible (album)

text: "Of Walking Abortion" is about right-wing totalitarianism, of which Wire commented: "there's a worm in human nature that makes us want to be dominated". "Archives of Pain", dealing with the glorification of serial killers and seemingly advocating capital punishment, he said "was the song that me and Richey worried about most [...] the song isn't a right-wing statement, it's just against this fascination with people who kill". Later in 1994, Bradfield described the song as "one of the most important things we've done" but said it was also "very right-wing" and "miscalculated".


title: The Holy Bible (album)

text: Wire described "Revol" as being about Edwards' idea that "relationships in politics, and relationships in general, are failures". "P.C.P.", he said, was about how "PC followers take up the idea of being liberal but end up being quite the opposite". He said that he was "completely confused" by "Faster" (some of which he had written), although Edwards had told him that it was about self-abuse.


title: The Holy Bible (album)

text: "Mausoleum" and "The Intense Humming of Evil", Wire said, were both inspired by visits by the band to former concentration camps at Dachau and Belsen. A first draft of the latter song had been considered insufficiently judgemental by Bradfield, who had asked for a re-write ("you can't be ambivalent about the Holocaust").


title: The Holy Bible (album)

text: According to Wire, "Die in the Summertime" and "4st 7lb" were "pretty obviously about Richey's state of mind". However, Edwards attested that the former song is actually about a pensioner wanting to die with memories of childhood in his mind. is the weight below which death is reputed to become medically unavoidable for anorexics.


title: The Holy Bible (album)

text: "This Is Yesterday", according to Wire, is "about how people always look back to their youth and look on it as a glorious period".


title: The Holy Bible (album)

text: Wire and Bradfield have both expressed a disliking for the lyrics to the song "She Is Suffering", Wire saying it suffers from "man-coming-to-the-rescue syndrome". According to Edwards, the "she" in the song title is desire: "In other Bibles and Holy Books no truth is possible until you empty yourself of desire".


title: The Holy Bible (album)

text: Several tracks on the album are also complemented by samples of dialogue, in keeping with the themes of the songs themselves, as follows:


title: The Holy Bible (album)

text: Musically, "The Holy Bible" marks a shift from the modern rock sound of their first two albums, "Generation Terrorists" and "Gold Against the Soul". It was described as alternative rock, post-punk, hard rock, punk rock, gothic rock, and glam punk, with influences from British punk, new wave, industrial and art rock. During the recording of the album, the band was mainly influenced by post-punk bands such as Wire, Public Image Ltd, and Joy Division, and their new sound drew comparisons to similar artists such as Magazine, Siouxsie and the Banshees, and Gang of Four. The record's heavy style was also compared to that of popular industrial rock act Nine Inch Nails.


title: The Holy Bible (album)

text: James Dean Bradfield has described the album as representing "the most definitive period for us visually as well as the songs we were writing and the record [...] we've never been scared to admit that".


title: The Holy Bible (album)

text: While touring in early 1994, the band visited army surplus stores and bought clothing to wear on stage, in an homage to The Clash. This military image was used consistently by the band during the promotion of "The Holy Bible", including in their videos and television appearances. A performance of "Faster" on the BBC's "Top of the Pops" in June 1994 resulted in a record number of complaints—over 25,000—due to Bradfield wearing a paramilitary-style balaclava.


title: The Holy Bible (album)

text: The album cover, designed by Richey Edwards while hospitalised, features a triptych by Jenny Saville depicting three perspectives on the body of an obese woman in her underwear, and is titled "Strategy (South Face/Front Face/North Face)". Saville gave her permission for use of her work for free after a discussion with Edwards in which he described each song on the album. The back cover features a photo of the band in military uniforms and a quote taken from Octave Mirbeau's book "The Torture Garden". This album is also the first instance of the Manic Street Preachers using Gill Sans typeface with a reversed "R" in their album art. The typeface would later be re-used on later albums and has become an easily recognised motif of the Manics' artwork. The typeface is similar to one used on "Empires and Dance" by Simple Minds, one of James Dean Bradfield's favourite records.


title: The Holy Bible (album)

text: The lyrics booklet features various images including Christian iconography, photographs of the gate at Dachau concentration camp and a plan of the gas chambers at Belsen concentration camp, a photograph of Lenin's corpse, an engraving depicting an execution by guillotine in Revolutionary France, a picture of an apple, a photograph of a woman with a parasitic twin, photographs of each of the Manic Street Preachers as children and a photograph of a group of British policemen in gas-masks. The booklet also contains a Buddhist saying from the Tripitaka alongside a dedication to the band's publicist, Philip Hall, who had died of cancer in 1993.


title: The Holy Bible (album)

text: The title "The Holy Bible" was chosen by Edwards to reflect an idea, according to Bradfield, that "everything on there has to be perfection". Interviewed at the end of 1994, Edwards said: "The way religions choose to speak their truth to the public has always been to beat them down [...] I think that if a Holy Bible is true, it should be about the way the world is and that's what I think my lyrics are about. [The album] doesn't pretend things don't exist".


title: The Holy Bible (album)

text: Richey Edwards had long-term problems with alcohol abuse, depression and self-harm. During 1994, these problems had, according to Wire, "escalated to a point where everybody got a bit frightened" and Edwards had also begun to suffer from anorexia nervosa. During April and May, when the band played concerts in Thailand and Portugal, Edwards was habitually cutting himself and appeared onstage in Bangkok with self-inflicted wounds across his chest.


title: The Holy Bible (album)

text: He talked openly in the music press about his problems, telling the "NME": "When I cut myself I feel so much better. All the little things that might have been annoying me seem so trivial because I'm concentrating on the pain", and "I'm the sort of person who wakes up in the morning and needs to pour a bottle down my throat".


title: The Holy Bible (album)

text: His problems continued and, during the recording of the album, his mental state deteriorated after learning of the suicide of a close friend from university. In July, he was taken to hospital after severely lacerating himself at home, then transferred to Whitchurch Hospital, an NHS psychiatric facility in Cardiff. His weight had fallen to .


title: The Holy Bible (album)

text: By the time of the album's release in late August 1994, Edwards was hospitalised at the private Priory Hospital in Roehampton. He rejoined the band to tour during the autumn of 1994. Other band members felt that his drinking was under control at this point, but his eating continued to be a problem and he continued to self-harm. On 1 February 1995, he disappeared and is presumed to have taken his own life. His car was found close to the Severn Bridge.


title: The Holy Bible (album)

text: "The Holy Bible" has been described by "Q" as a "graphic, violent torrent of self-lacerating punk fury which infamously details the horrors in Richey Edwards' head". Tom Ewing of "Freaky Trigger" once said: "Writing about "The Holy Bible" without somehow addressing the vanishing of Richey Edwards would be pointless: you would only be tracing his outline as you gradually and gingerly tiptoed around it."


title: The Holy Bible (album)

text: The album reached No. 6 on the UK Albums Chart, remaining in the chart for 11 weeks. Despite not charting outside the UK and Japan, by mid-2014 "The Holy Bible" had sold more than 600,000 copies worldwide.


title: The Holy Bible (album)

text: On 6 December 2004 an expanded version of "The Holy Bible" was released, containing two CDs and a DVD. Disc one comprised a digitally re-mastered version of the original album plus four live tracks. The DVD features an interview with the band, footage of TV and festival appearances and promo videos. The second disc includes a remix of the album by Tom Lord-Alge. The remixed version had been intended for release in the US, but this never happened "for well-documented reasons", according to James Dean Bradfield. The band felt the second mix was superior to the version originally released. As Bradfield puts it: "For once we got something back from the American record company—who we despised—and it was brilliant".


title: The Holy Bible (album)

text: A new special edition was released in December 2014, commemorating the 20th anniversary of the album. This edition includes the vinyl edition of the full album, plus a three-CD set, the first CD with the full album remastered for the special release, the second with the US mix remastered and the third including a performance at the Astoria in 1994 and an acoustic session for Radio 4 Mastertapes in 2014. The special edition also contains a 40-page book full of rare photos and handwritten lyrics and notes by Richey and by the band.


title: The Holy Bible (album)

text: As part of Record Store Day 2014 a 12-inch picture disc of the US Mix of the album was released. Side A featured a mix of the Revol cover overlaid with the Jesus image from the CD. Side B was a white label image. The album was housed in a clear plastic sleeve. 1,500 copies were pressed.


title: The Holy Bible (album)

text: Despite not charting in mainland Europe, and not selling very well initially, "The Holy Bible" received widespread acclaim from music critics upon release. Simon Williams of "NME" saw "The Holy Bible" as primarily the work of James Dean Bradfield, saying ""The Holy Bible" isn't elegant, but it is bloody effective". "Melody Maker", which regarded the album as primarily the work of Richey Edwards, described it as "the sound of a group in extremis [...] hurtling towards a private armageddon". Observed Roy Wilkinson in "Select": "Amid all the references to coma, carcasses, 'walking abortions' and dying in the summer sits the spectre of Richey, holed up in a private clinic, having drunk too much, eaten too little and cut himself for reasons varying between dramatic gesture, a surrogate for screaming out loud and something 'sexual' [...] Let's hope that, with a record of such unsettling, morbid resonance as "The Holy Bible", no further gestures are required."


title: The Holy Bible (album)

text: In a retrospective review, Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic gave "The Holy Bible" four and a half stars out of five and called it "Richey James' last will and testament." He concluded, "Every song has a passage frightening in its imagery. Although the music itself isn't as scarily intense, its tight, terse hard rock and glam hooks accentuate the paranoia behind the songs, making the lyrics cut deeper." Upon its re-release 10 years later, Dan Martin of "NME" described "The Holy Bible" as "a work of genuine genius". Joe Tangari of "Pitchfork" wrote, "In a way, the story of Edwards' spiral into some unknown oblivion is tied to the experience of "The Holy Bible", which in retrospect has become a sort of horror-show eulogy for a man who couldn't live with the world around him." David Fricke of "Rolling Stone" wrote that "even the pall of [Edwards'] absence can't cancel out the life-affirming force that hits you with the very first song".


title: The Holy Bible (album)

text: Mark Edwards of "Stylus Magazine" opined that ""The Holy Bible" is easily one of the best albums of the 90s—ignored by many, but loved intensely by the few who've lived with it over the years [...] It puts everything the Manics have done since to shame, not to mention nearly everything else [in music]". Nick Butler of Sputnikmusic dubbed it a "classic" and concluded, "Punk, hard rock, indie, and even metal fans owe it to themselves to hear this. Anyone else may be scared off, but may just find they never look at life the same way again. I certainly haven't."


title: The Holy Bible (album)

text: In April and May 1994 the band first performed songs from "The Holy Bible" at concerts in Thailand and Portugal and at a benefit concert for the Anti-Nazi League at Brockwell Park, London. In June, they played the Glastonbury Festival.


title: The Holy Bible (album)

text: In July and August, without Richey Edwards, they played T in the Park in Scotland, the Alte Wartesaal in Cologne, the Parkpop Festival in The Hague and the Reading Festival. During September, October and December there was a headline tour of the UK and Ireland and two tours in mainland Europe with Suede and Therapy? In December, three nights at the London Astoria ended with the band smashing up their equipment and the venue's lighting rig, causing £26,000 worth of damage.


title: The Holy Bible (album)

text: James Dean Bradfield and Richey Edwards were due to fly to the United States for media interviews on 1 February 1995, the day of Edwards' disappearance, and Bradfield ended up doing this alone. Concerts in US cities as well as in Prague and Vienna had been scheduled for March and April 1995, but were cancelled.


title: The Holy Bible (album)

text: In late 2014 the band performed the album in full for the first time, at concerts in Glasgow, Manchester, Dublin and London, marking the 20th anniversary of its release. Following the UK concerts, the Manics took "The Holy Bible" tour to North America, and in April 2015 the band played in Washington DC, Toronto, New York, Boston, San Francisco, Los Angeles and Chicago. They also played in the Cardiff Castle with 10,000 fans attending the gig, it was broadcast nationwide by BBC Two Wales.


title: The Holy Bible (album)

text: "The Holy Bible" has continued to be acclaimed in the years since its release, with many British music magazines listing it as one of the best albums of the 1990s and one of the greatest ever released.


title: The Holy Bible (album)

text: The writers of "Melody Maker" ranked it 15th on its list of the top 100 albums of all time in 2000, and "Kerrang!" placed it 10th in a similar list five years later. It has also remained popular with the British public – in 2005 it topped a BBC "Newsnight" poll of viewers' favourite albums. Readers of "Q" voted it as the 10th best album released during the magazine's lifetime in 2001 and as the 18th greatest album ever in 2003.


title: The Holy Bible (album)

text: In 2011 "NME" ranked it number 1 in their "50 Darkest Albums Ever" list. The same magazine placed the album at number 5 in their end of the year list of the best albums of 1994. In 2003 it was voted on number 37 on "NME"<nowiki>'</nowiki>s poll of best albums of all time and, more recently, number 44 in their list of the 500 greatest albums ever made. The album is also featured in "The Guardian"<nowiki>'</nowiki>s list "1000 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die". At the NME awards 2015, the album won "Reissue of the Year" for its 20th anniversary edition.


title: The Holy Bible (album)

text: Ben Patashnik of "Drowned in Sound" later said that, at the time of its release, the album "didn't sell very well, but its impact was felt keenly by anyone who'd ever come into contact with the Manics", and that it is now a "masterpiece [...] the sound of one man in a close-knit group of friends slowly disintegrating and using his own anguish to create some of the most brilliant art to be released on a large scale as music in years [...] It's not a suicide note; it's a warning."


title: The Holy Bible (album)

text: A 2017 collection by Repeater Books, entitled "Triptych", "consider(s) The Holy Bible from three separate, intersecting angles, combining the personal with the political, history with memory, and popular accessibility with intellectual attention to the album’s depth and complexity." In a discussion between the books co-author, Daniel Lukes, and music writer Guy Mankowski, "The Holy Bible" was described as 'the most post-punk of albums' in that 'it takes the punk idea that 'everyone can express themselves and they don't need to be a muso to do that' and marries it with the post-punk intellectualism that saw artists in that movement turn to authors such as J. G. Ballard for answers'. Mankowski added 'I think the textures on the album are very 'after punk'- they have the brutality of punk but are more nuanced, to reflect a troubled state of mind.'


title: Patagonian mara

text: The Patagonian mara (Dolichotis patagonum) is a relatively large rodent in the mara genus "Dolichotis". It is also known as the Patagonian cavy, Patagonian hare, or dillaby. This herbivorous, somewhat rabbit-like animal is found in open and semiopen habitats in Argentina, including large parts of Patagonia. A population has also been recorded in the northern United Arab Emirates, possibly as a result of escaped pets or captive animals. It is monogamous, but often breeds in warrens shared by several pairs.


title: Patagonian mara

text: The Patagonian mara resembles a jackrabbit. It has distinctive long ears and long limbs. Its hind limbs are longer and more muscular than its fore limbs and it has a longer radius than humerus. The feet are compressed, making them hoof-like. The fore feet have four digits while the hind feet have three digits. Its tail is short, depressed, and hairless. It has a gray dorsal pelage with a white patch on the rump separated from the dorsal fur by a black area. In addition, the mara has a white underside with a somewhat orange flank and chin. The average Patagonian mara has a head and body length of with a tail of . It weighs . Unlike most other caviids, such as guinea pigs and capybaras, the anal glands of the mara are between the anus and the base of the tail rather than being anterior to the anus.


title: Patagonian mara

text: Patagonian maras are found only in Argentina, from 28 to 50°S. They prefer to live in habitats with shrub cover, but they also inhabit overgrazed and barren soils in the Monte Desert biome. In northwestern Argentina, they primarily inhabit lowland habitats such as forest and creosote bush or "larrea". Maras prefer sandy and low shrub habitat in Valdes Peninsula. They have adapted well to a cursorial lifestyle on the open plains and steppe, with long legs, reduced clavicle, and well-developed sensory organs making them capable of running and communicating in these open habitats. When running, maras have been compared to deer and antelope. Maras are largely herbivorous. They feed primarily on green vegetation and fruit. In the Monte Desert, monocots make up 70% of their diet, while dicots make up 30%. Preferred grass species eaten are those of the genera "Chloris", "Pappophorum", and "Trichloris", while dicots that are eaten include "Atriplex lampa", "Lycium" spp., and "Prosopis" spp.


title: Patagonian mara

text: Maras are primarily diurnal and around 46% of their daily activities involve feeding. Their temporal activity rhythms are related to environmental factors. Light, precipitation, and temperature have positive effects on annual activities, while darkness and relative humidity have negative effects. The daily activity of maras is unimodal in winter and biomodal in other seasons. Their preferred temperature is around . Females spend more time feeding than the males, due to the demands of gestation and lactation. Males spend most of the day sitting and being vigilant for predators. Predators of maras, particularly the young, are felids, grisons, foxes, and birds of prey. Maras are also hosts for parasites such as the nematode worm "Wellcomia dolichotis".


title: Patagonian mara

text: Their social organizations have a unique combination of monogamy and communal breeding. Being monogamous, pairs of maras stay together for life, with replacement of partners only occurring after one's death. The male has almost the sole responsibility in maintaining the pair by following the female wherever she goes. A male marks his female with urine and marks the ground around her with secretions from his glands and with feces, making the grounds around the female a mobile territory. Pairs breed together alone or with other pairs in warrens shared by up to 29 pairs. Maras breed, at least in southern Argentina, from August to January. Gestation lasts 100 days in wild. Most births in Patagonia occur between September and October, which is before the summer dry season and after the winter rains. Females produce one litter each year in the wild, but can produce as many as four litters a year in captivity. Young can walk almost immediately postpartum.


title: Patagonian mara

text: Dens are dug during the breeding season for the young to be raised. Litters from one to 22 pairs are grouped together in these dens. Communal living provides protection from predators with the survival rate for young being higher in larger groups than in smaller groups. One pair visits the den at a time for around one hour and the other parents circle around the den. One or two pups are nursed at a time by a female. A female may sometimes nurse a young from another pair. While a female may prevent young other than her own from nursing her, some young are able to steal milk. Mothers do not actively cooperate in raising their young. For the first three weeks, young remain near the den. At this time, distance between individuals is low, with frequent body contact, huddling, allogrooming, and extended play among the pups. After this, the young are able to leave the den and graze with their parents. Young are weaned after 13 weeks.


title: Patagonian mara

text: Maras make a number of vocalizations during grazing or slow locomotion. When seeking contact, a mara emits an inflected "wheet" while a low, repetitive grunt is made when following a conspecific. Maras tooth chatter and emit low grunts when threatened. They also produce a series of short grunts when grooming. Scent marking is used by maras for complex and intense social interactions. Maras stretch and sniff the soil and then sit upright with an arched back and the anogenital area flattened to the ground, a process known as anal digging. In addition, a male stands on his hind legs and urinates on a female's rump, to which the female responds by spraying a jet of urine backwards into the face of the male. The male's urination is meant to repel other males from his partner, while the female's urination is a rejection of any approaching male when she is not receptive. Both anal digging and urination are more frequent during the breeding season and are more commonly done by males.


title: Patagonian mara

text: Patagonian maras are considered to be a near threatened species. Historically, maras have ranged from north-central Argentina south almost to Tierra del Fuego. Nevertheless, maras have been greatly affected by hunting and habitat alteration and have been extirpated in some areas, including Buenos Aires Province. Mara skins have been used for bedspreads and rugs.


title: The Society Management

text: The Society Management is a model management company based in New York City, and is the official U.S. division of the Elite World network. It is also the U.S. branch of the Elite Model Look contest.


title: Toilet humour

text: Toilet humour, or potty or scatological humour (compare scatology), is a type of off-colour humour dealing with defecation, diarrhea, constipation, urination and flatulence, and to a lesser extent vomiting and other bodily functions. It sees substantial crossover with sexual humour, such as dick jokes.


title: Toilet humour

text: Toilet humour is commonly an interest of children and young teenagers, for whom cultural taboos related to acknowledgement of waste excretion still have a degree of novelty. The humour comes from the rejection of such taboos, and is a part of modern culture.


title: Toilet humour

text: Toilet humour is sometimes found in song and rhyme, particularly schoolboy songs. Examples of this are found in Mozart and scatology, and variants of the German folk schoolboys' song known as the "Scheiße-Lied" (English: "Shit-Song") which is indexed in the German "Volksliederarchiv". A children's Spanish musical duo, , made a song called "Caca Culo Pedo Pis", which literally translates to "Poop Butt Fart Pee".


title: Toilet humour

text: American musician Matt Farley is known for writing and performing a multitude of songs related to urine, feces, vomit, and various other bodily fluids under the pseudonym "The Toilet Bowl Cleaners", including one of his most popular songs entitled "Poop In My Fingernails".


title: Toilet humour

text: Detroit rapper Eminem famously utilises crude humour throughout his discography. His most notorious example of toilet humour was featured on the 2017 album Revival, where he raps "Your booty is heavy duty, like diarrhoea", a line which received extensive lament from critics. The Los Angeles Times comments: "If Hannibal Lecter could have recorded a rap album, this would have been it. Brilliant, sinister, scatological and a parent's nightmare."


title: Toilet humour

text: Paul Oldfield, who performed under the name Mr Methane, performed a stage act that included him farting the notes of music. Joseph Pujol, who performed under the name Le Pétomane (French for "fart maniac"), performed a similar stage act for the Paris music hall scene.


title: Toilet humour

text: One of the most popular books about defecation and accidents in toilets is a guide that began as "Shitting Pretty" and then was relaunched as "How to Shit around the World".


title: Toilet humour

text: The children's book series "Captain Underpants" makes copious use of toilet humor. "Doctor Diaper", "The Bionic Booger Boy", and "Professor Pippy Pee-Pee Poopypants" are among the villains in the series.


title: Toilet humour

text: The American comedy duo Tim & Eric have made numerous comedy sketches based around toilet humour. For example, they have made fake commercials for non-existent products such as the "Poop Tube" (a device that lets people release liquefied faecal matter into a urinal while standing up), the "fla'Hat" (a hat that is connected to the wearer's anus which expands when storing flatulence), and "D-Pants" (an undergarment invented by "Diah Riha-Jones" that captures "uncontrollable diarrhea").


title: Toilet humour

text: In the series "South Park", the Canadian comedy duo Terrance and Phillip are noted for toilet humor and often make comedic use of their flatulence e.g. in the song ‘Unclefucker’.


title: Toilet humour

text: English actor Adrian Edmondson, who appeared in many shows utilising toilet humour, is quoted as saying, "Toilet humour is like jazz: everybody has an idea what it is, and most people don't like it. But the people who do like it are fervent about it and like it until they die."


title: Toilet humour

text: A game notorious for its juvenile humour, "Conker's Bad Fur Day" contains a plentiful amount of scatological jokes. One of the landmark areas is a "Poo Mountain" and some of its missions involve getting cows to drink a laxative prune juice to produce "pooballs" and another fighting The Great Mighty Poo, a giant opera-singing pile of feces as a boss. In a later mission, the game's protagonist also has urination as an attack, after drinking a lot of beer and getting drunk.


title: Toilet humour

text: Toilet humour is also versatile in the "Metal Gear" franchise. Solid Snake can protect himself from wolf attacks by having one urinate on him. In "", Solid Snake can spot soldiers relieving themselves several times and also stand under them. In "", Raiden is instructed in order to use a terminal, he first needs to "take a DOOMP", which is an abbreviation for "digital-optical output mounted proxy".


title: Toilet humour

text: A trait of Wario from the eponymous spin-off franchise is a powerful flatulence attack extensively used in his "Super Smash Bros." appearance.


title: Toilet humour

text: The Moose Toys franchise Little Live "Gotta Go" Pets is a toy line of interactive plush animals that "poop" when fed colourful sand. The toys make graphic noises of passing gas, panic and say the words "uh-oh! Gotta go!" and have scatological names including "turdle" (turtle). Famous internet critic Doug Walker called the toys "disgusting" and found them immature and inappropriate. Parenting blogs praised the toy line for its crude humour approach to potty training.


title: Toilet humour

text: Mattel fashion doll Barbie has a plastic golden retriever, named Tanner, which has been an available toy in different variations since the 1990s. Tanner the dog eats brown bean-like beads and then poops them out when its tail is pressed. Barbie can then pick up the plastic poop with a scooper that comes with the playsets.


title: Toilet humour

text: Infant dolls, typically targeted towards little girls, have existed for decades that urinate and defecate (into diapers or potties) as a play feature. Variants include "Magic Potty Baby" (a 1990s Tyco brand doll) and "Baby Alive" (and Amazon knock-off counterfeit variants) that pee, poop and release glitter from their rear ends. The trend of scatological dolls for girls was mocked on the 1970s British comedy TV series "Are You Being Served?" in the episode "A Change Is as Good as a Rest"; salesman Mr. Lucas fills Ms. Brahms's peeing dollies with fizzy carbonated lemonade; another gag features character Mrs. Slocombe displaying two doll variants to a customer: the one manufactured in Britain is blonde-haired and says "I want to go to the potty" when a string on its back is pulled, while a similar doll with sandy hair manufactured in India says "my name is Yasmin, and I have just "been" to the potty" when its string is pulled.


title: Sara (Fleetwood Mac song)

text: "Sara" is a song written by singer-songwriter Stevie Nicks of the British-American rock band Fleetwood Mac, which was released as a single from the 1979 "Tusk" double LP. The vinyl album version length is 6 minutes 22 seconds, and the edited single version length is 4 minutes 37 seconds. The song peaked at No. 7 in the US for three weeks, No. 37 in the UK for two weeks, No. 11 in Australia, and No. 12 in Canada.


title: Sara (Fleetwood Mac song)

text: Speaking in a radio interview for the "Friday Rock Show" with Tommy Vance in the early 1990s, Stevie Nicks said the song was partially written about her good friend, Sara, who married Nicks' ex and bandmate, Mick Fleetwood.


title: Sara (Fleetwood Mac song)

text: However, Nicks' former boyfriend Don Henley claimed that the song is about their unborn child. In 1979, Nicks said, "If I ever have a little girl, I will name her Sara. It's a very special name to me." In a 2014 "Billboard" interview Nicks said, "Had I married Don and had that baby, and had she been a girl, I would have named her Sara... It's accurate, but not the entirety of it."


title: Sara (Fleetwood Mac song)

text: In his 2014 autobiography, Mick Fleetwood agreed with the suggestion that the song referred to an affair with a friend named Sara which ended his own relationship with Nicks. Fleetwood and Nicks had been involved in a romantic relationship in the late 1970s. The lyrics, "and he was just like a great dark wing/within the wings of a storm" refer to Fleetwood being an emotional comfort zone for Nicks following her breakup with fellow band member Lindsey Buckingham.


title: Sara (Fleetwood Mac song)

text: Although the relationship was not exclusive on either side, Fleetwood states that Nicks became upset when she learned of Fleetwood's relationship with her best friend, Sara. This relationship effectively ended the romance between Nicks and Fleetwood.


title: Sara (Fleetwood Mac song)

text: "Cash Box" called "Sara" "a lush, entrancing Stevie Nicks composition, with effectively echoed lead vocals by Nicks" and called the arrangement "glistening".


title: Sara (Fleetwood Mac song)

text: The version of the song featured on the original vinyl release of "Tusk" was the unedited 6:22 version, but when "Tusk" was originally released as a single Compact Disc in 1987 it featured the edited version, which leaves out the middle verse and musical bridge. It was not until the 1988 Fleetwood Mac "Greatest Hits" compilation was released that the 6:22 version of the song became available on compact disc.


title: Sara (Fleetwood Mac song)

text: There is also a version known as "the cleaning lady" edit, so-called as Nicks is heard at the beginning of the demo recording, "I don't want to be a cleaning lady!" This version lasts almost nine minutes and was released on the 2-disc remastered version "Tusk" in March 2004. The song contains an extended vamp, which includes excised lines previously only heard in live performances, such as, "and the wind became crazy", "no sorrow for sorrow, you can have no more", and "swallow all your pride, don't you ever change—never change".


title: Sara (Fleetwood Mac song)

text: On 5 November 2015, a live version was released as part of a remastered "Tusk". This recording features a heavier hitting drum beat from Fleetwood.


title: Sara (Fleetwood Mac song)

text: The 2018 Fleetwood Mac "50 Years – Don't Stop" album includes a remastered single version of the song that runs 4:37.


title: Sara (Fleetwood Mac song)

text: In 1980, Nicks was sued for plagiarism by a songwriter who had submitted a song called "Sara", which she had sent to Warner Bros. in 1978. Nicks showed that she had written and recorded a demo version of the song in July 1978, before the lyrics were sent to Warner, and the complainant accepted that no plagiarism had occurred.


title: Boarding pass

text: A boarding pass or boarding card is a document provided by an airline during airport check-in, giving a passenger permission to enter the restricted area of an airport (also known as the airside portion of the airport) and to board the airplane for a particular flight. At a minimum, it identifies the passenger, the flight number, and the date, and scheduled time for departure. A boarding pass may also indicate details of the perks a passenger is entitled to (e.g., lounge access, priority boarding) and is thus presented at the entrance of such facilities to show eligibility.


title: Boarding pass

text: In some cases, flyers can check in online and print the boarding passes themselves. A boarding pass may be required for a passenger to enter a secure area of an airport.


title: Boarding pass

text: Generally, a passenger with an electronic ticket will only need a boarding pass. If a passenger has a paper airline ticket, that ticket (or flight coupon) may be required to be attached to the boarding pass for him or her to board the aircraft. For "connecting flights", a boarding pass is required for each new leg (distinguished by a different flight number), regardless of whether a different aircraft is boarded or not.


title: Boarding pass

text: The paper boarding pass (and ticket, if any), or portions thereof, are sometimes collected and counted for cross-check of passenger counts by gate agents, but more frequently are scanned (via barcode or magnetic strip) and returned to the passengers in their entirety. The standards for bar codes and magnetic stripes on boarding passes are published by the IATA. The bar code standard (Bar Coded Boarding Pass) defines the 2D bar code printed on paper boarding passes or sent to mobile phones for electronic boarding passes. The magnetic stripe standard (ATB2) expired in 2010.


title: Boarding pass

text: Most airports and airlines have automatic readers that will verify the validity of the boarding pass at the jetway door or boarding gate. This also automatically updates the airline's database to show the passenger has boarded and the seat is used, and that the checked baggage for that passenger may stay aboard. This speeds up the paperwork process at the gate.


title: Boarding pass

text: Once an airline has scanned all boarding passes presented at the gate for a particular flight and knows which passengers actually boarded the aircraft, its database system can compile the passenger manifest for that flight.


title: Boarding pass

text: BCBP (bar-coded boarding pass) is the name of the standard used by more than 200 airlines. BCBP defines the 2-Dimensional (2D) bar code printed on a boarding pass or sent to a mobile phone for electronic boarding passes.


title: Boarding pass

text: BCBP was part of the IATA Simplifying the Business program, which issued an industry mandate for all boarding passes to be bar coded. This was achieved in 2010.


title: Boarding pass

text: Airlines and third parties use a barcode reader to read the bar codes and capture the data. Reading the bar code usually takes place in the boarding process but can also happen when entering the airport security checkpoints, while paying for items at the check-out tills of airport stores or trying to access airline lounges.


title: Boarding pass

text: The standard was originally published in 2005 by IATA and updated in 2008 to include symbologies for mobile phones and in 2009 to include a field for a digital signature in the mobile bar codes. Future developments of the standard will include a near field communication format.


title: Boarding pass

text: In recent years concerns have been raised both to the security of the boarding pass bar-codes, the data they contain and the PNR (Passenger Name Record) data that they link to. Some airline bar-codes can be scanned by mobile phone applications to reveal names, dates of birth, source and destination airports and the PNR locator code, a 6-digit alphanumeric code also sometimes referred to as a booking reference number. This code plus the surname of the traveller can be used to log in to the airline's website and access information on the traveller. In 2020, a photograph of a boarding pass posted by former Australian Prime Minister Tony Abbott on Instagram provided sufficient information to log in to Qantas's website. While not in and of itself problematic as the flight had happened in the past, the website (through its source code) unintentionally leaked private data not intended to be displayed directly, such as Abbott's passport number and Qantas's internal PNR remarks.


title: Boarding pass

text: Paper boarding passes are issued either by agents at a check-in counter, self-service kiosks, or by the airline's web check-in site. BCBP can be printed at the airport by an ATB (Automated Ticket & Boarding Pass) printer or a direct thermal printer, or by a personal inkjet or laser printer. The symbology for paper boarding passes is PDF417.


title: Boarding pass

text: IATA's Board of Governors' mandate stated that all the IATA member airlines would be capable of issuing BCBP by the end of 2008, and all boarding passes would contain the 2D bar code by the end of 2010. The BCBP standard were published in 2005. It has been progressively adopted by airlines: By the end of 2005, 9 airlines were BCBP capable; 32 by end 2006; 101 by end 2007; and 200 by end 2008 (source: IATA).


title: Boarding pass

text: Electronic boarding passes were 'the industry's next major technological innovation after e-ticketing'. According to SITA's Airline IT Trend Survey 2009, mobile BCBP accounted for 2.1% of use (vs. paper boarding passes), forecast rising to 11.6% in 2012.


title: Boarding pass

text: Many airlines have moved to issuing electronic boarding passes, whereby the passenger checks in either online or via a mobile device, and the boarding pass is then sent to the mobile device as an SMS or e-mail. Upon completing an online reservation, the passenger can tick a box offering a mobile boarding pass. Most carriers offer two ways to get it: have one sent to mobile device (via e-mail or text message) when checking in online, or use an airline app to check in, and the boarding pass will appear within the application. In many cases, a passenger with an iPhone can download the boarding card generated from the airline's app into the Apple Wallet app. A passenger with an Android smartphone can do the same with the Google Pay app. This way the passenger does not need to open the airline's dedicated app and shortly before the flight, the boarding card appears on the home screen. Furthermore, a mobile boarding cards can be loaded into smart watches through the phones they are paired with.


title: Boarding pass

text: The mobile pass is equipped with the same bar code as a standard paper boarding pass, and it is completely machine readable. The gate attendant simply scans the code displayed on the phone. IATA's BCBP standard defines the three symbologies accepted for mobile phones: Aztec code, Datamatrix and QR code. The United Nations International Telecommunication Union expected mobile phone subscribers to hit the 4 billion mark by the end of 2008.


title: Boarding pass

text: In 2007, Continental Airlines (now United Airlines) first began testing mobile boarding passes. Today, most major carriers offer mobile boarding passes at many airports. Airlines that issue electronic boarding passes include:


title: Boarding pass

text: In Europe, Lufthansa was one of the first airlines to launch Mobile BCBP in April 2008. In the US, the Transportation Security Administration runs a pilot program of a Boarding Pass Scanning System, using the IATA BCBP standard.


title: Boarding pass

text: A print-at-home boarding pass is a document that a traveller can print at home, at their office, or anywhere with an Internet connection and printer, giving them permission to board an airplane for a particular flight.


title: Boarding pass

text: British Airways CitiExpress, the first to pioneer this self-service initiative, piloted it on its London City Airport routes to minimize queues at check-in desks, in 1999. The CAA (Civil Aviation Authority) approved the introduction of the 3D boarding pass in February 2000. Early adoption with passengers was slow, except for Business Travellers. However, the advent of low-cost carriers that charged for not using print-at-home boarding passes was the catalyst to shift consumers away from traditional at-airport check-in functions. This paved the way for British Airways to become the first global airline to deploy self-service boarding passes using this now ubiquitous technology


title: Boarding pass

text: Many airlines encourage travellers to check in online up to a month before their flight and obtain their boarding pass before arriving at the airport. Some carriers offer incentives for doing so (e.g., in 2015, US Airways offered 1000 bonus miles to anyone checking in online,), while others charge fees for checking in or printing one's boarding pass at the airport.


title: Boarding pass

text: In a bid to boost ancillary revenue from other sources of in-flight advertising, many airlines have turned to targeted advertising technologies aimed at passengers from their departure city to their destination.


title: Boarding pass

text: Print-at-home boarding passes display adverts chosen specifically for given travellers based on their anonymised passenger information, which does not contain any personally identifiable data. Advertisers are able to target specific demographic information (age range, gender, nationality) and route information (origin and destination of flight). The same technology can also be used to serve advertising on airline booking confirmation emails, itinerary emails, and pre-departure reminders.


title: Suppression of the Society of Jesus

text: The suppression of the Jesuits was the removal of all members of the Society of Jesus from most of the countries of Western Europe and their colonies beginning in 1759, and the abolishment of the order by the Holy See in 1773. The Jesuits were serially expelled from the Portuguese Empire (1759), France (1764), the Two Sicilies, Malta, Parma, the Spanish Empire (1767) and Austria and Hungary (1782).


title: Suppression of the Society of Jesus

text: This timeline was influenced by political manoeuvrings both at Rome and within each country involved. The papacy reluctantly acceded to the anti-Jesuit demands of various Catholic kingdoms while providing minimal theological justification for the suppressions.


title: Suppression of the Society of Jesus

text: Historians identify multiple factors causing the suppression. The Jesuits, who were not above getting involved in politics, were distrusted for their closeness to the pope and his power in the religious and political affairs of independent nations. In France, it was a combination of many influences, from Jansenism to free-thought, to the then prevailing impatience with the old order of things. Monarchies attempting to centralise and secularise political power viewed the Jesuits as supranational, too strongly allied to the papacy, and too autonomous from the monarchs in whose territory they operated.


title: Suppression of the Society of Jesus

text: With his Papal brief, "Dominus ac Redemptor" (21 July 1773), Pope Clement XIV suppressed the Society as a "fait accompli". However, the order did not disappear. It continued underground operations in China, Russia, Prussia, and the United States. In Russia, Catherine the Great allowed the founding of a new novitiate. In 1814, a subsequent Pope, Pius VII, acted to restore the Society of Jesus to its previous provinces, and the Jesuits began to resume their work in those countries.


title: Suppression of the Society of Jesus

text: Prior to the eighteenth-century suppression of the Jesuits in many countries, there had been earlier bans, such as in territories of the Venetian Republic between 1606 and 1656–1657, begun and ended as part of disputes between the Republic and the papacy, beginning with the Venetian Interdict.


title: Suppression of the Society of Jesus

text: By the mid-18th century, the Society had acquired a reputation in Europe for political maneuvering and economic success. Monarchs in many European states grew increasingly wary of what they saw as undue interference from a foreign entity. The expulsion of Jesuits from their states had the added benefit of allowing governments to impound the Society's accumulated wealth and possessions. However, historian Gibson (1966) cautions, "[h]ow far this served as a motive for the expulsion we do not know."


title: Suppression of the Society of Jesus

text: Various states took advantage of different events in order to take action. The series of political struggles between various monarchs, particularly France and Portugal, began with disputes over territory in 1750 and culminated in the suspension of diplomatic relations and the dissolution of the Society by the Pope over most of Europe, and even some executions. The Portuguese Empire, France, the Two Sicilies, Parma, and the Spanish Empire were involved to a different extent.


title: Suppression of the Society of Jesus

text: The conflicts began with trade disputes, in 1750 in Portugal, in 1755 in France, and in the late 1750s in the Two Sicilies. In 1758 the government of Joseph I of Portugal took advantage of the waning powers of Pope Benedict XIV and deported Jesuits from South America after relocating them with their native workers, and then fighting a brief conflict, formally suppressing the order in 1759. In 1762 the Parlement Français (a court, not a legislature) ruled against the Society in a huge bankruptcy case under pressure from a host of groups – from within the Church but also secular notables such as Madame de Pompadour, the king's mistress. Austria and the Two Sicilies suppressed the order by decree in 1767.


title: Suppression of the Society of Jesus

text: There were long-standing tensions between the Portuguese crown and the Jesuits, which increased when the Count of Oeiras (later the Marquis of Pombal) became the monarch's minister of state, culminating in the expulsion of the Jesuits in 1759. The Távora affair in 1758 could be considered a pretext for the expulsion and crown confiscation of Jesuit assets. According to historians James Lockhart and Stuart B. Schwartz, the Jesuits' "independence, power, wealth, control of education, and ties to Rome made the Jesuits obvious targets for Pombal's brand of extreme regalism."


title: Suppression of the Society of Jesus

text: Portugal's quarrel with the Jesuits began over an exchange of South American colonial territory with Spain. By a secret treaty of 1750, Portugal relinquished to Spain the contested Colonia del Sacramento at the mouth of the Rio de la Plata in exchange for the Seven Reductions of Paraguay, the autonomous Jesuit missions that had been nominal Spanish colonial territory. The native Guaraní, who lived in the mission territories, were ordered to quit their country and settle across the Uruguay. Owing to the harsh conditions, the Guaraní rose in arms against the transfer, and the so-called Guaraní War ensued. It was a disaster for the Guaraní. In Portugal, a battle escalated, with inflammatory pamphlets denouncing or defending the Jesuits, who, for over a century, had protected the Guarani from enslavement through a network of Reductions, as depicted in "The Mission". The Portuguese colonizers secured the expulsion of the Jesuits.


title: Suppression of the Society of Jesus

text: On 1 April 1758, Pombal persuaded the aged Pope Benedict XIV to appoint the Portuguese Cardinal Saldanha to investigate allegations against the Jesuits. Benedict was skeptical as to the gravity of the alleged abuses. He ordered a "minute inquiry", but, so as to safeguard the reputation of the Society, all serious matters were to be referred back to him. Benedict died the following month on May 3. On May 15, Saldanha, having received the papal brief only a fortnight before, declared that the Jesuits were guilty of having exercised "illicit, public, and scandalous commerce," both in Portugal and in its colonies. He had not visited Jesuit houses as ordered and pronounced on the issues which the pope had reserved to himself.


title: Suppression of the Society of Jesus

text: Pombal implicated the Jesuits in the Távora affair, an attempted assassination of the king on 3 September 1758, on the grounds of their friendship with some of the supposed conspirators. On 19 January 1759, he issued a decree sequestering the property of the Society in the Portuguese dominions and the following September deported the Portuguese fathers, about one thousand in number, to the Pontifical States, keeping the foreigners in prison. Among those arrested and executed was the then denounced Gabriel Malagrida, the Jesuit confessor of Leonor of Távora, for "crimes against the faith". After Malagrida's execution in 1759, the Society was suppressed by the Portuguese crown. The Portuguese ambassador was recalled from Rome and the papal nuncio expelled. Diplomatic relations between Portugal and Rome were broken off until 1770.


title: Suppression of the Society of Jesus

text: The suppression of the Jesuits in France began in the French island colony of Martinique, where the Society of Jesus had a commercial stake in sugar plantations worked by black slave and free labor. Their large mission plantations included large local populations that worked under the usual conditions of tropical colonial agriculture of the 18th century. The "Catholic Encyclopedia" in 1908 said that the practice of the missionaries occupying themselves personally in selling off the goods produced (an anomaly for a religious order) "was allowed partly to provide for the current expenses of the mission, partly in order to protect the simple, childlike natives from the common plague of dishonest intermediaries."


title: Suppression of the Society of Jesus

text: Father Antoine La Vallette, Superior of the Martinique missions, borrowed money to expand the large undeveloped resources of the colony. But on the outbreak of war with England, ships carrying goods of an estimated value of 2,000,000 "livres" were captured, and La Vallette suddenly went bankrupt for a very large sum. His creditors turned to the Jesuit procurator in Paris to demand payment, but he refused responsibility for the debts of an independent mission – though he offered to negotiate for a settlement. The creditors went to the courts and received a favorable decision in 1760, obliging the Society to pay and giving leave to distrain in the case of non-payment. The Jesuits, on the advice of their lawyers, appealed to the Parlement of Paris. This turned out to be an imprudent step for their interests. Not only did the Parlement support the lower court on 8 May 1761, but having once gotten the case into its hands, the Jesuits' opponents in that assembly determined to strike a blow at the Order.


title: Suppression of the Society of Jesus

text: The Jesuits had many who opposed them. The Jansenists were numerous among the enemies of the orthodox party. The Sorbonne, an educational rival, joined the Gallicans, the "Philosophes", and the Encyclopédistes. Louis XV was weak; his wife and children were in favor of the Jesuits; his able first minister, the Duc de Choiseul, played into the hands of the Parlement and the royal mistress, Madame de Pompadour, to whom the Jesuits had refused absolution for she was living in sin with the King of France, was a determined opponent. The determination of the Parlement of Paris in time bore down all opposition.


title: Suppression of the Society of Jesus

text: The attack on the Jesuits was opened on 17 April 1762 by the Jansenist sympathizer the Abbé Chauvelin, who denounced the Constitution of the Society of Jesus, which was publicly examined and discussed in a hostile press. The Parlement issued its "Extraits des assertions" assembled from passages from Jesuit theologians and canonists, in which they were alleged to teach every sort of immorality and error. On 6 August 1762, the final "arrêt" was proposed to the Parlement by the Advocate General Joly de Fleury, condemning the Society to extinction, but the king's intervention brought eight months' delay, and in the meantime a compromise was suggested by the Court. If the French Jesuits would separate from the Society headed by the Jesuit General directly under the pope's authority and come under a French vicar, with French customs, as with the Gallican Church, the Crown would still protect them. The French Jesuits, rejecting Gallicanism, refused to consent. On 1 April 1763, the colleges were closed, and by a further "arrêt" of March 9, 1764, the Jesuits were required to renounce their vows under pain of banishment. At the end of November 1764, the king signed an edict dissolving the Society throughout his dominions, for they were still protected by some provincial parlements, as in Franche-Comté, Alsace, and Artois. In the draft of the edict, he canceled numerous clauses that implied that the Society was guilty, and writing to Choiseul he concluded: "If I adopt the advice of others for the peace of my realm, you must make the changes I propose, or I will do nothing. I say no more, lest I should say too much."


title: Suppression of the Society of Jesus

text: Following the British 1759 victory against the French in Quebec, France lost its North American territory of New France, where Jesuit missionaries in the seventeenth century had been active among indigenous peoples. British rule had implications for Jesuits in New France, but their numbers and sites were already in decline. As early as 1700, the Jesuits had adopted a policy of merely maintaining their existing posts, instead of trying to establish new ones beyond Quebec, Montreal, and Ottawa. Once New France was under British control, the British barred the immigration of any further Jesuits. By 1763, there were only twenty-one Jesuits still stationed in what was now the British colony of Quebec. By 1773, only eleven Jesuits remained. In the same year, the British crown laid claim to Jesuit property in Canada and declared that the Society of Jesus in New France was dissolved.


title: Suppression of the Society of Jesus

text: The Suppression in Spain and in the Spanish colonies, and in its dependency the Kingdom of Naples, was the last of the expulsions, with Portugal (1759) and France (1764) having already set the pattern. The Spanish crown had already begun a series of administrative and other changes in their overseas empire, such as reorganizing the viceroyalties, rethinking economic policies, and establishing a military, so that the expulsion of the Jesuits is seen as part of this general trend known generally as the Bourbon Reforms. The aim of the reforms was to curb the increasing autonomy and self-confidence of American-born Spaniards, reassert crown control, and increase revenues. Some historians doubt that the Jesuits were guilty of intrigues against the Spanish crown that were used as the immediate cause for the expulsion.


title: Suppression of the Society of Jesus

text: Contemporaries in Spain attributed the suppression of the Jesuits to the Esquilache Riots, named after the Italian advisor to Bourbon king Carlos III, that erupted after a sumptuary law was enacted. The law, placing restrictions on men's wearing of voluminous capes and limiting the breadth of sombreros the men could wear, was seen as an "insult to Castilian pride."


title: Suppression of the Society of Jesus

text: When an angry crowd of those resisters converged on the royal palace, king Carlos fled to the countryside. The crowd had shouted "Long Live Spain! Death to Esquilache!" His Flemish palace guard fired warning shots over the people's heads. An account says that a group of Jesuit priests appeared on the scene, soothed the protesters with speeches, and sent them home. Carlos decided to rescind the tax hike and hat-trimming edict and to fire his finance minister.


title: Suppression of the Society of Jesus

text: The monarch and his advisers were alarmed by the uprising, which challenged royal authority, and the Jesuits were accused of inciting the mob and publicly accusing the monarch of religious crimes. Pedro Rodríguez de Campomanes, attorney for the Council of Castile, the body overseeing central Spain, articulated this view in a report the king read. Charles III ordered the convening of a special royal commission to draw up a master plan to expel the Jesuits. The commission first met in January 1767. It modeled its plan on the tactics deployed by France's Philip IV against the Knights Templar in 1307 – emphasizing the element of surprise. Charles's adviser Campomanes had written a treatise on the Templars in 1747, which may have informed the implementation of the Jesuit suppression. One historian states that "Charles III never would have dared to expel the Jesuits had he not been assured of the support of an influential party within the Spanish Church." Jansenists and mendicant orders had long opposed the Jesuits and sought to curtail their power.


title: Suppression of the Society of Jesus

text: King Charles's ministers kept their deliberations to themselves, as did the king, who acted upon "urgent, just, and necessary reasons, which I reserve in my royal mind." The correspondence of Bernardo Tanucci, Charles's anti-clerical minister in Naples, contains the ideas which, from time to time, guided Spanish policy. Charles conducted his government through the Count of Aranda, a reader of Voltaire, and other liberals.


title: Suppression of the Society of Jesus

text: The commission's meeting on 29 January 1767 planned the expulsion of the Jesuits. Secret orders, to be opened at sunrise on April 2, were sent to all provincial viceroys and district military commanders in Spain. Each sealed envelope contained two documents. One was a copy of the original order expelling "all members of the Society of Jesus" from Charles's Spanish domains and confiscating all their goods. The other instructed local officials to surround the Jesuit colleges and residences on the night of April 2, arrest the Jesuits, and arrange their passage to ships awaiting them at various ports. King Carlos' closing sentence read: "If a single Jesuit, even though sick or dying, is still to be found in the area under your command after the embarkation, prepare yourself to face summary execution."


title: Suppression of the Society of Jesus

text: Pope Clement XIII, presented with a similar ultimatum by the Spanish ambassador to the Vatican a few days before the decree would take effect, asked King Charles "by what authority?" and threatened him with eternal damnation. Pope Clement had no means to enforce his protest and the expulsion took place as planned.


title: Suppression of the Society of Jesus

text: In New Spain, the Jesuits had actively evangelized the Indians on the northern frontier. But their main activity involved educating elite "criollo" (American-born Spanish) men, many of whom themselves became Jesuits. Of the 678 Jesuits expelled from Mexico, 75% were Mexican-born. In late June 1767, Spanish soldiers removed the Jesuits from their 16 missions and 32 stations in Mexico. No Jesuit, no matter how old or ill, could be excepted from the king's decree. Many died on the trek along the cactus-studded trail to the Gulf Coast port of Veracruz, where ships awaited them to transport them to Italian exile.


title: Suppression of the Society of Jesus

text: There were protests in Mexico at the exile of so many Jesuit members of elite families. But the Jesuits themselves obeyed the order. Since the Jesuits had owned extensive landed estates in Mexico – which supported both their evangelization of indigenous peoples and their education mission to criollo elites – the properties became a source of wealth for the crown. The crown auctioned them off, benefiting the treasury, and their criollo purchasers gained productive well-run properties. Many criollo families felt outraged at the crown's actions, regarding it as a "despotic act." One well-known Mexican Jesuit, Francisco Javier Clavijero, during his Italian exile wrote an important history of Mexico, with emphasis on the indigenous peoples. Alexander von Humboldt, the famous German scientist who spent a year in Mexico in 1803–04, praised Clavijero's work on the history of Mexico's indigenous peoples.


title: Suppression of the Society of Jesus

text: Due to the isolation of the Spanish missions on the Baja California peninsula, the expulsion decree did not arrive in Baja California in June 1767, as in the rest of New Spain. It got delayed until the new governor, Gaspar de Portolá, arrived with the news and decree on November 30. By 3 February 1768, Portolá's soldiers had removed the peninsula's 16 Jesuit missionaries from their posts and gathered them in Loreto, whence they sailed to the Mexican mainland and thence to Europe. Showing sympathy for the Jesuits, Portolá treated them kindly, even as he put an end to their 70 years of mission-building in Baja California. The Jesuit missions in Baja California were turned over to the Franciscans and subsequently to the Dominicans, and the future missions in Alta California were founded by Franciscans.


title: Suppression of the Society of Jesus

text: The change in the Spanish colonies in the New World was particularly great, as the far-flung settlements were often dominated by missions. Almost overnight, in the mission towns of Sonora and Arizona, the "black robes" (Jesuits) disappeared and the "gray robes" (Franciscans) replaced them.


title: Suppression of the Society of Jesus

text: The royal decree expelling the Society of Jesus from Spain and its dominions reached Manila on 17 May 1768. Between 1769 and 1771, the Jesuits were transported from the Spanish East Indies to Spain and from there deported to Italy.


title: Suppression of the Society of Jesus

text: Spanish soldiers rounded up the Jesuits in Mexico, marched them to the coasts, and placed them below the decks of Spanish warships headed for the Italian port of Civitavecchia in the Papal States. When they arrived, Pope Clement XIII refused to allow the ships to unload their prisoners onto papal territory. Fired upon by batteries of artillery from the shore of Civitavecchia, the Spanish warships had to look for an anchorage off the island of Corsica, then a dependency of Genoa. But since a rebellion had erupted on Corsica, it took five months before some of the Jesuits could set foot on land.


title: Suppression of the Society of Jesus

text: Several historians have estimated the number of Jesuits deported at 6,000. But it is not clear whether this figure encompasses Spain alone or extends to Spain's overseas colonies (notably Mexico and the Philippines) as well. Jesuit historian Hubert Becher claims that about 600 Jesuits died during their voyage and waiting ordeal.


title: Suppression of the Society of Jesus

text: In Naples, king Carlos' minister Bernardo Tanucci pursued a similar policy: On November 3, the Jesuits, with no accusation or trial, were marched across the border into the Papal States and threatened with death if they returned.


title: Suppression of the Society of Jesus

text: Historian Charles Gibson calls the Spanish crown's expulsion of the Jesuits a "sudden and devastating move" to assert royal control. However, the Jesuits became a vulnerable target for the crown's moves to assert more control over the church; also some religious and diocesan clergy and civil authorities were hostile to them, and they did not protest their expulsion.


title: Suppression of the Society of Jesus

text: In addition to 1767, the Jesuits were suppressed and banned twice more in Spain, in 1834 and in 1932. Spanish ruler Francisco Franco rescinded the last suppression in 1938.


title: Suppression of the Society of Jesus

text: The suppression of the order had longstanding economic effects in the Americas, particularly those areas where they had their missions or reductions – outlying areas dominated by indigenous peoples such as Paraguay and Chiloé Archipelago. In Misiones, in modern-day Argentina, their suppression led to the scattering and enslavement of indigenous Guaranís living in the reductions and a long-term decline in the yerba mate industry, from which it only recovered in the 20th century.


title: Suppression of the Society of Jesus

text: In Ocoa, Valparaíso Region, Chile, folklore says Jesuits left behind a large entierro following their suppression.


title: Suppression of the Society of Jesus

text: With the suppression of the Society of Jesus in Spanish America, Jesuit vineyards in Peru were auctioned, but new owners did not have the same expertise as the Jesuits, contributing to a decline in production of wine and pisco.


title: Suppression of the Society of Jesus

text: Malta was at the time a vassal of the Kingdom of Sicily, and Grandmaster Manuel Pinto da Fonseca, himself a Portuguese, followed suit, expelling the Jesuits from the island and seizing their assets. These assets were used in establishing the University of Malta by a decree signed by Pinto on 22 November 1769, with lasting effect on the social and cultural life of Malta. The Church of the Jesuits (in Maltese ), one of the oldest churches in Valletta, retains this name up to the present.


title: Suppression of the Society of Jesus

text: The independent Duchy of Parma was the smallest Bourbon court. So aggressive in its anti-clericalism was the Parmesan reaction to the news of the expulsion of the Jesuits from Naples, that Pope Clement XIII addressed a public warning against it on 30 January 1768, threatening the Duchy with ecclesiastical censures. At this, all the Bourbon courts turned against the Holy See, demanding the entire dissolution of the Jesuits. Parma expelled the Jesuits from its territories, confiscating their possessions.


title: Suppression of the Society of Jesus

text: The Jesuit order was disbanded in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1773. However, in the territories occupied by the Russian Empire in the First Partition of Poland the Society was not disbanded, as Russian Empress Catherine dismissed the Papal order. In the Commonwealth, many of the Society's possessions were taken over by the Commission of National Education, the world's first Ministry of Education. Lithuania complied with the suppression.


title: Suppression of the Society of Jesus

text: After the suppression of the Jesuits in many European countries and their overseas empires, Pope Clement XIV issued a papal brief on 21 July 1773, in Rome titled: "Dominus ac Redemptor Noster". That decree included the following statement.


title: Suppression of the Society of Jesus

text: After papal suppression in 1773, the scholarly Jesuit Society of Bollandists moved from Antwerp to Brussels, where they continued their work in the monastery of the Coudenberg; in 1788, the Bollandist Society was suppressed by the Austrian government of the Low Countries.


title: Suppression of the Society of Jesus

text: Frederick the Great of Prussia refused to allow the papal document of suppression to be distributed in his country. The order continued in Prussia for several years after the suppression, although it had dissolved before the 1814 restoration.


title: Suppression of the Society of Jesus

text: Many individual Jesuits continued their work as Jesuits in Quebec, although the last one died in 1800. The 21 Jesuits living in North America signed a document offering their submission to Rome in 1774. In the United States, schools and colleges continued to be run and founded by Jesuits.


title: Suppression of the Society of Jesus

text: In Imperial Russia, Catherine the Great refused to allow the papal document of suppression to be distributed and even openly defended the Jesuits from dissolution, and the Jesuit chapter in Belarus received her patronage. It ordained priests, operated schools, and opened housing for novitiates and tertianships. Catherine's successor, Paul I, successfully asked Pope Pius VII in 1801 for formal approval of the Jesuit operation in Russia. The Jesuits, led first by Gabriel Gruber and after his death by Tadeusz Brzozowski, continued to expand in Russia under Alexander I, adding missions and schools in Astrakhan, Moscow, Riga, Saratov, and St. Petersburg and throughout the Caucasus and Siberia. Many former Jesuits throughout Europe traveled to Russia to join the sanctioned order there.


title: Suppression of the Society of Jesus

text: Alexander I withdrew his patronage of the Jesuits in 1812, but with the restoration of the Society in 1814, that had only a temporary effect on the order. Alexander eventually expelled all Jesuits from Imperial Russia in March 1820.


title: Suppression of the Society of Jesus

text: Under the patronage of the "Russian Society", Jesuit provinces were effectively reconstituted in the Kingdom of Great Britain in 1803, the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies in 1803, and the United States in 1805. "Russian" chapters were also formed in Belgium, Italy, the Netherlands, and Switzerland.


title: Suppression of the Society of Jesus

text: The Secularization Decree of Joseph II (Holy Roman Emperor from 1765 to 1790 and ruler of the Habsburg lands from 1780 to 1790) issued on 12 January 1782 for Austria and Hungary banned several monastic orders not involved in teaching or healing and liquidated 140 monasteries (home to 1484 monks and 190 nuns). The banned monastic orders included Jesuits, Camaldolese, Order of Friars Minor Capuchin, Carmelites, Carthusians, Poor Clares, Order of Saint Benedict, Cistercians, Dominican Order (Order of Preachers), Franciscans, Pauline Fathers and Premonstratensians, and their wealth was taken over by the Religious Fund.


title: Suppression of the Society of Jesus

text: His anticlerical and liberal innovations induced Pope Pius VI to pay Joseph II a visit in March 1782. He received the Pope politely and presented himself as a good Catholic, but refused to be influenced.


title: Suppression of the Society of Jesus

text: As the Napoleonic Wars were approaching their end in 1814, the old political order of Europe was to a considerable extent restored at the Congress of Vienna after years of fighting and revolution, during which the Church had been persecuted as an agent of the old order and abused under the rule of Napoleon. With the political climate of Europe changed, and with the powerful monarchs who had called for the suppression of the Society no longer in power, Pope Pius VII issued an order restoring the Society of Jesus in the Catholic countries of Europe. For its part, the Society of Jesus made the decision at the first General Congregation held after the restoration to keep the organization of the Society the way that it had been before the suppression was ordered in 1773.


title: Suppression of the Society of Jesus

text: After 1815, with the Restoration, the Catholic Church began to play a more welcome role in European political life once again. Nation by nation, the Jesuits became re-established.


title: Suppression of the Society of Jesus

text: The modern view is that the suppression of the order was the result of a series of political and economic conflicts rather than a theological controversy, and the assertion of nation-state independence against the Catholic Church. The expulsion of the Society of Jesus from the Catholic nations of Europe and their colonial empires is also seen as one of the early manifestations of the new secularist "zeitgeist" of the Enlightenment. It peaked with the anti-clericalism of the French Revolution. The suppression was also seen as being an attempt by monarchs to gain control of revenues and trade that were previously dominated by the Society of Jesus. Catholic historians often point to a personal conflict between Pope Clement XIII (1758–1769) and his supporters within the church and the crown cardinals backed by France.


title: FC Volendam

text: Football Club Volendam () is a professional football club based in Volendam, Netherlands. They play in the Eredivisie, the top tier of Dutch football from the 2022–23 season following promotion. Nicknamed "de Palingboeren", the club was founded as Victoria in 1920, changed its name to RKSV Volendam in 1923 and emerged as an exclusively professional club, FC Volendam, in 1977, following a split from its parent club. The team plays its home matches in the 6,984-capacity Kras Stadion, where it has been based since 1975.


title: FC Volendam

text: The club has a reputation as the "heen-en-weer club" ("the back-and-forth club") due to its numerous promotions and relegations between the first and second tiers of Dutch football. They have achieved ten promotions to the Eredivisie; a record. Volendam also reached two KNVB Cup finals – in 1957–58 and 1994–95 – which ended in losses to two Rotterdam-based clubs, Sparta and Feyenoord, respectively.


title: FC Volendam

text: "Football Club Volendam" was founded as "Victoria" on 1 June 1920 by local fishermen. By 1923, the club was renamed to "RKSV Volendam", simply known as Volendam and its official orange colours were established after having been red and black the previous years. Being from the piously catholic village of Volendam, the club soon joined the "" ("Catholic Football Association") of the Netherlands. In 1935 and 1938, Volendam won that competition until, in 1940 as part of the Second World War, the RKF was forced by the German occupation to merge into the Royal Dutch Football Association (KNVB). After the Second World War, Volendam played in the Tweede Klasse for a long time, despite being close to promotion several times. Professionalism was introduced in the Netherlands in 1954 and as a result, Volendam saw many players leave. For example, Alkmaar '54 signed the brothers Klaas, Evert and Thoom Smit from the club.


title: FC Volendam

text: A year later, in 1955, Volendam also entered professional football by means of the issue of bonds. Volendam ended its first season in third place and thus qualified for the first season of the second-tier Eerste Divisie; 1956–57. In the 1958–58 KNVB Cup, Volendam reached the final by beating MVV 1–3 in the semi-final. Sparta, however, proved too strong there, and Volendam finished runners-up. The following season, Volendam became champions in the Eerste Divisie A and thus promoted to the top-tier Eredivisie for the first time in club history. However, the euphoria was short-lived, and after one season at the highest level, the club suffered relegation again. Soon, the club had established its reputation as the "Heen-en-weer club" ("the back-and-forth club") due to its numerous promotions and relegations between the first and second tiers of Dutch football. Head coach Bram Appel piloted Volendam back to the Eredivisie within one season, honouring the club's new nickname. This time, however, the stay at the highest level was longer than one season. Striker Dick Tol, who would become the club's all-time top goalscorer, became the top goalscorer of the 1961–62 Eredivisie with 27 goals. After three seasons in the Eredivisie, the club once again suffered relegation in the 1963–64 season. The third promotion for Volendam took place in 1967 under the English manager Ron Dellow. That season also marked Dick Tol's final season before retiring, as he became top goalscorer of the Eerste Divisie.


title: FC Volendam

text: History was written in FC Volendam history in December 1971. The Portuguese Walter Ferreira signed a one-and-a-half-year contract with the club, making him their first foreign player. Despite this, Volendam suffered relegated to the Eerste Divisie in that season. The following season, 1972–73, in which Ferreira became club top scorer with 11 goals, Volendam narrowly missed out on promotion to the highest level. In the deciding match against De Graafschap, a draw was enough, but the club lost 1–0. Volendam then played in the Eerste Divisie for the first time for more than three consecutive seasons. Only in 1976–77 promotion was again achieved after play-offs. The club then split into a professional club, FC Volendam, and an amateur club RKAV Volendam in July 1977, marking the birth of the club known as Volendam today. After seventh and seventeenth places, respectively, in 1977–78 and 1978–79, the club relegated again. In 1982, Fritz Korbach was appointed as head coach. He was Volendam's first German manager and had previously successfully led FC Wageningen and PEC Zwolle to the Eredivisie. This turned out to be a perfect move, as he also led Volendam to the highest level in the 1982–83 season. As their former stay in the Eredivisie, they last two seasons before suffering another relegation. Under the guidance of new head coach Jan Brouwer, Volendam again became champions of the Eerste Divisie in the 1986–87 season and thus promoted back to the Eredivisie. In the autumn, an ambitious plan ensured Volendam salvation from financial ruin, which had threatened the club's existence for some years.


title: FC Volendam

text: Throughout the years, Volendam spawned many talented players, such as Wim Jonk, Edwin Zoetebier, Arnold and Gerrie Mühren. The club also has an accomplished scouting and youth system, which spreads across many different countries.


title: FC Volendam

text: In the 1989–90 Eredivisie season, Volendam achieved its best result ever by sixth in the table with 39 points. Three seasons later, the feat was repeated and sixth place was achieved once again. In 1995, FC Volendam reached the final of the KNVB Cup for the second time. This time, the opponent was Feyenoord at their home ground, De Kuip on 25 May. Volendam lost the match 2–1 after conceding goals by Gaston Taument and Michael Obiku. André Wasiman scored the sole goal for FC Volendam. Among the 7,000 travelling away fans from Volendam in De Kuip at that time were also Kees Kwakman and Jack Tuijp, who would later both make more than 100 appearances for FC Volendam themselves. For the first time in many years, Volendam managed stay in the Eredivisie for a longer period. From 1987 to 1998. the club played continuously at the highest level.


title: FC Volendam

text: In 2009, FC Volendam suffered its latest relegation from the Eredivisie. In the 2007–08 season, Volendam had won the Eerste Divisie championship under the leadership of former professional footballer Stanley Menzo, who had secured the club's participation in the highest division in the following season. Menzo, however, did not extend his contract, which meant that Frans Adelaar took over as new head coach for the 2008–09 season. On 10 May 2009, the last matchday of the season, Volendam suffered relegated to the Eerste Divisie once again, after De Graafschap drew (2–2) and Roda JC's beat Feyenoord (2–3). The following season was dramatic for Volendam: they finished in 16th place in the second tier. In the 2010–11 season, Volendam was led by head coach Gert Kruys, who had come over from FC Dordrecht. Volendam finished in 6th place in his first season. In the following season, Volendam did not win a "period title" for the first time in a long time, which cost Kruys his job at the club. Between 2012 and 2015 and again between 2018 and 2019, the club was led by Hans de Koning, who had come over from Helmond Sport the first time. In the 2012–13 season, Volendam finished in 2nd place after losing its last game to Go Ahead Eagles. They were then defeated again by Go Ahead Eagles in the final of the playoffs for promotion. In that season, Volendam also managed to win a "period title". Due to missing out on promotion, Volendam, for the first time since the start of the Eerste Divisie (1956), competed for more than five seasons in a row at the second level. In the 2014–15 season, Volendam again lost in the final of the promotion play-offs by losing 0–1 to De Graafschap at home, after the first leg had finished 0–0 in Doetinchem.


title: Joe Kapp

text: Joseph Robert Kapp (born March 19, 1938) is an American former football player, coach, and executive. He played college football as a quarterback at the University of California, Berkeley. Kapp played professionally in the Canadian Football League (CFL) with the Calgary Stampeders and the BC Lions and then in the National Football League (NFL) with the Minnesota Vikings and the Boston Patriots. Kapp returned to his alma mater as head coach of the Golden Bears from 1982 to 1986. He was the general manager and president of the BC Lions in 1990.