title: Graf

text: ' (feminine: ') is a historical title of the German nobility, usually translated as "count". Considered to be intermediate among noble ranks, the title is often treated as equivalent to the British title of "earl" (whose female version is "countess").


title: Graf

text: The German nobility was gradually divided into high and low nobility. The high nobility included those counts who ruled immediate imperial territories of "princely size and importance" for which they had a seat and vote in the Imperial Diet.


title: Graf

text: The word derives from , which is usually derived from . is in turn thought to come from the Byzantine title , which ultimately derives from the Greek verb () 'to write'. Other explanations have been put forward, however; Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm, while still noting the potential of a Greek derivation, suggested a connection to , meaning 'decision, decree'. However, the Grimms preferred a solution that allows a connection to 'reeve', in which the "ge-" is a prefix, and which the Grimms derive from Proto-Germanic "" 'number'.


title: Graf

text: The comital title of is common to various European territories where German was or is the official or vernacular tongue, including Austria, Germany, Switzerland, Luxembourg, Liechtenstein, Alsace, the Baltic states and other former Habsburg crown lands. In Germany, all legal privileges of the nobility have been officially abolished since August 1919, and , like any other hereditary title, is treated as part of the legal surname. In Austria, its use is banned by law, as with all hereditary titles and nobiliary particles. In Switzerland, the title is not acknowledged in law. In the monarchies of Belgium, Liechtenstein and Luxembourg, where German is one of the official languages, the title continues to be recognised, used and, occasionally, granted by the national , the reigning monarch.


title: Graf

text: From the Middle Ages, a usually ruled a territory known as a ('county'). In the Holy Roman Empire, many Imperial counts () retained near-sovereign authority in their lands until the Congress of Vienna subordinated them to larger, neighboring monarchs through the German mediatisation process of 1815, preserving their precedence, allocating familial representation in local legislatures, some jurisdictional immunities and the prestigious privilege of . In regions of Europe where nobles did not actually exercise over the populace, the long retained specific feudal privileges over the land and in the villages in his county, such as rights to peasant service, to periodic fees for use of common infrastructure such as timber, mills, wells and pastures.


title: Graf

text: These rights gradually eroded and were largely eliminated before or during the 19th century, leaving the with few legal privileges beyond land ownership, although comital estates in German-speaking lands were often substantial. Nonetheless, various rulers in German-speaking lands granted the hereditary title of to their subjects, particularly after the abolition of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806. Although lacking the prestige and powers of the former Imperial counts, they remained legal members of the local nobility, entitled to whatever minor privileges were recognised at the ruler's court. The title, translated as "count", was generally accepted and used in other countries by custom.


title: Graf

text: Many Continental counts in Germany and Austria were titled without any additional qualification. Except in the Kingdom of Prussia from the 19th century, the title of was not restricted by primogeniture: it was inherited by all legitimate descendants in the male line of the original titleholder, the males also inheriting an approximately equal share of the family's wealth and estates. Usually a hyphenated suffix indicated which of the familial lands a particular line of counts held, e.g. .


title: Graf

text: In the medieval Holy Roman Empire, some counts took or were granted unique variations of the title, often relating to a specific domain or jurisdiction of responsibility, e.g. , , (Count Palatine), , , , , , etc. Although as a title ranked, officially, below those of (duke) and (prince), the Holy Roman Emperor could and did recognise unique concessions of authority or rank to some of these nobles, raising them to the status of or "princely count". But a title with such a prefix did not always signify a higher than comital rank or membership in the . Only the more important of these titles, historically associated with degrees of sovereignty, remained in use by the 19th century, specifically and .


title: Graf

text: Some are approximately of comital rank, some higher, some lower. The more important ones are treated in separate articles (follow the links); a few minor, rarer ones only in sections below.


title: Graf

text: A was a nobleman whose title of "count" was conferred or confirmed by the Holy Roman Emperor, and meant "Imperial Count", i.e., a count of the Holy Roman Empire. Since the feudal era, any count whose territory lay within the Empire and was under the immediate jurisdiction of the Emperor with a shared vote in the came to be considered a member of the "upper nobility" () in Germany, along with princes (), dukes (), electors, and the emperor himself. A count who was not a was likely to possess only a mesne fief () — he was subject to an immediate prince of the empire, such as a duke or prince elector.


title: Graf

text: However, the Holy Roman Emperors also occasionally granted the title of to subjects and foreigners who did not possess and were not granted immediate territories — or, sometimes, any territory at all. Such titles were purely honorific.


title: Graf

text: In English, is usually translated simply as "count" and is combined with a territorial suffix (e.g., Count of Holland, Count Reuss) or a surname (Count Fugger, Count von Browne). Even after the abolition of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806, the retained precedence above other counts in Germany. Those who had been quasi-sovereign until German mediatisation retained, until 1918, status and privileges pertaining to members of reigning dynasties.


title: Graf

text: A complete list of with immediate territories as of 1792 can be found in the List of Reichstag participants (1792).


title: Graf

text: A or "Margrave" was originally a military governor of a Carolingian "mark" (march), a border province. In medieval times the borders of the Holy Roman Empire were especially vulnerable to foreign attack, so the hereditary count of these "marches" of the realm was sometimes granted greater authority than other vassals to ensure security. They bore the title "margrave" until the few who survived as sovereigns assumed higher titles when the Empire was abolished in 1806.


title: Graf

text: Examples: Margrave of Baden, Margrave of. Since the abolition of the German Empire at the end of World War I, the heirs of some of its former monarchies have resumed use of "margrave" as a title of pretence, e.g. , Margrave of and Maximilian, Margrave of Baden.


title: Graf

text: A or "Landgrave" was a nobleman of comital rank in feudal Germany whose jurisdiction stretched over a territory larger than usually held by a count within the Holy Roman Empire. The status of a landgrave was elevated, usually being associated with suzerains who were subject to the Holy Roman Emperor but exercised sovereign authority within their lands and independence greater than the prerogatives to which a simple was entitled, but the title itself implied no specific, legal privileges.


title: Graf

text: Examples: Landgrave of Thuringia, Landgrave of Hesse, Landgrave of , Landgrave of . The title is now borne by the hereditary heirs to the deposed monarchs of Hesse (Donatus, Landgrave of Hesse and Wilhelm, Landgrave of Hesse-Philippsthal-Barchfeld), who lost their throne in 1918.


title: Graf

text: A () is a who was recognised by the Holy Roman Emperor as bearing the higher rank or exercising the more extensive authority of an Imperial prince (). While nominally retaining only a comital title, he was accorded princely rank and, usually, arms by the Emperor.


title: Graf

text: A , or "Burgrave", was a 12th- and 13th-century military and civil judicial governor of a castle (compare castellan, , keeper) of the town it dominated and of its immediate surrounding countryside. His jurisdiction was a , burgraviate.


title: Graf

text: Over time the office and domain to which it was attached tended to become hereditary by Imperial grant or retention over generations by members of the same family.


title: Graf

text: Initially "burgrave" suggested a similar function and history as other titles rendered in German by , in Dutch as or in English as "Viscount" (); the deputy of a count charged with exercising the count's prerogatives in overseeing one or more of the count's strongholds or fiefs, as the burgrave dwelt usually in a castle or fortified town. Some became hereditary and by the modern era obtained rank just below a count, though above a ' (baron) who might hold a fief as vassal of the original count.


title: Graf

text: Unlike the other comital titles, Rhinegrave, Wildgrave (Waldgrave), Raugrave, and Altgrave are not generic titles. Rather, each is linked to a specific countship, whose unique title emerged during the course of its history. These unusually named countships were equivalent in rank to other Counts of the Empire who were of status, being entitled to a shared seat and vote in the Imperial Diet and possessing Imperial immediacy, most of which would be mediatised upon dissolution of the Empire in 1806.


title: Graf

text: The corresponding titles in Scandinavia are (m.) and (f.) and would commonly be used in the third-person in direct address as a mark of courtesy, as in .


title: Graf

text: German nobility, although not abolished (unlike the Austrian nobility by the new First Austrian Republic in 1919), lost recognition as a legal class in Germany under the Weimar Republic in 1919 under the Weimar Constitution, article 109. Former hereditary noble titles legally simply transformed into dependent parts of the legal surname (with the former title thus now following the given name, e.g. ). As dependent parts of the surnames (), they are ignored in alphabetical sorting of names, as is any nobiliary particle, such as or , and might or might not be used by those bearing them. The distinguishing main surname is the name following the , or , and the nobiliary particle if any. Today, having lost their legal status, these terms are often not translated, unlike before 1919. The titles do, however, retain prestige in some circles of society.


title: Graf

text: The suffix occurs in various office titles which did not attain nobiliary status but were either held as a sinecure by nobleman or courtiers, or functional officials such as the (in a polder management organization).


title: Melinda Messenger

text: Melinda Jane Messenger (born 23 February 1971) is an English television presenter and former glamour model and Page Three girl. She presented the magazine programme "Live from Studio Five" and was formerly the co-presenter of the reality show "Cowboy Builders".


title: Melinda Messenger

text: Messenger was born in Swindon, Wiltshire. After attending different schools, one of which was Dorcan Technology College, she spent six months working as a flight attendant for Britannia Airways. She then joined a local marketing company and rose to become customer services manager, overseeing a staff of 50 employees.


title: Melinda Messenger

text: Messenger decided to become a model, and was advised by the Jason Paul Modelling Agency to enhance her breasts, which she enlarged from a 34C to a 34DD cup. She then took a job modelling for a Gloucester-based double glazing company, Glevum, dressed only in lingerie. As part of an advertising campaign called "Class Behind Glass", the posters quickly began disappearing from bus stops, having been taken by locals. After a complaint at the lack of clothes on Messenger, the Advertising Standards Authority banned the campaign, claiming they were not sufficiently "classy".


title: Melinda Messenger

text: After local newspapers reported on this, the "Daily Star" ran the story on 28 January 1997 as a photo-shoot of Messenger, under the headline "Move Over Eva Herzigova". In 1997 she won Rear of the Year.


title: Melinda Messenger

text: Signed by modelling agent Yvonne Paul, who had steered Samantha Fox to fame in the 1980s, Messenger's career accelerated. She posed for designers including Vivienne Westwood, then appeared on "The Sun" newspaper's Page Three; the publication later hailed her as the "Girl of the Thrillenium!". Her work for the newspaper entailed visiting the Spanish coasts and English seaside resorts, an assignment known as "Mel's Big Bus Tour". She continued working for "The Sun" until readers voted to ban models with breast implants.


title: Melinda Messenger

text: Messenger appeared in a cameo role in 1999's "Virtual Sexuality" as Superbra Girl, and costarred in the 2000 cult film "The Mumbo Jumbo" in the role of Princess Vanilla. She worked on Channel 4 cult show "Eurotrash" and became a popular pantomime actress, taking on roles such as "Cinderella" (2004–2005) and "Aladdin" (with Bobby Davro and John Rhys-Davies; Woking – 2005–2006).


title: Melinda Messenger

text: Following the birth of her first child on 7 April 2000, by emergency caesarian section after she collapsed with pre-eclampsia, Messenger concentrated on developing her career as a television presenter.


title: Melinda Messenger

text: Messenger released her "Back into Shape Workout" DVD, which was a six-week fitness programme designed to help new mothers recover their fitness. She appeared on "Noel Edmonds – Gotcha!" in which she was one of the subjects to receive the treatment from Noel and his team.


title: Melinda Messenger

text: Messenger had her own issue of "At Home With..." magazine called "At Home With Melinda Messenger", which was aimed at parents. She joined with chef Antony Worrall Thompson in May 2008 and contributed some recipes for the cookbook "The Sweet Life".


title: Melinda Messenger

text: Messenger's TV career began in 1997 on Channel 4's "Eurotrash", where she featured as a "roving reporter" in erotic scenarios, including modelling fetish wear and acting as a nude magician's assistant.


title: Melinda Messenger

text: From 1998 to 2001, Messenger became an assistant on game show "Fort Boyard" which ran for four series on Channel 5. She joined ex-Eastender Leslie Grantham and "Catweazle" star Geoffrey Bayldon in the game show which tested contestants' physical agility and brainpower on the sea fortress in France.


title: Melinda Messenger

text: In 2002, she appeared on "Celebrity Big Brother". She has since presented many TV programmes, including "Loose Lips" (with Richard Arnold), "Baby Baby", "Can We Still Be Friends", "Beat The Dealer" and "Beat the Crusher".


title: Melinda Messenger

text: In 2004, she appeared on the "Age Swap" episode of "Celebrity Swap" as 83-year-old Margaret Doyle, supposedly Melinda's old ballet teacher, disguised with prosthetic make-up, a black lycra suit, a red-white wig and fake teeth.


title: Melinda Messenger

text: In 2008, Messenger presented as host on programmes including the BBC's "To Buy or Not to Buy", ITV's "Bingo Night Live", and "A Garden For Eden" for ITV Westcountry.


title: Melinda Messenger

text: Messenger's show "Cowboy Builders" started on Five on 8 January 2009, co-presented with Dominic Littlewood. Alongside this, Melinda was a contestant in the fourth series of "Dancing on Ice", which began on 11 January 2009. She was eliminated in the seventh week after losing a surprise skate-off against Jessica Taylor. She had survived three previous skate-offs.


title: Melinda Messenger

text: In 2009, Messenger, along with ex-footballer Ian Wright and "The Apprentice" runner-up Kate Walsh began presenting a new show on Five called "Live from Studio Five". The show ran continuously from September 2009 and until it was cancelled in February 2011. In November 2009, she appeared on the BBC charity telethon Children in Need, where she acted as the assistant to an illusionist act.


title: Melinda Messenger

text: It was announced on 29 January 2010 that Messenger was leaving her role on "Live from Studio Five", to focus on other projects. Her last show was on 26 February and she was replaced by a series of guest hosts.


title: Melinda Messenger

text: In December 2022, she appeared in an episode of Celebrity Antiques Road Trip (Series 11 Episode 13) with Dominic Littlewood.


title: Melinda Messenger

text: After quitting regular television work, Messenger undertook training in psychotherapy and has practised since 2015.


title: Melinda Messenger

text: Having dated since they met at his local Swansea nightclub, Messenger married Wayne Roberts in Bali, Indonesia, on 26 November 1998. The couple have three children. Though Messenger expressed a desire for a large family, she decided not to have more children because she had suffered from post-natal depression after the birth of her second and third children. In 2003, Messenger won Quality Street "Celebrity Mum of the Year". Roberts runs an electronics company based in Swindon, of which Messenger is a director. The couple separated in 2008 and again in 2012.


title: Melinda Messenger

text: On 22 January 2009, Messenger was made an ambassador to Barnardo's by its president, Camilla, Duchess of Cornwall.


title: Crataegus monogyna

text: Crataegus monogyna, known as common hawthorn, one-seed hawthorn, or single-seeded hawthorn, is a species of flowering plant in the rose family Rosaceae. It is native to Europe, northwestern Africa, and West Asia, but has been introduced in many other parts of the world.


title: Crataegus monogyna

text: This species is one of several that have been referred to as "Crataegus oxyacantha", a name that has been rejected by the botanical community as too ambiguous. In 1793, Medikus published the name "C. apiifolia" for a European hawthorn now included in "C. monogyna," but that name is illegitimate under the rules of botanical nomenclature.


title: Crataegus monogyna

text: Other common names include may, mayblossom, maythorn, (as the plant generally flowers in May in the English-speaking parts of Europe) quickthorn, whitethorn, motherdie, and haw.


title: Crataegus monogyna

text: The common hawthorn is a shrub or small tree up to about tall, with a dense crown. The bark is dull brown with vertical orange cracks. The younger stems bear sharp thorns, about long. The leaves are long, obovate, and deeply lobed, sometimes almost to the midrib, with the lobes spreading at a wide angle. The upper surface is dark green above and paler underneath.


title: Crataegus monogyna

text: The hermaphrodite flowers are produced in late spring (May to early June in its native area) in corymbs of 5–25 together; each flower is about 10 mm in diameter and has five white petals, numerous red stamens and a single style; they are moderately fragrant. The flowers are pollinated by midges, bees, and other insects, and later in the year bear numerous haws. The haw is a small, oval, dark red fruit about 10 mm long, berry-like, but structurally a pome containing a single seed. Haws are important for wildlife in winter, particularly thrushes and waxwings; these birds eat the haws and disperse the seeds in their droppings.


title: Crataegus monogyna

text: The common hawthorn is distinguished from the related but less widespread Midland hawthorn ("C. laevigata") by its more upright growth, the leaves being deeply lobed, with spreading lobes, and in the flowers having just one style, not two or three. They are interfertile, however, so hybrids occur frequently; they are only entirely distinct in their more typical forms.


title: Crataegus monogyna

text: The fruit of hawthorn, called haws, are edible raw, but are commonly made into jellies, jams, syrups, or wine, or to add flavour to brandy. Botanically, they are pomes, but they look similar to berries. A haw is small and oblong, similar in size and shape to a small olive or grape, and red when ripe. The haws develop in groups of two or three along smaller branches. They are pulpy and delicate in taste. In this species ("C. monogyna"), they have only one seed, but other species of hawthorn may have up to five seeds.


title: Crataegus monogyna

text: The petals are also edible, as are the leaves, which if picked in spring when still young are tender enough to be used in salads. Hawthorn petals are used in the medieval English recipe for spinee, an almond milk-based pottage recorded in 'The Forme of Cury' by the Chief Master-Cook of King Richard II, .


title: Crataegus monogyna

text: "C. monogyna" is one of the most common species used as the "hawthorn" of traditional herbalism. The plant parts used are usually sprigs with both leaves and flowers, or alternatively the fruit ("berries"). Hawthorn has been investigated by evidence-based medicine for treating cardiac insufficiency.


title: Crataegus monogyna

text: "C. monogyna" is a source of antioxidant phytochemicals, especially extracts of hawthorn leaves with flowers.


title: Crataegus monogyna

text: Common hawthorn is extensively planted as a hedge plant, especially for agricultural use. Its spines and close branching habit render it effectively livestock- and human-proof, with some basic maintenance. The traditional practice of hedge laying is most commonly practised with this species. It is a good fire wood, which burns with a good heat and little smoke.


title: Crataegus monogyna

text: Numerous hybrids exist, some of which are used as garden shrubs. The most widely used hybrid is "C. × media" ("C. monogyna" × "C. laevigata"), of which several cultivars are known, including the very popular 'Paul's Scarlet' with dark pink double flowers. Other garden shrubs that have sometimes been suggested as possible hybrids involving the common hawthorn, include the various-leaved hawthorn of the Caucasus, which is only very occasionally found in parks and gardens.


title: Crataegus monogyna

text: In pre-modern Europe, hawthorn was used as a symbol of hope, and also as a charm against witchcraft and vampires. Hawthorn was believed by some to have the ability to inhibit intruding supernatural forces, and was also thought to be sacred in nature due to an association between the hawthorn bush and the crown of thorns that, according to the New Testament, was placed on Jesus.


title: Crataegus monogyna

text: As protection against witchcraft, hawthorn was sometimes placed in the cradles of infants, or around houses and doorways. The Greeks reportedly placed pieces of hawthorn in casement windows to prevent witches from entering houses, while Bohemians placed hawthorn on the thresholds of cow houses for the same purpose. Hawthorn was sometimes placed on the coffin of a deceased person, on top of the person's corpse, or in the corpse's sock. In Bosnia, women would sometimes place a piece of hawthorn behind the headcloth of a recently deceased person, and then throw away the remaining twig on their way home. If the deceased person was a vampire, it would focus its attention on the hawthorn instead of following the woman home. Among the South Slavs, stakes made of hawthorn or blackthorn wood were considered effective in impaling vampires.


title: Crataegus monogyna

text: An ancient specimen, and reputedly the oldest tree of any species in France, is to be found alongside the church at Saint Mars sur la Futaie, Mayenne. As of 2009, the tree had a height of and a girth of . The inscription on the plaque beneath reads: "This hawthorn is probably the oldest tree in France. Its origin goes back to St Julien (third century)"; such claims are impossible to verify.


title: Crataegus monogyna

text: A famous specimen in England was the Glastonbury or Holy Thorn which, according to legend, sprouted from the staff of Joseph of Arimathea after he thrust it into the ground while visiting Glastonbury in the first century AD. The tree was noteworthy because it flowered twice in a year, once in the late spring which is normal, but also once after the harshness of midwinter had passed. The original tree at Glastonbury Abbey, felled in the 1640s during the English Civil War, has been propagated as the cultivar 'Biflora'. A replacement was planted by the local council in 1951, but was cut down by vandals in 2010.


title: Crataegus monogyna

text: The oldest known living specimen in East Anglia, and possibly in the United Kingdom, is known as the Hethel Old Thorn, and is located in the churchyard in the small village of Hethel, south of Norwich, in Norfolk, UK. It is reputed to be more than 700 years old, having been planted in the 13th century.


title: Pit of despair

text: The pit of despair was a name used by American comparative psychologist Harry Harlow for a device he designed, technically called a vertical chamber apparatus, that he used in experiments on rhesus macaque monkeys at the University of Wisconsin–Madison in the 1970s. The aim of the research was to produce an animal model of depression. Researcher Stephen Suomi described the device as "little more than a stainless-steel trough with sides that sloped to a rounded bottom":


title: Pit of despair

text: A  in. wire mesh floor 1 in. above the bottom of the chamber allowed waste material to drop through the drain and out of holes drilled in the stainless-steel. The chamber was equipped with a food box and a water-bottle holder, and was covered with a pyramid top [removed in the accompanying photograph], designed to discourage incarcerated subjects from hanging from the upper part of the chamber.<ref name="Suomi1971/33">Suomi 1971, p. 33.</ref>


title: Pit of despair

text: Harlow had already placed newly born monkeys in isolation chambers for up to one year. With the "pit of despair", he placed monkeys between three months and three years old who had already bonded with their mothers in the chamber alone for up to ten weeks. Within a few days, they had stopped moving about and remained huddled in a corner.


title: Pit of despair

text: Much of Harlow's scientific career was spent studying maternal bonding, what he described as the "nature of love". These experiments involved rearing newborn "total isolates" and monkeys with surrogate mothers, ranging from toweling-covered cones to a machine that modeled abusive mothers by assaulting the baby monkeys with cold air or spikes.


title: Pit of despair

text: In 1971, Harlow's wife died of cancer and he began to suffer from depression. He was treated and returned to work but, as Lauren Slater writes, his colleagues noticed a difference in his demeanor. He abandoned his research into maternal attachment and developed an interest in isolation and depression.


title: Pit of despair

text: Harlow's first experiments involved isolating a monkey in a cage surrounded by steel walls with a small one-way mirror, so the experimenters could look in, but the monkey could not look out. The only connection the monkey had with the world was when the experimenters' hands changed his bedding or delivered fresh water and food. Baby monkeys were placed in these boxes soon after birth; four were left for 30 days, four for six months, and four for a year. After 30 days, the "total isolates", as they were called, were found to be "enormously disturbed". After being isolated for a year, they barely moved, did not explore or play, and were incapable of having sexual relations. When placed with other monkeys for a daily play session, they were badly bullied. Two of them refused to eat and starved themselves to death.<ref name="Blum2002/216">Blum 2002, p. 216.</ref>


title: Pit of despair

text: Harlow also wanted to test how isolation would affect parenting skills, but the isolates were unable to mate. Artificial insemination had not then been developed; instead, Harlow devised what he called a "rape rack", to which the female isolates were tied in normal monkey mating posture. He found that, just as they were incapable of having sexual relations, they were also unable to parent their offspring, either abusing or neglecting them. "Not even in our most devious dreams could we have designed a surrogate as evil as these real monkey mothers were", he wrote.<ref name="Blum2002/217">Blum 2002, p. 217.</ref> Having no social experience themselves, they were incapable of appropriate social interaction. One mother held her baby's face to the floor and chewed off his feet and fingers. Another crushed her baby's head. Most of them simply ignored their offspring.


title: Pit of despair

text: These experiments showed Harlow what total and partial isolation did to developing monkeys, but he felt he had not captured the essence of depression, which he believed was characterized by feelings of loneliness, helplessness, and a sense of being trapped, or being "sunk in a well of despair", he said.


title: Pit of despair

text: The technical name for the new depression chamber was "vertical chamber apparatus", though Harlow himself insisted on calling it the "pit of despair". He had at first wanted to call it the "dungeon of despair", and also used terms like "well of despair", and "well of loneliness". Blum writes that his colleagues tried to persuade him not to use such descriptive terms, that a less visual name would be easier, politically speaking. Gene Sackett of the University of Washington in Seattle, one of Harlow's doctoral students who went on to conduct additional deprivation studies, said, "He first wanted to call it a dungeon of despair. Can you imagine the reaction to that?".


title: Pit of despair

text: Most of the monkeys placed inside it were at least three months old and had already bonded with others. The point of the experiment was to break those bonds in order to create the symptoms of depression. The chamber was a small, inverted metal pyramid, with slippery sides slanting down to a point. The monkey was placed in the point. The opening was covered with mesh. The monkeys would spend the first day or two trying to climb up the slippery sides. After a few days, they gave up. Harlow wrote, "most subjects typically assume a hunched position in a corner of the bottom of the apparatus. One might presume at this point that they find their situation to be hopeless."<ref name="Blum1994/218">Blum 1994, p. 218.</ref> Stephen J. Suomi, another of Harlow's doctoral students, placed some monkeys in the chamber in 1970 for his PhD. He wrote that he could find no monkey who had any defense against it. Even the happiest monkeys came out damaged.


title: Pit of despair

text: The experiments were condemned, both at the time and later, from within the scientific community and elsewhere in academia. In 1974, American literary critic Wayne C. Booth wrote that "Harry Harlow and his colleagues go on torturing their nonhuman primates decade after decade, invariably proving what we all knew in advance—that social creatures can be destroyed by destroying their social ties." He writes that Harlow made no mention of the criticism of the morality of his work.


title: Pit of despair

text: Charles Snowdon, a junior member of the faculty at the time, who became head of psychology at Wisconsin, said that Harlow had himself been very depressed by his wife's cancer. Snowdon was appalled by the design of the vertical chambers. He asked Suomi why they were using them, and Harlow replied, "Because that's how it feels when you're depressed." Leonard Rosenblum, who studied under Harlow, told Lauren Slater that Harlow enjoyed using shocking terms for his apparatus because "he always wanted to get a rise out of people".


title: Pit of despair

text: Another of Harlow's students, William Mason, who also conducted deprivation experiments elsewhere, said that Harlow "kept this going to the point where it was clear to many people that the work was really violating ordinary sensibilities, that anybody with respect for life or people would find this offensive. It's as if he sat down and said, 'I'm only going to be around another ten years. What I'd like to do, then, is leave a great big mess behind.' If that was his aim, he did a perfect job."<ref name="Blum1994/96">Blum 1994, p. 96.</ref>


title: Rooster Cogburn (film)

text: Rooster Cogburn is a 1975 American Western film directed by Stuart Millar and starring John Wayne and Katharine Hepburn. Written by Martha Hyer (who is credited as Martin Julien) based on the character Rooster Cogburn from Charles Portis' 1968 Western novel "True Grit", the film is a sequel to the 1969 film "True Grit", which also starred Wayne as Cogburn. The plot details the continuing adventures of Reuben J. "Rooster" Cogburn, an aging one-eyed lawman, whose badge is suspended due his record of routine arrests that end in bloodshed. He is offered a chance to redeem himself by bringing in a group of bank robbers who have hijacked a wagon shipment of nitroglycerin, and finds himself aided in his quest by a spinster whose father was killed by the criminals.


title: Rooster Cogburn (film)

text: In Fort Smith, Arkansas, in the late 19th century, aging one-eyed U.S. Marshal Rooster Cogburn is stripped of his badge by Judge Parker due to his drunkenness and questionable use of firearms. When a shipment of highly explosive nitroglycerin is stolen from a transporting troop of United States Army cavalry by the ruthless bank robber Hawk and his gang of nine other outlaws, Cogburn is given a chance to redeem himself. Alone, he enters the Indian Territory and tracks the bandits, who include Cogburn's former scout Breed, to the remote settlement of Fort Ruby, which is now a Christian mission. He comes upon the village the day after it has been overrun by the gang, who killed the elderly Reverend George Goodnight and a number of the local Indians. The only surviving inhabitants that have not fled are the Reverend's spinster daughter, Miss Eula Goodnight, and one of her Native students, a teenage boy named Wolf, whose family died in the attack. Cogburn tries to leave the pair at a nearby trading post, but they insist on coming with him to capture the bandits.


title: Rooster Cogburn (film)

text: Because the nitro has to be transported slowly so it does not explode, Hawk goes ahead with Breed and an injured man to prepare for the bank robbery. Cogburn, Eula, and Wolf overtake the rest of the gang and barricade the path through a gully with logs. When the bandits stop, Cogburn says he is the leader of a posse and threatens to blow up the nitro unless the criminals let him arrest them. One outlaw sneaks away and attempts to shoot Cogburn in the back, but Eula, proving herself an excellent sharpshooter, kills the man from across the gully. Cogburn shoots another man and Eula and Wolf make a lot of noise by firing into the air, and the outlaws flee, leaving behind the wagon with the nitro, which also has a Gatling gun on board. They meet up with Hawk and take him back to the site of the ambush, where Breed determines that Cogburn lied about leading a large posse.


title: Rooster Cogburn (film)

text: The gang sets out in pursuit of the nitro and catches up with Cogburn's party that night. They kidnap Wolf, who has fallen asleep on his watch, and offer to exchange him for the explosives. Wolf shoots the man holding him and makes it back to Cogburn and Eula, and the trio is able to escape with the wagon after Cogburn has Wolf scatter the outlaws' horses.


title: Rooster Cogburn (film)

text: Coming upon a river, Cogburn commandeers a raft from an old ferryboat man named Shanghai McCoy, stashes the nitro and Gatling gun on board, and heads downstream, hoping to drop off Eula and Wolf somewhere safe before his final confrontation with Hawk. Breed and Luke, one of Hawk's men, are tasked with trailing the raft while the other members of the gang wait at a strategic narrows. Luke suggests he and Breed double-cross Hawk by taking the raft themselves, but just as Luke is about to shoot Cogburn, Breed kills Luke, saying that, as Cogburn had once saved his life, they are now even. Breed warns Cogburn about Hawk's plan and then rejoins the gang, but Hawk does not believe him when he says Luke was killed in a shootout with Cogburn and knocks Breed off a cliff to his death.


title: Rooster Cogburn (film)

text: Cogburn is able to hold the remaining members of Hawk's gang at bay with the Gatling gun, but just past the narrows are some rapids. Cogburn, Eula, and Wolf make it through safely, though the Gatling gun is lost. When they hear the gang's horses up ahead, the trio dumps several boxes of nitro overboard to float ahead of the raft. Eula and Wolf delay Hawk by saying Cogburn is injured and pretending to surrender, and Cogburn shoots the floating boxes, blowing up the last four outlaws.


title: Rooster Cogburn (film)

text: Back in Fort Smith, Eula convinces Judge Parker to reinstate Cogburn, even though he had stipulated Hawks be brought back alive. She and Wolf find some families to resettle Fort Ruby and part ways with Cogburn. The new friends hope their paths cross again someday.


title: Rooster Cogburn (film)

text: "Rooster Cogburn", which was promoted as "Rooster Cogburn (...and the Lady)" (the opening credits feature the simpler title), was the final film produced by Hal B. Wallis. While "True Grit" had been released by Paramount Pictures, Wallis made a deal with Universal Pictures to finance this film. The screenplay was written by actress Martha Hyer, who was Wallis' wife at the time, under the pen name Martin Julien. Although Stuart Millar was a longtime Hollywood producer, he had directed only one film, "When the Legends Die" (1972) (based on the 1963 novel of the same name by Hal Borland), prior to helming "Rooster Cogburn".


title: Rooster Cogburn (film)

text: The film was shot in Oregon in autumn 1974. The mountain scenes were filmed in Deschutes County west of Bend, the whitewater rapids were filmed on the Deschutes River, and the river scenes were filmed on the Rogue River in the counties of Josephine and Curry, west of Grants Pass. Smith Rock State Park, northeast of Redmond in Deschutes County, was also used as a location for the film, and the Rockhard/Smith Rock Climbing Guides building at the park's entrance was originally built as the set for Kate's Saloon.


title: Rooster Cogburn (film)

text: John Wayne and Katharine Hepburn were both born in May 1907 (Hepburn the elder by two weeks), and their careers paralleled each other, yet this marked the only time the Hollywood veterans appeared together in a film. During filming, both 67-year-old stars stayed in Sunriver, and Governor Tom McCall flew in for a brief visit with them in early October.


title: Rooster Cogburn (film)

text: Noted character actor Strother Martin portrays Shanghai McCoy in the film; he had appeared in "True Grit" as a different character (horse trader Colonel G. Stonehill).


title: Rooster Cogburn (film)

text: In his review in "The New York Times", Vincent Canby called the film "a high-class example of the low Hollywood art of recycling" and praised the performances by the two leads—Wayne for his continuation of his Oscar-winning role as Cogburn, and Hepburn for a performance that recalls her "marvelous characterization opposite Humphrey Bogart in "The African Queen"". Canby concluded that the film is "a cheerful, throwaway Western, featuring two stars of the grand tradition who respond to each other with verve that makes the years disappear."


title: Rooster Cogburn (film)

text: Roger Ebert gave the film one star out of four, and wrote: "the chemistry's there at times. But when it does work, it's largely because of the sheer acting craft of [Wayne and Hepburn]. The dialog they're given is so consciously arch, so filled with subtle little recognitions of who the two actors are, that we never care about the story and it never gets told. And without a narrative to help us along, we finally have to wonder why the movie was made."


title: Rooster Cogburn (film)

text: Gene Siskel of the "Chicago Tribune" gave the film two out of four stars and wrote: "It's a stupid story riddled with plot-holes. All that it cares about is providing Hepburn and Wayne with a half-dozen 'big scenes' together ... What few pleasures are contained in 'Rooster Cogburn' occur when Hepburn and Wayne simply and silently look at each other with affection. We sense they like each other from the beginning, so their put-down material comes across as phony theatricality."


title: Rooster Cogburn (film)

text: Arthur D. Murphy of "Variety" wrote that the film had "an embarrassingly prefab script, along with much forced and strident acting, all badly coordinated by the numb and ragged direction of Stuart Miller."


title: Rooster Cogburn (film)

text: Charles Champlin of the "Los Angeles Times" called the film a "slow and rattletrap" star vehicle for Wayne and Hepburn, whose pairing was "not so much a relationship as a very good-natured contest in scene larceny. Despite some of the most tongue-numbing dialogue in a long while, Hepburn wins every time with her sweetly devastating underplaying."


title: Rooster Cogburn (film)

text: Gary Arnold of "The Washington Post" called it "a patchwork conception that might have worked if the script had been considerably more ingenious and the direction considerably more adroit ... Screenwriter Martin Julien hasn't discovered how to develop a relationship between hero and heroine that runs on the same track with the chase story, and Stuart Millar's direction is as heavy as lead and slow as molasses."


title: Rooster Cogburn (film)

text: On Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds a 50% approval rating based on reviews from ten critics, with an average rating of 4.80 out of 10.


title: Rooster Cogburn (film)

text: The film grossed $17,594,566 at the box office, earning $4.5 million in North American rentals. Although far less popular than "True Grit", it was the 25th-highest grossing film of 1975.


title: Lil Twist

text: Christopher Lynn Moore (born January 11, 1993), better known by his stage name Lil Twist, is an American rapper from Dallas, Texas. He is signed to Lil Wayne's Young Money Entertainment.


title: Lil Twist

text: When he was 12 years old, Lil Twist went to a Lil Wayne concert in Tyler, Texas and opened for Lil Wayne. Impressed, Cortez and Wayne flew Lil Twist to Atlanta to see how he was in a recording studio.


title: Lil Twist

text: He released his first single, "The Texas Twist", when he was 10 years old, which was #1 locally in Dallas for 6 straight weeks.


title: Lil Twist

text: He released mixtapes such as "The Golden Child", and a single, "Love Affair" to build anticipation for his planned but never released album, "Bad Decisions".


title: Lil Twist

text: He was featured in "XXL" hip hop magazine's "2011 Freshman Class". Since then, he has been featured as a guest artist on recordings by Bieber in "Twerk", "Wind It" and others, 2 Chainz in "Do What I Want" and with Miley Cyrus. His 2012 mixtape "3 Weeks in Miami" is a collaboration with Khalil.


title: Lil Twist

text: Lil Twist has made guest appearances on Disney Channel's animated series "Fish Hooks" as the voice of Brandon Bubbler.


title: Lil Twist

text: On July 11, 2013, Lil Twist was arrested for DUI in Calabasas, California. He was driving Justin Bieber's Fisker Karma and was alleged to be going between 60 and 70 mph in a 30 mph zone.


title: Lil Twist

text: Lil Twist was arrested and charged with making criminal threats, burglary, grand theft, battery and 2 counts of assault with a deadly weapon in March 2015. This was after Twist and four others assaulted Disney actor Kyle Massey and Massey's brother, Christopher Massey. On December 1, 2016, Lil Twist pleaded no contest to six charges and received a one-year sentence. He was released from prison in March 2017 after serving seven and one-half weeks of his sentence.


title: Mineola, New York

text: Mineola is a village in and the county seat of Nassau County, on Long Island, in New York, United States. The population was 18,799 at the 2010 census. The name is derived from an Algonquin Chief, Miniolagamika, which means "pleasant village".


title: Mineola, New York

text: The Incorporated Village of Mineola is located primarily in the Town of North Hempstead, with the exception being a small portion of its southern edge within the Town of Hempstead. Old Country Road runs along the village's southern border. The area serviced by the Mineola Post Office extends farther south into the adjacent village of Garden City, where the Old Nassau County Courthouse is located. Offices of many Nassau County agencies are in both Mineola and Garden City.


title: Mineola, New York

text: The central, flat, grassy part of Long Island was originally known as the Hempstead Plains. In the 19th century, various communities were started in this area. One of those communities was called "Hempstead Branch," which would ultimately be known as "Mineola" later on.


title: Mineola, New York

text: Long Island was part of Henry Hudson's original claim in the name of the Dutch East India Company dating as far back as 1609. In the 18th century, the Dutch and English settlers worked to clear farmland to start their life on the Hempstead Plains. It was in 1858 when this land was named after an Algonquin Indian Chief, Miniolagamika meaning, "Pleasant Village". The name was later shortened and altered to "Mineola".


title: Mineola, New York

text: From about 1787 until the 1870s, the area was the county seat for Queens County, in a section then known as Clowesville, just outside the present village boundaries. The western portion of Queens became a borough of New York City in 1898, and in 1899 Nassau County was formed from the part of Queens that did not so consolidate.


title: Mineola, New York

text: Voters selected Mineola (in the Town of North Hempstead) to be the county seat for the new county of Nassau in November 1898


title: Mineola, New York

text: (before Mineola incorporated as a village in 1906 and set its boundaries), winning out over Hicksville and Hempstead. The Garden City Company (founded in 1893 by the heirs of Alexander Turney Stewart) donated four acres of land for the county buildings just south of the Mineola train station and the present day Village of Mineola, in the Town of Hempstead.


title: Mineola, New York

text: Mineola officially became the County Seat of Nassau County on July 13, 1900, as Governor Theodore Roosevelt laid the cornerstone of the Nassau County Court House. A celebration was held to commemorate the occasion on the barren site at the corner of Old Country Road and Franklin Avenue. Many dignitaries were present to witness this event such as Frederick Hicks, Congressman Townsend Scudder, Colonel William Youngs and Supervisors William Jones and Edwin Willits.


title: Mineola, New York

text: Mineola was legally incorporated as a village in 1906 and run by a president. The land on which the County buildings sat was not included as part of the village. The land and the buildings have a Mineola postal address, but are within the present day Village of Garden City, which did not incorporate or set its boundaries until 1919.


title: Mineola, New York

text: NYU Langone Hospital - Long Island, founded in 1896 by local physicians and residents as "Nassau Hospital", and later "Winthrop-University Hospital", was Long Island's first voluntary hospital. In 1897, it admitted 91 patients, performed 27 operations, and reported two births and eight deaths during the first year. The original hospital was constructed in 1900. Renamed Winthrop in the 1980s, it is now a nationally recognized award-winning hospital and in 2004 was ranked among the Top 5 Percent of Acute-Care Hospitals in the Country.


title: Mineola, New York

text: In 1888, the Mineola Fire Department was formed in the Willis Ave School house. The department soon moved to a location on Washington Ave.


title: Mineola, New York

text: Mineola was also a familiar place to many of the most famous pilots in history. The Aero Club of America chose the area for the level plains. Glenn Curtiss brought the area to national attention in July 1909 with his second Scientific American Award flight of over 23 minutes and 15 miles. He also made some of the first public flights in America in his "Golden Flyer", while practicing for the Reims Aviation Meet in France. The Wright Brothers, Igor Sikorsky, Captain Rene Fonck, and the famed duo of Clarence Chamberlain and Bert Acosta, dubbed "twins of derring-do", all spent time in Mineola taking advantage of the rolling grasslands and favorable winds.


title: Mineola, New York

text: On November 1, 1915, Captain Raynal Cawthorne Bolling—a prominent New York attorney working at United States Steel—organized the Aviation Detachment, 1st Battalion Signal Corps of the New York National Guard (now the 102d Rescue Squadron). It was the Guard's first genuine aviation unit. Subsequently, the organization was redesignated the 1st Aero Company. Located at Mineola on Long Island, the unit rented and then purchased its own aircraft with funds donated by the Aero Club of America and other contributors. It was "provisionally recognized" on June 22, 1916, and then called into federal service on July 13, 1916, during the Mexican border crisis. However, instead of active service in the southwest, it remained at Mineola training and was released from federal service on November 2, 1916.


title: Mineola, New York

text: After World War I, the British Royal Navy rigid airship R34 made the first-ever east-west aerial crossing of the North Atlantic, traveling from the airship base at RAF East Fortune in the UK to Mineola from July 2 to July 6, 1919.


title: Mineola, New York

text: On May 20, 1927, at 7:52 a.m., Charles Lindbergh started his historic flight from nearby Roosevelt Field. Thirty-three hours later he landed in Paris and became the first person to complete a solo flight from the United States across the Atlantic Ocean.


title: Mineola, New York

text: Main Street was the center of village business as well as a popular meeting place for farmers and the business community alike. The general store offered an array of goods that would fulfill most everyday needs, such as hardware, toys, wool, dry goods, clothing and food. The small glass-fronted mail and delivery boxes filled the existing six-foot post office. As the Mineola population grew, the post office was relocated to the Meyer Building on Mineola Boulevard and then twice more to 3rd Street and 2nd Street. It eventually found its permanent home on 1st Street and Main Street.


title: Mineola, New York

text: Mineola's first theatre named Allen's Hall drew in many early moviegoers to see "the flickers". Motion picture success drew in other theaters to the area, the most lavish being the Century Opera House. Most theaters had a showing in the morning and in the evening, usually featuring a live pianist who kept up with the action of the movie while playing music that suited the story.


title: Mineola, New York

text: As years passed, Jericho Turnpike became the commercial "main street". Farmland was sold off and homes and offices were built. Mineola has continued to be a community of growth and development.


title: Mineola, New York

text: Mineola is home to large Portuguese communities, and has been for years. Portuguese restaurants and businesses and the Portuguese language are a common feature throughout the neighborhood.


title: Mineola, New York

text: The villages bordering Mineola are Garden City, Old Westbury, East Williston, and Williston Park. Mineola also borders the hamlets (CDP) of Carle Place, Garden City Park, Herricks, and Roslyn Heights.


title: Mineola, New York

text: Near the center of the village, Mineola Memorial Park commemorates the victims of the September 11 terrorist attacks with a monument. Mineola's own Memorial Library and private and public schools adjoin the park. The Memorial Tablet and surrounding paths were an Eagle Project by Troop 45 Eagle Scout Edward Kaiser.


title: Mineola, New York

text: As of the census of 2010, there were 18,799 people, 7,473 households, and 4,954 families residing in the village. The population density was 10,337.3 people per square mile (3,992.6/km). There were 7,650 housing units at an average density of 4,111.5 per square mile (1,588.0/km). The racial makeup of the village was 81.7% White, 71.5% Non-Hispanic White, 2.0% African American, 0.2% Native American, 8.5% Asian, 0.0% Pacific Islander, 5.3% from other races, and 2.3% from two or more races. 16.4% of the population is Hispanic or Latino of any race.


title: Mineola, New York

text: There were 7,473 households, out of which 27.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 53.2% were married couples living together, 9.3% had a female householder with no husband present, and 33.7% were non-families. 29.1% of all households were made up of individuals, and 11.8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.57 and the average family size was 3.20.


title: Mineola, New York

text: In the village, the population was spread out, with 20.2% under the age of 18, 7.4% from 18 to 24, 34.1% from 25 to 44, 22.6% from 45 to 64, and 15.7% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 38 years. For every 100 females, there were 92.5 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 89.6 males.


title: Mineola, New York

text: The median income for a household in the village was $60,706, and the median income for a family was $71,042. Males had a median income of $47,182 versus $37,057 for females. The per capita income for the village was $28,890. About 2.6% of families and 4.2% of the population were below the poverty line, including 3.5% of those under age 18 and 5.4% of those age 65 or over.


title: Mineola, New York

text: As of the census of 2000, there were 19,234 people, 7,473 households, and 4,954 families residing in the village. The population density was 10,337.3 people per square mile (3,992.6/km). There were 7,650 housing units at an average density of 4,111.5/sq mi (1,588.0/km). The racial makeup of the village was 82.39% White, 1.03% African American, 0.29% Native American, 4.52% Asian, 0.04% Pacific Islander, 3.93% from other races, and 3.79% from two or more races. 13.03% of the population is Hispanic or Latino of any race.


title: Mineola, New York

text: The legislative body of the village, the Village of Mineola Board of Trustees, is composed of a mayor and four trustees. Each member is elected to a four-year term. The board is charged with management of village property and finances, and may take all measures under the law for the good government of the village. The trustees may adopt a wide range of local laws to address village concerns.


title: Mineola, New York

text: They are appointed to be liaison officers to various community organizations throughout the village and report back to the board with updates at board meetings.


title: Mineola, New York

text: As of July 2022, the Mayor of Mineola is Paul A. Pereira, the Deputy Mayor is Janine Sartori, and the Village Trustees are Jeffrey M. Clark, Paul S. Cuasto, Janine Sartori, and Donna M. Solosky.


title: Mineola, New York

text: In 2005–2006, as a result of numerous recommendations from the community that Mineola increase its police force, a Mineola Police Task Force was appointed by Mayor Jack M. Martins to evaluate the feasibility of withdrawing from the Nassau County Police Department and establishing a village police force. The Mayor indicated to the Task Force at its inception that if the feasibility study resulted in a positive report, Mineola would only have its own police department if the residents approved such through a village-wide referendum.


title: Mineola, New York

text: The village board was split 3–2 in favor of the police force, with then-Mayor Jack Martins, Deputy Mayor Werther and Trustee Davanzo supporting it while trustees Fargrieve and Cusato opposed it. On December 5, 2006 the measure was defeated by a 2-1 margin.


title: Mineola, New York

text: Mineola is primarily located within the boundaries of (and served by) the Mineola Union Free School District. Smaller sections of Mineola are in the East Williston UFSD, Carle Place UFSD, and the Garden City UFSD. As such, children who reside within the village and attend public schools go to school in one of these four districts, depending on where they live within the village.


title: Mineola, New York

text: Jericho Turnpike (NY 25) passes through the village and Hillside Avenue (NY 25B) forms part of its northern border. Old Country Road also passes through the village and forms its border with Garden City.


title: Mineola, New York

text: The Mineola station on the Long Island Rail Road's Main Line is located within the village. It serves trains on the Oyster Bay, Ronkonkoma, and Port Jefferson Branches, as well as limited service on the Montauk Branch.


title: Mineola, New York

text: Mineola's Mineola Intermodal Center contains the Long Island Rail Road station and a Nassau Inter-County Express (NICE) bus station; the Mineola Intermodal Center is one of Nassau County's main bus hubs.


title: Mineola, New York

text: National Grid USA provides natural gas to homes and businesses that are hooked up to natural gas lines in Mineola.


title: Mineola, New York

text: Mineola is connected to sanitary sewers. The village maintains a sanitary sewer system which flows into Nassau County's system, which treats the sewage from the village's system through the Nassau County-owned sewage treatment plants.


title: Mineola, New York

text: The Village of Mineola owns and maintains its own water system. Mineola's water system serves the entire village with water.


title: Emma Ruth Rundle

text: Emma Ruth Rundle (born October 10, 1983) is an American singer-songwriter, guitarist and visual artist based in Portland, Oregon. Formerly of the Nocturnes and Marriages, she has released five solo albums and is a member of Red Sparowes.


title: Emma Ruth Rundle

text: Rundle was born in Santa Monica, California and moved “back and forth between the Westside and Eastside” when she was growing up before attending Eagle Rock High School. She was raised in Los Angeles with her younger sister in a household where a lot of folk music was played. As a teenager, Rundle lived with her grandmother until the end of her life.


title: Emma Ruth Rundle

text: After a massive earthquake in her hometown, her mother took her into the legendary folk music store McCabe's and told her she could pick one instrument to rent for lessons. She initially chose the Celtic harp before switching to guitar, and later went on to work at McCabe's for 13 years.


title: Emma Ruth Rundle

text: With her first band, the Nocturnes, she released the "Wellington" EP (2008) and two albums, "A Year of Spring" (2009) and "Aokigahara" (2011). Rundle also joined Red Sparowes and played on their third album, "The Fear Is Excruciating, But Therein Lies the Answer", released by Sargent House on April 6, 2010.


title: Emma Ruth Rundle

text: She self-released an ambient guitar album, "Electric Guitar: One", in 2011. It was later reissued in 2014 by Errant Child Recordings.


title: Emma Ruth Rundle

text: In 2012, she formed the trio Marriages, who have released the "Kitsune" EP (2012) and "Salome" full-length (2015).


title: Emma Ruth Rundle

text: On January 7, 2013, she self-released the album "Somnambulant", attributed to The Headless Prince of Zolpidem, which she described as "my somewhat anonymous downtempo, somewhat creepy electronic dark wave project".


title: Emma Ruth Rundle

text: Rundle's second solo work, "Some Heavy Ocean", was released on May 20, 2014 by Sargent House. It was co-produced by Chris Common and recorded at the Sargent House studio. Rundle lived at the studio complex as an artist-in-residence for the period. The release was accompanied by a US tour with King Buzzo.


title: Emma Ruth Rundle

text: Rundle suffers from adenomyosis, which in part inspired the material on her third album, "Marked for Death", produced by Sonny DiPerri. It was released in October 2016 on Sargent House.


title: Emma Ruth Rundle

text: In January 2017, a split EP with Jaye Jayle, titled "The Time Between Us", was announced, and the song "The Distance" was made available on streaming platforms. The EP was released by Sargent House on February 24.


title: Emma Ruth Rundle

text: Rundle's fourth studio album, "On Dark Horses", was released on September 14, 2018. It featured contributions by Jaye Jayle members Evan Patterson and Todd Cook as well as Dylan Nadon. Also in 2018, Rundle provided backing vocals for "Just Breathe", a song on American rock band Thrice's 2018 album "Palms".


title: Emma Ruth Rundle

text: In August 2019, Roadburn Festival announced that Rundle was one of two curators for the 2020 edition.


title: Emma Ruth Rundle

text: After a week-long stay in a mental health hospital helped her get sober from drugs and alcohol, she released her fifth studio solo album, "Engine of Hell", in November 2021, to positive critical reception.


title: Emma Ruth Rundle

text: She was married to Jaye Jayle co-founder Evan Patterson. They lived in Louisville, Kentucky. Their divorce was finalized in August 2021.


title: Guillermo Navarro

text: Guillermo Jorge Navarro Solares, (born July 29, 1955) is a Mexican cinematographer and television director. He has worked in Hollywood since 1994 and is a frequent collaborator of Guillermo del Toro and Robert Rodriguez. In 2007, he won the Academy Award for Best Cinematography and the Goya Award for Best Cinematography for del Toro's "Pan's Labyrinth". His subsequent filmography runs the gamut from lower-budget arthouse and genre films to high-profile blockbusters like "Hellboy", ", Night at the Museum," and "Pacific Rim".


title: Guillermo Navarro

text: Navarro's directing debut came with a 2012 music video for musician Mia Maestro titled "Blue Eyed Sailor", co-directed with media artist Juan Azulay, also featuring son Alvaro Navarro's cinematography. He has since directed episodes of series like "Hannibal" and "Luke Cage", and was an executive producer on the National Geographic documentary series "Hostile Planet," for which he earned his first Primetime Emmy nomination.


title: Guillermo Navarro

text: Navarro was born Guillermo Jorge Navarro Solares in 1955 in Mexico City. He began taking still photographs at age 13 when took a photography workshop in middle school, and built his own darkroom. He worked for several years as a freelance photographer, working on everything from album covers to fashion photography. He attended the National Autonomous University of Mexico, where he graduated with a degree in Sociology.


title: Guillermo Navarro

text: Navarro began working in the film industry when his sister, a producer, hired him as on-set still and continuity photographer for one of her films. The experience triggered an interest in cinematography, and he began working as a camera assistant. Rather than working his way up through the Mexican film industry the traditional way, he instead moved to Paris where he became the apprentice of cinematographer Ricardo Aronovich. He worked for around 10 years before shooting his first feature.


title: Guillermo Navarro

text: Navarro quickly formed a partnership with filmmaker Guillermo del Toro, first by shooting commercials then later his directorial debut "Cronos", which won the prestigious Golden Ariel. Navarro moved to the United States in 1994, where he shot several films for director Robert Rodriguez and worked with high-profile directors Renny Harlin and Quentin Tarantino. He returned to Mexico in 2001 to shoot del Toro's "The Devil's Backbone."


title: Guillermo Navarro

text: Navarro's most acclaimed work to date came in 2006 when he shot del Toro's dark fantasy drama "Pan's Labyrinth." Navarro and Del Toro had to work with a largely unfamiliar Spanish crew due to their usual crew's unavailability. Navarro shot the film using his personal Moviecam Compact and Arriflex 435 ES cameras and Zeiss Ultra Prime and Variable Prime lenses. He used three different Kodak film stocks: Vision2 200T 5217, Vision2 500T 5218, and Vision 250D 5246, depending on the lighting conditions under which a scene was filmed. Much of the film was shot using day for night, underexposing the film three or four F stops. He purposefully kept lighting effects that could only be attained with sunlight, which jarred the image when it passed itself as night, creating an aura of experimentation. Because of the awkwardly-shaped spaces of the fantasy sets, Navarro had to be creative with his lighting, finding places to put his lamps that also didn't disrupt the image. A lot of light was strictly attained by bouncing it into the set. For certain scenes, the crew also drilled tiny holes into the walls of the set and placed little lights into the spaces.


title: Guillermo Navarro

text: Navarro's work earned him an Academy Award, a Goya Award, an Ariel Award, and Independent Spirit Award for Best Cinematography.


title: Guillermo Navarro

text: Navarro began directing in 2013 with an episode of "Hannibal". He has subsequently directed episodes for shows like "The Bridge", "Narcos, Preacher," and "Luke Cage". He also shot the pilot episode of "," directed by David Semel.


title: Guillermo Navarro

text: In 2019, Navarro made his producing debut as an executive producer on the National Geographic documentary series "Hostile Planet." The series was nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Documentary or Nonfiction Series.


title: Guillermo Navarro

text: His work often features very vivid blues and yellows which often take up most of the image, and the film's grain structure often switches between well-defined and sharp, and somewhat smoothed over or very fine.


title: Chicago 17

text: Chicago 17 is the fourteenth studio album by American band Chicago, released on May 14, 1984. It was the group's second release for Full Moon/Warner Bros. Records, their second album to be produced by David Foster and their last with founding bassist/vocalist Peter Cetera.


title: Chicago 17

text: Four singles were released from the album, all of which placed in the top 20 on the "Billboard" Hot 100 chart. The success of the singles propelled "Chicago 17" to achieve an RIAA certification of six times platinum. "Chicago 17" remains the biggest-selling album in the band's history.


title: Chicago 17

text: In 1985, the album received three Grammy Awards. David Foster won for Producer of the Year, Non-Classical (tied in this category with Lionel Richie and James Anthony Carmichael), Humberto Gatica won for Best Engineered Recording – Non-Classical, and David Foster and Jeremy Lubbock won for Best Instrumental Arrangement Accompanying Vocal(s) for "Hard Habit to Break" which was also nominated for Record of the Year, Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group With Vocals and Best Vocal Arrangement for Two or More Voices. In his review of the album for AllMusic, music critic Stephen Thomas Erlewine says "Chicago 17" is "the pinnacle of [producer David Foster's] craft and one of the best adult contemporary records of the '80s," and one of the most influential albums "within its style." Writing for "Billboard", Bobby Olivier said the album "is one of the greatest pure power ballad albums of all time — or at least from 1984 — and "[Hard] Habit [to Break]" is one of the finest entries."


title: Chicago 17

text: In 2006, Rhino Entertainment remastered and reissued the album, using the original analog versions of "Please Hold On" (which was co-written with Lionel Richie who was enjoying success from his album "Can't Slow Down") and "Prima Donna" and adding a Robert Lamm demo, "Here Is Where We Begin" as a bonus track.


title: Chicago 17

text: In keeping with the majority of their albums up to that time (1984), the traditional "Chicago" logo, designed by John Berg and Nick Fasciano, is the main feature of the album cover. It does not feature any photos of the group. In a 2020 article for "Muse by Clio", it was listed among "Nine Great Album Covers, Chosen by Gregory Sylvester." Sylvester describes the cover as, " ... an illusion of a package within a package ... brown kraft paper, twine and a faux red stamp." The album cover looks like a package wrapped in brown paper tied with twine and (on the back) secured with tape. On the front, the "Chicago" logo appears to be in bas-relief (it is not), covered by the wrapping paper. The number "17," in Arabic numerals rather than the Roman numerals used by the group formerly, appears to be stamped on the wrapping paper below the logo. In the upper left-hand quadrant of the cover back, a pink "receipt form" is depicted (designated as a "TOPS FORM 3014" in small print at the bottom of the "receipt"), tucked underneath the "twine," with the "Chicago" logo stamped on it near the top in purple ink and, below the logo, a "DESCRIPTION OF PACKAGE" lists the tracks on side one and side two. The bottom of the "receipt form" shows production and engineering credits and the Warner Bros. logo "stamped" on the slip. On the inner dust sleeve, a large group photo of the band appears on one side: (back row, left to right) Lee Loughnane, Bill Champlin, James Pankow, Walt Parazaider, Robert Lamm, (front row, left to right) Danny Seraphine, Peter Cetera. The reverse side of the dust sleeve gives track listings, song lyrics, and song and album credits, including credits for artwork and packaging: Art Direction/Design, Simon Levy; Album Cover Art, Larry Vigon; Photography, Harry Langdon, James Goble.


title: Chicago 17

text: Some songs were recorded during the "Chicago 17" sessions but not released. "Good for Nothing" was later released on the "We Are the World" superstar charity album in 1985. This is the last released Chicago song to feature Peter Cetera on vocals.


title: Chicago 17

text: A song called "Sweet Marie" recorded during sessions for the "Chicago 17" album has been performed by the Norwegian band TOBB. Bill Champlin offered this song to the band. It was released on May 14, 2014 by TOBB, the 30th anniversary of the "Chicago 17" albums release. It was performed by Chicago on rare occasions in 1984, and has surfaced online from VHS recordings of some of their performances.


title: Chicago 17

text: A subsequent international release in 2010 (included in the Studio Albums 1979 - 2008 boxed set from 2015) has the original album restored, with additional bonus tracks of alternate versions of "Only You", "You're the Inspiration", and "Prima Donna" as well as "Here Is Where We Begin". A demo version of "Hard Habit to Break" exists with Robert Lamm on vocals, as briefly heard during the documentary “Now More Than Ever: The History of Chicago.”


title: Vestibulocochlear nerve

text: The vestibulocochlear nerve or auditory vestibular nerve, also known as the eighth cranial nerve, cranial nerve VIII, or simply CN VIII, is a cranial nerve that transmits sound and equilibrium (balance) information from the inner ear to the brain. Through olivocochlear fibers, it also transmits motor and modulatory information from the superior olivary complex in the brainstem to the cochlea.


title: Vestibulocochlear nerve

text: The vestibulocochlear nerve consists mostly of bipolar neurons and splits into two large divisions: the cochlear nerve and the vestibular nerve.


title: Vestibulocochlear nerve

text: Cranial nerve 8, the vestibulocochlear nerve, goes to the middle portion of the brainstem called the pons (which then is largely composed of fibers going to the cerebellum).


title: Vestibulocochlear nerve

text: The 8th cranial nerve runs between the base of the pons and medulla oblongata (the lower portion of the brainstem). This junction between the pons, medulla, and cerebellum that contains the 8th nerve is called the cerebellopontine angle.


title: Vestibulocochlear nerve

text: The vestibulocochlear nerve is accompanied by the labyrinthine artery, which usually branches off from the anterior inferior cerebellar artery at the cerebellopontine angle, and then goes with the 7th nerve through the internal acoustic meatus to the internal ear.


title: Vestibulocochlear nerve

text: The cochlear nerve travels away from the cochlea of the inner ear where it starts as the spiral ganglia. Processes from the organ of Corti conduct afferent transmission to the spiral ganglia. It is the inner hair cells of the organ of Corti that are responsible for activation of afferent receptors in response to pressure waves reaching the basilar membrane through the transduction of sound. The exact mechanism by which sound is transmitted by the neurons of the cochlear nerve is uncertain; the two competing theories are place theory and temporal theory.


title: Vestibulocochlear nerve

text: The vestibular nerve travels from the vestibular system of the inner ear. The vestibular ganglion houses the cell bodies of the bipolar neurons and extends processes to five sensory organs. Three of these are the cristae located in the ampullae of the semicircular canals. Hair cells of the cristae activate afferent receptors in response to rotational acceleration. The other two sensory organs supplied by the vestibular neurons are the maculae of the saccule and utricle. Hair cells of the maculae in the utricle activate afferent receptors in response to linear acceleration, while hair cells of the maculae in the saccule respond to vertically directed linear force.


title: Vestibulocochlear nerve

text: This is the nerve along which the sensory cells (the hair cells) of the inner ear transmit information to the brain. It consists of the cochlear nerve, carrying details about hearing, and the vestibular nerve, carrying information about balance.


title: Vestibulocochlear nerve

text: It emerges from the pontomedullary junction and exits the inner skull via the internal acoustic meatus in the temporal bone.


title: Vestibulocochlear nerve

text: Rinne's test involves Rinne's Right and Left Test, since auditory acuity is equal in both ears. If bone conduction (BC) is more than air conduction (AC) (BC>AC) indicates Rinne Test is negative or abnormal. If AC>BC Rinne test is normal or positive. If BC>AC and Weber's test lateralizes to abnormal side then it is Conductive hearing loss. If AC>BC and Weber's test lateralizes to normal side then it concludes Sensorineural hearing loss.


title: Vestibulocochlear nerve

text: After pure-tone testing, if the AC and BC responses at all frequencies 500–8000 Hz are better than 25 dB HL, meaning 0-24 dB HL, the results are considered normal hearing sensitivity. If the AC and BC are worse than 25 dB HL at any one or more frequency between 500 and 8000 Hz, meaning 25+, and there is a no bigger difference between AC and BC beyond 10 dB at any frequency, there is a sensori-neural hearing loss present. If the BC responses are normal, 0-24 dB HL, and the AC are worse than 25 dB HL, as well as a 10 dB gap between the air and bone responses, a conductive hearing loss is present.


title: Vestibulocochlear nerve

text: The modified Hughson–Westlake method is used by many audiologists during testing. A battery of (1) otoscopy, to view the ear canal and tympanic membrane, (2) tympanometry, to assess the immittance of the tympanic membrane and how well it moves, (3) otoacoustic emissions, to measure the response of the outer hair cells located in the cochlea, (4) audiobooth pure-tone testing, to obtain thresholds to determine the type, severity, and pathology of the hearing loss present, and (5) speech tests, to measure the patients recognition and ability to repeat the speech heard, is all taken into consideration when diagnosing the pathology of the patient.


title: Vestibulocochlear nerve

text: Some older texts call the nerve the "acoustic" or "auditory nerve", but these terms have fallen out of widespread use because they fail to recognize the nerve's role in the vestibular system. "Vestibulocochlear nerve" is therefore preferred by most.


title: Top Chef: Texas

text: Top Chef: Texas is the ninth season of the American reality television series "Top Chef". The season was filmed in various cities in Texas, including San Antonio, Dallas, and Austin, before moving on to British Columbia for the finale. The season premiered on November 2, 2011. This season of "Top Chef" featured a much larger number of contestants than any previous season, with 29 chefs. "Top Chef: Texas" also introduced a new side competition to the series; in addition to the Quickfire and Elimination Challenges featured in televised episodes, the "Last Chance Kitchen" competition allowed eliminated contestants to compete head-to-head in a series of webisodes, with the winner eventually returning to the main competition. In the season finale, Paul Qui was declared the winner over runner-up Sarah Grueneberg. Chris Crary was voted Fan Favorite.


title: Top Chef: Texas

text: The cast of the ninth season of "Top Chef" initially consisted of 29 contestants. After the qualifying challenges in the first two episodes, the pool of chefs was narrowed down to 16.


title: Clay Morrow

text: Clarence "Clay" Morrow is a fictional character in the FX television series "Sons of Anarchy". He is played by Ron Perlman. Morrow is one of the original "First 9" members of the Sons of Anarchy Motorcycle Club Redwood Original (SAMCRO), but is not a founding member. He is the former International President of the Sons of Anarchy Motorcycle Club, However, during the fourth season, Clay involves the club in drug smuggling with the cartel for his own protection, wavering in his allegiance, and gradually reveals himself to be one of the story's antagonists. His character is based on King Claudius; the King of Denmark and Prince Hamlet's uncle and father-in-law from William Shakespeare's play "Hamlet".


title: Clay Morrow

text: Morrow was born on February 14, 1949. He has a number of tattoos, most notably a Grim Reaper on his upper right arm and a Paratrooper tattoo on his upper left, along with the words "Death From Above" indicating that he served as a paratrooper in a military unit. On his kutte, he wears patches reading "President", "First 9", "Men of Mayhem" and "Unholy Ones". He also wears a golden pin of the same symbol on his kutte. This symbol is often confused with the US Army Parachutist badge. The Paratrooper symbol that Clay wears is an unofficial symbol, and would serve to indicate service, particularly combat service, as a paratrooper, and consists of a skull, with wings coming from the bottom of the skull, and curving up to meet the top of the skull.


title: Clay Morrow

text: Of the "First 9", he was the youngest and one of only three who was not a war veteran. He did later go on to serve in the military, joining the US Army as an Airborne qualified Infantryman in 1969 and was deployed to Vietnam until 1972 (this is commemorated by a tattoo on his left arm and the paratrooper pin on his vest). When he returned from service, he remained a member of the club and opened the Teller-Morrow Automotive Repair shop with John Teller, the club President and his best friend. While serving as the Vice President during the early 1990s, he was responsible for a number of murders during the SAMCRO-Mayan War, including that of Lowell Harland Sr., a mechanic at the auto shop who became an ATF informant.


title: Clay Morrow

text: In 1993, he became the President of the club's Mother Charter, based in Charming (which also means that he was International President), after the death of John Teller. He went on to marry John Teller's widow Gemma Teller Morrow in the mid-1990s and made their son, Jax Teller, Vice-President. It is later revealed that Clay and Gemma had been having an illicit affair for some time prior to John's death, which John was secretly aware of but did not care about. It is implied that under Morrow, SAMCRO has become more of a criminal enterprise than before, much to Jax's disillusionment.


title: Clay Morrow

text: On his colors he wears patches reading "First 9" and "President". He suffers from osteoarthritis (degenerative arthritis) in his hands that he attempts to mitigate via cortisone injections, but which slowly worsens as the series progresses. He makes several attempts to hide it from his brothers to protect his position as President, as a rule among members of the Sons of Anarchy prevents members from leading if they can't hold the grip of their motorcycle and ride effectively.


title: Clay Morrow

text: The Sons find their weapon storage warehouse being burned down. The SOA rush to the scene, where local police officers are already investigating. Clay talks to Sheriff Vic Trammel about the blaze, who claims that propane tanks inside the building blew up, and that he suspects arson due to the boot-prints inside. Trammel then shows Clay the burned corpses of the people hidden beneath the building, who were illegal immigrants. It is later revealed that they were Mexican prostitutes "owned" by the club's Sergeant-at-Arms, Tig Trager. Clay then goes to meet Laroy, the leader of the One-Niners, in the East Bay. He is due to sell guns to the gang, but as they were destroyed, he must explain what happened at the warehouse. Laroy needs the guns to protect their heroin trade from another motorcycle club, the Mayans, and eventually lets Clay have some more time to get more guns together for him. The Sons of Anarchy then work out that it was the Mayans who stole the guns and destroyed the storage warehouse, and decide to get some payback. Juice Ortiz, the club's intelligence officer, finds out where the Mayans stored the guns and Clay, Tig, Jax and Chibs Telford all head out to San Leandro to retrieve them. When they arrive at the industrial storage warehouse and find the guns, three Mayans turn up in a car outside. Clay and Tig then shoot and kill the Mayans. Jax is shot by another man, who has a number of Nazi and White supremacist tattoos. He was a member of the Nordics, a local skinhead gang who are allied with the Mayans, and it later emerges that his name is Whistler. Jax turns around and shoots Whistler twice, killing him. They escape with the weapons and destroy the building using explosives.


title: Clay Morrow

text: Wayne Unser, the Chief of the Charming Police Department, has always gotten on well with the Sons of Anarchy during his time in charge, and has even employed them as muscle, at times. However, he is dying from cancer and will retire at the end of the month, handing power over to his Deputy, David Hale, who is overtly suspicious of the SOA and will almost definitely begin an investigation into the club. To warn Unser to keep Hale off their case, Clay, Bobby Munson (the club's Treasurer) and Opie Winston hijack a shipment that they are supposed to protect, and threaten to hijack more. As a goodwill gesture, they give the contents of the truck to the local Italian American Mafia, as their gun delivery is late. Meanwhile, Tig comes forth and tells Clay that he has been having sex with both of the women found at the warehouse and that his DNA is in the police database. Clay orders Tig and Bobby to get rid of the bodies. The pair then retrieve the corpses from the police site and burn them in a furnace. Hale is enraged when he discovers that the bodies are missing, and he threatens Clay that he will close the SOA down for good.


title: Clay Morrow

text: Local businessman Elliot Oswald goes to Clay after his 13-year-old daughter is raped at a carnival and asks the Sons of Anarchy to hunt down the rapist and kill him, in exchange for money. Clay refuses the money but insists that if they catch him, he must carry out the punishment himself. Juice and Gemma discover that the rapist is one of the carnies and the gang capture him and bring him to Oswald, who tries to castrate him but cannot bring himself to do it. Clay then carries the punishment out, but wears gloves while doing it. He then frames Oswald for the crime, as only Oswald's fingerprints are on the knife, because Oswald was about to sell off much of the land around Charming to big business and housing, which would challenge the SOA's reign over the town. Jax is unhappy that Clay did not tell him of the plan, however, and tells him to always inform him on his future motives.


title: Clay Morrow

text: When a Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives agent arrives in Charming and begins investigating the club, Clay decides that they should move their weapons to Indian Hills, Nevada, where their brother club, the Devil's Tribe, are based. He also sends Bobby and Jax to inform the Devil's Tribe that the Sons of Anarchy will be patching over them, and Tig and Juice to steal a truck to transport the guns in. Clay also travels to Indian Hills to perform the patch-over ceremony and brings a number of SOA Washington members as protection in case the Mayans retaliate for an earlier conflict involving Jax, Bobby and five Mayans. At the patch-over party, he has sex with Cherry, a woman whom Half-Sack likes, as revenge for his calling Gemma a MILF earlier. The Mayans eventually retaliate, as predicted, by attacking the Devil's Tribe clubhouse, and a large shootout ensues.


title: Clay Morrow

text: Otto Delaney and a number of other imprisoned SAMCRO members have been protecting Chuck in Stockton prison. He is wanted by the Triads because he stole money from them, then informed on a number of their members when he was arrested. When Clay and Jax visit Otto in prison, he tells them that if they protect Chuck when he is released, he will inform them where the money that he has skimmed from the Asian Triads gang is located. They agree and pick him up from prison and bring him to the clubhouse. SAMCRO intends to wait until the restaurant, where the money is stored, closes before raiding it, but Chuck's frequent unconscious masturbating is unbearable for them and they decide to raid the restaurant straight away. However, just after they steal the money and some counterfeiting plates, the Triads turn up. Instead of starting a war, Clay decides to make a deal; SAMCRO hands over Chuck and the plates for $60,000 from the Triads as the skim money is all counterfeit. Meanwhile, Kyle Hobart, a disgraced former SAMCRO member, goes to Jax and asks him if the Sons want in on his deal selling stolen car parts. Jax accepts and invites him to the clubhouse that night. This was a setup, however, to punish him for not having his SOA tattoo removed after being disowned by the club. At the clubhouse, they tie him up and Tig uses a blowtorch to burn off the tattoo.


title: Clay Morrow

text: Jax and Piney sell five AK-47s to Nate Meineke and his right-wing state militia. They then use these guns to ambush a prison convoy and free one of their members, Frank Cison. Three police officers are killed during the assault. Meineke drops his cell phone at the scene, and his last calls have been to Clay Morrow. When the ATF finds the phone, they arrest Clay and raid the clubhouse. Clay is later released because no evidence is found, meaning he can no longer be kept in custody. Meanwhile, Jax, Piney and Opie Winston decide to kill Meineke and his gang to keep them from snitching if they are apprehended by the authorities. They pretend to sell them more weapons. The "boxes of guns" are actually filled with explosives, however, and the militia load their trucks with them. All of the militia are killed when the bombs are detonated.


title: Clay Morrow

text: Workmen working for the Water and Power Board near the highway dig up three skeletons, two of which were Mayans killed in the war of 1992. The other was Lowell Harland Sr., a mechanic at Teller-Morrow. He was killed for being a "junkie rat". To stop the bodies from being identified, Clay, Jax and Tig break into the local morgue, prepared to steal the bones. However, the corpses have already been identified. When Clay tells Lowell Jr. about his father's death, Lowell runs away. Clay tracks him down and eventually brings him back to town.


title: Clay Morrow

text: Clay is almost killed when the Mayans attempt to shoot him while at a deal with Cameron Hayes of the True IRA at a bar. The two Mayan soldiers are gunned down by Tig and the shotgun-toting barman, however. Clay then calls in the Sons of Anarchy State Presidents and Vice-Presidents from Washington, Utah and Nevada, in a bid to wipe out the Mayans. After the shooting, he questions Jax's commitment to the club and Jax's willingness to kill.


title: Clay Morrow

text: Clay is taken to the local police station for questioning about the recent shootings, by Wayne Unser. Ernest Darby is also being held there, and Clay tells Unser to bring Álvarez in, in order for the three gang leaders to hold a meeting and, hopefully, prevent further bloodshed. He meets with Darby first, and tells him not to retaliate because it would start a war on the streets of Charming. He then meets with Álvarez and the pair make a deal; the Sons of Anarchy will begin selling guns to the Mayans, and all Mayan-SOA disputes (over turf, businesses, etc.) end in the SOA's favor. Álvarez also gives the Sons permission to kill Esai, as revenge for the attempted hit on Clay.


title: Clay Morrow

text: After the clubhouse is raided and Bobby is arrested for the murder of Brenan Hefner, Clay and Tig suspect Opie of being the witness who identified him. It was another person, however. When Opie turns up at the clubhouse, Tig checks his car for bugs and finds a microphone. He also finds a recording device in Opie's mobile phone. Both were planted by the ATF without Opie's knowledge. Clay and Tig then decide to kill him.


title: Clay Morrow

text: Clay and Tig again meet with One-Niners' leader Laroy, and they discuss taking out the Mayans. They agree that the Sons would meet the Mayans for an arms deal and when they left, the Niners would eliminate the Mayans and take the guns as payment. However, when Clay, Tig, Opie and Jax meet Álvarez and his crew at a warehouse in Oakland, the Niners try to take out the Mayans and SOA. The group escapes, but a number of Mayans and Niners are killed in the shootout. Tig attempts to kill Opie during the havoc, but finds himself unable to do so. Later on at Jax's son Abel's homecoming party, Tig follows Opie's car home and shoot the driver dead. However, the driver is Opie's wife, Donna, who has switched vehicles with Opie. Just after Tig leave to kill Opie, Clay is approached by Wayne Unser and told that Opie is, in fact, not an informant and that the ATF has set him up. Clay tries to phone Tig to tell him, but Tig is not carrying his phone.


title: Clay Morrow

text: Rosen, the club's lawyer, meets with Clay and tells him that the ATF has put a warrant out for Opie's arrest and that he will most likely get convicted of Hefner's murder because of the witness. Clay, Tig and Juice then meet with Vic Trammel and offer him money to reveal the location of the witness. Trammell does not know, however, so they go to Elliot Oswald. They again blackmail him with the knife that he used to kill the rapist earlier in the season, this time to get his friends in the US Attorney's office to tell him the witness' case number and location. He then sends Chibs, Happy and Tig to kill the witness, who is at a safe house in San Joaquin. Jax goes to the safe house and stops the trio from killing the witness, but threatens her into leaving the state. At Church, Jax confronts Clay and asks if he killed Donna. Clay denies this. Season One ends at Donna's funeral, which is attended by Sons of Anarchy from all over the country. There, Jax and Clay stare at each other and it is plain to see that the club is coming apart from inside.


title: Clay Morrow

text: In the first episode of Season Two we see that Clay is still struggling with remorse for what he did to Donna, and that he is going head to head with Jax over her death. We see him giving Opie a fake story of how a Mayan MC member killed Donna and he throws a welcome back party for Bobby. When Ethan Zobelle and the L.O.A.N. start threatening members of SAMCRO, Clay is all for immediate retaliation, but he is at odds with Jax, who feels the club may be walking into a trap.


title: Clay Morrow

text: He has recently learned of his wife Gemma's rape at the hands of L.O.A.N. and settled his differences with Jax, so the two can work together to get revenge. Clay is now shown to be more in tune with Jax's method of operation, opting to do more recon work before entering potentially lethal situations.


title: Clay Morrow

text: In the season two finale, Clay neglects to inform Marcus Alvarez that Ethan Zobelle is an F.B.I. informant, knowing the Mayan leader would kill Zobelle himself, forfeiting Clay's opportunity to do the deed. Later in the episode, the Sons ambush the Mayan convoy containing Zobelle and Clay spares Alvarez's life. Clay and the others corner Zobelle in a deli, but decide to abandon the scene after learning of his grandson's kidnapping. He is last seen consoling his distraught stepson Jax, whose son Abel (Clay's grandson) has been kidnapped by IRA gun dealer Cameron Hayes.


title: Clay Morrow

text: In the first episodes we see that Clay is still saddened by the loss of Abel, and is willing to help Jax at all costs. Also, his arthritis continues to worsen. As shown in the episode "Home", it got so bad that Jax had to tie Clay's hands to the handlebars. In the episode "Turas", when SAMCRO are nearly killed by a bomb hidden in a gun shipment put there by the SAMBEL Sergeant-at-Arms, Jax has a shell shocked vision of his biological father speaking to him but it turns out to actually be Clay. In the episode "Firinne", Clay kills McGee, member of the First 9 and President of the Belfast Chapter, for his treachery against the club by pushing him off a roof after taking his cut. He later burns the cut after expressing remorse for the killing. In the Season 3 finale, when Clay learns of Jax's betrayal, he appears enraged and says "Jax will die". In the end, it is revealed that he knew of Jax's deal with Stahl and that it was part of a plan to execute Jimmy O. and Stahl. When the plan is done, Clay and the others share a laugh, much to the confusion of the ATF agents. Also in the end of the episode, as Tara is reading the letters John Teller wrote to Maureen Ashby, Teller says he fears that Clay and Gemma will kill him because of his betraying Gemma by having an affair and attempting to alter the clubs focus on criminal activity, leading to much speculation that Clay and Gemma might have killed John Teller.


title: Clay Morrow

text: Clay is seen as one of the many SAMCRO members released from prison. He later escapes their sheriff tail and accompanies Jax and Opie's meeting with the Russians, where he settles their differences and forms a partnership with them. He attends Opie's wedding and goes to test a new gun given to them by Putlova. As he's firing the gun he turns and shoots Putlova's bodyguards and Jax stabs Putlova to death as revenge for trying to kill him in prison. He also tells Gemma that his arthritis has gotten worse and that he has only 1 or 2 years left before he has to step down as President of SAMCRO. Also, while in prison, he set up a deal to run cocaine for the Gallindo Cartel, but this does not sit well with the other members of the club, as SOA avoids drugs. When the club goes to Arizona and meets the Tucson charter, SAMTAZ, he demands that the charter stop dealing meth. This request is denied, as selling generates too much money for the club to give up. Otto wants Luann's murderer dead, and the issue is raised in the chapel. Clay is then confronted by Piney, who threatens Clay that if Clay does not kill the cocaine deal with the Gallindo Cartel, Piney will distribute letters to the club about John Teller's murder to the other members. Clay discusses the threat with Gemma, revealing that Clay did kill Teller. Clay later meets Unser and obtains the letters from him, unaware that Gemma has the same plan. After Unser gets a copy of the letters, he confronts Clay. Clay replies he does not regret doing what he did because it protected the Club and Charming. When he visits a tied Georgie Caruso, he claims that he has connections with millionaire Japanese families. Clay immediately sees an opportunity to make Jacob Hale believe he has investors in time. His idea is that he will have the investors pull out at the last minute, which will put an end to Charming Heights. After retrieving the last brick of cocaine that Juice had stolen, framing Miles for it, Clay asks Romeo for help killing Tara, to keep the secret of the letters hidden.