title: Brothel creeper

text: Brothel creepers, sometimes shortened to creepers, are a style of shoe that has thick crepe soles, often in combination with suede uppers. This style of footwear became fashionable in the years following World War II, seeing resurgences of popularity at various times since then.


title: Brothel creeper

text: A version of this style of shoe became popular with World War II soldiers in North Africa, who adopted suede boots with hard-wearing crepe rubber. Writing in "The Observer" in 1991, John Ayto put the origin of the name 'brothel creeper' to the wartime years. The Smithsonian suggests the crepe in the thick sole may have given the shoes the title creeper. It may also be associated with a Ken Mackintosh dance tune popular in 1953 and called "The Creep".


title: Brothel creeper

text: This style of thick soled shoe was first developed commercially in 1949 by George Cox Limited of Wellingborough, Northamptonshire, UK, and marketed under the "Hamilton" name, based on George Cox Jr.'s middle name. Initially they came in shades of blue, ranging from pastel shades to electric blue, and were made of suede or polished leather. Later, more extravagant patterned versions were created.


title: Brothel creeper

text: The shoes were taken up by the Teddy Boys– along with drainpipe trousers worn with exposed socks and drape jackets. The shoes were also widely worn by the Ton-Up boys of the 1950s and later on the rockers of the '60s, who wore them as an alternative shoe when not riding their motorbikes.


title: Brothel creeper

text: The stilyagi (Russian: "стиляги") youth subculture in the Soviet Union of the mid 1950s adopted home-made brothel creepers as footwear, dubbing them "shoes on semolina" ("ботинки на манной каше") alluding to the sponginess of the thick crepe sole.


title: Brothel creeper

text: The brothel creeper regained popularity in the early 1970s when Malcolm McLaren sold them from his "Let it Rock" shop in London's King's Road.


title: Brothel creeper

text: Then later in the early 1980s when NaNa's of Los Angeles manufactured and sold them from their shop in Santa Monica. Teddy Boys were the obvious customers, but the brothel creeper still proved to be popular among regular customers when McLaren and his partner Vivienne Westwood changed the shop to more rocker-oriented fashion.


title: Brothel creeper

text: The shoe has since been adopted by subcultures such as indie, ska, punk, new wavers, psychobilly, greasers and goth, Japanese Visual Kei, and was worn by Bananarama, The Cure frontman Robert Smith and Saffron, singer of Republica.


title: Brothel creeper

text: Since 2011 popular artists such as Miley Cyrus, Carly Rae Jepsen and Yungblud have been seen wearing them.


title: Brothel creeper

text: In 2015, Puma and Rihanna launched a collaborative shoe line called the Puma Creeper, which won an award for Shoe of the Year in 2016.


title: Will Ryan

text: William Frank Ryan (November 13, 1939 – November 19, 2021) was an American voice actor, musician and singer. He provided the voice of Petrie in the 1988 animated film "The Land Before Time".


title: Will Ryan

text: He was also known for his voice work as Eugene Meltsner in the Christian radio drama "Adventures in Odyssey" and Grubby in "The Adventures of Teddy Ruxpin".


title: Will Ryan

text: Ryan was born on November 13, 1939 and grew up in Cleveland, Ohio. He became established by singing about the American West. In summer 1966, Ryan's earlier band, Wead, played a gig in Wellington, Ohio.


title: Will Ryan

text: In late 1970s, he teamed up with Phil Baron as Willio and Phillio. They had regular gigs on television, radio and comedy clubs and universities throughout the U.S.. They later paired up again voicing characters of best friends Teddy Ruxpin (Baron) and Grubby the Octopede (Ryan) in the Teddy Ruxpin book and tape series as well as the 1986–87 television show "The Adventures of Teddy Ruxpin". In August 2002, Willio and Phillio returned to Cleveland for two performances at historic Cain Park and another at the famed Beachland Ballroom. At the Cain Park show, friend Alec Nordstrom of Hudson was invited onstage. Cleveland's revered rock critic and "world's oldest teenager," Jane Scott, attended and reviewed the Beachland performance for the Cleveland Plain Dealer. The Willio and Phillio act brought Ryan back into music and after moving to California, he began to write and record songs for The Walt Disney Company.


title: Will Ryan

text: Willio and Phillio performed "I Wish it Could Be Christmas All Year Long" on a Disney Christmas album in a voice similar to Micky Dolenz of The Monkees.


title: Will Ryan

text: He provided the voices of Rabbit and Tigger, and the singing voice of Eeyore, in the Disney Channel's long-running series "Welcome to Pooh Corner" and in many other Pooh cartoons. He also provided the voice of Barnaby the Dog on the popular series "Dumbo's Circus".


title: Will Ryan

text: In 1987, Ryan became a fixture of the radio drama "Adventures in Odyssey", as Eugene Meltsner, Harlow Doyle, David Harley, Patrick O'Ryan and over 100 individual characters. He voiced Rabbit in "Winnie the Pooh and a Day for Eeyore", Digit in "An American Tail", Petrie in "The Land Before Time", and Willie the Giant in "Mickey's Christmas Carol". He continued to do voice work. In 2009, he was working on the third season of "Mickey Mouse Clubhouse", the 21st season of "Adventures in Odyssey", and the new radio series of Will Ryan's Cactus County Round-Up which featured his band The Cactus County Cowboys. In the "Family Guy" episode "Road to the North Pole", he provided the voice for Winnie-the-Pooh. As a side project, with Andrew J. Lederer and Michael Rosenberg (Jackie Diamond), Will Ryan briefly performed in the '20s-style music and comedy trio The Merry Metronomes. He and Lederer also appeared from time to time as a duo, usually under the name The Natty Nabobs. He and Nick Santa Maria also performed occasionally as a vaudeville-era comedy team, Biffle & Shooster (Ryan played the latter); and in 2013 they made their first film, a faux 1930s comedy short titled "It's a Frame-Up!".


title: Will Ryan

text: Beginning on January 28, 2021, until his death Will was the co-host of the "Tell Ya Later" show on YouTube with longtime friend and co-star Katie Leigh. The final episode featuring Ryan during his lifetime premiered on November 15, 2021, 4 days before his death. There is still unreleased footage recorded before he died that will air posthumously.


title: Shirley Caesar

text: Shirley Ann Caesar-Williams (born October 13, 1938), known professionally as Shirley Caesar, is an American gospel singer whose career has spanned seven decades. She has won 11 Grammys in addition to Dove Awards and Stellar Awards; Caesar is known as the "First Lady of Gospel Music" and "The Queen of Gospel Music". She began recording with Federal Records at the age of 12 in 1951.


title: Shirley Caesar

text: Caesar has released over forty albums. She has participated in over 16 compilations and three gospel musicals, "Mama I Want to Sing", "Sing: Mama 2" and "Born to sing: Mama 3". She is also the creator of the #unameit challenge, which occurred during one of her song sermonettes.


title: Shirley Caesar

text: Caesar's credits also include a series of commercials for MCI Communications and numerous awards for her recordings. She has won 11 Grammy Awards (including The Lifetime Achievement Grammy Award), 14 Stellar Awards, 15 Dove Awards, 1 RIAA gold certification, an Essence Award, McDonald's Golden Circle Lifetime Achievement Award, NAACP Lifetime Achievement Award, SESAC Lifetime Achievement Award, Rhapsody & Rhythm Award from the National Museum of African American Music, as well as induction into the Gospel Music Hall of Fame. According to SoundScan she has sold 2.2 million albums since 1991. She has made several notable appearances including the televised "Live from Disney World Night of Joy", the "Gospel According to VH1", and a White House performance for President George Bush. She gave a speech on the evolution of gospel music to the US Treasury Department. In 2017, Caesar was honored with a Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award from The Recording Academy.


title: Shirley Caesar

text: Caesar was born in Durham, North Carolina. She is the tenth of 13 children. All of her siblings are now deceased. Her father Jim Caesar was a well known local gospel singer but he died suddenly when Shirley was seven years old. Her mother Hallie Caesar was semi-invalid due to a lame leg. Caesar had a special bond with her mother and took care of her until her death in 1986.


title: Shirley Caesar

text: Caesar first began singing and performing for family and friends. She began singing as Baby Shirley Caesar all over the Carolinas as invitations poured in. She could only perform on weekends due to being in school during the weekdays. Her professional music career began in 1958 at 19, when she approached Albertina Walker about joining The Caravans, one of the most popular gospel groups at that time. Albertina wanted the vocally talented young Caesar in her group after hearing her sing a solo. Caesar decided to halt her education to join the group.


title: Shirley Caesar

text: Caesar recorded and performed with Albertina Walker, Cassietta George, Inez Andrews, Delores Washington, Josephine Howard, Eddie Williams, and James Herndon while in the Caravans. Her biggest hit with the Caravans was the song "Sweeping Through the City" followed by "No Coward Soldier". After eight years with the Caravans, she decided to leave after being offered a solo recording contract with Hob Records. Her first LP on the Hob label was entitled "I'll Go", backed up by the Institutional Radio Choir and includes the classics "Oh Peter, Don't Be Afraid" and "Choose Ye This Day". Other hits soon followed with recordings such as "Satan, We're Gonna Tear Your Kingdom Down", "God's Not Dead, He's Yet Alive" and the classic "Don't Drive Your Mama Away". In 1971, she won her first Grammy Award for her recording of "Put Your Hand in the Hand of the Man", and in 1975 her recording of the song "No Charge" became an instant hit and her first gold record. Although she had success she wanted to reach larger audiences and felt this wasn't being achieved with Hob Records; she decided not to renew her record contract with them which ended that same year.


title: Shirley Caesar

text: To reach more people with her music, Caesar signed with a secular record label called Roadshow Records in 1977 and released the debut album entitled "First Lady". The producer of the album titled the album "First Lady" because Caesar was the first female to ever record on the label. The album contained songs with strong gospel lyrics, but many within the gospel community felt that the music itself was "too worldly," and many gospel DJs refused to play it on their radio station. One song, however, "Faded Rose", later became a Caesar classic. Overall, the album sold poorly, but the "First Lady" title caught on within the gospel industry, and concert announcers, DJs and gospel promoters everywhere started introducing her as "The First Lady of Gospel Music", a title that has been associated with her ever since. The second and final album she recorded for Roadshow was "From the Heart" in 1978; it was poorly received for the same reason. Caesar searched for a gospel label and finally decided to sign with Word Records in 1980 and went on to win several more Grammy Awards during the next several years and beyond. She stayed with Word for many years and recorded some of the biggest hits of her career such as "God's Got It All in Control", "Hold My Mule" (which later went viral as a Thanksgiving-related Internet meme under the title "You Name It"), "He's Working It Out for You", "Jesus, I Love Calling Your Name" and "You're Next in Line for a Miracle".


title: Shirley Caesar

text: She has made a name for herself on the gospel music circuit, making guest appearances on the Bobby Jones gospel show and other popular television shows. Caesar credits Albertina Walker as her mentor and "Queen of Gospel Music".


title: Shirley Caesar

text: Between 1981 and 1995, she received seven Dove Awards for Black Gospel Album of the Year for "Live at the G.M.W.A.", "Celebration", "Christmasing", "Sailin‘", "Live ... In Chicago", "Go" and "Rejoice". She received two Black Gospel Song of the Year Awards for "He's Working It Out for You" and "Hold My Mule". She has performed with such performers as Patti LaBelle, Whitney Houston, Dorothy Norwood, Faith Evans, Dottie Peoples, Arnold Houston, Kim Burrell, John P. Kee, Kirk Franklin, Tonex, and Tye Tribbett among others. Caesar is also an actress. She acted in movies, such as "Why Do Fools Fall in Love" (1998) with Larenz Tate and Little Richard, "Fighting Temptations" (2003) with Beyoncé and Cuba Gooding Jr., and "The Unseen" (2005) with Steve Harris. She also acted in an episode of "The Good News" in 1998 as Aunt Shirley. Caesar appeared on "The Parkers" in 2004.


title: Shirley Caesar

text: In 2014, her song "Teach Me Master", which originally appeared on her 1972 album "Get Up My Brother" was sampled by Dutch producer Bakermat as "Teach Me"; it reached number 22 on the UK Singles Chart. In 2016, she found herself back at the very top of the gospel "Billboard" chart with her newest CD release "Fill This House".


title: Shirley Caesar

text: Caesar is a recipient of a 1999 National Heritage Fellowship from the National Endowment for the Arts, which is the United States' highest honor in the folk and traditional arts.


title: Shirley Caesar

text: Caesar was inducted into the North Carolina Music Hall of Fame in 2010. She performed for President Barack Obama and Michelle Obama at the White House in 2015, along with Aretha Franklin.


title: Shirley Caesar

text: In May 2016, the National Museum of African American Music honored Caesar with the Rhapsody & Rhythm Award in Nashville in advance of the planned 2018 opening of the historic museum.


title: Shirley Caesar

text: The Hollywood Chamber of Commerce proudly honored gospel singer Shirley Caesar with the 2,583rd star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame on Tuesday, June 28, 2016.


title: Shirley Caesar

text: After many years, Caesar finally accomplished her dream of completing her education. She returned to school and graduated with honors from Shaw University with a Bachelor of Science degree in Business Administration in 1984. She also spent time studying at the Divinity School of Duke University and has received honorary doctorates from Shaw University and Southeastern University.


title: Shirley Caesar

text: Caesar married Bishop Harold I. Williams in June 1983. The couple were co-pastors of the 1,500-member Mount Calvary Word of Faith Church in Raleigh, North Carolina until his death on July 4, 2014. While she does not have children of her own, she has two stepchildren from her husband.


title: Shirley Caesar

text: Caesar is a member of Delta Sigma Theta sorority. She cites her mother as a strong influence in her decision to give so selflessly of herself. Caesar has committed a sizable portion of all concert sales to her outreach ministries. Recently she has cut back on preaching and has appointed an executive pastor at her church and he provides weekly sermons to the congregation while Caesar serves as senior pastor but Caesar continues to record and perform in concert all over the country. She also continues to hold her annual outreach ministries conference. The outreach ministry provides food, clothing, shelter, toys for children, and financial assistance to those in need. She opened an eponymous store and uses the profits to help others during the holiday season.


title: Massage parlor

text: A massage parlor (American English) or massage parlour (Canadian/British English) is a place where massage services are provided for a fee. In the 19th century, the term began to be used in English as a euphemism for a brothel.


title: Massage parlor

text: In 1894 the British Medical Association (BMA) inquired into the education and practice of massage practitioners in London, and found that prostitution was commonly associated with unskilled workers and debt, often working with forged qualifications. In response, legitimate massage workers formed the Society of Trained Masseuses (now known as the Chartered Society of Physiotherapy), with an emphasis on high academic standards and a medical model for massage training.


title: Massage parlor

text: There is a grey area and ambiguity as to when an ordinary massage becomes sexual when it comes to individuals with sexual interests such as tripsophilia (arousal from massage), tripsolagnophilia, partialism, autofetishism or organofact, who may feel that the massage of the entire body or any ordinary body parts unrelated to typical erogenous zones are associated with eroticism and sensuality.


title: Massage parlor

text: A 2013 "Toronto Life" article about massage parlours in Toronto described a "thriving" industry. It profiled one massage parlour, which promoted its services and masseuses with a website. It had private rooms with massage tables, mirrors and showers. After the client paid a $40 door fee (this went to the facility, not the masseuse) and showered (a city health requirement), the masseuse informed the client about "the [unwritten] menu"—the "unlisted special services". For an additional $40, the masseuse would perform the massage naked and masturbate the client to orgasm. For $60, the client receiving the massage and being masturbated could also touch the masseuse's body. Some clients requested oral sex, sexual intercourse, or fetish activities for an extra price, but not all masseuses provided these services. For $80, the client could get a "body slide", where the masseuse put massage oil on her body, lay on the client and slid back and forth (without penetration). The 29-year-old masseuse interviewed for the article made $2,000 per week (three eight-hour days) in fees and tips.


title: Massage parlor

text: In Italy, massage parlours can be fronts for prostitution. Advertisements for massage parlours are listed in newspapers, in some cases offering "Japanese" or "Oriental" massage. Viva Lain, one of Italy's largest chains of massage parlours, was raided by the police in 2003.


title: Massage parlor

text: Since the end of the 20th century an expansion in prostitution in Malaysia has resulted in massage parlors being established across the country. Malaysian massage parlors often call themselves spas, salons, or health centres, and many offer erotic massages and "happy endings".


title: Massage parlor

text: In Kathmandu's tourist district of Thamel, massage parlours typically advertise Thai massage, Ayurvedic massage or Nepalese "special massage". Some offer legitimate massage, while others are sex establishments. Prostitution in Nepal is illegal so the owners of such massage parlours do not explicitly solicit sex and the paying of police bribes is a customary part of the operation.


title: Massage parlor

text: Thailand is known for its unique spa experiences and in particular its healthy and non-sexual traditional Thai massage therapy. However, the term "massage parlor" in Thailand is commonly associated with sexual massage.


title: Massage parlor

text: In 1996, foreign women made up the majority of prostitutes from 40 sex establishments in 18 border provinces that were actually brothels masquerading as karaoke bars, restaurants and traditional massage parlours. In some venues, there were no Thai women at all. In mid-1997, an increasing number of young girls, more than 60% of whom were under 18, were entering Thailand through the Mae Sai checkpoint into massage parlors and brothels.


title: Massage parlor

text: The legal difference between a "spa" and a "massage parlour" is unclear. The Federation of Thai Spa Associations (FTSPA) in 2016 urged authorities to clamp down on sexual services offered at some massage parlours. The FTSPA maintains that influential figures have used legal loopholes to open "pretty spas" or massage parlours where tourists can buy sexual services.


title: Massage parlor

text: In the United Kingdom, prostitution itself is legal but activities such as pimping and owning or managing a brothel are not. However, the laws are not always strictly enforced. Many brothels in cities such as Manchester, London and Cardiff operate through legitimate businesses which are licensed as "massage parlours" and operate under that name. Police often turn a blind eye to such establishments. Massage parlours are sometimes advertised in newspapers, but a newspaper that carries advertising for a brothel under the guise of a massage parlour may be liable to prosecution for money-laundering offences under the Proceeds of Crime Act 2002. The Newspaper Society's guidelines suggest that their members (the majority of local newspapers) refuse to carry advertisements for sexual services. The advice also warns publishers that massage parlours can disguise illegal offers of sexual services and it suggests checking qualifications to ensure the advertised service is legitimate. Newspaper companies often adopt a policy of refusing all advertisements for massage parlours.


title: Massage parlor

text: In 2005, it was reported that, in Manchester, there were around 80 "massage parlours" that were fronts for prostitution, and that the police ignored those establishments, focusing instead on reducing street prostitution. On 12 October 2005, the "Manchester Evening News" reported that "a self-confessed pimp walked free from court after a judge was told police had 'turned a blind eye' to organised prostitution in massage parlours in Manchester."


title: Massage parlor

text: In December 2007, the "Manchester Evening News" removed all advertisements for massage parlours from its personal columns following a meeting between ministers and newspaper and advertising industry representatives. It also followed comments by Harriet Harman, Minister for Women and Equality, in the House of Commons on 25 October that some local newspapers were promoting slavery by running sex adverts for foreign women.


title: Massage parlor

text: Massage parlors in the United States have been linked to prostitution since the nineteenth century. In 2019 it was reported that the Polaris Project estimated there were around 9,000 massage parlors in the US providing sexual services. Most of the staff are Chinese women. The country's larger cities typically have hundreds, and they are often present in small towns.


title: Massage parlor

text: Between 1980 and 2009, massage parlors in Rhode Island (also known there as "spas") were known to be involved in prostitution. Prostitution in Rhode Island was legal at that time as long as it was "behind closed doors". The 2009 documentary film "Happy Endings?" follows women who worked in the Asian massage parlors of Rhode Island. It focuses on "full service" massage parlors, although "rub and tug" massage parlors (where only handjobs are offered) are also covered.


title: Massage parlor

text: As of 2010, there were an estimated 525 massage parlors in New Jersey acting as fronts for the prostitution industry.


title: Massage parlor

text: An ongoing study of prostitution in New York City by the Sociology Department of Columbia University found that, between 1991 and 2010, the rise of the Internet and mobile phones "have enabled some sex workers to professionalize their trade", with a shift from street walking to "indoor" markets (including massage parlors and escort agencies), a geographical change in the concentration of sex work and the growth of a more expensive luxury market. In January 2011, an investigation by "Time Out New York" found New York City massage parlors charging a "house fee" (which is usually paid, up front to the parlor's mama-san) of $60 to $100 per visit, with an extra tip for the sex workers (usually around $40) for a massage and a basic "happy ending" (or manual stimulation of the penis until orgasm). Most of the massage parlors reviewed were very strict about the female masseuse not being touched by the male client, but, in some parlors, further contact could be negotiated.


title: Massage parlor

text: In many large US cities there are Asian massage parlours, some advertising traditional Thai massage. In some cases these establishments are fronts for prostitution. As of 2005, more than forty Asian massage parlors (mostly Korean) operated as fronts for in-call brothels in Washington, D.C., and each earned an average of $1.2 million a year. More than 200 other massage parlors (that did not openly advertise and were operated largely out of private homes and apartments) serving mainly Mestizo clients made an average of at least $800,000 a year.


title: Massage parlor

text: Sex acts performed at massage parlors can range from a basic "happy ending" to oral sex or "full service". Some, mostly Asian, massage parlors offer a naked "table shower" or an "Asian body slide" as well as access to a sauna before a massage and/or any sexual activity takes place.


title: Massage parlor

text: During the 2000s publications in major metropolitan areas of the US were under pressure not to advertise massage parlor operations. After the Fight Online Sex Trafficking Act became law on 11 April 2018 the classified advertising website Craigslist removed all of their personal advertisements. Another classified advertising website, Backpage, was shut down by federal officials during the same month. The closure of Backpage substantially benefited the massage parlor review website RubMaps which covers Asian massage parlors in the US. The site was under investigation by US authorities in 2019, a process made more difficult by the site's corporate structures and domain name having moved to Europe.


title: Massage parlor

text: Law enforcement agencies in the US attempt to shut down or fine massage parlor establishments that break federal, state or local laws. The penalty for breaking the law in these instances can be as high as life imprisonment in some cases, especially those that involve human trafficking.


title: Flight instruments

text: Flight instruments are the instruments in the cockpit of an aircraft that provide the pilot with data about the flight situation of that aircraft, such as altitude, airspeed, vertical speed, heading and much more other crucial information in flight. They improve safety by allowing the pilot to fly the aircraft in level flight, and make turns, without a reference outside the aircraft such as the horizon. Visual flight rules (VFR) require an airspeed indicator, an altimeter, and a compass or other suitable magnetic direction indicator. Instrument flight rules (IFR) additionally require a gyroscopic pitch-bank (artificial horizon), direction (directional gyro) and rate of turn indicator, plus a slip-skid indicator, adjustable altimeter, and a clock. Flight into instrument meteorological conditions (IMC) require radio navigation instruments for precise takeoffs and landings.


title: Flight instruments

text: The term is sometimes used loosely as a synonym for cockpit instruments as a whole, in which context it can include engine instruments, navigational and communication equipment.


title: Flight instruments

text: Most regulated aircraft have these flight instruments as dictated by the US Code of Federal Regulations, Title 14, Part 91. They are grouped according to pitot-static system, compass systems, and gyroscopic instruments.


title: Flight instruments

text: Instruments which are pitot-static systems use air pressure differences to determine speed and altitude.


title: Flight instruments

text: The altimeter shows the aircraft's altitude above sea-level by measuring the difference between the pressure in a stack of aneroid capsules inside the altimeter and the atmospheric pressure obtained through the static system. The most common unit for altimeter calibration worldwide is hectopascals (hPa), except for North America and Japan where inches of mercury (inHg) are used. The altimeter is adjustable for local barometric pressure which must be set correctly to obtain accurate altitude readings, usually in either feet or meters. As the aircraft ascends, the capsules expand and the static pressure drops, causing the altimeter to indicate a higher altitude. The opposite effect occurs when descending. With the advancement in aviation and increased altitude ceiling, the altimeter dial had to be altered for use both at higher and lower altitudes. Hence when the needles were indicating lower altitudes i.e. the first 360-degree operation of the pointers was delineated by the appearance of a small window with oblique lines warning the pilot that he or she is nearer to the ground. This modification was introduced in the early sixties after the recurrence of air accidents caused by the confusion in the pilot's mind. At higher altitudes, the window will disappear.


title: Flight instruments

text: The airspeed indicator shows the aircraft's speed relative to the surrounding air. Knots is the currently most used unit, but kilometers per hour is sometimes used instead. The airspeed indicator works by measuring the ram-air pressure in the aircraft's Pitot tube relative to the ambient static pressure. The indicated airspeed (IAS) must be corrected for nonstandard pressure and temperature in order to obtain the true airspeed (TAS). The instrument is color coded to indicate important airspeeds such as the stall speed, never-exceed airspeed, or safe flap operation speeds.


title: Flight instruments

text: The VSI (also sometimes called a variometer, or rate of climb indicator) senses changing air pressure, and displays that information to the pilot as a rate of climb or descent in feet per minute, meters per second or knots.


title: Flight instruments

text: The compass shows the aircraft's heading relative to magnetic north. Errors include Variation, or the difference between magnetic and true direction, and Deviation, caused by the electrical wiring in the aircraft, which requires a Compass Correction Card. Additionally, the compass is subject to Dip Errors. While reliable in steady level flight it can give confusing indications when turning, climbing, descending, or accelerating due to the inclination of the Earth's magnetic field. For this reason, the heading indicator is also used for aircraft operation, but periodically calibrated against the compass.


title: Flight instruments

text: The attitude indicator (also known as an "artificial horizon") shows the aircraft's relation to the horizon. From this the pilot can tell whether the wings are level (roll) and if the aircraft nose is pointing above or below the horizon (pitch). Attitude is always presented to users in the unit degrees (°). The attitude indicator is a primary instrument for instrument flight and is also useful in conditions of poor visibility. Pilots are trained to use other instruments in combination should this instrument or its power fail.


title: Flight instruments

text: The heading indicator (also known as the directional gyro, or DG) displays the aircraft's heading in compass points, and with respect to magnetic north when set with a compass. Bearing friction causes drift errors from precession, which must be periodically corrected by calibrating the instrument to the magnetic compass. In many advanced aircraft (including almost all jet aircraft), the heading indicator is replaced by a horizontal situation indicator (HSI) which provides the same heading information, but also assists with navigation.


title: Flight instruments

text: These include the Turn-and-Slip Indicator and the Turn Coordinator, which indicate rotation about the longitudinal axis. They include an inclinometer to indicate if the aircraft is in Coordinated flight, or in a Slip or Skid. Additional marks indicate a Standard rate turn. The turn rate is most commonly expressed in either degrees per second (deg/s) or minutes per turn (min/tr).


title: Flight instruments

text: These include the Horizontal Situation Indicator (HSI) and Attitude Director Indicator (ADI). The HSI combines the magnetic compass with navigation signals and a Glide slope. The navigation information comes from a VOR/Localizer, or GPS. The ADI is an Attitude Indicator with computer-driven steering bars, a task reliever during instrument flight.


title: Flight instruments

text: The VOR indicator instrument includes a Course deviation indicator (CDI), Omnibearing Selector (OBS), TO/FROM indicator, and Flags. The CDI shows an aircraft's lateral position in relation to a selected radial track. It is used for orientation, tracking to or from a station, and course interception. On the instrument, the vertical needle indicates the lateral position of the selected track. A horizontal needle allows the pilot to follow a glide slope when the instrument is used with an ILS.


title: Flight instruments

text: The Automatic direction finder (ADF) indicator instrument can be a fixed-card, movable card, or a Radio magnetic indicator (RMI). An RMI is remotely coupled to a gyrocompass so that it automatically rotates the azimuth card to represent aircraft heading. While simple ADF displays may have only one needle, a typical RMI has two, coupled to different ADF receivers, allowing for position fixing using one instrument.


title: Flight instruments

text: Most aircraft are equipped with a standard set of flight instruments which give the pilot information about the aircraft's attitude, airspeed, and altitude.


title: Flight instruments

text: Most US aircraft built since the 1940s have flight instruments arranged in a standardized pattern called the "T" arrangement. The attitude indicator is in the top center, airspeed to the left, altimeter to the right and heading indicator under the attitude indicator. The other two, turn-coordinator and vertical-speed, are usually found under the airspeed and altimeter, but are given more latitude in placement. The magnetic compass will be above the instrument panel, often on the windscreen centerpost. In newer aircraft with glass cockpit instruments the layout of the displays conform to the basic T arrangement.


title: Flight instruments

text: In 1929, Jimmy Doolittle became the first pilot to take off, fly and land an airplane using instruments alone, without a view outside the cockpit. In 1937, the British Royal Air Force (RAF) chose a set of six essential flight instruments which would remain the standard panel used for flying in instrument meteorological conditions (IMC) for the next 20 years. They were:


title: Flight instruments

text: This panel arrangement was incorporated into all RAF aircraft built to official specification from 1938, such as the Miles Master, Hawker Hurricane, Supermarine Spitfire, and 4-engined Avro Lancaster and Handley Page Halifax heavy bombers, but not the earlier light single-engined Tiger Moth trainer, and minimized the type-conversion difficulties associated with blind flying, since a pilot trained on one aircraft could quickly become accustomed to any other if the instruments were identical.


title: Flight instruments

text: This basic six set, also known as a "six pack", was also adopted by commercial aviation. After the Second World War the arrangement was changed to: (top row) airspeed, artificial horizon, altimeter, (bottom row) turn and bank indicator, heading indicator, vertical speed.


title: Flight instruments

text: Of the old basic six instruments, the turn and bank indicator is now obsolete. The instrument was included, but it was of little use in the first generation of jet airliners. It was removed from many aircraft prior to glass cockpits becoming available. With an improved artificial horizon, including gyros and flight directors, the turn and bank indicator became needless except when performing certain types of aerobatics (which would not be intentionally performed in IMC to begin with). But the other five flight instruments, sometimes known as "the big five", are still included in all cockpits. The way of displaying them has changed over time, though. In glass cockpits the flight instruments are shown on monitors. But the display is not shown by numbers, but as images of analog instruments. The artificial horizon is given a central place in the monitor, with a heading indicator just below (usually this is displayed only as a part of the compass). The indicated airspeed, altimeter, and vertical speed indicator are displayed as columns with the indicated airspeed to the left of the horizon and the altimeter and the vertical speed to the right in the same pattern as in most older style "clock cockpits".


title: Flight instruments

text: In good weather a pilot can fly by looking out the window. However, when flying in cloud or at night at least one gyroscopic instrument is necessary to orient the aircraft, being either an artificial horizon, turn and slip, or a gyro compass.


title: Flight instruments

text: The vertical speed indicator, or VSI, is more of "a good help" than absolutely essential. On jet aircraft it displays the vertical speed in thousands of feet per minute, usually in the range −6 to +6. The gyrocompass can be used for navigation, but it is indeed a flight instrument as well. It is needed to control the adjustment of the heading, to be the same as the heading of the landing runway. Indicated airspeed, or IAS, is the second most important instrument and indicates the airspeed very accurately in the range of . At higher altitude a MACH-meter is used instead, to prevent the aircraft from overspeed. An instrument called true airspeed, or TAS, exists on some aircraft. TAS shows airspeed in knots in the range from and higher (It is like the Mach-meter: not really a flight instrument). The altimeter displays the altitude in feet, but must be corrected to local air pressure at the landing airport. The altimeter may be adjusted to show an altitude of zero feet on the runway, but far more common is to adjust the altimeter to show the actual altitude when the aircraft has landed. In the latter case pilots must keep the runway elevation in mind. However a radio altimeter (displaying the height above the ground if lower than around has been standard for decades. This instrument is however not among the "big five", but must still be considered as a flight instrument.


title: Traveller (role-playing game)

text: Traveller is a science fiction role-playing game first published in 1977 by Game Designers' Workshop. Marc Miller designed "Traveller" with help from Frank Chadwick, John Harshman, and Loren Wiseman. Editions were published for GURPS, d20, and other role-playing game systems. From its origin and in the currently published systems, the game relied upon six-sided dice for random elements. "Traveller" has been featured in a few novels and at least two video games.


title: Traveller (role-playing game)

text: Traveller is a tabletop role-playing game. Characters journey between star systems, engaging in exploration, ground and space battles, and interstellar trading. One player, the game master or referee, oversees task attempts and guides events as the players explore the setting.


title: Traveller (role-playing game)

text: Characters are defined not by the need to increase native skill and ability but by achievements, discoveries, wealth, titles, and political power.


title: Traveller (role-playing game)

text: "Traveller" uses a lifepath-style system for character generation. Characters get skills and experience in a mini-game where the player makes career choices determining the character's life up to the point before adventuring begins.


title: Traveller (role-playing game)

text: A character can be human, robot, alien, or of a genetically engineered species. A character can be civilian, military, or noble, a young cadet, or a tried-and-true veteran, each with strengths and weaknesses. Death during character generation is possible in some editions, a mechanic that became infamous.


title: Traveller (role-playing game)

text: Characters have six primary characteristics: strength, dexterity, endurance, intelligence, education, and social standing. These characteristics are generated by a roll of two six-sided dice. Other general characteristics also exist, such as psionics and sanity. There are also variant characteristics, such as charisma and caste, which replace a primary characteristic, to add nuance to alien characters.


title: Traveller (role-playing game)

text: Some characters have extra-sensory perception, telekinesis, telepathy, and other psychic abilities, which are organized and standardized into "psionics".


title: Traveller (role-playing game)

text: Equipment emphasizes wilderness exploration, hazardous environments, and combat. As a result, equipment lists are heavy on vehicles, sensor equipment, communicators, rations, personal armor, and weapons.


title: Traveller (role-playing game)

text: Starships range from small one-person scouts, to giant planetoid colony ships. Design rules balance power, life support, and defenses for consistent ships. It is complex enough to be able to generically represent most starships used in role-playing games and flexible enough to support custom add-ons to the system. (GDW published several board games allowing "Traveller" space battles to be played out as games in their own right - "Mayday" uses the "Traveller" rules, while "Brilliant Lances" and "Battle Rider" use the "Traveller: The New Era" rules.)


title: Traveller (role-playing game)

text: Worlds range from barren planetoid moons to large gas giant worlds, from uncolonized territories to planets with billions of people. The world generation rules produce a random mix of worlds.


title: Traveller (role-playing game)

text: The original booklets contain generic rules for running science fiction role-playing games with no official setting. But in the adventures and supplements, a suggested setting emerges. In this setting, the human-dominated Third Imperium is the largest interstellar empire in charted space, a feudalistic union of worlds, where local nobility operate largely free from oversight and restricted by convention and feudal obligations.


title: Traveller (role-playing game)

text: The setting features descendants of humanity who are collectively called "Humaniti". These include the "Solomani", humans emigrated from Earth within the last few thousand years, the "Vilani", humans transplanted from Earth tens of thousands of years ago by the Ancients (see below) who founded the First Imperium, and the "Zhodani", psychic humans ruled by psionically-gifted nobles.


title: Traveller (role-playing game)

text: Despite the thematic dominance of the human race, with most adventures taking place in human space, the "Traveller" universe is cosmopolitan and contains many technologically advanced species known as "sophonts", a term borrowed from earlier science fiction material. The setting principally concerns itself with six "major races" that developed faster-than-light travel independently. In addition to Humaniti, the standard list of major races includes the honor-bound catlike "Aslan", the winged lizard-like "Droyne", the sixfold-symmetric and manipulative "Hivers", the centaur-like militant vegetarian "K'kree", and the wolf-hybrid "Vargr".


title: Traveller (role-playing game)

text: Additional minor races are numerous. An early publication from GDW notes that "The minor races, of which there are hundreds within the area of known space, will be largely left up to individual referees." GDW's quarterly publication, the "Journal of the Travellers Aid Society" designed by Loren K. Wiseman, sketched out about one race per quarter, starting with the Aslan in Issue 7. Taken together with aliens casually mentioned or introduced in separate scenarios or adventures—often arbitrarily—there is therefore no indication that the number of minor races is limited in any sense.


title: Traveller (role-playing game)

text: The "Ancients" were a major race in the distant past; their ruins dot planets throughout charted space and their artifacts are more technically advanced than those of any existing civilization. For unknown reasons, they transplanted humans from Earth to dozens of worlds, uplifted Terran wolves to create the Vargr and transplanted them to another world, and undertook many megascale engineering projects before destroying their civilization in a catastrophic civil war.


title: Traveller (role-playing game)

text: The original gamebooks were black and digest-sized (known as the "little black books") produced by Game Designers' Workshop (GDW). The main rules were detailed in three such booklets, sold as a boxed set while the same format was used for early support material, such as the adventures, supplements and further books. Later supplements and updated versions of the main game system introduced full sized booklets, complete re-writes of the game system and significant changes to the Third Imperium.


title: Traveller (role-playing game)

text: Though nearly all older versions of "Traveller" are available in PDF format, "Traveller" and "Mongoose Traveller 2nd Ed." are the current rulesets. Both rely on six-sided dice and both draw from the original "Traveller" rules.


title: Traveller (role-playing game)

text: The original version was designed and published by GDW in 1977. The core rules originally came as a box set of three black digest-sized books, and were later compiled into a single volume rulebook. Supplemental booklets included advanced character generation, capital ship design, robots, and more. Eight boxed wargames were released as tie-in products. This edition is also sometimes called by the retronym "Classic Traveller".


title: Traveller (role-playing game)

text: A new edition, published by GDW in 1987 and designed by Digest Group Publications. The game system used revised rules developed in DGP's "Traveller's Digest" periodical. The game was set during the rebellion which shattered the Imperium. Supplements and magazines produced during this era detailed the progression of the rebellion from the initial assassination of the Emperor in 1116 to the collapse of large-scale interstellar trade in roughly 1124 (the beginning of the supplement "Hard Times").


title: Traveller (role-playing game)

text: Published in 1993, this was the final edition published by GDW. Set in the former territory of the Third Imperium after interstellar government and society had largely collapsed. "TNE" introduced "Virus", a silicon-chip life form that infected and took over computers. The game mechanics used GDW's house system, derived from ", 2nd Ed". The game used a more realism-centered approach to science fiction, doing away with reactionless thrusters, shortening laser ranges to a reasonable distance, etc.


title: Traveller (role-playing game)

text: Published by Imperium Games in 1996, T4 is set in the early days of the Third Imperium ("Milieu 0"), with the small, newly formed empire surrounded by regressed or barbaric worlds. The mechanics and text resemble a mix of "Classic Traveller" and "The New Era".


title: Traveller (role-playing game)

text: Designed by Loren K. Wiseman and published in 1998, "GURPS Traveller" uses the third edition of the "GURPS" system and takes place in an alternate timeline in which no Rebellion occurred and Virus was never released. Steve Jackson Games produced numerous supplements for the line, including details for all of the major races, many of the minor races, interstellar trade, expanded world generation, the military forces of the Third Imperium, and starships.


title: Traveller (role-playing game)

text: Published by QuickLink Interactive (QLI) in 2002, this version uses the d20 System as its base and is set at the time of the Solomani Rim War around Imperial year 990, about a century before the era depicted in the original game. The preferred setting is the "Gateway Domain" region of the Imperium. After the company's license to the "Traveller" brand and setting lapsed, the purely mechanical elements of this game were republished as the generic "SciFi20" system.


title: Traveller (role-playing game)

text: In 2006, Steve Jackson Games released "" ("GTISW", sometimes "GTIW") for the 4th edition of GURPS from 2004. The timeline was rolled back to 2170, which is several millennia earlier than the usual "Traveller" setting, to the early days of Earth's presence in space at the time when Earth first started to send out interstellar ships to include the period just after the Third Interstellar War between the Terran Confederation (Earth) and the gigantic "Ziru Sirka Empire (Vland)".


title: Traveller (role-playing game)

text: A port of the "Traveller" setting to the "Hero System", produced under license by Comstar Games in 2006.


title: Traveller (role-playing game)

text: Mongoose Publishing published this version both in a traditional format and as an open gaming SRD around which other games may be built. It is based heavily on the original "Traveller", with updated careers and technology. It is referred to as "MgT" or "MGT" to differentiate it from "MT", or "MegaTraveller". The core rule book was released in April 2008, with a regular series of supplements following.


title: Traveller (role-playing game)

text: In 2013, Far Future Enterprises published a new set of rules by re-working and integrating concepts from earlier rulesets. The "Traveller" Core Rules book is a rules mechanics reference, pulled from "Traveller" adventures and toolbox material from supplements.


title: Traveller (role-playing game)

text: Its update, v5.10, was reprinted in 2019 after a successful crowdfunding campaign, with errata and a new format, this time breaking down the game rules into three distinct books: Characters and Combat, Starships, and Worlds and Adventures.


title: Traveller (role-playing game)

text: A second edition of Mongoose's "Traveller" was published in 2016, and updated in 2022. It uses a full color production style while resembling the original "Traveller" rules in scope. This edition is not licensed under the Open Game License. The second edition core rules include pre-career university and military academy education options. Skills specialization have been reorganized to reduce skill bloat. Some equipment descriptions have been altered and spacecraft operations and combat now have a different approach. Additional supplements flesh out rules further, including a revision to "High Guard" to handle all starship design.


title: Traveller (role-playing game)

text: In the April–May 1978 edition of "White Dwarf" (Issue #6), Don Turnbull gave a strong recommendation for the new game, saying, "Altogether, what is here is very satisfactory and much of it is stimulating. The presentation is exemplary, the detail impressive, the treatment exacting and the inventiveness inspired."


title: Traveller (role-playing game)

text: In the September 1978 edition of "Dragon" (Issue 18), Tony Watson complimented the game on the high production value of its components, saying, "Physically, "Traveller" is first class, a tradition with Game Designer's Workshop. The box lid and covers of the three booklets are done in a simple but highly effective combination of red and white lettering on a black background. The interior layout and printing is also of the best quality; the printing is an entirely professional job." Watson liked that experience points were not emphasized in gameplay: "It is refreshing to see that the adventures and color of the game's play is reward enough and the players are not channeling their energy into the rather silly chase of ethereal experience points. Too often, this chase becomes more important than actual play itself!" He concluded with a strong recommendation, saying, ""Traveller" is a unique SF game and probably the best of the role-playing variety. It offers a colorful but consistent future for players to adventure in."


title: Traveller (role-playing game)

text: In the inaugural edition of "Ares" (March 1980), David Ritchie was enthusiastic about "Traveller", giving it an above average rating of 8 out of 9 and commenting, "This game starts off where "Dungeons and Dragons" left off, but, if there is any justice, will end up being more popular than that venerable relic. For one thing, the "Traveller" rules are fairly consistent (moreso than is usual for such games)."


title: Traveller (role-playing game)

text: In the May–June 1980 edition of "The Space Gamer" (Issue No. 28), Forrest Johnson gave a good review, saying, ""Traveller" is the best game of its type, recommended for the sophisticated science fiction gamer."


title: Traveller (role-playing game)

text: In the November 1980 edition of "Ares" (Issue #5), Eric Goldberg called "Traveller" "a most impressive achievement from a design standpoint... This mark of distinction is the main reason why I consider "Traveller" the finest commercially available role-playing game." Goldberg didn't consider it perfect, criticizing the game's lack of imaginary vision of technology of the future. Although he liked the "sophisticated and elegant" character generation system, he felt that "All too often, a player will have to spend an entire afternoon rolling dice before he gains a reasonable character." Goldberg concluded with a positive recommendation: "If you have at least a casual interest in science fiction and role-playing, you should definitely invest in a copy of "Traveller""


title: Traveller (role-playing game)

text: In the October–November 1981 edition of "White Dwarf", Andy Slack reviewed the "Deluxe Traveller Edition", a compilation of the three original rules booklets, plus "Book 0 - An Introduction to Traveller", and an adventure, "The Imperial Fringe". Slack thought this edition was better laid out, and "typos have been rectified." Because he believed that this edition was not substantially different than the original set, he only rated this edition a 4 out of 10 for experienced players who already owned the original rule booklets; but for new players, he rated it a perfect 10 out of 10.


title: Traveller (role-playing game)

text: In the inaugural edition of "Games International" (October 1988), Jake Thornton gave "MegaTraveller" an above-average rating of 4 out of 5, saying, "Although there are some typos and omissions, overall, "MegaTraveller" is a success. If you like your SF on a grand, starspanning scale [...] then "MegaTraveller" is the system for you."


title: Traveller (role-playing game)

text: Chris W. McCubbin reviewed "Traveller: The New Era" for "Pyramid" #2 (July/Aug. 1993) and concluded that, despite some complaints he had about the new version, ""Traveller"'s still around and that's good. I hope it always will be."


title: Traveller (role-playing game)

text: In the August 1997 edition of "Dragon" (Issue 238), Rick Swan reviewed the fourth edition of "Traveller", and called it "a masterful effort... the best science-fiction RPG I've ever played." On the downside, Swan thought that "The inclusion of anachronistic weapons like swords and crossbows can turn combat into a bad episode of "Star Trek"." He also pointed out that character growth in the game is very slow: "PCs acquire new skills and abilities about as fast as a tree trunk acquires new growth rings." He also wanted to see more setting information. But he concluded that the fourth edition of "Traveller" was close to perfect, giving it a top rating of 6 out of 6 and saying, "Time-tested and buffed to a sheen, "Traveller" will endure as long there's enough plastic to manufacture six-sided dice."


title: Traveller (role-playing game)

text: In a 1996 reader poll by "Arcane" magazine to determine the 50 most popular roleplaying games of all time, "Traveller" (as either "Traveller", "MegaTraveller", or "Traveller: The New Era") was ranked 3rd. The magazine's editor Paul Pettengale commented: "Although originally intended as a generic science fiction system, "Traveller" quickly became linked with the Imperium campaign background developed by GDW... This background offers a great degree of freedom for individual referees to run campaigns of their own devising, while providing enough basic groundwork to build from, and has proved to be immensely successful. Everything from political intrigue to action-packed mercenary actions, trading or scientific exploration is possible, and a lot more besides... "Traveller" [is] one of the true classics of the roleplaying hobby".


title: Traveller (role-playing game)

text: "The Imperial Data Recovery System" is a computer program published by FASA in 1981 as a play aid to speed up bookkeeping for "Traveller", and assist with game aspects such as sector maps, records of characters and ships, and in-game encounters. John M. Morrison reviewed "The Imperial Data Recovery System" in "The Space Gamer" No. 50. Morrison commented that "I would seriously recommend that FASA take this off the market and re-write it from the ground up. There's definitely room for a "Traveller" aid program on the market, but not this one."


title: Traveller (role-playing game)

text: TravellerMap is an interactive map detailing the primary setting for Traveller. While it was originally fan-made, it has been made canon by reference, which reference states that what appears in real life on that site is what appears in-universe to users of a certain widely used stellar navigational tool.


title: Traveller (role-playing game)

text: Gaming magazine "White Dwarf" ran a comic strip called "The Travellers" by Mark Harrison from 1983 to 1986. The strip spoofed "Traveller" and other space opera settings.


title: Traveller (role-playing game)

text: Originally published by GDW as an updated replacement for "Traveller", eschewing classic space opera to take inspiration from the grittier contemporary hard science fiction media of the 1980s. The first edition was named "Traveller: 2300", which incited both confusion and criticism since the game carried over neither the rules nor setting of its namesake. The second edition was renamed "2300 AD", and added some cyberpunk rules and adventures. It is presented as a future extrapolation of the speculative World War III of GDW's popular military role-playing game "Twilight: 2000". In the "2300 AD" setting, interstellar travel is relatively new, Earth is still divided into nation-states, and the most powerful nations are competitively exploring and colonizing the fifty light-year sphere of surrounding space. Mongoose Publishing released a sourcebook for the setting in 2012 that adapted it to their version of the "Traveller" rules.


title: Traveller (role-playing game)

text: Computer programs have been created to model and predict starship combat using "Traveller" rules. The most famous case involved Douglas Lenat applying his "Eurisko" heuristic learning program to the scenario in the "Traveller" adventure "", which contains rules for resolving large space battles statistically. Eurisko exploited corner-case features and built unusual fleets that won the 1981 and 1982 championships. The sponsor stated that if Lenat entered and won the next year they would stop the sponsorship, so Lenat stopped attending.


title: Tanguturi Prakasam

text: Tanguturi Prakasam Panthulu (23 August 1872 – 20 May 1957) was an Indian jurist, political leader, social reformer, and anti-colonial nationalist who served as the chief minister of the Madras Presidency. Tanguturi subsequently became the first chief minister of the erstwhile Andhra State, created by the partition of Madras State along the linguistic lines. Tanguturi was known as "Andhra Kesari" which translates to "Lion of Andhra". The Andhra Pradesh government issued G.O RT-2500 on 10 August 2014 declaring his birth anniversary a State holiday.


title: Tanguturi Prakasam

text: Tanguturi Prakasam Panthulu was born into a Telugu speaking family of Subbamma and Gopalakrishnayya in the village of Vinodarayunipalem, from Ongole in Madras presidency (now Prakasam district, Andhra Pradesh). When he was 11, his father died and his mother had to run a boarding house at Ongole, a profession that was looked down upon at the time.


title: Tanguturi Prakasam

text: When E. Hanumantha Rao, his teacher at school, moved to Rajamahendravaram, he took Prakasam along with him as that place had better opportunities for education. He acted in "Gayopakhyanam" by Chilakamarti Lakshmi Narasimham in 1890 along with his teacher. He was interested in becoming a lawyer since childhood, but Prakasam failed his matriculation examination. However, he managed to go to Madras and become a second-grade pleader. Returning to Rajamahendravaram, he eventually became a successful lawyer. He was elected as Municipal Chairman of Rajamahendravaram in 1904 when he was 31 years old. This election was a tough one at that point in time. He was funded for his education by zamindar Kanchumarthi Ramachandra Rao, who was at that time being guarded by raja Vogeti Ramakrishnayya garu, a wealthy landlord and a municipal councilor for a long time and honorary magistrate at Rajamahendravaram whose hierarchy was taken by Ramachandra rao. Prakasam was given utmost support by Ramachandra rao even though they are in opposite sides of politics.


title: Tanguturi Prakasam

text: During one of his professional visits to Madras on a court case, a barrister was impressed with his legal acumen and suggested that he become a barrister. As a second-grade pleader, Prakasam could not argue cases at higher courts as only barristers were allowed to do so. Prakasam took the idea to his heart and decided to go to England to pursue legal studies. It was considered a sacrilege to cross the seas during those days. However, as Mahatma Gandhi had done before him, Prakasam made a promise to his mother that he would abstain from eating non-vegetarian food, smoking and drinking. He reached England in 1904. In England, he joined the Royal India Society and worked for the election of Dadabhai Naoroji to the House of Commons.


title: Tanguturi Prakasam

text: After completing the barrister course with a certificate of honour in London, Prakasam relocated to Madras high court. He was one of the only Telugu barristers to be successful; until then, most of the successful lawyers were either European or Tamil. He dealt with both civil and criminal cases. Of the latter, one of the important cases was the Ashe murder case. Ashe was the Collector of Tirunelveli and was shot dead in 1907 by Vanchinathan. This was at a time when Bipin Chandra Pal, the nationalist leader from Bengal, was touring the region, making fiery speeches on nationalism. Prakasam defended one of the accused and ensured that he got away with a light sentence. Prakasam also edited "Law Times", a legal magazine. The same year he presided over Bipin Chandra Pal's lecture at Madras when others were afraid to come forward, given that the government of the day considered Pal's speeches to border on sedition. He started attending the Congress Party sessions regularly after the Lucknow Pact and signed the Satyagraha pledge in October 1921. He gave up his lucrative law practice. He also started and was the working editor of a newspaper "Swarajya" (literally self-rule). The paper was published simultaneously in English, Telugu and Tamil.


title: Tanguturi Prakasam

text: Prakasam ran a national school and a "khādī" production centre. He was elected the general secretary of the Congress Party in December 1921 at the Ahmedabad session. Whenever there was unrest or strife such as a riot, he tried to be there so as to comfort people. He visited Punjab during Akali Satyagraha and the Hindu-Muslim riots in Multan. He toured Kerala during the Moplah rebellion despite a ban on visitors from outside the area and had his property at Ooty attached by the government as a consequence. In 1922, during the non-cooperation movement, he organised a demonstration by 30,000 Congress volunteers at Guntur. In 1926, he was elected to the Central Legislative Assembly on a Congress Party ticket.


title: Tanguturi Prakasam

text: When the Simon Commission visited India, public decided to boycott it with the slogan "Simon, go back". There were a host of reasons for this boycott, the most important being that the commission did not have a single Indian in its ranks. The commission was greeted with demonstration of black flags wherever it went. When the commission visited Madras on 3 February 1928, Prakasam Pantulu gave the slogan "Go back Simon Commission".The English soldiers warned the demonstrators headed by Prakasam. They threatened to shoot if they (the demonstrators) moved an inch forward. Prakasam Pantulu baring his breast came forward. This made the British soldiers dumb struck. This exemplary courage earned him the title "Andhra Kesari". After this incident, he was known respectfully as ""Andhra Kesari"" (the Lion of Andhra).


title: Tanguturi Prakasam

text: In 1930, when the Congress party wanted all the legislators to resign, he did so but was not convinced about its alternative programme and hence contested and won the by-election. He joined the Congress Party led by Madan Mohan Malaviya but resigned from it as well and persuaded others to do so after Mahatma Gandhi and the Congress Party broke the salt tax law with the Dandi March. Prakasam also resigned as a legislator and was at the forefront in breaking the tax law at Madras. In the meantime, he had to suspend the publication of "Swarajya" due to the high deposit demanded by the government. It was revived after the Gandhi–Irwin Pact of 1931 but it had to be suspended again due to cash flow problems. Unsuccessful attempts were made to restart it again in 1935.


title: Tanguturi Prakasam

text: In 1937, Congress Party contested the provincial elections and achieved majority in Madras province, among others. Though Prakasam was in the running for Prime Minister's post, he made way for Rajaji, who returned to active politics as per the wishes of the Congress Working Committee. Prakasam became the revenue minister – his major contribution was the founding and chairing of the Zamindari Enquiry Committee which looked at the structural distortions in agriculture perpetrated due to the Zamindari system followed by the British Government. With the onset of World War II, the Congress ministries resigned from office as they were not consulted by the government about India's participation. Prakasam was the first prominent leader from South India to offer individual "satyagraha" against the war effort in 1941.


title: Tanguturi Prakasam

text: Prakasam was arrested and jailed for more than three years for participating in the Quit India movement of 1942. After his release in 1945, he toured South India to get back in touch with the masses.


title: Tanguturi Prakasam

text: In 1946, after the Congress' victory in elections in Madras Presidency, Prakasam became the Prime minister on 30 April 1946, as he and Kamaraj, a Tamil leader, were against Rajaji – the choice of leaders such as Gandhi and Nehru – becoming the Prime minister. However, the government lasted for only 11 months, as it was felt that Prakasam was not accommodating enough to various interests and corruption charges. As Prakasam went against his interest, Mahatma Gandhi faulted Prakasam for accepting gifts and using party funds, ordered Prakasam to resign from congress party.


title: Tanguturi Prakasam

text: During his tenure as Premier, Prakasam publicly declared his intention to scrap all existing textile industries in the province and replace them with "khadi" manufacturing and weaving units. In February 1947, Communists broke into a full-scale revolt. On Vallabhbhai Patel's advice, Prakasam responded with widespread arrests and tough crackdown on arsonists.


title: Tanguturi Prakasam

text: Prakasam visited Hyderabad State in 1948, while the Nizam was still in power, although Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru warned against doing so because of concern for his personal safety. He met Qasim Rizvi, the leader of the Razakars, and warned him about "pushing his luck too far"..


title: Tanguturi Prakasam

text: In 1952, he formed the Hyderabad State Praja Party (Hyderabad State People's party) and ensured that all the sitting ministers of the Congress Party were defeated. However, Praja party could not come into power by its own and the coalition that he put together collapsed even before a show of strength could be contemplated.


title: Tanguturi Prakasam

text: Meanwhile, in December 1952, Potti Sreeramulu died fasting for the cause of a separate state for the Telugu-speaking people. On 1 October 1953, the state of Andhra was created and Prakasam was unanimous choice for Chief minister of the new state. He was not only the party's choice, but the people's choice too. However, due to corruption charges and opposition from the communists and halting support from the socialists, the government fell after a year. Mid-term elections were held in 1955 by which time Prakasam had more or less retired from active politics. On 1 November 1956, Telugu-speaking parts of the erstwhile Hyderabad State were merged with Andhra State to form Andhra Pradesh. Marathi-speaking parts (Aurangabad region) of the Hyderabad state were merged with Bombay State (which later split into Gujarat and Maharashtra) and Kannada-speaking parts (Gulbarga region) were merged with Mysore State. Neelam Sanjiva Reddy, a future President of India and a staunch follower of Prakasam, became the chief minister. Prakasam was active in touring the state promoting "harijan" issues ("dalit" issues). On one such visit to a "harijanwada" near Ongole, he suffered from severe sunstroke. He was admitted to a Hyderabad hospital and died there on 20 May 1957.


title: Tanguturi Prakasam

text: Prakasam's autobiography is titled "Naa Jeevitha Yatra (My Life's Journey)" and published by Telugu Samithi. This book has four parts – the first two are about his early life and his involvement in freedom fighting in India, the third is about getting independence and government formation in Andhra Pradesh, and the last (written by Tenneti Viswanadham) discusses his political career and the changes he brought to Andhra. Emesco published them as a single hard cover edition in 1972.


title: Lahaul and Spiti district

text: The Lahaul and Spiti district in the Indian state of Himachal Pradesh consists of the two formerly separate districts of Lahaul () and Spiti (; or ). The present administrative centre is Kyelang in Lahaul. Before the two districts were merged, Kardang was the capital of Lahaul, and Dhankar the capital of Spiti. The district was formed in 1960, and is the fourth least populous district in India (out of 640).


title: Lahaul and Spiti district

text: Geologically located on the Tibetan Plateau, Lahaul and Spiti district is connected to Manali through the Rohtang Pass. "Kunzum la" or the Kunzum Pass (altitude ) is the entrance pass to the Spiti Valley from Lahaul. It is from Chandra Tal. To the south, Spiti ends from Tabo, at the Sumdo where the road enters Kinnaur and joins National Highway 5.


title: Lahaul and Spiti district

text: Spiti is barren and difficult to cross, with an average elevation of the valley floor of . It is surrounded by lofty ranges, with the Spiti river rushing out of a gorge in the southeast to meet the Sutlej River. It is a typical mountain desert area with an average annual rainfall of only .


title: Lahaul and Spiti district

text: The harsh conditions of Lahaul permit only scattered tufts of hardy grasses and shrubs to grow, even below . Glacier lines are usually found at . Due to changes in climate, people in the Lahaul valley are able to grow some vegetables like cabbage, potato, green peas, radish, tomato, carrot and all types of leafy vegetables. The main cash crops are potatoes, cabbage, and green peas.


title: Lahaul and Spiti district

text: Some of the most common species of flora found in the Valley of Spiti include "Causinia thomsonii", "Seseli trilobum", "Crepis flexuosa", "Caragana brevifolia" and "Krascheninikovia ceratoides". There are over 62 species of medicinal plants found here too.


title: Lahaul and Spiti district

text: Several species of Juniper grow in the valley, noted for their adaptation to the cold dessert climate conditions. They are used by local people for religious purposes and for subsistence. The juniper forests are threatened by overuse and habitat degradation.


title: Lahaul and Spiti district

text: The valley is inhabited by snow leopards, foxes ibex, Himalayan brown bear, musk deer, and Himalayan blue sheep. Snow leopards are protected within the Pin Valley National Park and Kibber Wildlife Sanctuary. The Lingti plains are home to animals such as yaks and dzos.


title: Lahaul and Spiti district

text: Over-hunting and a decrease in food supplies has led to a large reduction in the population of the Tibetan antelope, argali, kiangs, musk deer, and snow leopards in these regions, reducing them to the status of endangered species. The locals of Spiti do not hunt these wild animals due to their religious beliefs.


title: Lahaul and Spiti district

text: According to the 2011 census, the Lahaul and Spiti district has a population of 31,564. This gives it a ranking of 638th in India (out of a total of 640). The district has a population density of . Its population growth rate over the decade 2001-2011 was -5%. Lahul and Spiti has a sex ratio of 903 females for every 1000 males, and a literacy rate of 76.81%.


title: Lahaul and Spiti district

text: The district has % of its population speaking Kinnauri, % Pattani, % Bhotia, % Hindi, % Nepali and % Tibetan as their first language.


title: Lahaul and Spiti district

text: The language, culture, and populations of Lahaul and Spiti are closely related. Generally, the Lahaulis are of Tibetan and Indo-Aryan descent, while the Spiti Bhot are closer to the Tibetans, owing to their proximity to Tibet. The district has a Himachal Pradesh state legislative law in place to curb antique looting by travellers given past incidents. In the pre-independence era, the ethnic tribal belt was divided into the British Lahaul and the Chamba Lahaul, which was merged with Punjab post-1947. This is the second-largest district in the Indian union.


title: Lahaul and Spiti district

text: The language spoken by both the Lahauli and Spiti Bhots is Bhoti, a Tibetic language of the Western Innovative subgroup. They are very similar to the Ladakhi and Tibetans culturally, as they had been placed under the rule of the Guge and Ladakh kingdoms at occasional intervals.


title: Lahaul and Spiti district

text: Among the Lahaulis, the family acts as the basic unit of kinship. The extended family system is common, evolved from the polyandric system of the past. The family is headed by a senior male member, known as the Yunda, while his wife, known as the Yundamo, attains authority by being the oldest member in the generation. The clan system, also known as Rhus, plays another major role in the Lahauli society.


title: Lahaul and Spiti district

text: The Spiti Bhot community has an inheritance system that is otherwise unique to the Tibetans. Upon the death of both parents, only the eldest son will inherit the family property, while the eldest daughter inherits the mother's jewellery, and the younger siblings inherit nothing. Men usually fall back on the social security system of the Trans-Himalayan Gompas.


title: Lahaul and Spiti district

text: The lifestyles of the Lahauli and Spiti Bhot are similar, owing to their proximity. Polyandry was widely practised by the Lahaulis in the past, although this practice has been dying out. The Spiti Bhot do not generally practice polyandry anymore, although it is accepted in a few isolated regions.


title: Lahaul and Spiti district

text: Divorces are accomplished by a simple ceremony performed in the presence of village elders. Divorce can be sought by either partner. The husband has to pay compensation to his ex-wife if she does not remarry. However, this is uncommon among the Lahaulis.


title: Lahaul and Spiti district

text: Agriculture is the main source of livelihood. Potato farming is common. Occupations include animal husbandry, working in government programs and services, and other businesses and crafts that include weaving. Houses are constructed in the Tibetan architectural style, as the land in Lahul and Spiti is mountainous and quite prone to earthquakes.


title: Lahaul and Spiti district

text: Most of the Lahaulis follow a combination of Hinduism and Tibetan Buddhism of the Drukpa Kagyu order, while the Spiti Bhotia follow Tibetan Buddhism of the Gelugpa order. Within Lahaul, the Todh-Gahr (upper region of Lahaul towards Ladakh) region had the strongest Buddhist influence, owing to its close proximity to Spiti.


title: Lahaul and Spiti district

text: Before the spread of Tibetan Buddhism and Hinduism, the people were adherents of the religion 'Lung Pe Chhoi', an animistic religion that had some affinities with the Bön the religion of Tibet. While the religion flourished, animal and human sacrifices were regularly offered up to the 'Iha', a term that refers to evil spirits residing in the natural world, notably in the old pencil-cedar trees, rocks, and caves. Vestiges of the Lung Pe Chhoi religion can be seen in the behaviour of the Lamas, who are believed to possess certain supernatural powers.


title: Lahaul and Spiti district

text: The Losar festival (also known as Halda in Lahauli) is celebrated between the months of January and February. The date of celebration is decided by the Lamas. It has the same significance as the Diwali festival of Hinduism, but is celebrated in a Tibetan fashion.


title: Lahaul and Spiti district

text: At the start of the festival, two or three persons from every household will walk in procession holding burning incense. The burning sticks are then piled into a bonfire. The people will then pray to Shiskar Apa, the goddess of wealth (another name Vasudhara) in the Buddhist religion.


title: Lahaul and Spiti district

text: Spiti is one of the important centers of Buddhism in Himachal Pradesh. It is popularly known as the 'land of lamas'. The valley is dotted by numerous Buddhist Monasteries or Gompas. These are some of the important monasteries in Lahul and Spiti valleys.


title: Lahaul and Spiti district

text: Kye Monastery is one of the main learning centres of Buddhist studies in Spiti. The monastery is home to some 100 odd monks who receive their education here. It is the oldest and biggest monastery in Spiti. It houses rare paintings and scriptures of Buddha and other gods and goddess. There are also rare 'Thangka' paintings and ancient musical instruments 'trumpets, cymbals, and drums in the monastery.


title: Lahaul and Spiti district

text: Perched at an altitude of 3050 meters, Tabo Monastery is often referred to as the 'Ajanta of the Himalayas'. It is located 45 km from Kaza, Himachal Pradesh, the capital of the Spiti region. This monastery garnered interest when it celebrated its thousandth year of existence in 1996. The Tabo Monastery was founded by scholar Richen Zangpo. The monastery houses more than 60 lamas and contains a collection of rare scriptures, pieces of art, wall paintings - Thankas and Stucco. There is a modern guest house with a dining hall and amenities.


title: Lahaul and Spiti district

text: Kardang Monastery, is located at an elevation of 3,500 metres across the river, about 8 km from Keylong. Kardang is well connected by the road via the Tandi bridge which is about 14 km from Keylong. Built in the 12th century, this monastery houses a large library of Buddhist literature including the main Kangyur and Tangyur scriptures.


title: Lahaul and Spiti district

text: The natural scenery and numerous Buddhist monasteries are the main tourist attractions of the region.


title: Lahaul and Spiti district

text: The dangerous weather in Lahaul and Spiti permits visitors only between the months of June to October, when the roads and villages are free of snow and the high passes (Rothang La and Kunzum La) are open. It is possible to access Spiti from Kinnaur (along the Sutlej) all through the year, although the road is sometimes temporarily closed by landslides or avalanches.


title: Lahaul and Spiti district

text: The Spiti Valley is popular with trekkers due to the challenging nature of its treks. These treks take people to remote areas including rural villages and old Gompas, as well as wildlife trails. High altitude treks allow travellers to cross passes such as Parangla Pass (connecting Ladakh with Spiti Valley), Pin Parvati Pass, Baba Pass, Hamta Pass trek, Spiti Left Bank Trek. Popular trekking routes in the area include Kaza-Langza-Hikim-Komic-Kaza, Kaza-Ki-Kibber-Gete-Kaza, Kaza-Losar-Kunzum La and Kaza-Tabo-Sumdo-Nako.


title: Lahaul and Spiti district

text: From the confluence of the Chandra and Bhaga rivers at Tandi to Chamba district border downstream of Udaipur, Lahaul


title: Clyde Klotz

text: Errol Clyde Klotz (born June 8, 1961) is a Canadian television art director and production designer. He worked as an assistant art director on several TV series filmed in Vancouver, such as "The Hitchhiker", "21 Jump Street" and "The X-Files"; and as an illustrator on the films "This Boy's Life" and "Look Who's Talking Too".


title: Clyde Klotz

text: He subsequently worked as a production designer for Rainmaker Animation on the computer-animated series "ReBoot" and also on The Transformers spin-off "Beast Wars".


title: Clyde Klotz

text: Klotz was nominated for a Canadian Genie Award in 1996 for Achievement in Art Direction/Production Design on the film "Magic in the Water". His work on "Beast Wars" won him a Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Achievement in Animation in 1998.


title: Clyde Klotz

text: On January 1, 1994, Klotz married actress Gillian Anderson, who played Dana Scully on "The X-Files", where they met on the set. They have one daughter. They divorced in 1997.


title: Dilbar (song)

text: "Dilbar" is a Bollywood song, originally released as part of the soundtrack for the 1999 Indian film "Sirf Tum". The songs was originally composed by Nadeem-Shravan and sung by Alka Yagnik, with lyrics by Sameer. The song's original music video features Sushmita Sen and Sanjay Kapoor. The "Sirf Tum" soundtrack album sold 2.2million units, and was the ninth best-selling Bollywood music album of 1999.


title: Dilbar (song)

text: The song was recreated for the 2018 film "Satyameva Jayate", recomposed by Tanishk Bagchi with Middle-Eastern influences, and sung by Neha Kakkar, Asees Kaur and Dhvani Bhanushali. Its music video is an item number, featuring Bollywood actress/dancer Nora Fatehi performing Egyptian belly dancing. The song later had an Arabic language version, sung by Nora Fatehi with Moroccan hip hop group Fnaire, released on 30 November 2018.


title: Dilbar (song)

text: The recreated version of the song was released with the title "Dilbar" in Satyameva Jayate under the banner of T-Series on 3 July 2018. It was written by Shabbir Ahmed and Ikka Singh, composed by Tanishk Bagchi, choreographed by Adil Shaikh and Nora Fatehi and sung by Neha Kakkar and Dhvani Bhanushali, with rapping by Ikka Singh. Bagchi made use of the Oud, a fretless Middle-Eastern stringed instrument, along with Arabic drums to re-envision the classic song for the new film.


title: Dilbar (song)

text: The music video of this song features Moroccan-Canadian dancer Nora Fatehi in an item number. The video heavily references Arabic culture, and the actor John Abraham also makes an appearance. In the music video, Nora Fatehi performs belly dancing, an Arabic dance style that was previously featured in a number of popular Bollywood item numbers, performed by actresses such as Helen in "Mehbooba O Mehbooba" from "Sholay" (1975), Zeenat Aman in "Raqqasa Mera Naam" from "The Great Gambler" (1979), Mallika Sherawat in "Mayya Mayya" from "Guru" (2007), and Rani Mukerji in "Aga Bai" from "Aiyyaa" (2012).


title: Dilbar (song)

text: The remake received 20 million views on the first day of its YouTube release. It became the first Indian song to reach number three on the "Billboard" YouTube Music Chart. The "Satyameva Jayate" version of the song has received about 1.2billion views on YouTube, making it one of the most-viewed song on the T-Series YouTube channel.


title: Dilbar (song)

text: Devansh Sharma from Firstpost remarked, "The soul of the new track is Neha Kakkar who brings a sensual-yet-never-raunchy appeal through her vocals. Her range allows her to switch from the meditative stanzas to the uninhibited chorus like a chameleon." Shravan Shah from Missmalini said, "The original one was done so well and is so engraved in our hearts that the reprise version just doesn’t match up to it." Nora's belly dancing has received wide praise, but the song has also received some mixed reactions from fans of the original song.


title: Dilbar (song)

text: "Arabic Dilbar" is the Arabic language version of this song, featuring a mix of three languages (Arabic, Hindi, and French), was released on 30 November 2018 under the banner of T-Series. Nora Fatehi made her debut as a singer in this song, as a collaboration with Moroccan hip hop group . The song was composed by Mohcine Tizaf, with lyrics by Khalifa Mennani and Achraf Aarab, and the performance in the video for the release was choreographed by Caeser Gonsalves.


title: Dilbar (song)

text: Whereas the "Satyameva Jayate" music video heavily referenced Arabic culture, the music video for the Arabic version instead heavily references Indian culture. In contrast to the Arabic belly dancing in the "Satyameva Jayate" video, Nora Fatehi and Fnaire instead perform standard Bollywood dance routines in the Arabic version.


title: Dilbar (song)

text: According to "Zee News", "The song easily crossed 100 million views on YouTube within days of its release and no sooner was the social media flooded with several mashups and dance videos." Srishti Kapoor of Mumbai Mirror said, "Her debut song as a pop artist in the Middle East and North Africa, just like the original, will make one want to dance. What makes it unique though, is the use of Moroccan instruments."


title: Religion in New Zealand

text: Religion in New Zealand encompasses a wide range of groups and beliefs. Almost half (48.6 percent) of New Zealanders stated they had no religion in the 2018 census and 6.7 percent made no declaration. However, Christianity remains the most common religion; 37.3 percent of the population at the 2018 census identified as Christian, with Anglicanism being the largest denomination. Around six percent of the population is affiliated with non-Christian religions. Hinduism is the second-most popular religion, claiming 2.7 percent of the population, and Sikhism is the fastest-growing faith.


title: Religion in New Zealand

text: Before European colonisation the religion of the indigenous Māori population was polytheistic and animistic. The first Christian service in New Zealand waters was conducted by a French priest, Paul-Antoine Léonard de Villefeix, on Christmas Day 1769. The first Christian service on land was led by Rev. Samuel Marsden on Christmas Day 1814. Subsequent efforts of missionaries and the early church resulted in most Māori converting to Christianity. The majority of 19th-century European migrants came from the British Isles, establishing the three dominant British Christian denominations in New Zealand – Anglicanism, Catholicism and Presbyterianism. The tendency for Scottish migrants to settle in Otago and Southland saw Presbyterianism predominate in these regions while Anglicanism predominated elsewhere; the effect of this is still seen in religious affiliation statistics today.


title: Religion in New Zealand

text: The number of people affiliated with Christianity has declined since the 1990s, and those stating that they have no religious affiliation have increased. With increased immigration to New Zealand, especially from Asia, the number of people affiliating with non-Christian religions has largely increased.


title: Religion in New Zealand

text: New Zealand has no state religion or established church and freedom of religion has been protected since the signing of the Treaty of Waitangi. The monarch of New Zealand is, however, required to be Protestant.


title: Religion in New Zealand

text: The first Christian service conducted in New Zealand waters was likely to have been Catholic liturgies celebrated by Father Paul-Antoine Léonard de Villefeix, the Dominican chaplain of the ship "Saint Jean Baptiste" commanded by the French navigator and explorer Jean-François-Marie de Surville. Villefeix was the first Christian clergyman to set foot in New Zealand, and probably said Mass on board the ship near Whatuwhiwhi in Doubtless Bay on Christmas Day 1769. He is reported to have also led prayers for the sick the previous day and to have conducted Christian burials.


title: Religion in New Zealand

text: New Zealand's religious history after the arrival of Europeans saw substantial missionary activity, with Māori generally converting to Christianity voluntarily (compare forced conversions elsewhere in the world). The Anglican Church Missionary Society (CMS) sent missionaries to settle in New Zealand. Samuel Marsden of the Church Missionary Society (chaplain in New South Wales) officiated at its first service on Christmas Day in 1814, at Oihi Bay, a small cove in Rangihoua Bay in the Bay of Islands, at the invitation of chiefs Te Pahi and Ruatara, considered to have been the first preaching of the gospel in New Zealand. The CMS founded its first mission at Rangihoua Bay in the Bay of Islands in 1814 and over the next decade established farms and schools in the area. In June 1823 Wesleydale, the first Wesleyan Methodist mission in New Zealand, was established at Kaeo, near Whangaroa Harbour. Jean Baptiste Pompallier was the first Catholic bishop to come to New Zealand, arriving in 1838. With a number of Marist Brothers, Pompallier organised the Catholic Church throughout the country. George Augustus Selwyn became the first Anglican Bishop of New Zealand in 1841. In 1892 the New Zealand Church Missionary Society (NZCMS) formed in a Nelson church hall and the first New Zealand missionaries were sent overseas soon after.


title: Religion in New Zealand

text: Though in England the Anglican Church was an established state church, by the middle of the 19th century even the Anglicans themselves sometimes doubted this arrangement, while the other major denominations of the new colony (Presbyterians, Methodist and Catholics, for example) obviously preferred that the local situation allowed for all their groups.


title: Religion in New Zealand

text: The first recorded communal Jewish service in New Zealand was held on 7 January 1843 in Wellington, although individual Jews were amongst earlier explorers and settlers.


title: Religion in New Zealand

text: Waves of new immigrants brought their particular (usually Christian) faiths with them. Initial denominational distribution very much reflected the fact that local immigrant communities started small and often came from comparatively small regions in the origin countries in Great Britain. As a result, by the time of the 1921 census, no uniform distribution existed amongst non-Māori Christians, with Presbyterians as the dominant group in Otago and Southland, Anglicans in the Far North, the East Cape and various other areas including Banks Peninsula, while Methodists flourished mainly in Taranaki and the Manawatu. Catholicism meanwhile was the dominant religion on the West Coast with its many mining concerns, and in Central Otago. The Catholic Church, while not particularly dominant in terms of pure numbers, became especially known throughout the country in the early and middle 20th century for its strong stance on education, establishing large numbers of schools.


title: Religion in New Zealand

text: Beginning in the mid-1960s church membership and attendance declined, and in 2013 42% of the population said they had no religion. Immigration since 1991 has led to rapid growth in the number of adherents of religions such as Hinduism, Buddhism and Sikhism, particularly in Auckland.


title: Religion in New Zealand

text: According to a 2019 survey, nearly four in ten New Zealanders lacked trust in evangelical Christians.


title: Religion in New Zealand

text: New Zealand censuses have collected data on religious affiliation since 1851. Statistics New Zealand (the state agency that collects statistics on religion and other demographics) state that:


title: Religion in New Zealand

text: One complication in interpreting religious affiliation data in New Zealand is the large proportion who object to answering the question – roughly 313,000 respondents in 2018. Most reporting of percentages is based on the total number of responses, rather than the total population.


title: Religion in New Zealand

text: In the early 20th century New Zealand census data indicates that the vast majority of New Zealanders affiliated with Christianity. The total percentages in the 1921 non-Māori census were: 45% Anglicans, 19.9% Presbyterians, 13.6% Catholics, 9.5% Methodists and 11.2% Others. Statistics for Māori in particular became available only from 1936, with 35.8% Anglicans, 19.9% Rātana, 13.9% Catholics, 7.2% Ringatū, 7.1% Methodists, 6.5% Latter-day Saints, 1.3% Methodists and 8.3% Others recorded at this census.


title: Religion in New Zealand

text: The table below is based on religious affiliation data recorded at the last four censuses for usually resident people. Figures and percentages may not add to 100 percent as it is possible for people to state more than one religion. The trend indicators are based on the change in percentage of the population, not the number of adherents.


title: Religion in New Zealand

text: The 2018 census had an unusually low (83%) response rate. Statistics New Zealand subsequently calculated the 2018 census statistics based on the combination of 2018 census responses (82.9%), 2013 census responses (8.2%) and imputation (8.8%). The reported results are deemed to be high quality, but are not completely reliable.


title: Religion in New Zealand

text: Christianity – historically the largest religious group – is declining, while stating no religion and affiliation to other (minority) religions is increasing. Statistics New Zealand report that about 80% of the largest non-Christian religious groups are composed of immigrants, almost half of whom have arrived in New Zealand since 2000. The exceptions to this are traditional Māori religion, Judaism (24% immigrant) and Bahá'í (20% immigrant). Mirroring contemporary trends in immigration to New Zealand, immigrant religions increased fastest between the 2006 and 2013 censuses; Sikh by 102% to 19,191, Hindu by 39% to 89,319, Islam by 28% to 46,149, and Buddhist by 11% to 58,404. Hinduism emerged as the second-largest religious group in New Zealand after Christianity in the 2006 census. Of the major ethnic groups in New Zealand, people belonging to European and Māori ethnicities were the most likely to be irreligious, with 46.9 percent and 46.3 percent stating so in the 2013 census. Those belonging to Pacific and Middle Eastern/Latin American/African were least likely to be irreligious at 17.5 percent and 17.0 percent respectively.


title: Religion in New Zealand

text: In 2008 Massey University conducted an International Social Survey Programme survey in New Zealand. Around one thousand New Zealanders above the age of 18 sent mail responses to questions on religious belief and practice. Results indicated that 27% of the population strongly believed in God, 45% believed in God or a higher power at least some of the time or to some extent, 15% were agnostic, and 13% were atheist (with a 3% margin of error).


title: Religion in New Zealand

text: In May 2018, McCrindle published The Faith and Belief in New Zealand Report. The report was commissioned by the Wilberforce Foundation. The results showed that more than half of New Zealanders (55%) do not identify with any main religion, indicating that New Zealand is a largely secular nation. The related infographic showed that, of the 33% who identified with Christianity, 16% were church-goers (attending at least monthly) and 9% were "Active Practisers" (described as "extremely involved").


title: Religion in New Zealand

text: Immigration and settlement trends have led to religious differences between the various regions of New Zealand. The 19th-century settlement of Scottish immigrants in Otago (originally under the auspices of the Free Church of Scotland in 1848) and Southland continues to influence the dominance of Presbyterianism in the south of the South Island. The English mainly settled in the North Island and Upper South Island, hence the dominance of Anglicanism in these areas (especially Canterbury, where the Church of England sponsored the 1850 settlement through the Canterbury Association).


title: Religion in New Zealand

text: Subsequent migration trends have led to clusters of distinct religious practice. Catholics of Polish origin (many connected with the re-settlements from Siberia in 1944) have a presence (for example) in the Wellington region.


title: Religion in New Zealand

text: In the 2013 census, two of New Zealand's sixteen regions had a Christian majority: Southland (51.9 percent) and Hawke's Bay (50.5 percent), and two regions had a non-religious majority: Tasman (51.4 percent) and Nelson (51.0 percent).


title: Religion in New Zealand

text: Encouraged by an informal email campaign, over 53,000 people listed themselves as Jedi in the 2001 census (over 1.5% of responses). If the Jedi response had been accepted as valid it would have been the second-largest religion in New Zealand, behind Christianity. However, Statistics New Zealand treated Jedi responses as "Answer understood, but will not be counted". In the next census, in 2006, the number of reported Jedis decreased to 20,000.


title: Religion in New Zealand

text: After the arrival of large numbers of European immigrants (most of whom were British), Māori enthusiastically adopted Christianity in the early 19th century, and to this day, Christian prayer (karakia) is the expected way to begin and end Māori public gatherings of many kinds. Christianity became the major religion of the country, with the Anglican, Catholic and Presbyterian churches all establishing themselves strongly. The arrival of other groups of immigrants did little to change this, as Pacific Islanders and other primarily Christian ethnic groups dominated immigration until the 1970s.