title: Richard Glossip

text: Glossip's legal team asserts that Justin Sneed was addicted to methamphetamine at the time that he murdered Van Treese, and that he habitually broke into vehicles in the parking lot of the Best Budget Inn while he was employed as a maintenance man. Glossip's execution is controversial because he was convicted almost entirely on the testimony of Sneed, who confessed to bludgeoning Van Treese to death with an aluminum baseball bat by himself and who was spared a death sentence himself by implicating Glossip.


title: Richard Glossip

text: In 2015, Oklahoma City police released a 1999 police report showing that a box of evidence had been marked for destruction. The report was never provided to attorneys who represented Glossip in his second trial or his appeals, according to his new defense team. In an interview published the same day, Glossip's attorney, Donald Knight, criticised his previous attorneys, saying "They did a terrible job. Horrible. No preparation. No investigation."


title: Richard Glossip

text: On September 22, 2015, Glossip's attorneys filed papers referring to a July 1997 psychiatric evaluation of Sneed, in which he said he understood he was charged with murder in connection with a burglary and made no reference to Glossip's involvement.


title: Richard Glossip

text: On September 23, 2015, Glossip's attorneys filed papers asserting that two new witnesses were being intimidated. In affidavits, one witness had claimed that Sneed laughed about lying in court about Glossip's involvement; another said he was convinced based on his conversations with Sneed that Sneed acted alone. On September 24, 2015, the Oklahoma Attorney General's Office filed papers stating that the claims of the new witnesses were "inherently suspect," and that the time it took Van Treese to die and whether blood loss contributed to his death did not affect the trial outcome, in response to a defense claim that the testimony of Dr. Chai Choi, who performed the autopsy, was incorrect.


title: Richard Glossip

text: On September 28, 2015, the Oklahoma Court of Criminal Appeals voted 3-2 to proceed with execution. Presiding Judge Clancy Smith wrote "While finality of judgment is important, the state has no interest in executing an actually innocent man. An evidentiary hearing will give Glossip the chance to prove his allegations that Sneed has recanted, or demonstrate to the court that he cannot provide evidence that would exonerate him." Judge Arlene Johnson wrote that the original trial was "deeply flawed" and an evidentiary hearing should be ordered.


title: Richard Glossip

text: On September 30, 2015, Glossip spoke to the UK's Sky News on the telephone from his cell as he was served his last meal. Glossip said that Sneed testified at trial that Glossip did not wear or own gloves, "And now he's on TV saying that I did. It continues to show the discrepancies in anything that Justin Sneed has to say." On the same day, Virgin CEO Richard Branson bought an advertisement in "The Oklahoman" newspaper which had campaigned against the execution, with Branson stating the evidence against Glossip is flawed and that "every person is deserving of a fair trial," adding, "Your state is about to execute a man whose guilt has not been proven beyond a reasonable doubt." The United States Supreme Court denied a stay of execution. Justice Stephen Breyer wrote that he would grant a stay.


title: Richard Glossip

text: In July 2022, Oklahoma Pardon and Parole Board member Richard Smothermon, who had to that point voted to deny clemency to every death row inmate seeking it, voted to recuse himself from voting because his wife was a prosecutor on the case. In August 2022, 61 lawmakers urged Attorney General John O'Connor to support Glossip's request for a new hearing because without "support from O'Connor, the Court of Criminal Appeals is expected to reject Glossip's claims of innocence, as it has done before."


title: Richard Glossip

text: Glossip has several high-profile supporters of his innocence, including Mark Ruffalo, Peter Sarsgaard, Sir Richard Branson, Susan Sarandon, Sister Helen Prejean, and Pope Francis. In 2022, state Rep. Kevin McDugle said "he would fight to end the death penalty if Glossip dies."


title: Richard Glossip

text: On October 13, 2014, the Oklahoma Attorney General said the state did not have an adequate supply of execution drugs and delayed the execution of Glossip and two other inmates. On January 28, 2015, the U.S. Supreme Court halted executions in Oklahoma until it decided on lethal injection drugs.


title: Richard Glossip

text: Governor Mary Fallin stayed the execution after the Department of Corrections received potassium acetate instead of potassium chloride. The execution was reset for November 6, 2015.


title: Richard Glossip

text: On October 1, 2015, Attorney General Scott Pruitt asked the Court of Criminal Appeals to issue an indefinite stay of all scheduled executions in Oklahoma, citing the Department of Correction's acquisition of a drug contrary to protocol. The next day, the request was granted.


title: Richard Glossip

text: On October 6, 2015, Governor Mary Fallin said she hired an independent attorney, Robert McCampbell, to advise her on the legal process.


title: Richard Glossip

text: On October 8, 2015, it was reported that Oklahoma Corrections Department officials used potassium acetate to execute Charles Frederick Warner on January 15, 2015, contrary to protocol. An attorney representing Glossip and other Oklahoma death row inmates said logs from Warner's execution initialed by a prison staff member indicated the use of potassium chloride; however, an autopsy report showed 12 vials of potassium acetate were used.


title: Richard Glossip

text: According to a report on October 16, 2015, due to a grand jury investigation, it was likely the state would not conduct an execution for more than a year.


title: Richard Glossip

text: Glossip was the named plaintiff in "Glossip v. Gross", a U.S. Supreme Court case decided in June 2015 in which a divided Court ruled 5-4 with Antonin Scalia, Clarence Thomas, Samuel Alito, John Roberts, and Anthony Kennedy, voting to allow the execution to proceed, and Stephen Breyer, Elena Kagan, Sonia Sotomayor, and Ruth Bader Ginsburg voting to halt it. Sotomayor wrote, "But under the court's new rule, it would not matter whether the state intended to use midazolam, or instead to have petitioners drawn and quartered, slowly tortured to death or actually burned at the stake." The court found the drug midazolam may be used as a sedative in combination with other lethal injection drugs. The case was originally titled "Warner v. Gross", but Glossip replaced Charles Frederick Warner as the plaintiff after Warner was executed in January 2015, also by Oklahoma, before the case was decided. The case was reopened in March 2020 as "Glossip v. Chandler" after Oklahoma ended its moratorium on the death penalty, with plaintiffs challenging Oklahoma's execution protocol.


title: Richard Glossip

text: On July 1, 2022, Glossip was one of twenty-five death row inmates to be scheduled for execution in Oklahoma. He was scheduled to be executed on September 22, 2022.


title: Richard Glossip

text: On August 16, 2022, Oklahoma Governor Kevin Stitt granted a 60 day stay of execution. Glossip was then scheduled to be executed on December 8, 2022. On November 3, 2022, Governor Stitt again granted a stay of execution for Glossip, allowing time for the Oklahoma Court of Criminal Appeals to address his pending legal proceedings. He was rescheduled to be executed on February 16, 2023.


title: Richard Glossip

text: In 2017, "Killing Richard Glossip", a four-part TV series about Glossip's innocence controversy and Oklahoma execution scandal premiered on Investigation Discovery.


title: Richard Glossip

text: While on death row, Richard Glossip married Leigha Joy Jurasik of New Jersey at the Oklahoma State Penitentiary on 27 September 2018. The pair divorced in February 2021. Glossip had a "relationship" with Melissa Ratliff, who first contacted him in 2015. Their contact ended in January 2021. Both Jurasik and Ratliff accused Glossip of threatening them. In March 2022, he married Lea Rodger of Florida, an anti-death penalty advocate.


title: Ringtone

text: A ringtone, ring tone or ring is the sound made by a telephone to indicate an incoming call. Originally referring to and made by the electromechanical striking of bells, the term now refers to any sound on any device alerting of a new incoming call—up to and including recordings of original telephone bells.


title: Ringtone

text: Electronic telephones, especially smartphones, are manufactured with a preloaded selection of ringtones. Customers can buy or generate custom ringtones for installation on the device.


title: Ringtone

text: A telephone rings when the telephone network indicates an incoming call, so that the recipient is alerted of the call attempt. Landline telephones typically receive an electric alternating current signal, called "power ringing" or "ringing signal", generated by the telephone exchange to which the telephone is connected. The ringing current originally operated an electric bell. For mobile phones, the network sends a message to the recipient's device, which may activate a sound, or a visual or vibrating indication.


title: Ringtone

text: On a POTS interface, this signal is created by superimposing ringing voltage atop the −48 VDC already on the line. This is done at the Central Office, or a neighborhood multiplexer called a "SLC" for Subscriber Line Carrier. (SLC is a trademark of Alcatel-Lucent, but is often used generically.) Telephones with electromagnetic ringers are still in widespread use. The ringing signal in North America is normally specified at ca. 90 volts AC with a frequency of 20 hertz. In Europe it is around 60–90 VAC with a frequency of 25 Hz. Some non-Bell Company system party lines in the US used multiple frequencies for selective ringing. Ringing voltage is produced by various sources. Large central offices used motor-driven generator sets for both ringing and other signals such as dial tone and busy signals. In smaller offices, special sub-cycle magnetic oscillators were used. Typically, solid-state oscillators have replaced them. Originally this voltage was used to trigger an electromagnet to ring a bell installed inside the telephone, or in a nearby mounted ringer box. Fixed phones of the late 20th century and later detect this ringing current voltage and trigger a warbling tone electronically. Mobile phones have been fully digital since the early 1990s second-generation ("2G") devices, hence are signaled to ring as part of the protocol they use to communicate with the cell base stations.


title: Ringtone

text: While the sound produced is still called a "ring", some phones electronically produce a warbling, chirping, or other sound. Variation of the ring signal can be used to indicate characteristics of incoming calls. For example, ringing bursts with a shorter interval between them might be used to signal a call from a given number.


title: Ringtone

text: In POTS switching systems, ringing is said to be "tripped" when the impedance of the entire telephone line ("local loop") is reduced when the telephone handset is lifted off the hook. This signals that the telephone call has been answered. The telephone exchange immediately removes the ringing signal from the line and connects the call.


title: Ringtone

text: The ringing pattern is known as ring cadence, in which the high voltage ring current is switched on and off to create the pattern. In North America, the standard ring cadence is two seconds of ringing followed by four seconds of silence. In Australia and the UK, the standard ring cadence is 400 ms on, 200 ms off, 400 ms on, 2000 ms off. These patterns may vary from region to region, and other patterns are used in different countries around the world. Some central offices offer distinctive ring to identify one of multiple telephone numbers assigned to the same line, a pattern once widely used on party line (telephony).


title: Ringtone

text: In many systems, including North America Bellcore standards, Caller ID signals are sent during the silent interval between the first and second bursts of the ringing signals.


title: Ringtone

text: The caller is informed about the progress of the call by the audible ringing signal, often called "ringback tone". Power ringing and audible ringing are not generally synchronized.


title: Ringtone

text: Seven different gong combinations for the "C" type ringer were included in the model 500 and 2500 landline telephone sets. These gongs provided "distinctive tones" for hearing-impaired customers and also made it possible to distinguish the specific telephone that was ringing when several telephones were placed in close proximity. A "Bell Chime" was also offered, which could be set to sound like a doorbell or to ring like a standard telephone.


title: Ringtone

text: While rings, ringers, ring signals, or what might be viewed as the call signals which are the predecessors of ringtones, date back to the beginnings of telephony, modern ringtones appeared in the 1960s and have expanded into tunes and many customizable tones or melodies. Arguably the first ringtone (in the modern sense) appeared in the movie "Our Man Flint" in 1966, where the head of the secret government agency had a red phone that connected directly to the President and rang with a distinctive musical ringtone.


title: Ringtone

text: Following a 1975 FCC ruling which permitted third-party devices to be connected to phone lines, manufacturers produced accessory telephone ringers which rang with electronic tones or melodies rather than mechanical bells. People also made their own ringers which used the chip from a musical greeting card to play a melody on the arrival of a call. One such ringer, described in a 1989 book, even features a toy dog which barks and wags its tail when a call arrives. Eventually, electronic telephone ringers became the norm. Some of these ringers produced a single tone, but others produced a sequence of two or three tones or a musical melody. Some novelty phones have a ringer to match, such as a duck that quacks or a car that honks its horn.


title: Ringtone

text: Polyphonic ringtone technology dates back to 1999, when the Yamaha MA-1 sound chip was introduced, including four 2-op FM synthesis channels. Ringtones played on the MA series chips are in the MIDI-based synthetic music mobile application format (SMAF). It was succeeded by the MA-2 in 2000, which includes 16 channels with support for ADPCM samples, and the MA-3 in 2001 which includes 32 FM channels and 8 wavetable channels. One of the first software-based polyphonic synths included on phones was miniBAE, developed by Thomas Dolby's audio technology company Beatnik. It is an optimized version of Beatnik Audio Engine, which was previously used in products such as WebTV. The first phone to include this synth was the Nokia 3510, released in 2002.


title: Ringtone

text: Most modern phones support ringtones in MP3 format, and other common audio formats such as AAC, Ogg Vorbis, FLAC, and MIDI are often supported as well. Less common formats include:


title: Ringtone

text: A ringtone maker is an application that converts a user chosen song or other audio file for use as a ringtone of a mobile phone. The ringtone file is installed in the mobile phone either by direct cable connection, Bluetooth, text messaging, or e-mail. On many websites, users may create ringtones from digital music or audio.


title: Ringtone

text: The earliest ringtone maker was Harmonium, developed by Vesa-Matti Paananen, a Finnish computer programmer, and released in 1997 for use with Nokia smart messaging. Some phone manufacturers included features for users to create music tones, either with a "melody composer" or a sample/loop arranger, such as the MusicDJ software included on many Sony Ericsson phones. These often use encoding formats only available to one particular phone model or brand. Other formats, such as MIDI or MP3, are often supported; they must be downloaded to the phone before they can be used as a normal ringtone.


title: Ringtone

text: In 2005, "SmashTheTones", now "Mobile17", became the first third-party solution for ringtone creation online without requiring downloadable software or a digital audio editor. Later, iPhones included the ability to create a ringtone from a song purchased with the iTunes library.


title: Ringtone

text: In September 1996, IDO sold Digital Minimo D319 by Denso. It was the first mobile phone where a user could input an original melody, rather than having to use preloaded melodies. These phones proved to be popular in Japan, with a book being published in 1998 providing details about how to customize phones to play snippets of popular songs, selling more than 3.5 million copies.


title: Ringtone

text: The first downloadable mobile ringtone service was created and delivered in Finland in 1998 when Radiolinja (a Finnish mobile operator now known as Elisa) started their service called Harmonium, invented by Vesa-Matti Pananen. Harmonium contained both tools for individuals to create monophonic ring tones and a mechanism to deliver them over-the-air (OTA) via SMS to a mobile handset. In November 1998, Digitalphone Groupe (SoftBank Mobile) started a similar service in Japan.


title: Ringtone

text: Andy Clarke, while working for UK phone provider Orange, helped created the B5 Ringtone License with the UK's Mechanical-Copyright Protection Society in 1998. In 1999, Clarke registered ringtone.net and setup what is believed to be the world's first "legal" ringtone business. Scott Memphis, leader singer of Sunday Morning Sanctuary, wrote a 2010 hit entitled, "Ringtones & Lullabies" inspired by with the B5 Ringtone Licensing of 1998.


title: Ringtone

text: The fact that consumers were willing to pay up to $5 for ringtones, made mobile music a profitable part of the music industry. A significant portion of sales went to the cell phone provider. The Manhattan-based marketing and consulting firm Consect estimated ringtones generated $4 billion in worldwide sales in 2004. According to "Fortune" magazine, ringtones generated more than $2 billion in worldwide sales during 2005. The rise of sound files also contributed to the popularization of ringtones. In 2003 for example, the Japanese ringtone market, which alone was worth US$900 million, experienced US$66.4 million worth of sound file ringtone sales. In 2003, the global ringtone industry was worth somewhere between US$2.5 and US$3.5 billion. In 2009, the research firm SNL Kagan estimated that sales of ringtones in the United States peaked at $714 million in 2007.


title: Ringtone

text: SNL Kagan estimated U.S. sales of ringtones in 2008 declined to $541 million, as consumers utilized third-party software and tutorials to create ringtones themselves. Another reason for the decline of ringtones is due to the increase of mobile devices in the late 2000s having internet connectivity, allowing consumers to download full songs from marketplaces such as iTunes and Amazon, rather than buying excerpts for $5 through text. The technological advancements of smartphones is also considered to be a factor in the decline of ringtones, with consumers shifting their focus to software such as games and social media. The decline of ringtones has further continued throughout the 2010s and 2020s, with many people setting the ringtone to silent; Sensor Tower reported in 2021 that ringtone app downloads decreased by 20% from 2016 to 2020.


title: Ringtone

text: Preloaded ringtones have also developed a cult following over the years. A Twitter account named Ringtone Bangers + More launched in 2020, posts preloaded ringtones from mobile phones, as well as other music related to technology such as demoes from keyboards and software installation background music. The account has also published interviews with composers who worked on ringtones. Thomas Dolby, who founded Beatnik and later Retro Ringtones, stated he is "pleased to see an upsurge of interest in classic ringtones", while several composers who worked at Nokia have expressed surprise over the interest in ringtones.


title: Jeremy Gilley

text: Jeremy Francis Gilley (born 1969) is an English actor, filmmaker and founder of the nonprofit organisation Peace One Day.


title: Jeremy Gilley

text: Born in 1969, Gilley spent his early years in Southampton, Hampshire. Gilley was educated at St. Mary's College, Southampton and Millfield, a boarding independent school in the village of Street in Somerset. He joined the Royal Shakespeare Company at the age of 17.


title: Jeremy Gilley

text: Peace One Day (2004). Jeremy Gilley directed and produced his first feature-length documentary, telling the story of his attempts to persuade the global community via the United Nations to sanction officially a day without conflict; a ceasefire day; a global day of Peace.


title: Jeremy Gilley

text: In 2004, the Peace One Day documentary premiered at the Edinburgh Film Festival, and the BBC aired the documentary in September of the same year. In 2005, Angelina Jolie and Jonny Lee Miller hosted the film's North American premiere to highlight Peace Day.


title: Jeremy Gilley

text: The Day After Peace (2008). Gilley directed and produced his second feature-length documentary, The Day After Peace, in association with the BBC. The film documents polio vaccinations on 21 September 2007 in Afghanistan.


title: Jeremy Gilley

text: Peace One Day Part 3. Jeremy Gilley's third feature-length documentary continuing the story of Peace Day, making it a day of peace that is self-sustaining around the world.


title: Jeremy Gilley

text: Since 2019, Jeremy has directed and produced films for Avon, telling stories of gender-based violence survivors.


title: Jeremy Gilley

text: In 1994, following a decade of professional acting, Gilley started a film making company, P.U.R.E. Productions.


title: Jeremy Gilley

text: In 1999, he set out to document his efforts to create an annual Peace Day. To this end he founded the non-profit organisation Peace One Day. In September 2001 as a result of Jeremy’s efforts, a General Assembly resolution was unanimously adopted by UN member states, establishing 21 September as an annual day of global ceasefire and non-violence on the UN International Day of Peace – Peace Day.


title: Jeremy Gilley

text: In 2007, Jeremy Gilley and Peace One Day Ambassador Jude Law travelled to Jalalabad and Kabul to meet with representatives from the United Nations, the Afghan government, and other organisations. They initiated a campaign alongside WHO, UNICEF, and the Ministry of Public Health, which resulted in providing 1.4 million children with the monovalent P3 polio vaccine in southern Afghanistan and selected areas in eastern Afghanistan. In 2008 there was a 70 per cent drop in violent incidents on Peace Day in Afghanistan following pledges by President Hamid Karzai and UN forces for a day of non-violence, and by 2010 the campaign had resulted in the immunisation against polio of 4.5 million children in areas hitherto unreachable due to conflict. Since then, Jeremy has been working to institutionalise Peace Day, 21 September across the world with Peace One Day.


title: Jeremy Gilley

text: As part of their continuing plan to raise awareness of Peace Day, he has directed and produced numerous concerts and events with the support of celebrities and musicians like Dave Stewart, Annie Lennox, Angelina Jolie, Joseph Fiennes, Sir Richard Branson, Nadirah X, Mudbone Cooper and the late Mo Mowlam.


title: Jeremy Gilley

text: In 2007, Peace One Day organised a third concert at the Royal Albert Hall in London, headlining Annie Lennox with Yusuf Islam, Corinne Bailey Rae, James Morrison, Kate Nash, and Marc Almond. The concert also included specially filmed pieces from Jude Law, David Beckham, and Lord David Puttnam. A second concert was held at the Royal Albert Hall in 2008, and it was broadcast in 93 countries.


title: Jeremy Gilley

text: In 2009 the Peace One Day 10th Anniversary Concert was held in Paris at Le Grand Rex, this concert included performances by Lenny Kravitz, Kasabian, and Keziah Jones.


title: Jeremy Gilley

text: The 2011 concert at the O2 Arena announced a new Peace One Day initiative Global Truce 2012, Razorlight and Eliza Doolittle headlined. On 21 June 2012 a Peace One Day concert at Derry, in the spirit of the Olympic Truce marked the start of the London 2012 Festival and was also a three-month countdown to Global Truce 2012, some of the musicians that performed were Pixie Lott, Newton Faulkner and Imelda May.


title: Jeremy Gilley

text: The Peace One Day Celebration annual concert on Peace Day 21 September 2012, the day of Global Truce was held at Wembley Arena in London, with musicians Elton John, James Morrison and 2Cellos, introductions were made by Jude Law, Lily Cole and other special guests. The results of the Global Truce 2012 were announced.


title: Jeremy Gilley

text: Peace One Day brought its 2013 celebration to The Hague to mark the first hundred years of the Peace Palace. This historic concert formed part of the 24-hour Global Broadcast on Peace Day Saturday 21 September 2013. The show contained performances from renowned international artists including Paul van Dyk, Natasha Bedingfield, Carlinhos Brown, The Feeling, Miguel Bosé and Jahméne Douglas. The 24-hour Global Broadcast included a series of interviews with some of the world's leading actors, talking about peace and the theme for Peace Day: "Who will you make peace with?" Each interview included a speech chosen and performed by the actor, relating to peace. Actors who took part included: Dominic Cooper, Eddie Izzard, Forest Whitaker, Gillian Anderson, Gael García Bernal, Michelle Rodriguez, Richard E. Grant, Michael Caine and Jude Law.


title: Jeremy Gilley

text: In 2014, Peace One Day made history by taking over Goma Airport in the Democratic Republic of the Congo to hold a major concert, produced by Jude Law and Jeremy Gilley, headlined by five-time Grammy Award-nominated recording artist Akon with regional artists Lexxus Legal, Detty Darba and Sango’A, and Congolese traditional drummers and dancers. In an historic first, the airport hosted this major event that united more than 50,000 people, celebrating the hope for peace on Peace Day, 21 September.


title: Jeremy Gilley

text: In 2015, Peace One Day held a celebration in Rwanda on Peace Day 21 September, produced by Jude Law and Jeremy Gilley. On the day they were joined by the African Children’s Choir, Knowless, Innoss'B, Urban Boys, KREST CREW, Jabba Junior, as well as artists who contributed to One, the #PeaceDay Anthem by Coke Studio Africa: Zwai Bala, Maurice Kirya, Ice Prince, Alikiba, Wangechi and Dama do Bling.


title: Jeremy Gilley

text: On Peace Day 21 September 2016, Peace One Day hosted 17 live broadcasts on their Facebook page. Produced by Jude Law and Jeremy Gilley, and hosted by Ahmad Fawzi, including contributions from Maher Nasser and Melissa Fleming. In 2016 it is estimated that 2.2 billion people were exposed to the Peace Day message, 940 million were fully aware of the day, resulting in around 16 million behaving more peacefully (McKinsey & Co).


title: Jeremy Gilley

text: In 2018, Peace One Day teamed up with 23andMe and iHeartMedia, to raise awareness of Peace Day 21 September at the iHeartRadio Music Festival, T-Mobile Arena, Las Vegas. Performers included Mariah Carey, Carrie Underwood, Kygo, Logic, Sam Smith, 5SOS, Belly, as well as Nick Jonas, Troye Sivan, Dinah Jane and more, who lent their voices to an original Peace Day piece – written by American singer-songwriter, poet and record producer Mike Posner – urging others to make peace and put their differences aside on Peace Day.


title: Jeremy Gilley

text: In 2019, Jeremy Gilley and Jude Law produced the Peace One Day 20th Anniversary Celebration at the Shakespeare’s Globe Theatre, London. With music from Sting, Emeli Sandé, Jack Savoretti, Basement Jaxx, Will Young and Citizens of the World Choir, and dramatic performances from Jude Law, Sir Mark Rylance and Emily Watson. A report by Digitalis, Social 360 and Signal-AI measured the following results: Over 2.2 billion people potentially exposed to the Peace Day message in 24 hours. Users from 116 countries visited the Peace One Day website on Peace Day. #PeaceDay circulated by 19 million Twitter users at midday, representing an estimated 13% of entire active Twitter users. At its height #Peaceday was tweeted 20x per minute.


title: Jeremy Gilley

text: On Peace Day 21 September 2020, Jeremy Gilley and Jude Law produced the Peace One Day Live Global Digital Experience, sponsored by Avon, Lipton and Microsoft. It was 12 hours of online broadcast, featuring speakers, actors, musicians and live action from around the world. With music from, Yusuf/Cat Stevens, Annie Lennox, Emeli Sandé, Jack Savoretti, Basement Jaxx and Jesse Royal. With readings from Jude Law, Dia Mirza, Sir Mark Rylance, Emily Watson, Bella Ramsey, Forest Whitaker and Zoe Kravitz. A report by Digitalis, Social 360 and Signal-AI measured the following results: Media statistics show that Peace One Day received 2.1 times more coverage compared to 2019. Articles mentioning Peace One Day could have been read 9 billion times in total. This is 4.5 times higher than last year's figure. The biggest spike in coverage was during the day of the event, with 2,658 articles published worldwide. The Peace One Day website received 6,751 unique users from 141 Countries this is up from 1,300 unique users from 116 countries across the globe in 2019. Peace One Day founder was mentioned and/or quoted in 287 articles, 17.9 times more than 2019 (16 articles).


title: Jeremy Gilley

text: On 21 March 2021, Peace One Day in association with the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights produced the Anti-Racism Live Global Digital Experience on 21 March 2021, on the International Day for the Elimination of Racial Discrimination. Produced and Directed by Jeremy Gilley. The event featured speakers, actors, musicians and live interviews from around the world. With music from, Youssou N’dour, Mica Paris, Jack Savoretti, Zwai Bala, Emmanuel Jal, Izzy Bizu, Jesse Royal, Madame Gandhi, Popcaan. With readings from, Monique Coleman, Hakeem Kae-Kazim and Nathalie Emmanuel. A report by Digitalis, Social 360 and Signal-AI measured the following results: The Anti-Racism Live Global Digital Experience on Twitter saw fantastic engagement with a total of 310,566 views. The International Day for the Elimination of Racial Discrimination was mentioned in 6,302 articles from 14 to 28 March 2021 - volume of coverage is 10.9 times bigger compared to the coverage received last year during the same time period. On 21 March 2021, there were 2,566 articles mentioning the International Day for the Elimination of Racial Discrimination - 2,106 of these were neutral and 460 were positive. The hashtag #FightRacismsaw the largest engagement on Twitter, appearing in 65,736 tweets followed by #Standup4humanrights (15,377 tweets) and #GlobalGoals (13,571 tweets) (data for the date range 14–28 March 2021).


title: Jeremy Gilley

text: On 21 June 2021, Peace One Day are producing the Climate Action Live Global Digital Experience. Produced and Directed by Jeremy Gilley.


title: Jeremy Gilley

text: In 2008, Peace One Day launched the One Day One Goal initiative – aiming to host football matches in all member states of the United Nations on the International Day of Peace. The campaign quickly garnered attention, gaining support from figures such as David Beckham, Gary Lineker, and Victor Wanyama.


title: Jeremy Gilley

text: Peace One Day launched a campaign, Try For Peace, that saw thousands of people playing all different forms of rugby in countries across the globe in the spirit of peace and reconciliation on 21 September. Supporters included Sir Clive Woodward and Maggie Alphonsi. Highlights of the campaign included matches in Uganda, Kenya and Rwanda.


title: Jeremy Gilley

text: The Set For Peace campaign saw DJs such as Idris Elba, Paul van Dyk, David Morales, Capital FM's Andi Durrant and thousands of others around the world play sets for peace to bring people together on 21 September. Notable Set for Peace events took place in the DRC, Japan, Spain and The Maldives.


title: Jeremy Gilley

text: One Day One Dance has seen thousands of people all over the world dancing on or around Peace Day, 21 September. From flash mobs in Lithuania and Cayman Islands, to school performances in Russia and Kenya, amateurs and professionals came together to stand for peace, with hundreds of dances taking place every year around world in the name of peace. The campaign encompasses all forms of dance at every level and has seen activation by organisations as diverse as Hong Kong Ballet and Zumba.


title: Jeremy Gilley

text: In 2009, Coca-Cola for the first time in its history launched a special-edition charity can on behalf of the non-profit organisation, Peace One Day.


title: Jeremy Gilley

text: In 2009, Peace One Day led an initiative that brought together Adidas and Puma for the first time in decades on Peace Day 21 September. The sportswear companies symbolically ended their feud with a handshake and a football match on the day.


title: Jeremy Gilley

text: For Peace Day 2012, Peace One Day coordinated action between Burger King, Denny's, Wayback, Krystal, Giraffas to create a single burger from five brands on Peace Day. The pop-up shop distributed 1,500 Peace Day Burgers to raise money for the Peace One Day.


title: Jeremy Gilley

text: In 2013, Peace One Day launched a three-year campaign in African Great Lakes to promote the International Day of Peace, and to manifest community action. The project raised awareness of Peace Day in Rwanda, Uganda, Kenya, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo.


title: Jeremy Gilley

text: In 2014, Unilever partnered with Peace One Day to launch the campaign ‘Make Love Not War’ with their new product ‘Axe Peace’.


title: Jeremy Gilley

text: In 2018, Peace One Day teamed up with Alliance for Peacebuilding to establish a network of organisations committed to peace, promoting Goal 17 of the Sustainable Development Goals.


title: Jeremy Gilley

text: In 2019, Peace One Day launched a new campaign focussed on the reduction of cyber violence, seeking to decrease online hate speech, racism, bullying and ridicule on Peace Day 21 September. The campaign utilises the hashtags #CyberNonViolence #OnlineNonViolence #PeaceDay21".


title: Jeremy Gilley

text: In 2020, Peace One Day partnered with Lipton Ice Tea for the Peace One Day Live Global Digital Experience on Peace Day 21 September. Alongside the broadcast, Lipton and Peace One Day launched a campaign called ‘Make Tea Time Peace Time’. To share the message, Lipton and Peace One Day took over iconic clock towers and landmarks around the world, including Australia, Malaysia, UAE, France, Belgium, Germany, the Netherlands, the UK, Mexico, Guatemala and Brazil. Radio presenter and host Roman Kemp, supported the unveiling of the light installation at King’s Cross St Pancras. The call to action ‘Tea Time. Peace Time.’ illuminated buildings and billboards crossing six time zones, in countdown to support Peace One Day reaching a potential audience of more than 4 billion people in just 24 hours.


title: Jeremy Gilley

text: In 2020, Peace One Day collaborated with the City of Melbourne to launch the Digital Peace Dove, a celebration of #PeaceDay 21 September and United Nations Global Goal 16 for Peace and Justice.


title: Jeremy Gilley

text: Jeremy is the author of a children’s book The Making Of World Peace Day, illustrated by Pulitzer Prize-winner Karen Blessen, published by G.P. Putnam’s Sons, a division of Penguin Young Readers Group.


title: Jeremy Gilley

text: • Africa Peace Award - Africa regional body of the United Religions Initiative (URI) 2015 • Lennon-Ono Grant for Peace in Reyjkavik 2014


title: Jeremy Gilley

text: • Zimbabwe International Film Festival – Best Documentary Award (The Day After Peace) • Britain’s Best Award 2008 (Campaigner of the Year)


title: Jeremy Gilley

text: In 2020, Gilley was selected to run in the Tokyo 2020 Olympics torch relay which will take place in May 2021.


title: Meghalayan

text: The Meghalayan age is the name given in 2018, by the International Commission on Stratigraphy, to the current age or latest geologic age — or uppermost stage of the Quaternary. It is also the upper, or latest, of three subdivisions of the Holocene epoch or series. This way of breaking down time is based only on geology, for example it unrelated to the three age system of historical periods into which human development is sometimes divided.


title: Meghalayan

text: The Meghalayan begins 4,200 years BP ( 2251 BCE or 7750 HE), leaving room for the possible introduction of the Anthropocene. Helama & Oinonen (2019) dated the start of the Meghalayan to 2190-1990 BCE. The age began with a 200-year drought that impacted human civilizations in the Eastern Mediterranean, Mesopotamia, the Indus Valley and the Yangtze River Valley. "The fact that the beginning of this age coincides with a cultural shift caused by a global climate event makes it unique," according to Stanley Finney, Secretary General of the International Union of Geological Sciences.


title: Meghalayan

text: This age is named after Meghalaya, northern India, where the stalagmite was found that is used to mark out the its years.


title: Meghalayan

text: The International Commission on Stratigraphy officially ratified this age in June 2018, along with the earlier Greenlandian and Northgrippian ages/stages. Its Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP) is a Krem Mawmluh Cave formation in Meghalaya, a state in Northeast India. Mawmluh cave is one of the longest and deepest caves in India, and conditions there were suitable for preserving chemical signs of the transition in ages. The global auxiliary stratotype is an ice core from Mount Logan in Canada.


title: Meghalayan

text: In respect of the Mawmluh Cave site being the "GSSP of the youngest unit of the geologic time scale associated with dramatic climate changes with implications on human civilisation" the International Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS) included the GSSP of the Meghalayan Stage in the Mawmluh Cave in its assemblage of 100 "geological heritage sites" around the world in a listing published in October 2022. The organisation defines an IUGS Geological Heritage Site as "a key place with geological elements and/or processes of international scientific relevance, used as a reference, and/or with a substantial contribution to the development of geological sciences through history."


title: Miss USA 2021

text: Miss USA 2021 was the 70th Miss USA pageant, held on November 29, 2021, at the Paradise Cove Theater of River Spirit Casino Resort in Tulsa, Oklahoma. The competition was hosted by Zuri Hall and Patrick Ta, while Nicole Adamo served as a lounge host. Asya Branch of Mississippi crowned her successor Elle Smith of Kentucky at the end of the event. This was Kentucky's first title in 15 years. Smith is the third consecutive African American to win the title, and the fifth one in six years. Smith went on to represent the United States at the Miss Universe 2021 pageant, placing in the top 10. The scheduling for the succeeding year's pageant that Smith would serve the pageant for ten months and four days as one of the shortest reigning titleholders in the pageant.


title: Miss USA 2021

text: This was the second consecutive year that the pageant was broadcast on FYI, and the first to be streamed live on Hulu. The edition marked the first year of the competition under Crystle Stewart's directorship.


title: Miss USA 2021

text: This was the first time since 1993 the State Costume competition took place and held between preliminary and the final competition.


title: Miss USA 2021

text: On December 31, 2020, it was announced on "Good Morning America" that Miss USA and Miss Teen USA would be split from the Miss Universe Organization into a new organization under the helm of Crystle Stewart. Stewart had previously been crowned Miss USA 2008.


title: Miss USA 2021

text: On April 20, 2021, it was confirmed by the Muscogee (Creek) Nation that the 2021 edition of Miss USA and Miss Teen USA would be held at the Paradise Cove Theater of River Spirit Casino Resort in Tulsa, Oklahoma. The competition spanned four days, beginning on November 26 and concluding on November 29, 2021. The event reverted to its full spectator capacity after the previous event was downsized to 300 spectators as a precaution to the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic in the United States.


title: Miss USA 2021

text: The COVID-19 pandemic affected the schedule of Miss USA 2020, postponing it from spring 2020 to November 2020. Each state organization had initially planned to schedule their 2021 pageants for the fall 2020 and winter 2020–21, the typical timeframe for state pageants dating back to the 1970s. However, most state pageants were later rescheduled to spring and summer 2021 to avoid scheduling conflicts with Miss America 2022 state pageants typically took place in most of June 2021, and were further extended to late summer and early fall due to the concerns over the possibility onto the threats of COVID-19 resurgence.


title: Miss USA 2021

text: Due to restrictions implemented in all 50 states and the District of Columbia, numerous health and safety guidelines have been implemented for contestants, production members, and audiences at state pageants, such as taking a negative COVID-19 test and following social distancing. Additionally, a number of state pageants have had to alter their initial venue choices due to shut-downs implemented by their governor; either held behind closed doors such as Alaska and Hawaii, with only the contestants and staff were present; most state pageants had limited audition capacity with applying social distancing measures, or some with full capacity.


title: Miss USA 2021

text: Delegates from the 50 states and District of Columbia were selected in state pageants which began in September 2020. The first state pageants were Idaho and Montana, held together on their original dates of September 27, 2020 and the last state pageant was California, held on September 12, 2021, 350 days after the start of the 2021 pageant season, became the longest in the Miss USA history.


title: Miss USA 2021

text: Eleven delegates previously competed in Miss Teen USA and Miss America, in which eight delegates are former Miss Teen USA state winners and three are former Miss America state winners. Kataluna Enriquez, Miss Nevada USA 2021, became the first openly transgender woman to compete in Miss USA.


title: Miss USA 2021

text: After the last year's event was impacted by the still-ongoing COVID-19 pandemic, events such as pre-pageant activities and press briefings from pageant commentators were returned across Tulsa.


title: Miss USA 2021

text: Prior to the final competition, the delegates competed the preliminary competition, where they competed in swim wear and evening gown. It was held on November 26 at River Spirit Casino Resort hosted by Nicole Adamo and Asya Branch.


title: Miss USA 2021

text: As was the case the prior edition, 16 contestants were chosen to advance to the semifinals; 15 of the semifinalists were chosen by the preliminary judges, while one was chosen through the online fan vote. The Top 16 then competed in both swimsuit and evening gown, before eight were chosen to advance. The Top 8 participated in a group discussion round conducted in two groups of four, and afterwards answered their final questions from the judges. The winner and her runners-up were announced afterwards.


title: 2021 Wimbledon Championships – Women's singles

text: Ashleigh Barty defeated Karolína Plíšková in the final, 6–3, 6–7, 6–3 to win the ladies' singles tennis title at the 2021 Wimbledon Championships. She became the first Australian to win the title since Evonne Goolagong Cawley in 1980, the first top seed to win the title since Serena Williams in 2016 and the first to do so at any major since Simona Halep at the 2018 French Open. Barty's victory made her the fourth player, following Ann Jones, Martina Hingis and Amélie Mauresmo, to win the women's singles title after previously winning the girls' singles title. She retained the WTA No. 1 singles ranking by reaching the semifinals, with Aryna Sabalenka having also been in contention for the top ranking.


text: Halep was the reigning champion from when the tournament was last held in 2019, but she withdrew from the competition due to a calf injury.


text: Serena Williams retired from her first-round match against Aliaksandra Sasnovich due to injury. This marked only the second time that she lost in the first round of a major, following her defeat at the 2012 French Open to Virginie Razzano. It marked the first time since 2014 that the Wimbledon final did not feature one of the Williams sisters, as Venus Williams lost to Ons Jabeur in the second round, as well as the first time since 1997 that neither sister progressed beyond the second round.


text: This was the first edition of Wimbledon since 2009 that saw the top two seeds progress to the semifinals. Additionally, this was the first major in the Open Era where two wildcards, Liudmila Samsonova and Emma Raducanu (who made her first major appearance overall), reached the fourth round. Raducanu became the youngest British woman to reach the fourth round at Wimbledon in the Open Era. Jabeur became the first Tunisian player and the first Arabian woman in history to reach the quarterfinals at Wimbledon.


text: The following are the seeded players. Seedings are based on WTA rankings as of 21 June 2021. Rankings and points are as of 28 June 2021.


text: †The player did not qualify for the tournament in 2019. Accordingly, points for her 16th best result are deducted instead.


title: Malabar Hill

text: Malabar Hill (ISO: Malabār Hill ]) is a hillock and upmarket residential neighbourhood in South Mumbai, Maharashtra, India. Malabar Hill is the most exclusive residential area in Mumbai. It is home to several business tycoons and film personalities. Notable residents include Adi Godrej, Radhakishan Damani, Chandrasekaran Natarajan, Cyrus Broacha, the Birla family, Shashi Ruia and family, Pallonji Mistry, the Jindal family, the Petit family, the Shah family,the Sanghvi family,the bilakhia family, the Thakkar family etc. As of 2014 it is one of the most expensive areas in the world regularly featuring in the top 10 world wide localities.


title: Malabar Hill

text: Prominent landmarks include the Chief Minister of Maharashtra's Bungalow, Government Guest House Sahyadri, official residences of VVIP state officials and additionally the Hanging Gardens, Jain Temple and Banganga Tank.


title: Malabar Hill

text: Malabar Hill is the location of the Walkeshwar Temple, founded by the Silhara kings. The original temple was destroyed by the Portuguese, but rebuilt again in 1715 by Rama Kamath, and by 1860, 10 to 20 other temples were built in the region.


title: Malabar Hill

text: Mountstuart Elphinstone built the first bungalow in Malabar Hill while he was Governor of Bombay, between 1819 and 1827. Following his example, the place soon became an affluent locality, as it remains today.


title: Malabar Hill

text: Raj Bhavan, the official residence of the governor of Maharashtra, 'Varsha', which is the official residence of the Chief Minister of Maharashtra, 'Glenogle' the official residence of the General Manager of Central Railway (erstwhile Great Indian Peninsula Railway) are located here.


title: Malabar Hill

text: An unhindered view of Back Bay, with the Girgaon Chowpatty beach in the foreground, and the Nariman Point skyline in the background is one of the reasons for the high real estate prices. In January 2012, Maheshwari House was (partly) sold to industrialist Sajjan Jindal of Jindal Steel for 400 crores. The most expensive private residence lies just outside Malabar Hill on Altamount Road off Pedder Road, namely Antilia, the 27-storey, billion-dollar tower in Mumbai, owned by India's second richest and the world's tenth-richest person Mukesh Ambani, the chairman of Reliance Industries.


title: Malabar Hill

text: South Court (informally known as the 'Jinnah House'), the former residence of Mohammad Ali Jinnah, founder of Pakistan is also present here, but is closed to public due to property disputes.


title: Malabar Hill

text: Also of note in the Malabar Hill district, there is a cremation ground that sits near the sea which is home to the samadhi shrines of several famous Indian saints. Notably among them is the samadhi shrine of the guru of Shri Nisargadatta Maharaj, who was Shri Siddharameshwar Maharaj, as well as the samadhi shrine of his devoted disciple Shri Ranjit Maharaj.


title: Malabar Hill

text: Amongst the notable people born in Malabar Hill included Douglas Jardine, the English cricketer who captained England during the Bodyline tour of Australia in 1932-33.


title: History of gravitational theory

text: In physics, theories of gravitation postulate mechanisms of interaction governing the movements of bodies with mass. There have been numerous theories of gravitation since ancient times. The first extant sources discussing such theories are found in ancient Greek philosophy. This work was furthered by ancient Indian, medieval Islamic physicists and European scientists, before gaining great strides during the Renaissance and Scientific Revolution, culminating in the formulation of Newton's law of gravity. This was superseded by Albert Einstein's theory of relativity in the early 20th century.


title: History of gravitational theory

text: Greek philosopher Aristotle () believed that objects tend toward a point due to their inner "gravitas" (heaviness). Vitruvius () understood that objects fall based on their specific gravity. In the 6th century AD, Byzantine Alexandrian scholar John Philoponus modified the Aristotelian concept of gravity with the theory of impetus. In the 7th century, Indian astronomer Brahmagupta spoke of gravity as an attractive force. In the 14th century, European philosophers Jean Buridan and Albert of Saxony—who were influenced by certain Islamic scholars—developed the theory of impetus and linked it to the acceleration and mass of objects. Albert also developed a law of proportion regarding the relationship between the speed of an object in free fall and the time elapsed.


title: History of gravitational theory

text: In the early 17th century, Galileo Galilei found that all objects tend to accelerate equally in free fall. In 1632, he put forth the basic principle of relativity. The existence of the gravitational constant was explored by various researchers from the mid-17th century, helping Isaac Newton formulate his law of universal gravitation. Newton's classical mechanics were superseded in the early 20th century, when Einstein developed the special and general theory of relativity. The force carrier of gravity remains an outlier in the search for a theory of everything, for which various models of quantum gravity are candidates.


title: History of gravitational theory

text: The Ionian Greek philosopher Heraclitus () used the word "logos" ('word') to describe a kind of law which keeps the cosmos in harmony, moving all objects, including the stars, winds, and waves.


title: History of gravitational theory

text: In the 4th century BC, the Greek philosopher Aristotle taught that there is no effect or motion without a cause. The cause of the downward motion of heavy bodies, such as the element earth, was related to their nature, which caused them to move downward toward the centre of the universe, which was their natural place. Conversely, light bodies such as the element fire, move by their nature upward toward the inner surface of the sphere of the Moon. Thus in Aristotle's system heavy bodies are not attracted to the Earth by an external force, but tend toward the centre of the universe because of an inner "gravitas" or heaviness.


title: History of gravitational theory

text: The 3rd-century-BC Greek physicist Archimedes discovered the centre of mass of a triangle. He also postulated that if the centres of gravity of two equal weights was not the same, it would be located in the middle of the line that joins them. Two centuries later, the Roman engineer and architect Vitruvius contended in his "De architectura" that gravity is not dependent on a substance's weight but rather on its 'nature' (cf. specific gravity):


title: History of gravitational theory

text: If the quicksilver is poured into a vessel, and a stone weighing one hundred pounds is laid upon it, the stone swims on the surface, and cannot depress the liquid, nor break through, nor separate it. If we remove the hundred pound weight, and put on a scruple of gold, it will not swim, but will sink to the bottom of its own accord. Hence, it is undeniable that the gravity of a substance depends not on the amount of its weight, but on its nature.


title: History of gravitational theory

text: In the 6th century CE, the Byzantine Alexandrian scholar John Philoponus proposed the theory of impetus, which modifies Aristotle's theory that "continuation of motion depends on continued action of a force" by incorporating a causative force which diminishes over time.


title: History of gravitational theory

text: The Indian mathematician/astronomer Brahmagupta (c. 598c. 668 CE) first described gravity as an attractive force, using the term "" to describe it:


title: History of gravitational theory

text: The earth on all its sides is the same; all people on the earth stand upright, and all heavy things fall down to the earth by a law of nature, for it is the nature of the earth to attract and to keep things, as it is the nature of water to flow ... If a thing wants to go deeper down than the earth, let it try. The earth is the only "low" thing, and seeds always return to it, in whatever direction you may throw them away, and never rise upwards from the earth.


title: History of gravitational theory

text: In the 11th century CE, Persian polymath Ibn Sina (Avicenna) agreed with Philoponus' theory that "the moved object acquires an inclination from the mover" as an explanation for projectile motion. Ibn Sina then published his own theory of impetus in "The Book of Healing" (c. 1020). Unlike Philoponus, who believed that it was a temporary virtue that would decline even in a vacuum, Ibn Sina viewed it as a persistent, requiring external forces such as air resistance to dissipate it. Ibn Sina made distinction between 'force' and 'inclination' ("mayl"), and argued that an object gained "mayl" when the object is in opposition to its natural motion. He concluded that continuation of motion is attributed to the inclination that is transferred to the object, and that object will be in motion until the "mayl" is spent.


title: History of gravitational theory

text: Another 11th-century Persian polymath, Al-Biruni, proposed that heavenly bodies have mass, weight, and gravity, just like the Earth. He criticized both Aristotle and Ibn Sina for holding the view that only the Earth has these properties. The 12th-century scholar Al-Khazini suggested that the gravity an object contains varies depending on its distance from the centre of the universe (referring to the centre of the Earth). Al-Biruni and Al-Khazini studied the theory of the centre of gravity, and generalized and applied it to three-dimensional bodies. They also founded the theory of ponderable lever, and created the science of gravity. Fine experimental methods were also developed for determining the specific gravity or specific weight of objects, based the theory of balances and weighing.


title: History of gravitational theory

text: In the 12th century, Abu'l-Barakāt al-Baghdādī adopted and modified Ibn Sina's theory on projectile motion. In his "Kitab al-Mu'tabar", Abu'l-Barakat stated that the mover imparts a violent inclination ("mayl qasri") on the moved and that this diminishes as the moving object distances itself from the mover. According to Shlomo Pines, al-Baghdādī's theory of motion was "the oldest negation of Aristotle's fundamental dynamic law [namely, that a constant force produces a uniform motion], [and is thus an] anticipation in a vague fashion of the fundamental law of classical mechanics [namely, that a force applied continuously produces acceleration]."


title: History of gravitational theory

text: In the 14th century, both the French philosopher Jean Buridan and the Merton College of Oxford rejected the Aristotelian concept of gravity. They attributed the motion of objects to an impetus (akin to momentum), which varies according to velocity and mass; Buridan was influenced in this by Ibn Sina's "Book of Healing". Buridan and the philosopher Albert of Saxony (c. 1320–1390) adopted Abu'l-Barakat's theory that the acceleration of a falling body is a result of its increasing impetus. Influenced by Buridan, Albert developed a law of proportion regarding the relationship between the speed of an object in free fall and the time elapsed. He also theorized that mountains and valleys are caused by erosion—displacing the Earth's centre of gravity. Also in that century, the Merton College developed the mean speed theorem, which was proved by Nicole Oresme (c. 1323–1382) and would be influential in later gravitational equations.


title: History of gravitational theory

text: Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519) wrote that the "mother and origin of gravity" is energy. He describes two pairs of physical powers which stem from a metaphysical origin and have an effect on everything: abundance of force and motion, and gravity and resistance. He associates gravity with the 'cold' classical elements, water and earth, and calls its energy infinite. By 1514, Nicolaus Copernicus had written an outline of his heliocentric model, in which he stated that Earth's centre is the centre of both its rotation and the orbit of the Moon. In 1533, German humanist Petrus Apianus described the exertion of gravity:


title: History of gravitational theory

text: Since it is apparent that in the descent [along the arc] there is more impediment acquired, it is clear that gravity is diminished on this account. But because this comes about by reason of the position of heavy bodies, let it be called a positional gravity [i.e. "gravitas secundum situm"]


title: History of gravitational theory

text: By 1544, according to Benedetto Varchi, the experiments of at least two Italians had dispelled the Aristotelian claim that objects fall proportionately to their weight. In 1551, Domingo de Soto suggested that objects in free fall accelerate uniformly. This idea was subsequently explored in more detail by Galileo Galilei, who derived his kinematics from the 14th-century Merton College and Jean Buridan, and possibly De Soto as well. Galileo successfully applied mathematics to the acceleration of falling objects, correctly hypothesizing in a 1604 letter to Paolo Sarpi that the distance of a falling object is proportional to the square of the time elapsed. Galileo suggested in his "Two New Sciences" (1638) that the slight variance of speed of falling objects of different mass was due to air resistance, and that objects would fall completely uniformly in a vacuum.


title: History of gravitational theory

text: A disciple of Galileo, Evangelista Torricelli reiterated Aristotle's model involving a gravitational centre, adding his view that a system can only be in equilibrium when the common centre itself is unable to fall.


title: History of gravitational theory

text: Johannes Kepler in his "Astronomia nova" (1609) proposed an attractive force of limited radius between any "kindred" bodies:


title: History of gravitational theory

text: Gravity is a mutual corporeal disposition among kindred bodies to unite or join together; thus the earth attracts a stone much more than the stone seeks the earth. (The magnetic faculty is another example of this sort)... If two stones were set near one another in some place in the world outside the sphere of influence of a third kindred body, these stones, like two magnetic bodies, would come together in an intermediate place, each approaching the other by a space proportional to the bulk ["moles"] of the other...


title: History of gravitational theory

text: The relation of the distance of objects in free fall to the square of the time taken was confirmed by Francesco Maria Grimaldi and Giovanni Battista Riccioli between 1640 and 1650. They also made a calculation of the Gravity of Earth constant by recording the oscillations of a pendulum.


title: History of gravitational theory

text: In 1644, René Descartes proposed that no empty space can exist and that a continuum of matter causes every motion to be curvilinear. Thus, centrifugal force thrusts relatively light matter away from the central vortices of celestial bodies, lowering density locally and thereby creating centripetal pressure. Utilizing aspects of this theory, between 1669 and 1690, Christiaan Huygens designed a mathematical vortex model. In one of his proofs, he shows that the distance elapsed by an object dropped from a spinning wheel will increase proportionally to the square of the wheel's rotation time. In 1671, Robert Hooke speculated that gravitation is the result of bodies emitting waves in the aether. Nicolas Fatio de Duillier (1690) and Georges-Louis Le Sage (1748) proposed a corpuscular model using some sort of screening or shadowing mechanism. In 1784, Le Sage posited that gravity could be a result of the collision of atoms, and in the early 19th century, he expanded Daniel Bernoulli's theory of corpuscular pressure to the universe as a whole. A similar model was later created by Hendrik Lorentz (1853–1928), who used electromagnetic radiation instead of corpuscles.


title: History of gravitational theory

text: English mathematician Isaac Newton utilized Descartes' argument that curvilinear motion constrains inertia, and in 1675, argued that aether streams attract all bodies to one another. Newton (1717) and Leonhard Euler (1760) proposed a model in which the aether loses density near mass, leading to a net force acting on bodies. Further mechanical explanations of gravitation (including Le Sage's theory) were created between 1650 and 1900 to explain Newton's theory, but mechanistic models eventually fell out of favor because most of them lead to an unacceptable amount of drag (air resistance), which was not observed. Others violate the energy conservation law and are incompatible with modern thermodynamics.


title: History of gravitational theory

text: In 1679, Robert Hooke wrote to Isaac Newton of his hypothesis concerning orbital motion, which partly depends on an inverse-square force. In 1684, both Hooke and Newton told Edmond Halley that they had proven the inverse-square law of planetary motion, in January and August, respectively. While Hooke refused to produce his proofs, Newton was prompted to compose "De motu corporum in gyrum" ('On the motion of bodies in an orbit'), in which he mathematically derives Kepler's laws of planetary motion. In 1687, with Halley's support (and to Hooke's dismay), Newton published "Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica" ("Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy"), which hypothesizes the inverse-square law of universal gravitation. In his own words:I deduced that the forces which keep the planets in their orbs must be reciprocally as the squares of their distances from the centres about which they revolve; and thereby compared the force requisite to keep the moon in her orb with the force of gravity at the surface of the earth; and found them to answer pretty nearly.


title: History of gravitational theory

text: where the symbol formula_2 means "is proportional to". To make this into an equal-sided formula or equation, there needed to be a multiplying factor or constant that would give the correct force of gravity no matter the value of the masses or distance between them (the gravitational constant). Newton would need an accurate measure of this constant to prove his inverse-square law. This was first performed by Henry Cavendish in 1797.


title: History of gravitational theory

text: In Newton's theory (rewritten using more modern mathematics) the density of mass formula_3 generates a scalar field, the gravitational potential formula_4 in joules per kilogram, by


title: History of gravitational theory

text: Using the Nabla operator formula_6 for the gradient and divergence (partial derivatives), this can be conveniently written as:


title: History of gravitational theory

text: The "Principia" sold out quickly, inspiring Newton to publish a second edition in 1713. The treatise inspired the French philosopher Voltaire to write his own book explaining aspects of it in 1738, which helped to popularize Newton's theory. In 1755, Prussian philosopher Immanuel Kant published a cosmological manuscript based on Newtonian principles, in which he develops the nebular hypothesis. In 1788, Joseph-Louis Lagrange introduced an improved formulation of classical mechanics. Neither version takes relativistic effects into account, as these had not yet been discovered. Even so, Newton's theory is thought to be exceptionally accurate in the limit of weak gravitational fields and low speeds.


title: History of gravitational theory

text: Newton's theory enjoyed its greatest success when it was used to predict the existence of Neptune based on motions of Uranus that could not be accounted by the actions of the other planets. Calculations by John Couch Adams and Urbain Le Verrier both predicted the general position of the planet. In 1846, Le Verrier sent his position to Johann Gottfried Galle, asking him to verify it. The same night, Galle spotted Neptune near the position Le Verrier had predicted.


title: History of gravitational theory

text: By the end of the 19th century, Le Verrier showed that the orbit of Mercury could not be accounted for entirely under Newtonian gravity, and all searches for another perturbing body (such as a planet orbiting the Sun even closer than Mercury) were fruitless.


title: History of gravitational theory

text: At the end of the 19th century, many tried to combine Newton's force law with the established laws of electrodynamics (like those of Wilhelm Eduard Weber, Carl Friedrich Gauss, and Bernhard Riemann) in order to explain the anomalous perihelion precession of Mercury. In 1890, Maurice Lévy succeeded in doing so by combining the laws of Weber and Riemann, whereby the speed of gravity is equal to the speed of light. In another attempt, Paul Gerber (1898) succeeded in deriving the correct formula for the perihelion shift (which was identical to the formula later used by Albert Einstein). These hypotheses were rejected because of the outdated laws they were based on, being superseded by those of James Clerk Maxwell.


title: History of gravitational theory

text: In 1900, Hendrik Lorentz tried to explain gravity on the basis of his ether theory and Maxwell's equations. He assumed, like Ottaviano Fabrizio Mossotti and Johann Karl Friedrich Zöllner, that the attraction of opposite charged particles is stronger than the repulsion of equal charged particles. The resulting net force is exactly what is known as universal gravitation, in which the speed of gravity is that of light. Lorentz calculated that the value for the perihelion advance of Mercury was much too low.


title: History of gravitational theory

text: In the late 19th century, Lord Kelvin pondered the possibility of a theory of everything. He proposed that every body pulsates, which might be an explanation of gravitation and electric charges. His ideas were largely mechanistic and required the existence of the aether, which the Michelson–Morley experiment failed to detect in 1887. This, combined with Mach's principle, led to gravitational models which feature action at a distance.


title: History of gravitational theory

text: Albert Einstein developed his revolutionary theory of relativity in papers published in 1905 and 1915; these account for the perihelion precession of Mercury. In 1914, Gunnar Nordström attempted to unify gravity and electromagnetism in his theory of five-dimensional gravitation. General relativity was proved in 1919, when Arthur Eddington observed gravitational lensing around a solar eclipse, matching Einstein's equations. This resulted in Einstein's theory superseding Newtonian physics. Thereafter, German mathematician Theodor Kaluza promoted the idea of general relativity with a fifth dimension, which in 1921 Swedish physicist Oskar Klein gave a physical interpretation of in a prototypical string theory, a possible model of quantum gravity and potential theory of everything.


title: History of gravitational theory

text: Einstein's field equations include a cosmological constant to account for the alleged staticity of the universe. However, Edwin Hubble observed in 1929 that the universe appears to be expanding. By the 1930s, Paul Dirac developed the hypothesis that gravitation should slowly and steadily decrease over the course of the history of the universe. Alan Guth and Alexei Starobinsky proposed in 1980 that cosmic inflation in the very early universe could have been driven by a negative pressure field, a concept later coined 'dark energy'—found in 2013 to have composed around 68.3% of the early universe.


title: History of gravitational theory

text: In 1922, Jacobus Kapteyn proposed the existence of dark matter, an unseen force that moves stars in galaxies at higher velocities than gravity alone accounts for. It was found in 2013 to have comprised 26.8% of the early universe. Along with dark energy, dark matter is an outlier in Einstein's relativity, and an explanation for its apparent effects is a requirement for a successful theory of everything.


title: History of gravitational theory

text: In 1957, Hermann Bondi proposed that negative gravitational mass (combined with negative inertial mass) would comply with the strong equivalence principle of general relativity and Newton's laws of motion. Bondi's proof yielded singularity-free solutions for the relativity equations.


title: History of gravitational theory

text: Early theories of gravity attempted to explain planetary orbits (Newton) and more complicated orbits (e.g. Lagrange). Then came unsuccessful attempts to combine gravity and either wave or corpuscular theories of gravity. The whole landscape of physics was changed with the discovery of Lorentz transformations, and this led to attempts to reconcile it with gravity. At the same time, experimental physicists started testing the foundations of gravity and relativity—Lorentz invariance, the gravitational deflection of light, the Eötvös experiment. These considerations led to and past the development of general relativity.


title: History of gravitational theory

text: In 1905, Albert Einstein published a series of papers in which he established the special theory of relativity and the fact that mass and energy are equivalent. In 1907, in what he described as "the happiest thought of my life", Einstein realized that someone who is in free fall experiences no gravitational field. In other words, gravitation is exactly equivalent to acceleration.


title: History of gravitational theory

text: Einstein's two-part publication in 1912 (and before in 1908) is really only important for historical reasons. By then he knew of the gravitational redshift and the deflection of light. He had realized that Lorentz transformations are not generally applicable, but retained them. The theory states that the speed of light is constant in free space but varies in the presence of matter. The theory was only expected to hold when the source of the gravitational field is stationary. It includes the principle of least action:


title: History of gravitational theory

text: where formula_12 is the Minkowski metric, and there is a summation from 1 to 4 over indices formula_13 and formula_14.


title: History of gravitational theory

text: is not in general relativity. It expresses the stress–energy tensor as a function of the matter density.


title: History of gravitational theory

text: Based on the principle of relativity, Henri Poincaré (1905, 1906), Hermann Minkowski (1908), and Arnold Sommerfeld (1910) tried to modify Newton's theory and to establish a Lorentz invariant gravitational law, in which the speed of gravity is that of light. As in Lorentz's model, the value for the perihelion advance of Mercury was much too low.


title: History of gravitational theory

text: Meanwhile, Max Abraham developed an alternative model of gravity in which the speed of light depends on the gravitational field strength and so is variable almost everywhere. Abraham's 1914 review of gravitation models is said to be excellent, but his own model was poor.


title: History of gravitational theory

text: The first approach of Nordström (1912) was to retain the Minkowski metric and a constant value of formula_18 but to let mass depend on the gravitational field strength formula_4. Allowing this field strength to satisfy


title: History of gravitational theory

text: The second approach of Nordström (1913) is remembered as the first logically consistent relativistic field theory of gravitation ever formulated. (notation from Pais not Nordström):


title: History of gravitational theory

text: This theory is Lorentz invariant, satisfies the conservation laws, correctly reduces to the Newtonian limit and satisfies the weak equivalence principle.


title: History of gravitational theory

text: This theory is Einstein's first treatment of gravitation in which general covariance is strictly obeyed. Writing:


title: History of gravitational theory

text: Between 1911 and 1915, Einstein developed the idea that gravitation is equivalent to acceleration, initially stated as the equivalence principle, into his general theory of relativity, which fuses the three dimensions of space and the one dimension of time into the four-dimensional fabric of spacetime. However, it does not unify gravity with quanta—individual particles of energy, which Einstein himself had postulated the existence of in 1905.


title: History of gravitational theory

text: In general relativity, the effects of gravitation are ascribed to spacetime curvature instead of to a force. The starting point for general relativity is the equivalence principle, which equates free fall with inertial motion. The issue that this creates is that free-falling objects can accelerate with respect to each other. To deal with this difficulty, Einstein proposed that spacetime is curved by matter, and that free-falling objects are moving along locally straight paths in curved spacetime. More specifically, Einstein and David Hilbert discovered the field equations of general relativity, which relate the presence of matter and the curvature of spacetime. These field equations are a set of 10 simultaneous, non-linear, differential equations. The solutions of the field equations are the components of the metric tensor of spacetime, which describes its geometry. The geodesic paths of spacetime are calculated from the metric tensor.


title: History of gravitational theory

text: General relativity has enjoyed much success because its predictions (not called for by older theories of gravity) have been regularly confirmed. For example:


title: History of gravitational theory

text: It is believed that neutron star mergers (since detected in 2017) and black hole formation may also create detectable amounts of gravitational radiation.


title: History of gravitational theory

text: Several decades after the discovery of general relativity, it was realized that it cannot be the complete theory of gravity because it is incompatible with quantum mechanics. Later it was understood that it is possible to describe gravity in the framework of quantum field theory like the other fundamental forces. In this framework, the attractive force of gravity arises due to exchange of virtual gravitons, in the same way as the electromagnetic force arises from exchange of virtual photons. This reproduces general relativity in the classical limit, but only at the linearized level and postulating that the conditions for the applicability of Ehrenfest theorem holds, which is not always the case. Moreover, this approach fails at short distances of the order of the Planck length.


title: History of gravitational theory

text: Theoretical models such as string theory and loop quantum gravity are current candidates for a possible 'theory of everything'.


title: Israel Englander

text: Israel “Izzy” Englander (born 1948) is an American investor, hedge fund manager, and philanthropist. In 1989, he founded his hedge fund, Millennium Management, with Ronald Shear. The fund was started with million, and as of 2019 had billion in assets under management.


title: Israel Englander

text: Israel "Izzy" Englander was born in 1948 and was raised in a Polish-Jewish family in the Crown Heights neighborhood of Brooklyn. He was raised in a religious home and attended yeshiva.


title: Israel Englander

text: His father's entire family was killed in the Holocaust. His Polish parents were deported to a Soviet labor camp after the war, where Englander's two older sisters were born. They then immigrated to the United States in 1947.


title: Israel Englander

text: Always interested in the stock market, Englander began trading stocks while in high school. During college, he interned at Oppenheimer & Co. (where his future brother-in-law, Jack Nash, would eventually become president and chairman) and at the New York Stock Exchange. In 1970, he graduated from New York University with a B.S. in finance. His first full-time job was with the Wall Street firm Kaufmann, Alsberg & Co. He later enrolled in New York University's MBA program in the evenings but never completed the degree.


title: Israel Englander

text: At Kaufmann Alsberg, Englander focused on trading convertible securities and options. When the American Stock Exchange began to list options, he purchased a seat on the exchange. In 1977, he formed a floor brokerage house, I.A. Englander & Co.


title: Israel Englander

text: In 1985, Englander and his partner John Mulheren Jr., started an investment firm called Jamie Securities Co. with a $75 million investment from the Belzberg family of Canada. Mulheren had previously worked as a trader for Ivan Boesky. In February 1988, when Boesky was later convicted of insider trading, and agreed to testify against Mulheren in a plea deal to receive a lesser sentence, Mulheren was arrested for carrying a loaded rifle and convicted of orchestrating illegal stock trades for Boesky, but the ruling was later overturned. Although Englander was never implicated in the matter in any way whatsoever, Jamie Securities was dissolved in 1988 due to the negative publicity in the aftermath of Mulheren's situation.


title: Israel Englander

text: In 1989, Englander started Millennium Management with Ronald Shear - whom he knew from his time at the American Stock Exchange - with $35 million in seed money (including $5 million from Englander himself and another $2 million from the Belzberg family). The firm got off to a rough start and Shear left in 1990. Since then, Englander has grown Millennium into a $39.2 billion (under management) enterprise by using investment strategies like statistical arbitrage (quantitative analysis); fundamental long-short pairing; merger arbitrage (taking advantage of price differentials between a buy-out target company's stock price and bid price) and convertible arbitrage (taking advantage of price differentials between a company's stock price and convertible bond or stock warrant price). At any given time, Millennium holds thousands of investment positions and makes over 2 million trades on an average day. At the end of 2019, Millennium had 2,900 employees in more than 12 offices in the United States, Europe and Asia.


title: Israel Englander

text: Englander is married to Caryl (née Schechter) Englander. They have three children. In 2014, he bought a duplex apartment at New York City's Park Avenue for million, a record price for a Manhattan co-op. He also owns a house in Atlantic Beach, New York.


title: Israel Englander

text: In 2006, the Englander Foundation, headed by Englander and his wife, donated $20 million to mostly Jewish organizations and schools. Englander serves on the board of Weill Cornell Medical College and the Metropolitan Council on Jewish Poverty. In March 2019, he was named one of the highest-earning hedge fund managers and traders by "Forbes".


title: Corinthian helmet

text: The Corinthian helmet originated in ancient Greece and took its name from the city-state of Corinth. It was a helmet made of bronze which in its later styles covered the entire head and neck, with slits for the eyes and mouth. A large curved projection protected the nape of the neck.


title: Corinthian helmet

text: Out of combat, a Greek hoplite would wear the helmet tipped upward for comfort. This practice gave rise to a series of variant forms in Italy, where the slits were almost closed, since the helmet was no longer pulled over the face but worn cap-like. Although the classical Corinthian helmet fell out of use among the Greeks in favour of more open types, the Italo-Corinthian types remained in use until the 1st century AD, being used, among others, by the Roman army.


title: Corinthian helmet

text: Apparently (judging from artistic and archaeological evidence) the most popular helmet during the Archaic and early Classical periods, the style gradually gave way to the more open Thracian helmet, Chalcidian helmet and the much simpler pilos type, which was less expensive to manufacture and did not obstruct the wearer's critical senses of vision and hearing as the Corinthian helmet did. Numerous examples of Corinthian helmets have been excavated, and they are frequently depicted on ancient Greek pottery.


title: Corinthian helmet

text: The Corinthian helmet was depicted on more sculpture than any other helmet; it seems the Greeks romantically associated it with glory and the past. The Romans also revered it, from copies of Greek originals to sculpture of their own. Based on the sparse pictorial evidence of the republican Roman army, in Italy the Corinthian helmet evolved into a jockey-cap style helmet called the Italo-Corinthian, Etrusco-Corinthian or Apulo-Corinthian helmet, with the characteristic nose guard and eye slits becoming mere decorations on its face. Given many Roman appropriations of ancient Greek ideas, this change was probably inspired by the "over the forehead" position common in Greek art. This helmet remained in use well into the 1st century AD.


title: Corinthian helmet

text: Herodotus mentions the Corinthian helmet in his "Histories" when writing of the Machlyes and Auseans, two tribes living along the River Triton in ancient Libya (the portion of ancient Libya he describes is most likely in modern Tunisia). The tribes chose annually two teams of the fairest maidens who fought each other with sticks and stones. They chose the fairest maiden who was dressed in Greek panoply with a Corinthian helmet. The ritual fight was part of a festival honoring the virgin goddess Athena. ("Histories, 4.180").


title: Roger Cross

text: Roger Cross (born October 19, 1969) is a Jamaican-born Canadian actor who has made numerous appearances in several films and television series, mostly on productions shot in Canada. He is known for his work as CTU Agent Curtis Manning in the popular American television series "24". His other notable television roles include "First Wave", "Continuum", "Motive", and "Dark Matter".


title: Roger Cross

text: Cross was born in Christiana, Jamaica. When he was eleven, his family emigrated to Canada, settling in Vancouver, British Columbia. He graduated with a degree in Aviation and General Studies from Trinity Western University. Before his acting career, Cross was a professional pilot.


title: Roger Cross

text: Cross began his career in the 1990s playing guest roles in such series as "Street Justice", "The X-Files", "Sliders", "Stargate SG-1", "", "Relic Hunter", "The 4400", "Higher Ground", "", and "Chuck".


title: Roger Cross

text: From 1998 to 2001, he starred as a lead character, Joshua Bridges, on the sci-fi series "First Wave."


title: Roger Cross

text: From 2005 to 2007, Cross achieved wider recognition for his role as CTU Agent Curtis Manning on the Fox television drama "24". In 2009, he appeared as DJ and drag queen Sunset Boulevard/Sonny Benson in the Showtime series "The L Word".


title: Roger Cross

text: In 2010, Cross did voice-over work as "Ulysses" in the "" add-ons, "Old World Blues" and "Lonesome Road".


title: Roger Cross

text: Cross's other notable television roles include Staff Sergeant Boyd Bloom in "Motive", Detective Lucas Hilton in "Arrow", Reggie Fitzwilliam in "The Strain", Travis Verta in "Continuum", and Six in "Dark Matter".


title: Roger Cross

text: In addition to his work on television, Cross has appeared in such films as "The Chronicles of Riddick", "X2", "", "Beautiful Joe", "", "World Trade Center", "Re-Kill", and "Mad Money."


title: Roger Cross

text: Cross is in a long-term relationship with actress and yoga instructor Josephine Jacob. They have two sons, Kaniel Jacob-Cross and Gabriel Jacob-Cross, who is known for his roles on "Snowpiercer" (2020), "Legion" (2017), "The Man in the High Castle" (2015) and the Hallmark film "A Christmas Miracle" (2019).


title: Mughal people

text: The Mughals (also spelled Moghul or Mogul) are a number of culturally related clans of Indo-Turkic people in North India and Pakistan. They claim they are descended from the various Central Asian Mongolic and Turkic tribes and Persians that settled in the region. The term "Mughal" (or "Moghul" in Persian) literally means Mongol.


title: Mughal people

text: During the time of the Mongol Empire in the 13–14th century, the army of Genghis Khan swept across Central Asia and into Persia. Over subsequent centuries, descendants of these soldiers inter-married with Persian and Turkic Muslims, converted to Islam and adopted the Persian language and culture. Conflict between India and the Mongols has been recorded from the time of Genghis Khan to Timur to Babur. The Delhi Sultanate (1206–1526) faced nearly annual Mongol onslaughts from 1297 to 1303 when the Doab was sacked and what is now Pakistan was under continual Mongol occupation. Indian and Indo-Persian sources referred to the invaders as "Mughal", derived from "Mongol". During the 16th century, the Turko-Mongol conqueror Babur brought most of northern India under Mughal rule, establishing an empire that would endure until the mid-19th century. As the ruling class, the Mughals lived mainly in cities along with other Muslims. They were traditionally known for their skill at horsemanship, archery, wrestling and a meat-heavy diet.


title: Mughal people

text: The court itself does not now consist, as originally of real Mongols, but a medley of Turks, Turkman/Uzbeks, Arabs and Persians or descendants of all these classes; known, as said before by the general appellation Mughal by the Muslims of native origin.


title: Mughal people

text: As early as the 17th century, the term Mughal covered a large number of groups. Generally, all Central Asian immigrants to India, whether Uzbek, Chughtai or Gürkani Türks, further Timurids, Barlas, Kipchak, Kazakhs, Turkman, Kyrgyz, Uyghurs or Mongol, were referred to as Mughal. The term was also used for later immigrants from Iran and Turkey, such as the famous Qizilbash community.


title: Mughal people

text: In North India, the term Mughal refers to one of the four social groups that are referred to as the Ashraaf in Pakistan, a number of tribal groupings such as the Tanoli in North West Frontier Province and the Gheba and Kassar in Punjab claim Barlas Mughal ancestry. Sir Denzil Ibbetson, the eminent British student of Punjabi tribal structures, noted a tendency among many tribes of the Pothohar and Upper Hazara regions of Northern Pakistan to claim Barlas Mughal ancestry.


title: Mughal people

text: The Mughal tribe in Azad Jammu and Kashmir include Kamangars and Kassar Mughals. The word Kamangar is derived from two Persian word Kam and Ghar which means Bow makers. As a community, they are in essence village artisans, who are now involved mainly in the manufacture of pots and pans. They were originally bow makers before the arrival of British in the 19th Century.They Live mainly in the Pooch, Bagh and Mirpur districts of Azad Kashmir. The Kassar Mughals are one of the three major land-owning tribes in the Dhani country of Chakwal District in Punjab, Pakistan. Their lineage is connected with the Mughal Emperor Babur in the 8th generation and showed their ancestor Kassar as a distant cousin of Babur.


title: Mughal people

text: The Tanolis are a Barlas Mughal tribe living mostly in the Hazara area of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. They form the majority of the population of Lassan Nawab union council. They have two major divisions, namely Palaal (پل آل) and Hindaal (ہند آل). Majority of the Tanolis today speak Hindko language. The Princely states of Amb and Phulra were ruled by the aTanolis for centuries.


title: Mughal people

text: In North India, the term Mughal refers Gürkani Türk or Timurids. A single root family origin from Chagatai Türk named after Chagatai Khan. But one of the social groups that are Claim to as the Ashraaf.


title: Mughal people

text: In Uttar Pradesh (UP), their main clans are the Chagatai Turks, Gurkānī or Timurids, Barlas, Qazilbash, Turkmen, Turk, Uzbek, Kayı. The Mughals of Uttar Pradesh belong to the Sunni sects, with the majority belonging to the Sunni Hanafi sect. Sunni Mughals are usually orthodox in their religious outlook. The Mughal of Awadh trace their entry into the region to the year 1750. The Mughal of UP are an endogamous community, marrying within their own community, or in communities of a similar status such as the Syeds, Shaikh (Siddiqui, Farooqui, Usmani, and Nomani etc.), Pathan, Shamsi, Kidwai and Muslim Rajput. Some of these group immigrated to Uttar Pradesh, India as early as 1200 AD during the Delhi Sultanate. The rural Mughals are farmers, and many own orchards, especially mango orchards, while in towns they are engaged in trade, handicrafts. Carpet weaving is an activity particularly associated with the UP Mughals.


title: Mughal people

text: The Turks or Gurkanis or Mughals live in northern India, mainly in Delhi, Ghaziabad, Amroha, Moradabad, Rampur, Sambal, Bijnor, Muzzafer Nagar and Meerut in UP. They also are in Udhamsingh Nagar, Nainital, Haldwani and Dehradun in Uttrakhand, Bhopal, Junagarh in Gujarat.


title: Mughal people

text: The community had traditionally served as soldiers in the armies of the various Turkic dynasties which ruled Indian subcontinent. They were and still are a community of small to medium-sized farmers. A good many are also traders. Like other Gujarati Muslims, they have a caste association known as the Jamat, which acts both as a welfare organization and an instrument of social control.


title: Book of Baruch

text: The Book of Baruch is a deuterocanonical book of the Bible, used in most Christian traditions, such as Catholic and Orthodox churches. In Judaism and Protestant Christianity, it is considered not to be part of the canon, with the Protestant Bibles categorizing it as part of the Biblical apocrypha. The book is named after Baruch ben Neriah, Jeremiah's well-known scribe, who is mentioned at Baruch 1:1, and has been presumed to be the author of the whole work. The book is a reflection of a late Jewish writer on the circumstances of Jewish exiles from Babylon, with meditations on the theology and history of Israel, discussions of wisdom, and a direct address to residents of Jerusalem and the Diaspora. Some scholars propose that it was written during or shortly after the period of the Maccabees.


title: Book of Baruch

text: The Book of Baruch is sometimes referred to as 1 Baruch to distinguish it from 2 Baruch, 3 Baruch and 4 Baruch.


title: Book of Baruch

text: Although the earliest known manuscripts of Baruch are in Greek, linguistic features of the first parts of Baruch (1:1–3:8) have been proposed as indicating a translation from a Semitic language.


title: Book of Baruch

text: Although not in the Hebrew Bible, it is found in the Septuagint, in the Eritrean/Ethiopian Orthodox Bible, and also in Theodotion's Greek version. In 80-book Protestant Bibles, the Book of Baruch is a part of the Biblical apocrypha. Jerome excluded both the Book of Baruch and the Letter of Jeremiah from the Vulgate Bible, but both works were introduced into Latin Vulgate Bibles sporadically from the 9th century onwards; and were incorporated into the Sixto-Clementine Vulgate edition. In the Vulgate it is grouped with the books of the prophets such as the major prophets (Isaiah, Jeremiah, Lamentations, Ezekiel, Daniel), and the Twelve Minor Prophets. In the Vulgate, the King James Bible Apocrypha, and many other versions, the Letter of Jeremiah is appended to the end of the Book of Baruch as a sixth chapter; in the Septuagint and Orthodox Bibles chapter 6 is usually counted as a separate book, called the Letter or Epistle of Jeremiah.


title: Book of Baruch

text: No reference to the Book of Baruch is found in Rabbinic literature, nor is its text cited. A fragment of the Letter of Jeremiah in Greek has been excavated amongst the Dead Sea Scrolls, but no counterpart fragments survive of the Book of Baruch. There are no references to, quotations from, or allusions to the Book of Baruch in the New Testament, although Adams proposes a general similarity between themes in the later parts of the book and some in the Pauline Epistles, particularly Galatians and 1 Corinthians. The earliest evidence for the text of the Book of Baruch is in quotations in the works of early Christian Church Fathers; the earliest citation being in the "Legatio pro Christianis: 9" of Athenagoras of Athens, dated 177. Much the most extensive use of the Book of Baruch in patristic literature is in the "Adversus Haereses: 5.35.1" (c. 180) of Irenaeus of Lyons; which draws extensively on Baruch 4:36 to 5:9. Both Athenagorus and Irenaeus cite these readings as being from the Book of Jeremiah. Increasingly from the 4th century onwards, however, Greek Fathers tend to cite such readings as from a 'Book of Baruch', although Latin Fathers consistently maintain the former practice of citing these texts as from Jeremiah, and where they do refer to a 'Book of Baruch' are to be understood as denoting the apocalyptic work, 2 Baruch.


title: Book of Baruch

text: Both the Book of Baruch and the Letter of Jeremiah are separate books in the great pandect Greek Bibles, Codex Vaticanus (4th century) and Codex Alexandrinus (5th century), where they are found in the order Jeremiah, Baruch, Lamentations, Letter of Jeremiah. In the Codex Sinaiticus (4th century) Lamentations follows directly after Jeremiah and Baruch is not found; but a lacuna after Lamentations prevents a definitive assessment of whether Baruch may have been included elsewhere in this manuscript. Neither of the two surviving early Latin pandect Bibles (Codex Amiatinus (7th century) and Leon palimpsest (7th century) includes either the Book of Baruch or the Letter of Jeremiah; the earliest Latin witnesses to the text being the Codex Cavensis (9th century) and the Theodulfian Bibles (9th century). Baruch is also witnessed in some early Coptic (Bohairic and Sahidic) and Syriac manuscripts, but is not found in Coptic or Syriac lectionaries.


title: Book of Baruch

text: The evident variation among early Christian divines as to whether a particular reading is to be cited from 'Baruch' or 'Jeremiah' is generally regarded as relating to the very different texts of the Book of Jeremiah that are found respectively in manuscripts of the Greek and Hebrew Bibles. The version of Jeremiah in the Greek Septuagint texts (Vaticanus, Alexandrinus) is a seventh shorter than that in the Hebrew Masoretic Text or the Latin Vulgate; and the ordering of the chapters is very different, with sections from the middle of the book in the Septuagint version (the Oracles against the Nations) found at the end of the book in the Masoretic text and Vulgate. As Hebrew fragments have been found in the Dead Sea Scrolls corresponding to both the Septuagint and Masoretic orders, it is commonly accepted that the two versions derive from two distinct Hebrew traditions, and that the Septuagint form of the text is likely the older. Benedictine scholar Pierre-Maurice Bogaert suggests that, if the Book of Baruch is appended to the Septuagint version of Jeremiah, it follows on as a plausible continuation of the Septuagint narrative (Chapter 51: 31–35 in the Septuagint, corresponding to the truncated Chapter 45 in the Masoretic text). A similar conclusion is proposed by Emanuel Tov, who notes characteristics of a consistent redactional revision of the Septuagint text of Jeremiah from Chapter 29 onwards (correcting readings towards the Hebrew), a revision that is then carried over into the Greek text of Baruch 1:1 to 3:8, suggesting that these once formed a continuous text. Bogaert consequently proposes that the gathering of sections from the end of Septuagint Jeremiah into a distinct book of 'Baruch' was an innovation of Christian biblical practice in the Greek church from around the 3rd century onwards; but that the version of Jeremiah in the Old Latin Bible preceded this practice, and hence did not designate the Book of Baruch as a distinct work of scripture, but included its text within the Book of Jeremiah. The text of Old Latin Jeremiah nowhere survives in sufficient form for this speculation to be confirmed, but Bogaert proposes that its characteristics may be recognised in the texts of Baruch in the early Theodulfian Vulgate Bibles; noting that Baruch in these manuscripts is continuous with Jeremiah, and that the end at Chapter 5:9 is marked by an "explicit" in Old Latin form, stating "Explicit hieremiae prophetae".