title: Quebec Biker War

text: The truce had an ulterior motive for the Hells Angels who sought to divide those who wanted to join the Bandidos and those who did not. Most of the Ontario "Machinists" (biker slang for Rock Machine members) preferred to join the Hells Angels rather than the Bandidos. The Hells Angels national president, Walter Stadnick, offered the Hells Angels membership to the Rock Machine's Kingston, Niagara Falls and Toronto chapters while excluding the London chapter, saying that the members of the London chapter were unqualified to be Hells Angels. Some members of the Kingston chapter and a few of the Toronto chapter took up Stadnick's offer, as it was felt by some that the Bandidos patch with its cartoonish drawing of a Mexican bandit was "silly". Furthermore, Stadnick offered Hells Angels membership on a "patch-for-patch" basis, allowing members to trade their current patches for equivalent Hells Angels while the Bandidos required new members take a reduction in rank. Paul "Sasquatch" Porter, a founding member of the Rock Machine and the President of their Kingston chapter, was extremely influential in the club and was responsible for initiating the creation of the Rock Machine's three chapters in Ontario. Porter wrote on the wall of the clubhouse: "Hello to all the RMMC, I wish you the best with your new colors! Bye my brothers!" Porter became the president of the Hells Angels new Ottawa chapter. The fact that the Hells Angels had conspired to kill Porter when he was a member of the Rock Machine did not stop him from defecting. Porter brought over so many members of the Rock Machine/Bandidos to the Hells Angels as to cause the Toronto chapter to promptly collapse. Porter also persuaded André "Curly" Sauvageau, another prominent Rock Machine leader to join the Hells Angels. The defection of so many Rock Machine leaders such as Porter and Savageau further weakened the club.


title: Quebec Biker War

text: On 29 December 2000, about 168 Ontario bikers rode over to Montreal for a mass "patch over" to join the Angels. The Satan's Choice, the Para-Dice Riders, the Los Lobos, and a number of other Ontario outlaw biker gangs all abandoned their old patches for the "Death's Head" patch of the Angels, finally allowing the Angels to enter southern Ontario. In a typical show of self-confidence, the photographers from "Allô Police" were invited to the Angels' bunker to record the "patch-over".


title: Quebec Biker War

text: On December 1, 2001, the Rock Machine Motorcycle Club became official members of the Bandidos Canada in a "patch-over" ceremony at the Rock Machine's Kingston chapter club house. The Bandidos Canada inherited seven new chapters (Montreal, Quebec City, Point-Aux-Trembles, Beauport, Toronto, Kingston and Niagara Falls). The Scandinavian Bandidos sponsored the Rock Machine and were technically responsible, but the Canadian Bandidos ultimately took orders from the American mother chapter. It was stated by Jerry Langton: "The Rock Machine might have ceased to exist, but it wasn't because of the Hells Angels, instead of surrendering Faucher and his men wanted to get stronger". Shortly afterwards, on 6 December 2000, Faucher along with Marcel Demers, a founding member of the Rock Machine and President of its Beauport chapter, were arrested on multiple narcotics charges and for ordering a bombing that caused major damage to a Hells Angels bunker located in St. Nicholas. Police stated they were accused of distributed more than two kilograms of cocaine a month and generated almost $5 million in profits annually(modern equivalent of $8,347,967).


title: Quebec Biker War

text: Alain Brunette became the new national president. Jean-Claude Belanger would replace Brunette as president of the Quebec City chapter. Robert Léger would head the Beauport chapter until his death. Police reported that Faucher's arrest was due to the fact he was the leader of a narcotics empire and had been responsible for the bombing of the bunker and six other buildings between 1996 and 1997. According to authorities, he was earning $250,000 per month from cocaine trafficking alone. He pled guilty to 28 charges and was sentenced to 12 years in prison on 11 May 2001. On 18 January 2001, Réal "Tintin" Dupont of the Bandidos was shot dead in his car in Montreal. On 14 February 2001, another Bandido, Michel Gauthier, was found shot dead inside of his car in a forest north of Montreal. Alain "Red Tomato" Brunette, the president of the Bandidos, refused an offer to switch sides as he told Detective Roberge: "They killed my friends, my brother bikrs. And now they want to change sides? I'm not a prostitute". On 13 February 2001, Brunette was the victim of a murder attempt when his automobile was shot up while driving down a highway near Mirabel airport. Brunette's car took four bullets while he himself took two bullets to his chest. Despite bleeding badly, Brunette was able to reverse his car and sped away from his would-be killers. Brunette later plaintively appealed to the Hells Angels to stop their attacks, saying in a press conference: "We just want to live in peace". Later in 2001, a Bandido, Eric "The Red" McMillan was beaten up by the Hells Angels in an Oshawa bar. McMillan was slashed with a knife from his chest to his belly, and almost bled to death.


title: Quebec Biker War

text: Shortly before his death Kane had mentioned that a Rocker named Jean-Richard "Race" Larivière was the main man for handling cash payments, which led the Operation Carcajou detectives to focus on following him around. Police surveillance showed Larivière rented an apartment at 7415 Beaubien Street in the east end of Montreal, which he did not live in, but which received a steady stream of drug runners bringing bags to leave in unit 504. A man named Robert Gauthier would go to the unit 504 every Tuesday and Thursday to receive the drug runners. In September 2000 "Sûreté du Québec" Sergeant Pierre Boucher (no relation to Maurice Boucher) was able to install a camera inside apartment 504, which showed the drug runners were leaving money in unit 504 which was then transferred by Gauthier over to unit 403, which also had no tenant living in it, but did have two computers and a huge safe located in it. A man named Stéphane Chagnon would go to unit 403 every Tuesday and Thursday to count the money left by Gauthier and enter the amounts into the computers. Nothing was saved on the hard drive of the computers, but there were several disks on which were stored the financial records of the Nomads hidden under the carpet. The man in charge of the computer program at the Nomad "bank" was Richard Gemme, an insurance underwriter who was studying at "Hautes Études Commerciales", the best business school in Quebec.


title: Quebec Biker War

text: Surveillance showed the money collected at 7415 Beaubien Street every Tuesday and Thursday went to other apartments in Montreal to be counted. The Operation Carcajou squad discovered that there were counting machines in the apartments and the average box of cash that went out had $500,000 in it. A monthly average of $24 to $36 million went through what the police called the "Nomad National Bank" with financial records showing the "Nomad Bank" had in January 2001 $36 million in deposits and another $13.3 million in receivables. Despite the surveillance, the police never learned how the Hells Angels laundered their money. One Hells Angel took three boxes with $1.5 million in cash to the house of a prominent Montreal businessman and the police placed the house under surveillance, hoping to see where the money went. When a search was performed, the money was gone, making it mystery as to the cash was laundered in the "Maytag of the North" as the banking in Montreal was known to the police.


title: Quebec Biker War

text: Commander Bouchard stated: "They had five money machines working twenty-four hours a day. They were taking out the cash, putting it on the table, flattening it out so it wouldn't get stuck and throwing it into these goddamn machines. It was almost like bubble gum to them. It was like a joke. They would laugh". On 24 January 2001, Sandra Craig turned herself in to the Operation Carcajou squad and gave the police the spreadsheets showing her and her late husband's dealings with the Hells Angels, which matched the records in the "Nomad Bank". Craig stated she and her husband had supplied 1,700 kilos of cocaine to the Hells Angels between 1998 and 2000. Every Hells Angel had a codename with the "Nomad Bank" with for instance Stadnick's codename being Gertrude and Carroll's codename being "Renard". On 30 January 2001, the Operation Carcajou squad raided the locations of the "Nomad Bank", which the police seizing $5.6 million in cash.


title: Quebec Biker War

text: In the meantime, Commander Bouchard had decided to investigate from another angle. Using the list of killers supplied by Kane as a list of suspects, Bouchard had the police gather up DNA evidence left by those named by Kane such as saliva found on discarded coffee cups or uneaten food in restaurants, which did not require a warrant. At the same time, Bouchard had two detectives, Louis-Marc Pelletier and Michel Tremblay, painstakingly go through all of the old evidence from unsolved murders such as hairs, skin flakes found on guns and disregarded Kleenexes, and spit to see if there were any DNA samples that could be recovered. Pelletier and Tremblay were able to recover four samples of DNA from the old evidence and then using the DNA found from coffee cups and the like, were able to link four Hells Angels/Rockers, most notably Wooley to the murders. By February 2001, Bouchard's team had assembled enough evidence that they were prepared to lay 23 charges of murder, attempted murder, conspiracy to commit murder and gangsterism against 42 Hells Angels or Rockers.


title: Quebec Biker War

text: On 15 February 2001, the police stormed into a Hells Angels meeting at the Holiday Inn in downtown Montreal. Found at the meeting were photographs of every single Bandido in Quebec plus their addresses and phone numbers. The Nomads attending the meeting were all armed. Serganet Thomas O'Neill of the RCMP stated: "We struck a gold mine when we went in there. This was amazing evidence for us". Sher and Marsden called the meeting "...a board meeting of Murder Incorporated lining up their next targets". However, to hide the coming Operation Springtime, the Crown made plea bargains with those arrested for weapons charges to avoid disclosing the evidence that led to the raid.


title: Quebec Biker War

text: On 28 March 2001, in Operation Springtime, a joint investigation of the Hells Angels by the Royal Canadian Mounted Police, the Ontario Provincial Police, the "Sûreté du Québec", and the Montreal police resulted in the arrests of Hells Angels all over Canada, with 138 being arrested in Quebec and 51 being arrested in Calgary on 30 March 2001. At about 4 am on the morning on 28 March, 2,000 police officers were assembled and sent out to arrest 128 Hells Angels and associates in Montreal. Arrested that day were 106 "full patch" Hells Angels, all of the Nomad chapter present in Montreal; all of the Rockers and all of the Evil Ones puppet gangs. When Hells Angels member Éric Bouffard was arrested on 28 March 2001, photos were found in his home showing José Théodore, the goalie for the Montreal Canadiens, partying with the Angels at their Montreal South clubhouse; it was also discovered that Bouffard had Théodore's cell phone number. The revelation that a popular hockey player like Théodore was a close friend of the Angels once again brought home how much the Angels had gone mainstream in Quebec, associating with celebrities from the world of the arts and sports. At the same time, it was revealed that several other members of the Théodore family had been arrested for loan sharking. Another arrested during the 2001 raids was the Montreal restaurateur Salvatore Brunnettii. The police found evidence that Brunnettii had between December 2000 and March 2001 laundered $70,000 in drug money for the Angels, while at Brunnettii's home the police found 3,000 US dollars and 10,000 Canadian dollars in his safe, along with an illegal .38 calibre handgun.


title: Quebec Biker War

text: During their raids, the "Sûreté du Québec" arrested Charlebois at his estate outside of Montreal. Charlebois, who once been a petty criminal selling marijuana and smuggled cigarettes out of a cheap submarine sandwich restaurant in the east end of Montreal, was found to have $7,000 in cash and five $1,000 gambling chips from the "Casino de Montréal" at his estate together with a 1989 bottle of Château Haut-Brion worth $1,325 and a 1990 bottle of Château Lafite. Charlebois, a petty criminal selling drugs, smuggled cigarettes and stolen credit cards, had risen rapidly after joining the Rockers, the Hells Angels, and the Nomads in succession during the 1990s. Charbebois, who liked to act the tough guy, broke down in tears and immediately attempted to turn Crown's evidence when he was arrested by the Montreal police, saying he couldn't face going to prison for the rest of his life. Commander André Bouchard of the Montreal police bluntly told Charbebois "Fuck you, no deal for you" which caused him to cry even more. Of those arrested, only Wooley of the Rockers held up, refusing to say a word to the police. Bouchard stated that he felt that Wooley would try to make a plea bargain, saying: "We've got him cold and his lawyer knew it. We've got DNA. I mean, he was dead. What more do you need? Son of a bitch. He was the only one really who never even said a word".


title: Quebec Biker War

text: To assist with gathering evidence, Bouchard wanted DNA samples, and was hoping that the accused would ask for food, coffee cups, cigarettes or Kleenex so he seize their saliva samples to run for DNA tests. One Angel told the police as he used a box of Kleenex: "If you think you can get my fucking DNA...you're a bunch of assholes!". As Bouchard picked up the used Kleenex to run for a DNA test, he later stated thinking at the time: "You look at these guys. They're not all the sharpest pencils". One Angel chose to eat his cigarettes to avoid giving saliva samples which could be run for DNA tests. One of the Angels who escaped arrest was Carroll; he fled to Mexico in March 2001 and has not been seen or heard from since. A police affidavit stated that Carroll had $1 million in a bank account in Antigua and it is believed that Carroll has gone to Brazil, which has no extradition treaty with Canada. In 2014, the Interpol website stated: "Hells Angels have chapters in more than 20 countries and information suggests that Carroll has frequented a number (of them) including Brazil, Mexico, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, United States (as well as countries in South America and Europe)." Stadnick was arrested in Montego Bay in Jamaica, spending time in what his girlfriend called a "hellhole" Jamaican prison. Stadnick did not contest extradition back to Canada in April 2001.


title: Quebec Biker War

text: The journalists Julien Sher and William Marsden noted that Operation Springtime was a heavy blow against the Hells Angels, but in no way crippled the group. Thomas O'Neill of the RCMP stated: "We didn't finish them off, but we set them back years". The police arrested 120 Hells Angels and Rockers in Operation Springtime, but only 60 were "full patch" Hell Angels with rest all being "prospects" or "hang-arounds", leaving 70 "full patch" Hells Angels free to continue to operate in Montreal. Almost every member of the elite Nomad chapter were arrested except for Carroll and André Chounaird, but no members of the Angels Sherbrooke, Sorel and St-Basile-le-Grand chapters were arrested. The Sherbrooke, St-Basile-le-Grand and Sorel chapters stepped in to fill the void caused by the arrests of the Nomad chapter.


title: Quebec Biker War

text: In July 2001, Luis Elias Lekkes, the accountant for the Irish-Canadian gangster Gerry Matticks, the leader of the Irish West End Gang of Montreal, agreed to turn Crown's evidence after being arrested in March 2001. After attempting to kill himself in prison twice, saying he was convinced that the Hells Angels and/or the West End Gang had put out a jailhouse contract on his life, Lekkes agreed to testify for the Crown that the West End Gang controlled the port of Montreal, and in exchange for fees, allowed the Angels to smuggle all sorts of things both in and out of Montreal. After Matticks was arrested, at his bail hearing, the Roman Catholic priest for the parish of St. Bruno, Father Marc Mignault, testified to his good character, stating he was a devout Catholic who gave generously to Catholic charities and was one of Montreal's most honest and respectable businessman. Father Mignault in particular praised Matticks for donating thousands of chickens every Thanksgiving and Christmas to the poor of Montreal as evidence of his good heart. The Crown Attorney, Robert Rouleau, by contrast noted that at one of Matticks's businesses was found to have a paper hidden in a fridge bearing the names "Guy" and "Mom", next to which were written the cell phone numbers for Guy Lepage and Boucher. Lekkes signed a statement for the Crown stating that Matticks, who controlled the longshoreman's union at the Port of Montreal, had made profits of $22 million from smuggling drugs into the city and had sold the Angels at least 700 kilos of cocaine in the last two years. Lekkes later testified at other trials in 2002 and 2003 that he regularly took cardboard boxes containing about $500,000 in cash from the Hells Angels as payments to the West End Gang and that the chicken which Matticks was generous in donating to Catholic charities at Thanksgiving and Christmas times was stolen from container ships meant to export chicken to grocery stores in Europe. Inspired by Lekkes's example, John McLean, one of Mattick's lieutenants, agreed to turn Crown's evidence and to testify against Matticks's son Donald, in exchange for an 8-year prison sentence. Lekkes received a 7-year prison sentence with the promise that he would receive a new identity and police protection for the rest of his life when he was released, and as a result Matticks pleaded guilty in 2002 rather than face extradition to the United States, where he was wanted on charges of smuggling cocaine.


title: Quebec Biker War

text: In the spring of 2002, Boucher was again brought to trial for the murders of Lavigne and Rondeau after having been acquitted in 1998. The Crown challenged the verdict, citing irregular aspects of the trial that suggested intimidation of the part of the Hells Angels, and at the second trial, Gagne agreed to testify for the Crown in exchange for a lesser sentence. France Charbonneau, widely viewed as the toughest Crown Attorney in Quebec, was assigned to prosecute Boucher. Gagné testified that Boucher wanted random murders of people working for the Quebec justice system in order to create such a climate of fear that no one would ever dare prosecute the Hells Angels. The most damaging evidence came from beyond the grave as the reports that Kane had given to the RCMP between 1994 and 1997, and 1999 and 2000, were presented as Crown's evidence. Kane had stolen the financial records of the Nomads, which showed that over the course of an 8-month period in 2000, the Hells Angels had made a profit of $111,503,110 in Quebec. On 6 May 2002, Boucher was found guilty of two counts of first-degree murder and sentenced to life imprisonment with no chance of parole for the next 25 years. André Bouchard, a Montreal police detective, told the media it was rumored that the American leadership of the Hells Angels wanted Boucher dead, saying: "We've heard that they [the Hells Angels leadership] in the United States got together and they said to take the fucker out. They say this is the guy who caused all the trouble." The Canadian scholar Stephen Schneider noted through Operation Springtime "hit the Hells Angels hard, the resilient motorcycle club quickly bounced back and even saw its membership increase". At the time of Operation Springtime in 2001, the Hells Angels in Quebec had 106 "full patch" members while by 2002 the number had risen to 124 "full patch" members. The arrest of every member of the Nomad chapter proved to be only an ephemeral blow only as the "drug trafficking network reounded" as the Trois-Rivières chapter quickly replaced the Nomad chapter as the coordinating chapter.


title: Quebec Biker War

text: The Bandidos Canada had been looking to take advantage of this opportunity to regain territory lost and take new territory from the Angels. However a concurrent investigation, Operation Amigo, was under way targeting the Bandidos operations in Quebec and Ontario (only the chapters that patched over from the Rock Machine). This operation had initially gone under a different title and was created to target the Rock Machine as a result of the conflict in Quebec; when the Rock Machine patched over to the Bandidos, they became the main focus.


title: Quebec Biker War

text: On June 5, 2002, raids led to the arrests of 63 members of the Bandidos Canada (Rock Machine) including all of its Quebec members and many other associates. After Operation Amigo, the Bandidos had only 15 members left in Ontario. The Bandidos Canada themselves confirmed this in an official statement when they claimed that all chapters in Quebec had been frozen due to the members imprisonment. Because the operation initially targeted the Rock Machine before the subsequent "patch-over", chapters that had joined from the Loner's motorcycle club were not included in the raids. Giovanni Muscedere became the new national president to replace the arrested Alain Brunette. In July 2003 Brunette promptly capitulated to an ultimatum from the Hells Angels, urging Muscedere to accede to their demands. In what Peter Edwards, the crime correspondent of the "Toronto Star", called an "unconditional surrender", Brunette and Muscedere submitted to the demands of the Angels that the Bandidos would leave Quebec forever and that all of the imprisoned Bandidos would retire from organized crime forever in exchange for the imprisoned Bandidos not be murdered in prison. Muscedere denounced in public the Quebec Bandidos as "cowards" for accepting the deal that he submitted to and announced that henceforward the Bandidos would be focusing only on western Canada.


title: Quebec Biker War

text: All in all, it is the deadliest recorded biker conflict in history with over 162 dead, over 300 wounded, 100 plus arrested and 20 people missing. It also cost the government of Canada and Quebec millions of dollars in damages with 84 bombings, and 130 cases of arson.


title: Quebec Biker War

text: In April 2006, the Bandidos, the only possible rivals to the Hells Angels in Canada, self-destructed with the Shedden massacre, leaving the Angels as the only national outlaw biker club in Canada. On 1 October 2007, the Bandidos website announced: "As of October 2, 2007, the Bandidos MC 1% Canada is officially shut down. There isn't no more Bandidos MC membership in Canada". In April 2008, the former members of the Bandidos Winnipeg chapter started to call themselves the Rock Machine. However, besides for the same name and patch, there is no connection between the current Rock Machine and former Rock Machine and most of the current Rock Machine's chapters exist only on the internet. The journalist Jerry Langton wrote: "But while the Outlaws had been essentially reduced to a disparate band of gray-bearded men waiting for their court-ordered restrictions to expire and the amorphous Loners/Rock Machine/Bandidos entity seems to be a club on the internet only, the Hells Angels continue to groom new members and employ gangs of many different strips all over the country."


title: Quebec Biker War

text: In May 2008, the career of the Canadian Foreign Minister Maxime Bernier was temporarily derailed when it emerged that his girlfriend Julie Couillard in 2007 was a former stripper who had been the sexual partner of several Hells Angels in the 1990s, forcing him to resign in June 2008. Bernier left behind a NATO briefing document at Couillard's house, and the media demanded his resignation, saying it was inappropriate for a cabinet minister to be seeing a woman who had once married to a Hells Angel and involved in a common-law relationship with another. "L'affaire Bernier-Couillard" almost destroyed Bernier's career, although it does not appear that national security was threatened in any serious way.


title: Quebec Biker War

text: In April 2009, over 156 members of the Hells Angels were arrested in Quebec, New Brunswick, France and the Dominican Republic mostly in connection to crimes related to the biker war as part of Operation SharQc. The arrests led to charges for 22 murders committed between 1992 and 2009. Four Hells Angels bunkers were also seized by police including one in Sorel-Tracy that was firebombed in 2008. Dozens of arrests were previously made earlier in the year as part of Operation Axe in February and Operation Baladeur in March.


title: Quebec Biker War

text: On 13 March 2014, Detective Roberge pleaded guilty in a Montreal courthouse to charges of breach of trust and of engaging in gangsterism. Roberge admitted to accepting $125,000 from the Hells Angels in exchange for information and was sentenced to 8 years in prison.


title: Quebec Biker War

text: In October 2015, the charges against the Hells Angels arrested in Quebec in 2009 were dismissed following allegations that the Crown withheld evidence for too long, resulting in an internal investigation as to why the effort to convict the Hells Angels failed. Quebec Superior Court Judge James Brunton ruled that delay between the arrests in 2009 as part of Operation SharQc and 2015 violated the right to a speedy trial guaranteed by the Charter of Rights and Freedoms and dismissed all of the charges against the Hells Angels arrested as part of Operation SharQc.


title: Quebec Biker War

text: In 2015, the "Sûreté du Québec" alleged in an indictment that Boucher had continued to engage in organized crime from his prison cell, using his daughter Alexandra Mongeau as his messenger, and that his principal surrogate in Montreal was his former bodyguard, Gregory Woolley, who has been charged three times with first-degree murder.


title: Quebec Biker War

text: In 2016, a former RCMP officer and an expert on biker gangs, Pierre de Champlain, told the media: "Since 2000, the Hells Angels have had complete control over Quebec, from Sept-Iles to Granby. No one wants to work against the Hells Angels independently because it's not in their interest." Noting the funeral in Montreal in August 2016, of a biker killed in an automobile crash, Champlain noted it was attended by "...300 bikers but also 1,000 to 3,000 people who came out to watch. They wanted to see the parade, the coffin pulled by bikes. And we have to admit, it was spectacular."


title: Alaska moose

text: The Alaska moose (Alces alces gigas), or Alaskan moose in Alaska, or giant moose and Yukon moose in Canada, is a subspecies of moose that ranges from Alaska to western Yukon. The Alaska moose is the largest subspecies of moose.<ref name="Nancy Long / Kurt Savikko"></ref> Alaska moose inhabit boreal forests and mixed deciduous forests throughout most of Alaska and most of Western Yukon. Like all moose subspecies, the Alaska moose is usually solitary but sometimes will form small herds. Typically, they only come into contact with other moose for mating or competition for mates. The males and females select different foraging habitats leading to spatial segregation throughout much of the year. During mating season, in autumn and winter, male Alaska moose become very aggressive and prone to attacking when startled.


title: Alaska moose

text: Alaska moose have a similar diet to other moose subspecies, consisting of terrestrial vegetation forbs and shoots from trees such as willow and birch. Alaska moose require a daily intake of 9770 kilocalories (32 kg). Alaska moose lack upper front teeth but have eight sharp incisors on their lower jaw. They also have a tough tongue, gums and lips to help chew woody vegetation.


title: Alaska moose

text: Alaska moose are sexually dimorphic with males being 40% heavier than females. Male Alaska moose can stand over at the shoulder, and weigh over . When Alaska moose are born, they weigh on average about 28 pounds, but by five months old they can weigh up to 280 pounds. The antlers on average have a span of . Antler size and conformation are influenced by genetics, nutrition, and age. The antlers establish social rank and affect mating success. Female Alaska moose stand on average at the shoulder and can weigh close to . The largest Alaska moose was shot in western Yukon in September 1897; it weighed , and was tall at the shoulder. While Alaska moose with the Chukotka moose, matches the extinct Irish elk, they are smaller than Cervalces latifrons, the largest deer of all time.


title: Alaska moose

text: Alaska moose are almost omnipresent in Alaska. They range from Southeast Alaska to the Arctic slope in Northern Alaska, and are most likely to be found in the Northern forests. They are more densely concentrated along the major rivers in Alaska, such as the Stikine or Yukon river. They can also be found near areas that have recently experienced wildfires, since that land generates dense willow, birch, and aspen shrubs. Many moose move during mating and calving seasons, and for winter. This can take them up to 60 miles away from their normal habitats.


title: Alaska moose

text: Alaska moose have no social bonds with each other and only come into contact with each other to mate, or for two bull moose to fight over mating rights. Although a bull moose is not usually aggressive towards humans, during mating season it may attack any creature it comes into contact with, including humans, wolves, other deer or even bears. Bull moose can get their antlers locked during a fight, and if so both moose can die from severe injuries or starvation.


title: Alaska moose

text: However, unlike deer, "fighting bull moose rarely lock horns as their antlers are palmated." Bull moose call out a subtle mating call to attract female moose and to warn other males. If a male moose loses to another male, he has to wait another year to mate. Alaska moose mate every year during autumn and winter, and usually produce one or two offspring at a time. At around 10–11 months, yearling Alaska moose leave their mothers and fend for themselves.


title: Alaska moose

text: Alaska moose are hunted for food and sport every year during fall and winter. People use both firearms and bows to hunt moose. It is estimated that at least 7,000 moose are harvested annually, mostly by residents who eat the moose meat. They are also hunted by animal predators: wolves, black bears, and brown bears all hunt moose.


title: Eric T. Olson

text: Eric Thor Olson (born January 24, 1952) is a retired United States Navy admiral who last served as the eighth Commander, U.S. Special Operations Command (USSOCOM) from July 2, 2007 to August 8, 2011. He previously served as Deputy Commander, U.S. Special Operations Command from 2003 to July 2007. Olson was the first Navy SEAL ever to be appointed to three-star and four-star flag rank, as well as the first naval officer to be USSOCOM's combatant commander. He took command from Army General Bryan D. Brown in 2007. Brown and Olson had served together at the SOCOM headquarters in Tampa for four years. He retired from active duty on August 22, 2011 after over 38 years of service. He relinquished command of SOCOM to Admiral William H. McRaven the same day.


title: Eric T. Olson

text: Olson graduated from the United States Naval Academy in 1973 and qualified as a Naval Special Warfare (SEAL) officer in 1974. He graduated in BUD/S Class 76. He has served operationally in an Underwater Demolition Team, SEAL Team, SEAL Delivery Vehicle Team, Special Boat Squadron, and at the Naval Special Warfare Development Group.


title: Eric T. Olson

text: Olson has participated in several conflicts and contingency operations, and has served as a SEAL platoon commander, BUD/S instructor, strategy and tactics development officer and joint special operations staff officer. His overseas assignments include service as a United Nations military observer in Israel and Egypt, and as Navy Programs officer in Tunisia. Olson was commanding officer of SEAL Delivery Vehicle Team ONE from 1989 to 1990. He served on the Navy staff as assistant deputy chief of Naval Operations (Plans, Policy, and Operations). The commander in charge of all Navy SEALs during Desert Storm, Ray Smith, hand picked Olson to be on his staff. From Aug 1991 to Aug 1993, Olson commanded Special Boat Squadron TWO before rejoining DEVGRU. In Oct 1993, Olson participated in the Battle of Mogadishu, he was later awarded the Silver Star for his actions which was cited as "... during combat actions in Mogadishu, Somalia, in October 1993. while under withering enemy fire during actions in support of UNOSOM II operations, Captain Olson demonstrated a complete disregard for his own personal safety in the accomplishment of his mission". In 1994, Olson became commander of the Naval Special Warfare Development Group, an American counter-terrorism unit. Olson was promoted again in 1999 when he assumed command of Naval Special Warfare Command in Coronado, California until August 2002 when he was relieved by Rear Admiral Albert M. Calland III.


title: Eric T. Olson

text: Olson earned a Master of Arts degree in National Security Affairs at the Naval Postgraduate School in 1985 and studied at the Defense Language Institute. He is a Joint Specialty officer and Political-Military Affairs sub-specialist with emphasis on Africa and the Middle East. His awards include the Navy Distinguished Service Medal and Silver Star.


title: Eric T. Olson

text: In addition to being the first three and four star Navy SEAL, Admiral Olson was the Bull Frog, the longest serving Navy SEAL still on duty. At four-star flag rank, Olson was the highest-ranking Navy SEAL to hold the Bull Frog title. He was succeeded by Commander Brian Sebenaler and Admiral William McRaven, who had also succeeded him as Commander of the United States Special Operations Command and himself retired in 2014.


title: Eric T. Olson

text: Olson was the first person to ever throw a ceremonial first pitch for a post-season game at the new Yankee Stadium in 2009.


title: Eric T. Olson

text: Olson is an Advisory Board Member of Spirit of America, a 501(c)(3) organization that supports the safety and success of Americans serving abroad and the local people and partners they seek to help.


title: Volker Bruch

text: Volker Bruch (; born 9 March 1980) is a German television and film actor. He is best known internationally for his leading roles as Wilhelm Winter in the television drama "Generation War" (2013) and as Inspector Gereon Rath in the neo-noir series "Babylon Berlin" (2017–present); for the latter, he was awarded the 2018 Grimme-Preis, Germany's most prestigious television award. In film, he was part of the ensemble cast of two films nominated for Academy Awards in 2009: "The Reader" (Best Picture) and "The Baader Meinhof Complex" (Best Foreign Language Film); more recently, he appeared in the thriller "The Girl in the Spider's Web" (2018).


title: Volker Bruch

text: Bruch was born in 1980 in West Germany to a German father and Austrian mother. He grew up in Munich with five siblings. He began acting during his years at gymnasium and was involved with student acting groups. After completing his university-entrance diploma, he studied performing arts at the Max Reinhardt Seminar in Vienna, Austria. Bruch made a deliberate choice while studying to commit himself to acting for television and film, as opposed to theater. During this time, he made some of his first television appearances. He graduated in 2005.


title: Volker Bruch

text: Bruch spent the beginning of his career primarily playing small roles in German television and TV movie productions. His first noteworthy role was as Axi in the 2005 German television movie "Rose", for which he won a German Television Award for Best Supporting Actor. The year 2008 was notable for Bruch's career as he acted in a number of movies including the French film "Female Agents", the English-language German biopic "The Red Baron" as Oberleutnant Lothar Freiherr von Richthofen, the Oscar-nominated German film "The Baader Meinhof Complex" as Stefan Aust, as well as the Oscar-winning American film "The Reader."


title: Volker Bruch

text: Bruch had a few small supporting roles after this period before his breakout role in the popular 2013 German miniseries "Generation War" in which he played one of the five protagonists. Bruch was nominated for a German Television Award for his performance and received a special award for Ensemble Cast at the 2013 Bavarian TV Awards.


title: Volker Bruch

text: After "Generation War", Bruch starred in a variety of film and television productions of varying scopes until 2016 when he was cast in "Babylon Berlin". In "Babylon Berlin", Bruch stars as the main character, police inspector Gereon Rath, who investigates a series of crimes in Weimar Republic-era Berlin. The first two series of the show were filmed over eight months beginning in May 2016 and released consecutively in Fall 2017. "Babylon Berlin" has been very popular in Germany as well as with international audiences and has elevated Bruch to international prominence; Bruch is considered one of Germany's upcoming stars. For his portrayal, Bruch received a 2018 Golden Camera Award and shares an Adolf Grimme Award with the Babylon Berlin team.


title: Volker Bruch

text: The show went on a yearlong production hiatus during which Bruch filmed two movies; in 2018, he played a role in the wide-release American film "The Girl in the Spider's Web" and filmed the German production "Rocca Changes the World". In late 2018, Bruch began the six-month shoot for the third series of "Babylon Berlin" which premiered in Germany in January 2020. A fourth series starring Bruch was produced mid-2021 and will be released in 2022.


title: Volker Bruch

text: In 2022, he was cast as German rally driver Walter Röhrl in the English-language film "2 Win". Starring opposite Daniel Brühl and Riccardo Scamarcio, the film depicts the 1983 World Rally Championship.


title: Volker Bruch

text: Bruch lives in Berlin with his partner, actress Miriam Stein. They had a child together in 2017. Bruch met Stein in 2009 on the set of the film "Young Goethe in Love". Notably, they later starred together in 2013's "Generation War", 2014's "Tour de Force", and 2015's "Das goldene Ufer".


title: Volker Bruch

text: Bruch is an environmentalist and, with his partner Stein, has supported the climate action group Extinction Rebellion as well as the Joint Declaration made by the German government and media industry "for the sustainable production of films and television series."


title: Volker Bruch

text: In 2019, Bruch, along with other German actors and artists like Daniel Brühl, signed a petition advocating against the election of a far-right Alternative for Germany mayoral candidate in Görlitz, Germany, an oft-used filming location in Europe.


title: Volker Bruch

text: In June 2020, Bruch took part in the video "Was sie mitgenommen haben" for the United Nations High Commissioner For Refugees (UNHCR).


title: Volker Bruch

text: Bruch is a vocal opponent of the restrictions introduced in to curb the spread of COVID-19 in Germany. In May 2021, it was reported that Bruch had applied to join the Grassroots Democratic Party of Germany, an anti-lockdown fringe party.


title: Lord High Admiral of the United Kingdom

text: The Lord High Admiral (of England beginning in the 14th century, later of Great Britain and then the United Kingdom) is the ceremonial head of the Royal Navy. Most have been courtiers or members of British royal family, and not professional naval officers. The office of Lord High Admiral is one of the nine English Great Officers of State.


title: Lord High Admiral of the United Kingdom

text: In 1385 Edward, Earl of Rutland, was appointed Admiral of England, uniting the offices of Admiral of the North and Admiral of the West, dating from 1294. From 1388 the offices of Admiral of the North and of the West were again distinct, though often held by the same man, until "Admirals of England" were appointed continuously from 1406. The titles "High Admiral" and "Lord Admiral" were both used, eventually combining in "Lord High Admiral". The Lord High Admiral did not originally have command at sea, but had jurisdiction over maritime affairs and the authority to establish courts of Admiralty.


title: Lord High Admiral of the United Kingdom

text: During the reign of Henry VIII (1509–47) the English Navy had expanded to a point where it could not be managed by a single Lord High Admiral alone, therefore day-to-day management of the navy was handed over to a committee that later became known as the Navy Board. The navy board had Samuel Pepys as one of its members during the reign of Charles II (1660–85), and it ran side-by-side with the Board of Admiralty.


title: Lord High Admiral of the United Kingdom

text: From the early 17th century onwards, when an individual Lord High Admiral was appointed, there was also a Council of the Lord High Admiral which assisted him to perform some of the duties of the Admiralty. When this office was not occupied by an individual, it was "put into commission" and exercised by a Board of Admiralty headed by a First Lord of the Admiralty; this was the usual arrangement from 1709 until it was merged with the Admiralty in 1832.


title: Lord High Admiral of the United Kingdom

text: However, the office of Lord High Admiral, which—except for brief periods during its long history—had remained extant, was not abolished as an official naval post until 1964. In 1964, the office of First Lord of the Admiralty was also abolished and the functions of the Lords Commissioners of Admiralty were transferred to the new Admiralty Board becoming a sub-committee (Navy) of the tri-service Defence Council of the United Kingdom. The ancient title of Lord High Admiral was resumed, by the sovereign personally.


title: Lord High Admiral of the United Kingdom

text: Elizabeth II held the title for the next 47 years, until in 2011 she conferred the office upon her husband, Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh to celebrate his 90th birthday. Philip had served in the Royal Navy during the Second World War, but gave up a promising naval career to support Elizabeth as her consort.


title: Lord High Admiral of the United Kingdom

text: Upon Prince Philip's death in 2021, the holder of the office became obscure. It is unknown whether the office of Lord High Admiral reverted back to the Crown, or if it is currently vacant, in which case it remains as such until His Majesty either assumes it, or grants it upon someone else. The Ministry of Defence had confirmed they did not hold information on the issue, but suggested it had been resumed by the then Queen in right of the Crown. Upon Queen Elizabeth II's death in 2022, the office was reported to have been passed to King Charles III.


title: Lord High Admiral of the United Kingdom

text: Before 1707 there was an office of Lord High Admiral of Scotland. Following the Act of Union 1707, all jurisdictions were placed under the office of Lord High Admiral of Great Britain.


title: Lord High Admiral of the United Kingdom

text: The earliest known instructions given to the Lord Admiral to fly command flags were given by King Henry VIII in 1545 the Lord Admiral was ordered to fly the flag of the arms of the King on the top of the main masthead with the flag of the cross of Saint George on the top of the front (fore) masthead.


title: White demographic decline

text: White demographic decline is a decrease in the White populace as a percentage of the total population in a city, state, subregion, or nation. It has been recorded in a number of countries and smaller jurisdictions. For example, according to their national censuses, White Americans, White Canadians, White Latin Americans, and White people in the United Kingdom are in demographic decline in the United States, Canada, Latin America, and the United Kingdom, respectively.


title: White demographic decline

text: Scholars have attempted to address subfactors and anticipated results of White demographic decline in relevant societies. The term majority minority has been used to designate an area where a decline, of what are nationally defined as Whites, has resulted in a former majority becoming a minority. Examples of this include parts of the United States and Brazil. Other notable concepts include demographer Eric Kaufmann's theory of "Whiteshift", which predicts transforming classifications of Whiteness as mixed-race majorities emerge, and social psychologist Jennifer Richeson's research into racial shift conditions, which outline how White people's hostility to other racial groups increases in proportion to their awareness of a drop in White population share.


title: White demographic decline

text: Experts in extremism and terrorism have shown national demography in relation to white people to be subject to exploitation by both radical and political right-wing groups, including adherence to conspiracy theories. This has also manifested as anti-abortion, and anti-immigrant sentiment despite academic evidence that immigration significantly contributes to the maintenance of economies, civic institutions, and population-levels of places affected by White demographic decline, such as in the Southern United States.


title: White demographic decline

text: White demographic decline has been statistically observed by academics in relation to countries which conduct a national census and include a white racial or ethnic category. Notable experts and scholars of a multitude of fields of study have observed the demographic phenomenon of falling white demography. These include anthropologists Leo Chavez, Arizona State University's Luis Plascencia, Rich Benjamin, and University of Louisville's Steven Gardiner. Demographers such as William H. Frey, Eric Kaufmann, Rogelio Sáenz, Dudley L. Poston Jr., Ann Morning, and David Coleman.


title: White demographic decline

text: Social geographers such as Loughborough University's Marco Antonsich, and Syracuse University's Jamie Winders, and political scientists Elliot Jager, and Robert Pape, have studied white demographic decline as a measurable and observable process. Historians Trevor Burnard, and Mark Sedgwick have published works defining the demographic process in various jurisdictions. While they suggest that the white population share is falling in the United States, sociologist Richard Alba and demographer Dowell Myers have stated that this decline is divisive and exaggerated somewhat by the census format. Nonetheless, many academics, such as Nicholas Lemann, suggest the decline will affect national election results in the US.


title: White demographic decline

text: Various national demographic analyses measured a demographic decline of white populations, as defined by their local nation-based censuses. Research conducted at the University of Minnesota has observed the phenomenon of a decrease in white population share within jurisdictions in Europe, North America and Oceania:


title: White demographic decline

text: According to the most recent U.S. census, the non-Hispanic White population is shrinking (US Census Bureau, 2018). This trend has been observed in other White-majority countries including Canada (Statistics Canada, 2017), the UK (Coleman, 2016), and New Zealand (Stats New Zealand, 2004).


title: White demographic decline

text: Regarding white populations internationally, and particularly in the Western world, demographer Eric Kaufmann has suggested that "In an era of unprecedented white demographic decline it is absolutely vital for it to have a democratic outlet." While sociologist Richard Alba believes this decline is exaggerated by the racial classification system used in the United States Census, regarding the 2020 census, demographer William H. Frey has written:


title: White demographic decline

text: The Census Bureau was not projecting white population losses to occur until after 2024. This makes any national population growth even more reliant on other race and ethnic groups. The white demographic decline is largely attributable to its older age structure when compared to other race and ethnic groups. This leads to fewer births and more deaths relative to its population size.


title: White demographic decline

text: As well as referencing ethno-cultural, linguistic, and religious demography, the term 'majority minority' has consistently been used in racial contexts in media and academia, and specifically to identify the demographic decline of white populations. In 2010, it was reported by the BBC how "America's two largest states - California and Texas - became "majority-minority" states (with an overall minority population outnumbering the white majority)" between 1998 and 2004.


title: White demographic decline

text: Demographers Rogelio Sáenz and Dudley L. Poston Jr. have studied existing states which have gained white minorities in the 21st century, and how, from 2017 onwards, an ongoing falling white population-share predicts further US states to follow this trend: "nonwhites account for more than half of the populations of Hawaii, the District of Columbia, California, New Mexico, Texas and Nevada. In the next 10 to 15 years, these half-dozen 'majority-minority' states will likely be joined by as many as eight other states where whites now make up less than 60 percent of the population." From their research, Sáenz and Poston Jr expect the United States to have progressed to overall white minority demography by 2044. Regarding various projected majority minority scenarios across the Western world, in a 2018 article for the London School of Economics, academics Eric Kaufmann and Matthew Goodwin wrote:


title: White demographic decline

text: The ethnic make-up of many western countries is changing, and in countries previously seen as having 'white' majorities that past predominance is declining. In the United States, Canada and New Zealand, the 'majority-minority' point will arrive around 2050, while in western Europe it is projected to occur towards the end of the century. Some commentators have asked if this change may lead to a growing reaction or 'white backlash'. All else being equal, we suggest that the answer may be yes.


title: White demographic decline

text: An example from the developing world includes Brazil which, due to a long-term demographic decline of white Brazilians, has been designated as a majority-minority country in relation to the South American nation's racial classification of whiteness.


title: White demographic decline

text: In their widely cited research, professors Jennifer Richeson and Maureen Craig produced a 2014 study on white racial shift conditions. White people who were informed of their diminishing demographic share of the population displayed more racial hostility to perceived external racial groups. "Pacific Standard" described the research as how "the coming racial shift evokes higher levels of both explicit and implicit racism on the part of white Americans". In analysis of the study, sociologist Mary C. Waters concurred that the portrayal in media of falling white demography was linked with subsequent discrimination against non-whites.


title: White demographic decline

text: Demographer Eric Kaufmann's theory of whiteshift predicts that as white demographic decline gradually results in white majorities becoming minorities (sometimes called a majority minority scenario) that a broader and more inclusive classification of white people will occur. A professor of politics at Birkbeck College, he suggests that, given the appropriate societal conditions, both conservatives and cosmopolitans may be able to observe whiteshift as a positive factor. In this regard, political analyst Michael Barone believes there may be "cautious optimism" that the social phenomenon can progress in a politically stable form.


title: White demographic decline

text: Analysing Kaufmann's thesis, historian Michael Burleigh has used examples of whiteshift such as Western politicians Iain Duncan Smith, Geert Wilders and Ted Cruz, who have some degree of what might be considered non-white or ethnic minority ancestry in their respective countries. Demographer Dowell Myers has also referenced Cruz and Megan Markle as examples, claiming that "whites are indeed in numerical decline" in the United States, when judged upon a criterion of exclusively European ancestry.


title: White demographic decline

text: In 2013, Demos published research analyzing the 2011 United Kingdom census. The UK-based think tank detailed how "departing White British are replaced by immigration or by the natural growth of the minority population. Over time, the end result of this process is a spiral of White British demographic decline".


title: White demographic decline

text: Academic David Coleman has produced research which demonstrates that the cities of Leicester and Birmingham will join London in their majority minority status during the 2020s, with regards to the demographic decline of White people in Britain. Coleman, a University of Oxford demography professor since 1980, estimates that by 2056, the trend of a declining share of the white populace will result in the United Kingdom having an overall white minority.


title: White demographic decline

text: In 2018, scholars Eric Kaufmann and Matthew Goodwin wrote that the demographic process would result in White Canadians being in the minority by around 2050.


title: White demographic decline

text: While under 18 non-Hispanic White Americans in the US. are already a minority as of 2020, it is projected that non-Hispanic Whites overall will become a minority within the US by 2045.


title: White demographic decline

text: The political right has been reported to be most inclined to reference white demographic decline in a political context, with 2022 communication-research outlining how fears of white-related demography are often weaponised. Max Hui Bai, a scholar working within Stanford University's Polarization and Social Change Lab, has explored "how people react to the numerical decline of white populations" across the Western world.


title: White demographic decline

text: Sociologist and demographer Ann Morning has suggested that representations of female multiraciality have been used in media to show evidence of "racial progress" and "bridging racial divides", while also providing a function which "serves to soften the blow of White demographic decline". Professor Trevor Burnard has discussed how "white demographic decline" occurred in the population of the colony of Jamaica between 1655 and 1780, stating that his research "presents hard data on white mortality in seventeenth- and eighteenth-century Jamaica" and its political implications. In modern times, journalist Sabrina Tavernise has reported that since the 2020 US Census, regarding white demography, social scientists have pointed out that the "declining share of white people as a part of the population has become a part of American politics — as a worry on the right and a cause for optimism on the left."


title: White demographic decline

text: Scholars Hermann Giliomee and Lawrence Schlemmer have credited, among other factors, international pressure on the apartheid government and "a white demographic decline" for facilitating the process of negotiations to end apartheid in South Africa.


title: White demographic decline

text: Adela Fofiu of Babeș-Bolyai University has noted how right-wing organizations and outlets in Romania politicize white demographic decline, attempting to associate it with concepts such as the "Islamization of Europe" or "Gypsifcation" of the country, the latter of which refers to the Romani people in Romania. In 2018 analysis, the Southern Poverty Law Center explored how right-wing extremism in Europe attempts to utilize the continents demographic decline and the rise of immigration from Arab and or Middle Eastern countries for political gain. A professor at Loughborough University, Marco Antonsich's research in Italy suggests that "demographic change and the decline of white majorities" provides space for immigrant communities to" justify their national belonging and to rewrite the nation".


title: White demographic decline

text: In 2018, Eric Kaufmann wrote a piece for the "New Statesman" on the demographic decline of White British people within the United Kingdom, stating that "Three-quarters of people in Britain in 2150 will, like myself, be mixed-race." and highlighted political consequences of such a transformation taking place: When whites can't express their sense of ethnic loss, they turn to the seemingly more "respectable" alternatives of demonising Muslims, criticising immigrants who live in minority neighbourhoods, or voting for Brexit (a result of diverting concerns over ethnic change into hatred of the acceptably "white" EU). Few things have contributed more to today's populist blowback than the demographic blind spot in Western political thought.


title: White demographic decline

text: In 2020, Nick Timothy, a former Downing Street Chief of Staff, addressed societal consequences of the ongoing demographic decline of white people in the United Kingdom:


title: White demographic decline

text: This is a difficult issue to understand and address, but the anxiety is real. White people are as attached to their ethnic and cultural identity as any other group and, faced with the reality of rapid demographic decline, many feel a sense of loss.


title: White demographic decline

text: Writing in 2019, journalist Margaret Wente has suggested that "nations upended by right-wing populism all have one thing in common. They are all facing white demographic decline. And that is the breeding ground for populist revolts." Wente argues that with significant projected decline of the white share of the population in Canada, the country will have to address reactionary populist politics.


title: White demographic decline

text: In 1998 research, Fordham University professor Tanya K. Hernandez outlined the potential for multiracial Americans to have their representative US census category "co-opted by the larger society as a mechanism for constructing a buffer class to maintain White privilege, in the midst of a growing concern with the demographic decline of White U.S. residents". Samuel P. Huntington's 2004 book "Who Are We? The Challenges to America's National Identity" addressed the emerging population change in the United States. In an analysis on Huntington's treatise, political demographer Eric Kaufmann wrote:


title: White demographic decline

text: Finally, Huntington considers the possibility of a white nationalist response to the changes taking place. He says that white nativism is a "plausible" response to white demographic decline, the cosmopolitan defection of the white elite and the fading power of the Anglo-Protestant core.


title: White demographic decline

text: By 2010, the Southern Poverty Law Center's 1,000 organizations listed within their "hate" and "nativist" archives predominantly involved politics referencing white demography. Arizona State University anthropologist Luis Plascencia wrote that "a common thread in many of these groups is the concern with the demographic decline of 'white' individuals". In 2009, Stanford University professor Eamonn Callan observed that:


title: White demographic decline

text: The slow but inexorable demographic decline of white Americans to the status of one minority among others has begun to register in popular consciousness, making it harder for anyone to suppose that American identity could still be white identity.


title: White demographic decline

text: In the mid-2010s, white people's demographic decline became increasing associated with politics in relation to the 2016 presidential election. Donald Trump's policy positions and rhetoric were seen by some scholars as giving an outlet to anxiety based upon this changing white demography. Journalist Christopher Caldwell argued that perceived cultural celebration of the process had contributed to the political energies supporting candidate Trump. Caldwell wrote that "At the same time, white demographic decline has been accompanied in many quarters with official exultation. The promise is not to enrich white America with new ethnicities but to replace it."


title: White demographic decline

text: Research has predicted a rise in rhetoric regarding issues such as protectionism among white Americans, and particularly white evangelicals, in proportion with the ongoing percentage-share reduction of whites. This demographic decline has also been utilized by extremist commentators, such as explicit supporters of the "alt-right" or white supremacist movements.


title: White demographic decline

text: In this regard, research in historian Mark Sedgwick's "Key Thinkers of the Radical Right" indicated that elements of the extremist right-wing believed that Trump's proposed policies, such as the Trump travel ban or the wall, would "slow white demographic decline". Similarly, Aurora University professor Faith Agostinone-Wilson's "On the Question of Truth in the Era of Trump" describes these types of political aspirations as "an Americanized version of salvation, where White demographic decline is halted and the country is purged of the Other". Anthropologist Rich Benjamin has suggested that the "Trump administration has aimed its rhetoric at a slice of aggrieved white Americans who are panicked about their demographic decline", while political scientist Elliot Jager has written:


title: White demographic decline

text: Trump directs his appeal at disenfranchised working-class Americans by telling them that he'll "make America great again", intimating that he'll reverse the demographic decline of whites by "humanely" deporting 11 million mostly Hispanic, illegal aliens; will protect the homeland by banning Muslims from entering, and will build an impenetrable barrier on the Mexican border.


title: White demographic decline

text: After the inauguration of President Trump, a March 2017 "New Republic" article examined Chief Strategist Steve Bannon's advocacy for the 1973 book "The Camp of the Saints", which it described as "an explicitly racist novel, saturated in deep fear at the prospect of white demographic decline".


title: White demographic decline

text: In the 2020s, study of American politics increasingly factored in the demographic reduction in analysing the Republican Party's electoral success and future strategy. For example, in analysis of the 2020 presidential election results, University of Melbourne professor Timothy J. Lynch suggests "white demographic decline need not spell disaster for the GOP. Despite his dog-whistle racism, Trump performed better than expected among Black voters." In relation to the party's future direction, UCLA's political scientist Gary Segura notes that "Republicans nationally receive 85 percent of their votes from white voters by capturing between 55 and 60 percent of their ballots in each election", adding that "with the demographic decline of white voters, even 60 percent of that cohort will be a poor start when it comprises just two-thirds of the electorate in 2024". Professor Nicholas Lemann also argues that high motivation and corresponding turnout from the Republican Party's supporter base would be required to offset the ongoing demographic decline of whites by the 2024 election.


title: White demographic decline

text: Interviewed by Jeffrey Goldberg in 2020, the director of the documentary film "White Noise" proposed that the decline of whites had become the most significant driving force in the politics of the US. Daniel Lombroso stated "There is a deep-seated fear of white demographic decline in this country, and obviously in Europe. And I think that is now the defining fault line in American politics". Brittany Farr, a Sharswood Fellow at Penn Law, suggests that reporting on US Census results (regarding falling white demography) by journalistic outlets, such as the "New York Times" and "Wall Street Journal", are communicating "a sense of inevitability with respect to white demographic decline".


title: White demographic decline

text: In the United States, responses to the demographic decline of white people have been studied with regard to its affect on the political ideologies of white populations, including recording individual reactions to specific issues, such as welfare, terrorism or ethnic group preference. Sociologists Bart Bonikowski and Yueran Zhang note that:


title: White demographic decline

text: One major source of perceived racial threat is demographic change. Experimental studies have shown that when exposed to information about white demographic decline or increased racial diversity, white respondents express more negative attitudes towards other racial groups (Craig and Richeson 2014b; Enos 2014; Outten et al. 2012)


title: White demographic decline

text: A March 2020 research article found that whites in the US were more likely to expand classification of whiteness to include white Latin Americans "when their privileged social status is threatened, for example, by the prospect of numeric decline". July 2020 research showed that white Americans who are informed of the projected minority status of whites in the United States are more likely to support the torture of terrorist suspects.


title: White demographic decline

text: In 2021, political scientist Robert Pape identified that of the 716 people charged or arrested for storming the Capitol Building in Washington, D.C., they had travelled predominantly "from counties where the white share of the population is declining fastest". In the aftermath of the attack, Tech Against Terrorism published evidence that white demographic decline was being used as a statistical example by the far right to radicalize Trump supporters.


title: White demographic decline

text: In Katha Pollitt's 2015 book "Pro", the essayist links anxiety with the demographic trend of whites and correlating support for the anti-abortion movement. Hampshire College professor Marlene Fried's research suggests Pollitt exposed the "underlying agenda of the antiabortion movement", recognizing that it was associated with white demographic decline and its subsequent effects on sections of the populace.


title: White demographic decline

text: The decline in white fertility, however, is only a small part of the story. The narrative of white demographic decline is being written, primarily, in the language of immigration. It is only since Congress passed the Immigration and Naturalization Act Amendments of 1965 that American racial and ethnic demographics have taken the turn sketched above (Office of Immigration Statistics 2004, 5). Passed during the Johnson Administration, during the height of the Civil Rights era, the 1965 Act repealed the most blatantly racist aspects of the Immigration Act of 1924. It abolished the national origins quotas which had, quite intentionally, limited non-white and non-European immigration to the United States.


title: White demographic decline

text: Based on the effect of immigration on white demography, academic Jamie Winders has written how anti-immigrant sentiment is "grounded more in rhetoric than logic and often operates outside the boundaries of what actual research shows." Winders, a professor of geography at Syracuse University, notes that, for example: "In rural communities in the South, immigration often keeps smaller towns afloat, maintaining local schools, populations, and economies in the face of white demographic decline." In 2020, research from University of Guadalajara's Alejandro Canales confirmed similar findings in the southern US. Canales, an expert on migration and population, wrote:


title: White demographic decline

text: The current case of California, Texas, Florida, Arizona, New Mexico and Nevada are a clear indication of what we are affirming. In all of these states the traditional demographic supremacy of non-Hispanic white people practically has been diluted by the influence of Mexican and Latin-American immigration.


title: White demographic decline

text: Scholars have studied how the demographic decline of white people, as well as its portrayal within different types of media, have contributed towards adherence to racist and disproven conspiracy theories. Harvard University fellow José Pedro Zúquete has observed that:


title: White demographic decline

text: For many years in the American extreme right subculture a putative Jewish conspiracy - reified by the notion of ZOG or Zionist Occupation Government - was often invoked to explain the demographic decline of whites in America.


title: White demographic decline

text: In 2019, scholar Monica Toft expanded on the emergence of nativist politics and conspiracy theory advocacy in relation to the demographic phenomenon, stating that "The 'why now' of white nativism is due to decades of demographic decline for white Americans combined with a serious decline in public education standards that leads to unwarranted nostalgia and openness to conspiracy theories." Academic Robert Pape has suggested that one of the conspiracy theories which weaponizes falling white population-share is The Great Replacement.


title: White demographic decline

text: The Combating Terrorism Center, which is an academic institution within the United States Military Academy, has published research which recognizes anxiety regarding white demographic decline as an ongoing contributing motivation to terrorism in the Western world. An example of this was observed in the Christchurch mosque attacks in New Zealand. Mark Durie argues that the Christchurch terrorist intended to frame the demographic decline of white people as a "crisis" which would "incite conflict so that whites will be compelled to awaken, radicalise and grow strong." Durie, a linguistics and theology scholar, wrote: "We need to understand this ideology, not to give it a platform, but to learn and to equip ourselves to stand against such hatred." In August 2019, a man arrested for threatening to attack people at a Jewish community center in Ohio had been found to have appeared in a documentary speaking about white demographic decline in the United States and Europe.


title: Mysorean rockets

text: Mysorean rockets were an Indian military weapon, the iron-cased rockets were successfully deployed for military use. The Mysorean army, under Hyder Ali and his son Tipu Sultan, used the rockets effectively against the British East India Company during the 1780s and 1790s. Their conflicts with the company exposed the British to this technology further, which was then used to advance European rocketry with the development of the Congreve rocket in 1805.


title: Mysorean rockets

text: There was a regular rocket corps in the Mysore Army, beginning with about 1,200 men in Hyder Ali's time. During the Second Anglo-Mysore War, Colonel William Baillie's ammunition stores are thought to have been detonated by a stray rocket at the Battle of Pollilur in 1780, which contributed to British defeat in the battle. At Pollilur rockets restricted East India Company vanguard movement, skimming along the surface, lacerating troops, and in one specific instance, shattered an Ensign’s leg. With rocket bombardment and harassment, East India Company forces were caught in a double envelopment movement by Mysore cavalry, encircled and routed.


title: Mysorean rockets

text: Hyder Ali and his son Tipu Sultan deployed them against the larger British East India Company forces during the Anglo-Mysore Wars. The British took an interest in the technology and developed it further during the 19th century. Due to the use of iron tubes for holding the propellant, higher thrust and longer range for the missile (up to 2 km range) could be achieved. Rockets also existed in Europe, but they were not iron-cased and their range was far less than their Indian counterparts. These hammered soft iron rockets were crude, but the bursting strength of the container of black powder was much higher than the earlier paper construction, and a greater internal pressure was possible. These rockets were used with considerable effect against the British East India Company in battles at Srirangapatam in 1792 and 1799.


title: Mysorean rockets

text: By the order of Tipu Sultan, his general Mir Zain-ul-'Abidin Shushtari compiled a military manual called "Fathul Mujahidin" in which 200 rocket men were assigned to each Mysorean "cushoon" (brigade). Mysore had 16 to 24 cushoons of infantry. The rocket men were trained to launch their rockets at an angle calculated from the diameter of the cylinder and the distance to the target. In addition, wheeled rocket launchers were used in war that were capable of launching five to ten rockets almost simultaneously.


title: Mysorean rockets

text: Rockets could be of various sizes but usually consisted of a tube of soft hammered iron about long and 1.5 to 3 inches (3.8 to 7.6 cm) in diameter, closed at one end and strapped to a shaft of bamboo about long. The iron tube acted as a combustion chamber and contained well-packed black powder propellant. A rocket carrying about one pound (~500 g) of powder could travel almost 1,000 yards (~900 m). In contrast, rockets in Europe could not take large chamber pressures, not being iron cased, and were consequently not capable of reaching such distances.


title: Mysorean rockets

text: The entire road alongside Jumma Masjid near City Market and Taramandalpet, Bangalore was the hub of Tipu's rocket project where he had set up a laboratory.


title: Mysorean rockets

text: Two rocket units were fielded by Tipu Sultan in 1792 during the Third Anglo-Mysore War, one of 120 men and the other of 131 men. Lt. Col. Knox was attacked by rockets near Srirangapatna on the night of 6 February 1792 while advancing towards the Kaveri River from the north. The Rocket Corps ultimately reached a strength of about 5,000 in Tipu Sultan's army. Mysore rockets were also used for ceremonial purposes. The Jacobin Club of Mysore sent a delegation to Tipu Sultan, and 500 rockets were launched as part of the gun salute.


title: Mysorean rockets

text: Rockets were again used on several occasions during the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War. One of these involved Colonel Arthur Wellesley, later famous as the First Duke of Wellington. Wellesley was almost defeated by Tipu's Diwan Purnaiah at the Battle of Sultanpet Tope.


title: Mysorean rockets

text: Wellesley launched a fresh attack with a larger force the following day, and took the whole position without losing a single man. Rocketeers worked their way around to the rear of the British encampment on 22 April 1799, 12 days before the main battle, and fired a large number of rockets at the same moment to signal the beginning of an assault by 6,000 Indian infantry and a corps of Frenchmen, all directed by Mir Golam Hussain and Mohomed Hulleen Mir Mirans. The rockets had a range of about 1,000 yards. Some burst in the air like shells, while others (called ground rockets) would rise again on striking the ground and bound along in a serpentine motion until their force was spent. A young English officer named Bayly observed: "So pestered were we with the rocket boys that there was no moving without danger from the destructive missiles". He continued:


title: Mysorean rockets

text: The rockets and musketry from 20,000 of the enemy were incessant. No hail could be thicker. Every illumination of blue lights was accompanied by a shower of rockets, some of which entered the head of the column, passing through to the rear, causing death, wounds, and dreadful lacerations from the long bamboos of twenty or thirty feet, which are invariably attached to them.


title: Mysorean rockets

text: A British shot struck a magazine of rockets within Tipu Sultan's fort during the decisive British attack on Srirangapattana on 2 May 1799, causing it to explode and send a towering cloud of black smoke with cascades of exploding white light rising up from the battlements. Baird led the final attack on the fort on the afternoon of 4 May and was again met by "furious musket and rocket fire", but this did not help much; the fort was taken in about an hour's time. Perhaps within another hour Tipu had been shot (the precise time of his death is not known), and the war was effectively over.


title: Mysorean rockets

text: After the fall of Srirangapattana, 600 launchers, 700 serviceable rockets, and 9,000 empty rockets were found. Some of the rockets had pierced cylinders, to allow them to act like incendiaries, while some had iron points or steel blades bound to the bamboo. By attaching these blades to rockets they became very unstable towards the end of their flight causing the blades to spin around like flying scythes, cutting down soldiers in their path.


title: Mysorean rockets

text: These experiences eventually led the Royal Woolwich Arsenal to start a military rocket research and development program in 1801, based on the Mysorean technology. Several rocket cases were collected from Mysore and sent to Britain for analysis. Their first demonstration of solid-fuel rockets came in 1805 and was followed by publication of "A Concise Account of the Origin and Progress of the Rocket System" in 1807 by William Congreve, son of the arsenal's commandant. Congreve rockets were systematically used by the British during the Napoleonic Wars and the War of 1812. They were also used in the 1814 Battle of Baltimore, and are mentioned in "The Star-Spangled Banner", the national anthem of the United States: "And the rockets' red glare, the bombs bursting in air".


title: Mysorean rockets

text: In 2002, a cache of metallic shells was unearthed during restoration of an old well in Nagara, 60 kilometres from Shivamogga. About one hundred of these rusted cylindrical shells were stored in Shivappa Nayaka Palace Government Museum identified only as 'shells' and without being registered in museum catalog. In 2010, these shells were identified to have a possible link to Tipu's rockets. And only in 2013, these shells were recognized for their significance.


title: Mysorean rockets

text: In July 2018, another 500 rockets (or 1,000, according to one source) were found in an abandoned well in the same area, confirming it as a major repository and fort under the Tipu Sultan.


title: Root cellar

text: A root cellar (American English), fruit cellar (Mid-Western American English) or earth cellar (British English) is a structure, usually underground or partially underground, used for storage of vegetables, fruits, nuts, or other foods. Its name reflects the traditional focus on root crops stored in an underground cellar, which is still often true; but the scope is wider, as a wide variety of foods can be stored for weeks to months, depending on the crop and conditions, and the structure may not always be underground.


title: Root cellar

text: Root cellaring has been vitally important in various eras and places for winter food supply. Although present-day food distribution systems and refrigeration have rendered root cellars unnecessary for many people, they remain important for those who value self-sufficiency, whether by economic necessity or by choice and for personal satisfaction. Thus, they are popular among diverse audiences, including gardeners, organic farmers, DIY fans, homesteaders, anyone seeking some emergency preparedness (most extensively, preppers), subsistence farmers, and enthusiasts of local food, slow food, heirloom plants, and traditional culture.


title: Root cellar

text: Root cellars are for keeping food supplies at controlled temperatures and steady humidity. Many crops keep longest just above freezing () and at high humidity (90–95%), but the optimal temperature and humidity ranges vary by crop, and various crops keep well at temperatures further above near-freezing but below room temperature, which is usually . A few crops keep better in low humidity. Root cellars keep food from freezing during the winter and keep food cool during the summer to prevent the spoiling and rotting of the roots, for example, potatoes, onions, garlic, carrots, parsnips, etc.. Typically, a variety of vegetables is placed in the root cellar in the autumn after harvesting. A secondary use for the root cellar is as a place to store wine, beer, or other homemade alcoholic beverages.


title: Root cellar

text: Vegetables stored in the root cellar primarily consist of mostly root vegetables (thus the name) - potatoes, turnips, and carrots. Other food supplies placed in the root cellar during winter include beets, onions, jarred preserves and jams, salt meat, salt turbot, salt herring, winter squash, and cabbage. A potato cellar is sometimes called a potato barn or potato house.


title: Root cellar

text: Separate cellars are occasionally used for storing fruits, such as apples. Apples can give off enough ethylene gas to hasten the overripening or spoilage of other crops stored nearby, although this effect is variable, and many farms successfully store vegetables without segregating their apples. Water, bread, butter, milk, and cream are sometimes stored in the root cellar. Items such as salad greens, fresh meat, and jam pies are kept in the root cellar early in the day to keep cool until they are needed for supper.


title: Root cellar

text: The ability of some vegetables and fruit to keep for months in favorable cellar conditions stems in part from the fact that they are not entirely inanimate even after picking. Although they may no longer qualify as living, the plant cells continue to respire in some impaired but nonzero way, resisting bacterial decomposition for a time. The effect can be compared to the way that cut flowers in a vase of water last much longer than cut flowers lying on a table: the flowers in the vase are not entirely dead yet and continue to respire. The analogy is not exact, but the high humidity that supports many cellared crops is involved in this residual respiration.


title: Root cellar

text: In some cases, plants are transplanted from the field to the soil floor of a cellar in autumn, and they then continue living in the cellar for months. The fact that they cannot thrive or grow larger in the low-light, low-temperature conditions is not a problem; the only objective is to keep them alive instead of dead, thus warding off decomposition. This is a form of season extension in which the "growing" season is not extended but the "harvest" season is substantially extended.


title: Root cellar

text: Closets, crawlspaces, garages, sheds, and attics have all been used successfully for storage of at least some kinds of crops. Even the space under a bed can store some crops (such as pumpkins) for several weeks. Especially before rural electrification, farms with springhouses have often used them for root cellar duty (as well as milkhouse duty).


title: Root cellar

text: Most root cellars were built using stone, wood, mortar (cement), and sod. Newer ones may be made of concrete with sod on top.


title: Root cellar

text: Historian Sean Cadigan writes, "Newfoundland and Labrador's climate and soil have not been conducive to agriculture, but outport isolation and poor incomes in the fishery have made supplementary farming crucial." Growing enough


title: Root cellar

text: vegetables to last the winter was imperative to the survival of Newfoundlanders in the past. Without refrigerators, root cellars were one of the few methods to preserve their bounty. The town of Elliston has so many of the structures, the town's motto is the "Root Cellar Capital of the World". Most people grew root vegetables: potatoes, carrots, turnip, cabbage and beets, while others grew a wider variety of vegetables in their gardens. Architect Robert Mellin noted the following on root cellars during his research in Tilting, Fogo Island:


title: Root cellar

text: Many Newfoundland and Labrador cellars use a two-door airlock-type system as a method of temperature regulation, as they allowed people ample time to enter the first door, shutting it behind them before entering the main portion of the root cellar. Folklorist Crystal Braye notes in her study of Newfoundland root cellars:


title: Estimator

text: In statistics, an estimator is a rule for calculating an estimate of a given quantity based on observed data: thus the rule (the estimator), the quantity of interest (the estimand) and its result (the estimate) are distinguished. For example, the sample mean is a commonly used estimator of the population mean.


title: Estimator

text: There are point and interval estimators. The point estimators yield single-valued results. This is in contrast to an interval estimator, where the result would be a range of plausible values. "Single value" does not necessarily mean "single number", but includes vector valued or function valued estimators.


title: Estimator

text: "Estimation theory" is concerned with the properties of estimators; that is, with defining properties that can be used to compare different estimators (different rules for creating estimates) for the same quantity, based on the same data. Such properties can be used to determine the best rules to use under given circumstances. However, in robust statistics, statistical theory goes on to consider the balance between having good properties, if tightly defined assumptions hold, and having less good properties that hold under wider conditions.


title: Estimator

text: An "estimator" or "point estimate" is a statistic (that is, a function of the data) that is used to infer the value of an unknown parameter in a statistical model. A common way of phrasing it is "the estimator is the method selected to obtain an estimate of an unknown parameter".


title: Estimator

text: The parameter being estimated is sometimes called the "estimand". It can be either finite-dimensional (in parametric and semi-parametric models), or infinite-dimensional (semi-parametric and non-parametric models). If the parameter is denoted formula_1 then the estimator is traditionally written by adding a circumflex over the symbol: formula_2. Being a function of the data, the estimator is itself a random variable; a particular realization of this random variable is called the "estimate". Sometimes the words "estimator" and "estimate" are used interchangeably.


title: Estimator

text: The definition places virtually no restrictions on which functions of the data can be called the "estimators". The attractiveness of different estimators can be judged by looking at their properties, such as unbiasedness, mean square error, consistency, asymptotic distribution, etc. The construction and comparison of estimators are the subjects of the estimation theory. In the context of decision theory, an estimator is a type of decision rule, and its performance may be evaluated through the use of loss functions.


title: Estimator

text: When the word "estimator" is used without a qualifier, it usually refers to point estimation. The estimate in this case is a single point in the parameter space. There also exists another type of estimator: interval estimators, where the estimates are subsets of the parameter space.


title: Estimator

text: The problem of density estimation arises in two applications. Firstly, in estimating the probability density functions of random variables and secondly in estimating the spectral density function of a time series. In these problems the estimates are functions that can be thought of as point estimates in an infinite dimensional space, and there are corresponding interval estimation problems.


title: Estimator

text: Suppose a fixed "parameter" formula_3 needs to be estimated. Then an "estimator" is a function that maps the sample space to a set of "sample estimates". An estimator of formula_3 is usually denoted by the symbol formula_2. It is often convenient to express the theory using the algebra of random variables: thus if "X" is used to denote a random variable corresponding to the observed data, the estimator (itself treated as a random variable) is symbolised as a function of that random variable, formula_6. The estimate for a particular observed data value formula_7 (i.e. for formula_8) is then formula_9, which is a fixed value. Often an abbreviated notation is used in which formula_2 is interpreted directly as a random variable, but this can cause confusion.


title: Estimator

text: where formula_14 is the parameter being estimated. The error, "e", depends not only on the estimator (the estimation formula or procedure), but also on the sample.


title: Estimator

text: The mean squared error of formula_2 is defined as the expected value (probability-weighted average, over all samples) of the squared errors; that is,


title: Estimator

text: It is used to indicate how far, on average, the collection of estimates are from the single parameter being estimated. Consider the following analogy. Suppose the parameter is the bull's-eye of a target, the estimator is the process of shooting arrows at the target, and the individual arrows are estimates (samples). Then high MSE means the average distance of the arrows from the bull's eye is high, and low MSE means the average distance from the bull's eye is low. The arrows may or may not be clustered. For example, even if all arrows hit the same point, yet grossly miss the target, the MSE is still relatively large. However, if the MSE is relatively low then the arrows are likely more highly clustered (than highly dispersed) around the target.


title: Estimator

text: where formula_20 is the expected value of the estimator. The sampling deviation, "d", depends not only on the estimator, but also on the sample.


title: Estimator

text: The variance of formula_2 is the expected value of the squared sampling deviations; that is, formula_22. It is used to indicate how far, on average, the collection of estimates are from the "expected value" of the estimates. (Note the difference between MSE and variance.) If the parameter is the bull's-eye of a target, and the arrows are estimates, then a relatively high variance means the arrows are dispersed, and a relatively low variance means the arrows are clustered. Even if the variance is low, the cluster of arrows may still be far off-target, and even if the variance is high, the diffuse collection of arrows may still be unbiased. Finally, even if all arrows grossly miss the target, if they nevertheless all hit the same point, the variance is zero.


title: Estimator

text: The bias of formula_2 is defined as formula_24. It is the distance between the average of the collection of estimates, and the single parameter being estimated. The bias of formula_2 is a function of the true value of formula_3 so saying that the bias of formula_2 is formula_28 means that for every formula_3 the bias of formula_2 is formula_28.


title: Estimator

text: There are two kinds of estimators: biased estimators and unbiased estimators. Whether an estimator is biased or not can be identified by the relationship between formula_32 and 0:


title: Estimator

text: The bias is also the expected value of the error, since formula_37. If the parameter is the bull's eye of a target and the arrows are estimates, then a relatively high absolute value for the bias means the average position of the arrows is off-target, and a relatively low absolute bias means the average position of the arrows is on target. They may be dispersed, or may be clustered. The relationship between bias and variance is analogous to the relationship between accuracy and precision.


title: Estimator

text: The estimator formula_2 is an unbiased estimator of formula_3 if and only if formula_40. Bias is a property of the estimator, not of the estimate. Often, people refer to a "biased estimate" or an "unbiased estimate," but they really are talking about an "estimate from a biased estimator," or an "estimate from an unbiased estimator." Also, people often confuse the "error" of a single estimate with the "bias" of an estimator. That the error for one estimate is large, does not mean the estimator is biased. In fact, even if all estimates have astronomical absolute values for their errors, if the expected value of the error is zero, the estimator is unbiased. Also, an estimator's being biased does not preclude the error of an estimate from being zero in a particular instance. The ideal situation is to have an unbiased estimator with low variance, and also try to limit the number of samples where the error is extreme (that is, have few outliers). Yet unbiasedness is not essential. Often, if just a little bias is permitted, then an estimator can be found with lower mean squared error and/or fewer outlier sample estimates.


title: Estimator

text: An alternative to the version of "unbiased" above, is "median-unbiased", where the median of the distribution of estimates agrees with the true value; thus, in the long run half the estimates will be too low and half too high. While this applies immediately only to scalar-valued estimators, it can be extended to any measure of central tendency of a distribution: see median-unbiased estimators.


title: Estimator

text: In a practical problem, formula_2 can always have functional relationship with formula_3. For example, A genetic theory states there is a type of leave, starchy green, occur with probability formula_43, with formula_44.


title: Estimator

text: For formula_45 leaves, the random variable formula_46, the number of starchy green leaves, can be modeled with a formula_47 distribution. The number can be used to express the following estimator for formula_3: formula_49. One can show that formula_2 is an unbiased estimator for formula_3:


title: Estimator

text: A consistent sequence of estimators is a sequence of estimators that converge in probability to the quantity being estimated as the index (usually the sample size) grows without bound. In other words, increasing the sample size increases the probability of the estimator being close to the population parameter.


title: Estimator

text: Mathematically, a sequence of estimators } is a consistent estimator for parameter "θ" if and only if, for all , no matter how small, we have


title: Estimator

text: The consistency defined above may be called weak consistency. The sequence is "strongly consistent", if it converges almost surely to the true value.


title: Estimator

text: An estimator that converges to a "multiple" of a parameter can be made into a consistent estimator by multiplying the estimator by a scale factor, namely the true value divided by the asymptotic value of the estimator. This occurs frequently in estimation of scale parameters by measures of statistical dispersion.


title: Estimator

text: An asymptotically normal estimator is a consistent estimator whose distribution around the true parameter "θ" approaches a normal distribution with standard deviation shrinking in proportion to formula_66 as the sample size "n" grows. Using formula_67 to denote convergence in distribution, "t" is asymptotically normal if


title: Estimator

text: In this formulation "V/n" can be called the "asymptotic variance" of the estimator. However, some authors also call "V" the "asymptotic variance".


title: Estimator

text: Note that convergence will not necessarily have occurred for any finite "n", therefore this value is only an approximation to the true variance of the estimator, while in the limit the asymptotic variance (V/n) is simply zero. To be more specific, the distribution of the estimator "t" converges weakly to a dirac delta function centered at formula_3.


title: Estimator

text: The central limit theorem implies asymptotic normality of the sample mean formula_70 as an estimator of the true mean.


title: Estimator

text: More generally, maximum likelihood estimators are asymptotically normal under fairly weak regularity conditions — see the asymptotics section of the maximum likelihood article. However, not all estimators are asymptotically normal; the simplest examples are found when the true value of a parameter lies on the boundary of the allowable parameter region.


title: Estimator

text: The efficiency of an estimator is used to estimate the quantity of interest in a "minimum error" manner. In reality, there is not an explicit best estimator; there can only be a better estimator. The good or not of the efficiency of an estimator is based on the choice of a particular loss function, and it is reflected by two naturally desirable properties of estimators: to be unbiased formula_35 and have minimal mean squared error (MSE) formula_72. These cannot in general both be satisfied simultaneously: an unbiased estimator may have a lower mean squared error than any biased estimator (see estimator bias).


title: Estimator

text: The first term represents the mean squared error; the second term represents the square of the estimator bias; and the third term represents the variance of the sample. The quality of the estimator can be identified from the comparison between the variance, the square of the estimator bias, or the MSE. The variance of the good estimator (good efficiency) would be smaller than the variance of the bad estimator (bad efficiency). The square of a estimator bias with a good estimator would be smaller than the estimator bias with a bad estimator. The MSE of a good estimator would be smaller than the MSE of the bad estimator. Suppose there are two estimator, formula_74 is the good estimator and formula_75 is the bad estimator. The above relationship can be expressed by the following formulas.


title: Estimator

text: Besides using formula to identify the efficiency of the estimator, it can also be identified through the graph. If an estimator is efficient, in the frequency vs. value graph, there will be a curve with high frequency at the center and low frequency on the two sides. For example:


title: Estimator

text: If an estimator is not efficient, the frequency vs. value graph, there will be a relatively more gentle curve.


title: Estimator

text: To put it simply, the good estimator has a narrow curve, while the bad estimator has a large curve. Plotting these two curves on one graph with a shared y-axis, the difference becomes more obvious.