title: Capitol Reef National Park

text: Preservationists convinced President Lyndon B. Johnson to set aside an enormous area of public lands in 1968, just before he left office. In Presidential Proclamation 3888 an additional were placed under NPS control. By 1970, Capitol Reef National Monument comprised and sprawled southeast from Thousand Lake Mountain almost to the Colorado River. The action was controversial locally, and NPS staffing at the monument was inadequate to properly manage the additional land.


title: Capitol Reef National Park

text: The vast enlargement of the monument and diversification of the scenic resources soon raised another issue: whether Capitol Reef should be a national park, rather than a monument. Two bills were introduced into the United States Congress.


title: Capitol Reef National Park

text: A House bill (H.R. 17152) introduced by Utah Congressman Laurence J. Burton called for a national park and an adjunct national recreation area where multiple use (including grazing) could continue indefinitely. In the United States Senate, meanwhile, Senate bill S. 531 had already passed on July 1, 1970, and provided for a national park alone. The bill called for a 25-year phase-out of grazing.


title: Capitol Reef National Park

text: In September 1970, United States Department of Interior officials told a house subcommittee session that they preferred about be set aside as a national park. They also recommended that the grazing phase-out period be 10 years, rather than 25. They did not favor the adjunct recreation area.


title: Capitol Reef National Park

text: It was not until late 1971 that Congressional action was completed. By then, the 92nd United States Congress was in session and S. 531 had languished. A new bill, S. 29, was introduced in the Senate by Senator Frank E. Moss of Utah and was essentially the same as the defunct S. 531 except that it called for an additional of public lands for a Capitol Reef National Park. In the House, Utah Representative K. Gunn McKay (with Representative Lloyd) had introduced H.R. 9053 to replace the dead H.R. 17152. This time, the House bill dropped the concept of an adjunct Capitol Reef National Recreation Area and adopted the Senate concept of a 25-year limit on continued grazing. The Department of Interior was still recommending a national park of and a 10-year limit for grazing phase-out.


title: Capitol Reef National Park

text: S. 29 passed the Senate in June and was sent to the House, which dropped its own bill and passed the Senate version with an amendment. Because the Senate was not in agreement with the House amendment, differences were worked out in Conference Committee. The Conference Committee issued its report on November 30, 1971, and the bill passed both houses of Congress. The legislation—'An Act to Establish The Capitol Reef National Park in the State of Utah'—became Public Law 92-207 when it was signed by President Richard Nixon on December 18, 1971.


title: Capitol Reef National Park

text: According to the Köppen climate classification system, the Capitol Reef Visitor Center has a cold semi-arid climate ("BSk").


title: Capitol Reef National Park

text: The area including the park was once the edge of a shallow sea that invaded the land in the Permian, creating the Cutler Formation. Only the sandstone of the youngest member of the Cutler Formation, the White Rim, is exposed in the park. The deepening sea left carbonate deposits, forming the limestone of the Kaibab Limestone, the same formation that rims the Grand Canyon to the southwest.


title: Capitol Reef National Park

text: During the Triassic, streams deposited reddish-brown silt that later became the siltstone of the Moenkopi Formation. Uplift and erosion followed. Conglomerate, followed by logs, sand, mud, and wind-transported volcanic ash, then formed the uranium-containing Chinle Formation.


title: Capitol Reef National Park

text: The members of the Glen Canyon Group were all laid down in the middle- to late-Triassic during a time of increasing aridity. They include:


title: Capitol Reef National Park

text: Streams once again laid down mud and sand in their channels, on lakebeds, and in swampy plains, creating the Morrison Formation. Early in the Cretaceous, similar nonmarine sediments were laid down and became the Dakota Sandstone. Eventually, the Cretaceous Seaway covered the Dakota, depositing the Mancos Shale.


title: Capitol Reef National Park

text: Only small remnants of the Mesaverde Group are found, capping a few mesas in the park's eastern section.


title: Capitol Reef National Park

text: Near the end of the Cretaceous period, a mountain-building event called the Laramide orogeny started to compact and uplift the region, forming the Rocky Mountains and creating monoclines such as the Waterpocket Fold in the park. Ten to fifteen million years ago, the entire region was uplifted much further by the creation of the Colorado Plateau. This uplift was very even. Igneous activity in the form of volcanism and dike and sill intrusion also occurred during this time.


title: Capitol Reef National Park

text: The drainage system in the area was rearranged and steepened, causing streams to downcut faster and sometimes change course. Wetter times during the ice ages of the Pleistocene increased the rate of erosion.


title: Capitol Reef National Park

text: The closest town to Capitol Reef is Torrey, about west of the visitor center on Highway 24, slightly west of its intersection with Highway 12. Its 2020 population is less than 300. Torrey has a few motels and restaurants and functions as a gateway town to Capitol Reef National Park. Highway 12, as well as a partially unpaved scenic backway named the Burr Trail, provide access from the west through the Grand Staircase–Escalante National Monument and the town of Boulder.


title: Capitol Reef National Park

text: A variety of activities are available to tourists, both ranger-led and self-guided, including auto touring, hiking, backpacking, camping, bicycling (on paved and unpaved roads only; no trails), horseback riding, canyoneering, and rock climbing. The orchards planted by Mormon pioneers are maintained by the National Park Service. From early March to mid-October, various fruit—cherries, apricots, peaches, pears, or apples—can be harvested by visitors for a fee.


title: Capitol Reef National Park

text: A hiking trail guide is available at the visitor center for both day hikes and backcountry hiking. Backcountry access requires a free permit.


title: Capitol Reef National Park

text: Numerous trails are available for hiking and backpacking in the park, with fifteen in the Fruita District alone. The following trails are some of the most popular in the park:


title: Capitol Reef National Park

text: The primary camping location is the Fruita campground, with 71 campsites (no water, electrical, or sewer hookups), and restrooms without bathing facilities. The campground also has group sites with picnic areas and restrooms. Two primitive free camping areas are also available.


title: Capitol Reef National Park

text: Canyoneering is growing in popularity in the park. It is a recreational sport that takes one through slot canyons. It involves rappelling and may require swimming and other technical rope work. Day-pass permits are required for canyoneering in the park, and can be obtained for free from the visitor's center or through email. It's key to know that each route requires its own permit. If one is planning on canyoneering for multiple days, passes are required for each day. Overnight camping as part of the canyoneering trip is permitted, but one must request a free backcountry pass from the visitor center.


title: Capitol Reef National Park

text: It is imperative to plan canyoneering trips around the weather. The Colorado Plateau is susceptible to flash flooding during prime rainy months. Because canyoneering takes place through slot canyons, getting caught in a flash flood could be lethal. Take care to consult reliable weather sources. The Weather Atlas shows charts with the monthly average rainfall in inches.


title: Capitol Reef National Park

text: Another risk to be aware of, especially during the summer months, is extreme heat warnings. A reliable place for information that people can look for weather warnings is the National Weather Service website. The heat levels are detailed by a color and numerical scale (0-4).


title: Capitol Reef National Park

text: One of the most popular canyoneering routes in Capitol Reef National Park is Cassidy Arch Canyon. A paper by George Huddart, details the park's commitment to working with citizens to maintain the route as well as the vegetation and rocks. The canyon route is approximately 2.3 miles long (0.4 miles of technical work), consisting of 8 different rappels, and takes between 2.5 and 4.5 hours to complete. The first rappel, as noted in the Blue Gnome report, is 140 ft, and descends below the famous Cassidy Arch.


title: El Corte Inglés

text: El Corte Inglés S.A. (), headquartered in Madrid, is the biggest department store group in Europe and ranks third worldwide. Its primary source of sales is from department stores, followed by internet sales. It is a family business, with most stock being held by relatives of the deceased businessmen Ramon Areces Rodriguez and César Rodríguez González (1882-1966), and the Ramon Areces foundation.


title: El Corte Inglés

text: El Corte Inglés is Spain's and Portugal's only remaining department store chain. El Corte Inglés has been a member of the International Association of department stores since 1998. Stores tend to be very large in size and offer a wide range of products: stores may sell music, movies, portable and household electronics, furniture, hardware, books, clothes, groceries, gourmet food, cars and real estate.


title: El Corte Inglés

text: In 1934, the founders Ramón Areces Rodriguez and Cesar Rodriguez Gonzalez bought a tailor's shop (which had opened in 1890) located on one of Madrid's most central streets, "calle Preciados", at the corner of "calle Carmen" and "calle Rompelanzas", and made it into a limited company.


title: El Corte Inglés

text: The property where the shop was located had been owned by Julián Gordo Centenera since 1930. The prime location of the property soon attracted the attention of an Asturian businessman named Pepin Fernandez who was looking to expand a business called "Sederias Carretas" which he had started in 1934 with a capital contribution from his cousin Cesar Rodriguez Gonzales. His plan was to purchase all of the properties on the block to construct a new building to house his business, a vision which was later realized in the form of Galerias Preciados.


title: El Corte Inglés

text: Around 1920, aged 15, Areces had gone to Havana, Cuba, and worked at the famous retail chain Almacenes El Encanto, where he learned the basics of department store business. Cesar Rodriguez had asked Pepin Fernandez to hire his nephew Ramon Areces in "Sederias Carretas" shortly after his return from Cuba. Pepin refused, so Cesar requested that he at least allow Ramon to operate El Corte Ingles while plans to acquire the block and construct the new building were finalized. Pepin, who had also learned the department store business at "Almacenes El Encanto", accepted the request, and transferred ownership of El Corte Ingles to Cesar on 23 December 1935, and acquired the property where it was located on behalf of "Sederias Carretas" soon after. Once Cesar took ownership of El Corte Ingles, he designated Ramon Areces as manager, a position which he held until his death, including during the Spanish civil war.


title: El Corte Inglés

text: When the war ended in 1939, El Corte Ingles relocated to "calle Preciados", on the corner of "calle Tetuan", near the location of "Almacenes el Aguila", to make way for the new Galerias Preciados building.


title: El Corte Inglés

text: After the move in 1940, Areces turned the tailor's shop into a "sociedad limitada""," registering with 1 million pesetas of capital, and shares divided equally between Cesar Rodriguez, who became the first president of El Corte Ingles S.L., and Ramon Areces, whose share of the capital contribution came from a loan facilitated by his uncle. As the business expanded, Cesar Rodriguez eventually became the majority shareholder, although Areces remained in charge of strategic decisions and the day-to-day operations of the business.


title: El Corte Inglés

text: Between 1945 and 1946, El Corte Ingles acquired its new building and expanded to encompass 2000 square meters of retail space on 5 floors, and shifted to a department store organizational style similar to that of Galerias Preciados, which had been operational since 1943. The company saw continuous growth until 1952, when it converted its legal structure from a "sociedad limitada" to a "sociedad anónima" in which Cesar Rodriguez remained president and majority shareholder, a position which he held until his death in 1966. After this, Ramon Areces, who until then had been managing director, became the president and largest shareholder.


title: El Corte Inglés

text: The competition between El Corte Ingles and Galerias Preciados in the 1950s and 60's caused a revolution in Spanish retail distribution. Seasonal discounts, organized ad campaigns, air conditioned stores, massive use of publicity, large scale use of display windows, customer loyalty cards, point of sale data collection, and more. The expansion of El Corte Ingles began in 1962 with the opening of its second department store in Barcelona, and expansion continues until the present. Expansion also diversified into other formats including Hipercor, first introduced in Seville in 1980.


title: El Corte Inglés

text: In 1969, the company started to branch out of the retail sector, first opening a travel agency, Viajes El Corte Ingles, in 1969, followed by a telecom and computing equipment wholesaler, Investronica, in 1980, and an IT services and software development company, Informática El Corte Inglés (IECISA), in 1986.


title: El Corte Inglés

text: On the death of Areces in 1989, his nephew Isidoro Álvarez became his successor and continued expanding the business while emphasizing self-reliant financing methods, opaque management techniques, and careful investment. In 1995, El Corte Inglés bought out Galerías Preciados, which was its only serious competitor and had entered bankruptcy. In addition to acquiring its arch-rival Galerias Preciados, El Corte Ingles also purchased all of the Marks & Spencer stores in the Iberian peninsula in 2001.


title: El Corte Inglés

text: El Corte Ingles entered into a partnership with Repsol in 1998, through which El Corte Ingles would operate convenience stores at Repsol fuel stations. These stores were initially known as Repsol-Supercor, or Repsol-Opencor after 2008, while those not attached to fuel stations were called Opencor. In 2001, El Corte Ingles opened a retail fashion outlet called Sfera. Its first big-box store, Bricor, specializing in home decor and DIY supplies, opened in 2006.


title: El Corte Inglés

text: In October 2013, the firm sold a 51% stake in the financing department to the Spanish banking group Grupo Santander for around €140 million. From 2014 to 2018 the CEO of the company was Dimas Gimeno.


title: El Corte Inglés

text: In June 2020, El Corte Inglés bought the private security and services company MEGA 2 for 28 million euros.


title: El Corte Inglés

text: The first attempts at international expansion took place in 1981 with the acquisition of the Harris Company, a chain of mid-sized department stores in the United States. The venture was unsuccessful, and in 1998 El Corte Ingles made a deal with Gottschalks, in which Gottschalks took over management of the Harris Company's stores and gave El Corte Ingles 16% of Harris Company stock. This later turned out to be a total loss when Gottschalks declared bankruptcy in the aftermath of the 2007-2008 financial crisis.


title: El Corte Inglés

text: This experience led to the company taking a much more conservative approach with its 2001 expansion in Portugal, with a store in Lisbon, followed in 2006 with a store in Vila Nova de Gaia, opposite the city of Porto. In 2006, just as it opened its second store outside of Spain (in "Vila Nova de Gaia"), the company announced expansion outside the Iberian Peninsula: Italy was to be the first country to host a store, but owing to the ongoing Eurozone crisis, the plan was suspended, as well as the opening of the third store in Portugal.


title: El Corte Inglés

text: According to Deloitte's report on "Global Powers of Retailing," El Corte Ingles ranked 97th in 2020, down 27 places from 2019, when it ranked 69th. This made it the 3rd largest retailer by volume in Spain, behind Inditex and Mercadona. Total retail revenue in 2020 amount to €12,077 million. As of 2008, it was the second largest family business in Spain, and the 66th largest in the world.


title: El Corte Inglés

text: The company's retail revenue and net profit both increased continuously until 2007, when they began to drop. The company has not since returned to its 2007 peak of revenue, which was close to €18,000 million, with €747.6 million net profits. Since then, both revenue and profits declined until 2015, and then increased until 2019.


title: El Corte Inglés

text: Although the company is known for jealously guarding its privacy, numerous statements have indicated that the Ramón Areces Foundation is the biggest shareholder, with 37% of the company's shares willed to the foundation by its founder. Isidoro Alvarez controls these shares as president of the foundation, together with his own shares, which are believed to be somewhere between 15 and 27% of total shares, making him the largest shareholder.


title: El Corte Inglés

text: Approximately 9% of shares are owned by the children of Luis Areces, Ramon Areces' brother, via the "Corporacion Ceslar".


title: El Corte Inglés

text: Equal parts of approximately 3% were divided between the four brothers of the Areces Fuentes brothers, sons of Ramon Areces' other brother Celestino. The brothers acquired these shares through inheritance after the liquidation of the holding company. After a lengthy legal conflict, however, they sold their shares to El Corte Ingles.


title: El Corte Inglés

text: Ingondel S.L. which held 6.4% of El Corte Ingles' capital, was property of the family of Gonzalez Delgado. It was acquired in 2009.


title: El Corte Inglés

text: A 7% share is in the hands of Cartera Mancor, S.L., which is also made up of the descendants of César Rodríguez, by way of Paloma García Peña.


title: El Corte Inglés

text: Approximately 3% is held by other members of the administrative council, and the remainder is divided between the treasure and some 3000 directors and executives of the company. It is presumed that these shareholders are always employees while they hold shares, since there are restrictions on the transfer of shares.


title: El Corte Inglés

text: The business group is divided into the following areas of activity, which are usually commercially configured as companies whose shareholding belongs in its entirety or overwhelmingly majority to El Corte Inglés S.A .:


title: El Corte Inglés

text: In the IT and communications fields, El Corte Inglés has three subsidiaries, which are listed in order of establishment:


title: El Corte Inglés

text: El Corte Ingles owns 100% of a number of businesses auxiliary to their main business functions, unless otherwise noted.


title: El Corte Inglés

text: El Corte Inglés' website was the largest in terms of the number of its customers in Spain, with 3.7 million customers in 2011. In 2013, 3.5 million customers and 137 million visits were registered. In December 2016 they reached their monthly peak, with more than 14 million unique users and more than 30 million visits to www.elcorteingles.es, increasing to 32 million in January 2017, becoming the most visited Spanish commercial website in Spain. It was the second most visited ecommerce website in Spain in 2017, behind Amazon.com.


title: El Corte Inglés

text: Since 1999 its General Director of Electronic Commerce and Distance Sales Division is Ricardo Goizueta Sagues and the Digital Director or Chief Digital Officer (CDO) is, since 2012, José María Fernández Ortega.


title: El Corte Inglés

text: Like Galerias Preciados in its time, El Corte Ingles' business model was based on introducing American style department stores to Spain during a period where Spain was emerging from economic isolation and autarky. As such, its business model revolved around the idea of a store where customer could buy everything, hence its slogan "The store for all your shopping" ("La tienda de todas tus compras)." Stores aimed not only to offer a wide variety of articles, but also goods of different levels of quality, with goods divided into departments with additional services such as home delivers, wedding lists, repairs included in sale price, etc., as well as satisfaction and quality assurances through money-back guarantees.


title: El Corte Inglés

text: The company's main business model has remained constant until the present. Its social and corporate responsibility documents emphasize five pillars of commitment to the customers: quality, service, assortment, specialization, and guarantees. This approach has been used to build customer loyalty.


title: El Corte Inglés

text: The El Corte Ingles shopping card is a credit card which was introduced in 1968, and is one of the most popular in Spain, with 11.58 million active cards in Spain in 2017. Card holders have a one-month grace period to pay off the balance of their card, with an option to defer payment for up to three months without interest, although administrative fees apply. Payment can also be deferred with low interest payments for up to 36 months. The card also grants holders the right to at least 2 hours free parking in store parking garages, and allows the purchase of any product sold in El Corte Ingles centers. Since 2006, the card can also be used to pay for fuel at Repsol fuel stations.


title: El Corte Inglés

text: In 2011, the company's workforce was made up of 99,323 employees, down from 102,699 the previous year. 93% of those had long-term contracts, and 71% were full-time. The median age of employees was 39 years, with 13 years of experience. 37% of total employees were male compared to 63% female, although in management males outnumbered females.


title: El Corte Inglés

text: Annual reports indicated that in 2012, the total number of employees further declined to 96,678, 94% of whom were full time, and 64% of whom were female.


title: El Corte Inglés

text: The relationship between El Corte Ingles and its employees has traditionally been formal, familiar, and paternalistic, with the company trying to establish feedback between the company and its employees. The company provides training and educational assistance, financial services, and discounts or financing for purchasing goods and services.


title: El Corte Inglés

text: The company has received criticism for discriminating against women, harassment of labor unions, is directly implicated in exploitative labor practices. In the majority of the company's locations, union elections are won by Fetico or FASGA, a national retail union accused of being a yellow union by the UGT and CCOO. Some companies in the El Corte Ingles group, such as Induyco, have been criticized by groups like Oxfam for issues of precarious work and exploitation of textile workers in third world countries.


title: El Corte Inglés

text: The company has pursued vertical integration since early on, especially with textiles, when Ramon Areces and other shareholders founded Induyco in 1949, and which became a "sociedad anonimo" in 1955. Induyco, in spite of having a non-proprietary relationship with El Corte Ingles, initially had El Corte Ingles as its exclusive wholesale client, and its employees were offered benefits as if they belonged to the same group. Later, Induyco still had El Corte Ingles as its majority client, although the relationship was no longer exclusive, though its share structure remained the same, and Isidoro Alvarez was the president. In 2010 El Corte Ingles integrated Induyco into its corporate structure, and in 2012 it ceased activities.


title: El Corte Inglés

text: In the field of texties, in addition to Induyco, the company created "Confecciones Teruel" in 1975 and "Industrias del Vestido" in 1976. Both companies got the majority of their capital from the Induyco group which itself was part of "Investronica" and "Invesgen". Its creation was motivated by labor conflicts which occurred at Induyco during those years.


title: El Corte Inglés

text: In the field of supplying special materials for sale, the company created "Mostoles Industrial" in the same way as Induyco. "Mostoles Industrial", unlike Induyco, retained El Corte Ingles as its exclusive customer while having a non-proprietary relationshi with it. "Mostoles" is most well known for its production of kitchen furniture for the "Forlady" brand.


title: El Corte Inglés

text: On the side of real estate development, the company created "Construcción, Promociones e Instalaciones S.A." in 1976, whose capital is derived in its entirety from the El Corte Ingles group, and which is responsible for the construction of new stores and renovation of existing ones.


title: El Corte Inglés

text: El Corte Ingles has one of the biggest advertising budgets in Spain. In 2011, the group was the biggest advertiser in Spain, with an investment of 171.3 million euros, and as an individual El Corte Ingles itself was the third biggest, with a budget of 99.8 million euros. The company periodically conducts large publicity campaigns like "Semana Fanstisca" (Fantasic Week) and the "Ocho Dias de Oro" (the Eight Golden Days) by announcing discounts on its products. On the Christmas holiday, it organizes an animation spectacle called "Cortylandia" in its main stores.


title: El Corte Inglés

text: Furthermore, part of El Corte Ingles' company culture includes sponsoring a number of activities that also serve as a form of advertising. For example, the El Corte Ingles Rally is a rally race that ran on the Canary Islands from 1977 to 2001.


title: El Corte Inglés

text: El Corte Ingles has 94 stores in the original format spread throughout Spain and Portugal. Stores are based in the following cities:


title: El Corte Inglés

text: El Corte Inglés' flagship store is located in Madrid at 79 Calle Raimundo Fernández Villaverde. The complex encompasses several buildings and carries the most comprehensive collection of designers of any large store in Spain. Designer boutiques in this store include: Hermès, Louis Vuitton, Cartier, Armani, Armani Jeans, Armani Collezioni, Gucci, Loewe, Dockers, Ralph Lauren, Bulgari, Dior, Dior Homme, Georges Rech, Versace, Hugo Boss, Boss Woman, Ermenegildo Zegna, Tommy Hilfiger, Dolce&Gabbana, Burberry (men/women), Façonnable, Pal Zileri, Paul & Shark, Lacoste, Pavillon Christofle, CH by Carolina Herrera, Escada Sport, James Purdey and Sons, Lloyd's, Purificación Garcia, Calvin Klein, Caroll Paris, Amitie, Episode, store brands (Emidio Tucci, Dustin) and many others. Also included is a branch of the Madrid-based Aldeo jewelers, carrying such jewellery designers as Boucheron, Blancpain and Hamilton.


title: Alois Alzheimer

text: Alois Alzheimer ( , , ; 14 June 1864 – 19 December 1915) was a German psychiatrist and neuropathologist and a colleague of Emil Kraepelin. Alzheimer is credited with identifying the first published case of "presenile dementia", which Kraepelin would later identify as Alzheimer's disease.


title: Alois Alzheimer

text: Alzheimer was born in Marktbreit, Bavaria, on 14 June 1864, the son of Anna Johanna Barbara Sabina and Eduard Román Alzheimer. His father served in the office of notary public in the family's hometown.


title: Alois Alzheimer

text: The Alzheimers moved to Aschaffenburg when Alois was still young in order to give their children an opportunity to attend the Royal Humanistic Gymnasium. After graduating with Abitur in 1883, Alzheimer studied medicine at University of Berlin, University of Tübingen, and University of Würzburg. In his final year at university, he was a member of a fencing fraternity, and even received a fine for disturbing the peace while out with his team. In 1887, Alois Alzheimer graduated from Würzburg as Doctor of Medicine.


title: Alois Alzheimer

text: The following year, he spent five months assisting mentally ill women before he took an office in the city mental asylum in Frankfurt, the Städtische Anstalt für Irre und Epileptische (Asylum for Lunatics and Epileptics). , a noted psychiatrist, was the dean of the asylum. Another neurologist, Franz Nissl, began to work in the same asylum with Alzheimer. Together, they conducted research on the pathology of the nervous system, specifically the normal and pathological anatomy of the cerebral cortex. Alzheimer was the co-founder and co-publisher of the journal "Zeitschrift für die gesamte Neurologie und Psychiatrie", though he never wrote a book that he could call his own.


title: Alois Alzheimer

text: While at the Frankfurt asylum, Alzheimer also met Emil Kraepelin, one of the best-known German psychiatrists of the time. Kraepelin became a mentor to Alzheimer, and the two worked very closely for the next several years. When Kraepelin moved to Munich to work at the Royal Psychiatric Hospital in 1903, he invited Alzheimer to join him.


title: Alois Alzheimer

text: At the time, Kraepelin was doing clinical research on psychosis in senile patients; Alzheimer, on the other hand, was more interested in the lab work of senile illnesses. The two men would face many challenges involving the politics of the psychiatric community. For example, both formal and informal arrangements would be made among psychiatrists at asylums and universities to receive cadavers.


title: Alois Alzheimer

text: In 1904, Alzheimer completed his habilitation at Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich, where he was appointed as a professor in 1908. Afterwards, he left Munich for the Silesian Friedrich Wilhelm University in Breslau in 1912, where he accepted a post as professor of psychiatry and director of the Neurologic and Psychiatric Institute. His health deteriorated shortly after his arrival so that he was hospitalized. Alzheimer died three years later.


title: Alois Alzheimer

text: In 1901, Alzheimer observed a patient at the Frankfurt asylum named Auguste Deter. The 51-year-old patient had strange behavioral symptoms, including a loss of short-term memory; she became his obsession over the coming years. Auguste Deter was a victim of the politics of the time in the psychiatric community; the Frankfurt asylum was too expensive for her husband. Herr Deter made several requests to have his wife moved to a less expensive facility, but Alzheimer intervened in these requests. Frau Deter, as she was known, remained at the Frankfurt asylum, where Alzheimer had made a deal to receive her records and brain upon her death.


title: Alois Alzheimer

text: On 8 April 1906, Frau Deter died, and Alzheimer had her medical records and brain brought to Munich where he was working in Kraepelin's laboratory. With two Italian physicians, he used the staining techniques of Bielschowsky to identify amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles. These brain anomalies would become identifiers of what later became known as Alzheimer's disease.


title: Alois Alzheimer

text: Alzheimer discussed his findings on the brain pathology and symptoms of presenile dementia publicly on 3November 1906, at the Tübingen meeting of the Southwest German Psychiatrists. The attendees at this lecture seemed uninterested in what he had to say. The lecturer that followed Alzheimer was to speak on the topic of "compulsive masturbation", which the audience of 88 individuals was so eagerly awaiting that they sent Alzheimer away without any questions or comments on his discovery of the pathology of a type of senile dementia.


title: Alois Alzheimer

text: Following the lecture, Alzheimer published a short paper summarizing his lecture; in 1907 he wrote a larger paper detailing the disease and his findings. The disease would not become known as Alzheimer's disease until 1910, when Kraepelin named it so in the chapter on "Presenile and Senile Dementia" in the 8th edition of his "Handbook of Psychiatry". By 1911, his description of the disease was being used by European physicians to diagnose patients in the US.


title: Alois Alzheimer

text: American Solomon Carter Fuller gave a report similar to that of Alzheimer at a lecture five months before Alzheimer. Oskar Fischer was a fellow German psychiatrist, 12 years Alzheimer's junior, who reported 12 cases of senile dementia in 1907 around the time that Alzheimer published his short paper summarizing his lecture.


title: Alois Alzheimer

text: Alzheimer and Fischer had different interpretations of the disease, but due to Alzheimer's short life, they never had the opportunity to meet and discuss their ideas.


title: Alois Alzheimer

text: Among the doctors trained by Alois Alzheimer and Emil Kraepelin at Munich in the beginning of the 20th century were the Spanish neuropathologists Nicolás Achúcarro and Gonzalo Rodríguez Lafora, two distinguished disciples of Santiago Ramón y Cajal and members of the Spanish Neurological School. Alzheimer recommended the young and brilliant Nicolás Achúcarro to organize the neuropathological service at the Government Hospital for the Insane, at Washington D.C. (current, NIH), and after two years of work, he was substituted by Gonzalo Rodríguez Lafora.


title: Alois Alzheimer

text: Alzheimer was known for having a variety of medical interests including vascular diseases of the brain, early dementia, brain tumors, forensic psychiatry and epilepsy. Alzheimer was a leading specialist in histopathology in Europe. His colleagues knew him to be a dedicated professor and cigar smoker.


title: Alois Alzheimer

text: In 1894, Alzheimer married Cecilie Simonette Nathalie Geisenheimer, with whom he had three children. Geisenheimer died in 1901.


title: Alois Alzheimer

text: In August 1912, Alzheimer fell ill on the train on his way to the University of Breslau, where he had been appointed professor of psychiatry in July 1912. Most probably he had a streptococcal infection and subsequent rheumatic fever leading to valvular heart disease, heart failure and kidney failure. He did not recover completely from this illness.


title: Alois Alzheimer

text: He died of heart failure on 19 December 1915 at age 51, in Breslau, Silesia (present-day Wrocław, Poland). He was buried on 23 December 1915 next to his wife at the Frankfurt Main Cemetery.


title: Alois Alzheimer

text: In the early 1990s, critics began to question Alzheimer's findings and form their own hypotheses based on Alzheimer's notes and papers. Amaducci and colleagues hypothesized that Auguste Deter had metachromatic leukodystrophy, a rare condition in which accumulations of fats affect the cells that produce myelin. Claire O'Brien, meanwhile, hypothesized that Auguste Deter actually had a vascular dementing disease.


title: Ibero-America

text: Ibero-America (, ) or Iberian America is a region in the Americas comprising countries or territories where Spanish or Portuguese are predominant languages (usually former territories of Portugal or Spain). Portugal and Spain are themselves included in some definitions, such as that of the Ibero-American Summit and the Organization of Ibero-American States. The Organization of Ibero-American States also includes Spanish-speaking Equatorial Guinea, in Central Africa, but not the Portuguese-speaking African countries. The Latin Recording Academy, the organization responsible for the Latin Grammy Awards, also includes Spain and Portugal as well as the Latino population of Canada and the United States in their definition of Ibero-America.


title: Ibero-America

text: The prefix "Ibero-" and the adjective "Iberian" refer to the Iberian Peninsula in Europe, which includes Portugal and Spain. Ibero-America includes all Hispanic American countries in North, Central, and South America plus the Hispanophone Caribbean, as well as the Portuguese-speaking country of Brazil. Ibero-America makes up the overwhelming bulk of Latin America, but is differentiated from Latin America by the exclusion of the French-speaking country of Haiti, the French overseas departments of French Guiana, Martinique and Guadeloupe, and the French collectivities of Saint Martin and Saint Barthélemy. In addition, the countries of Belize, Guyana and Suriname, whose official languages are English and Dutch, respectively, are not considered to be either Ibero-American or Latin American.


title: Ibero-America

text: Since 1991, the Iberoamerican Community of Nations organizes a yearly Ibero-American Summit meeting of the heads of state and governments of the Ibero-American countries, including Spain, Portugal and Andorra, this has since changed to biannually from 2014.


title: Jeff LaBar

text: Jeffrey Philip LaBar (March 18, 1963 – July 14, 2021) was an American guitarist in the glam metal band Cinderella, in which he replaced original guitarist Michael Schermick.


title: Jeff LaBar

text: During Cinderella's temporary break-up in the mid-1990s, LaBar supported himself by running a pizza shop with his brother and by doing assorted construction jobs.


title: Jeff LaBar

text: LaBar was also in a side band with Cinderella bandmate Eric Brittingham called Naked Beggars. In April 2007, LaBar and his wife Debinique parted ways with Naked Beggars. They hosted an internet radio show "Late Night with the LaBar's" on Realityradio.biz.


title: Jeff LaBar

text: In 2012, LaBar and Cinderella completed their 30th anniversary tour with fellow rock veterans Poison, who were also celebrating 30 years in the business.


title: Jeff LaBar

text: LaBar's debut solo record "One For The Road" was released August 2014. Jeff toured in support of his solo record with his son Sebastian and Jasmine Cain.


title: Jeff LaBar

text: LaBar was born in Darby, Pennsylvania, and grew up in Upper Darby Township, just outside Philadelphia. LaBar had part Japanese ancestry via his mother June. He was inspired by his brother Jack LaBar to pick up the guitar.


title: Jeff LaBar

text: LaBar had a son named Sebastian from a previous marriage. Sebastian is the lead guitarist in two bands, Mach22 and Tantric.


title: Jeff LaBar

text: LaBar died on July 14, 2021, at the age of 58, in Nashville, Tennessee. His wife Debinique Salazar discovered him unconscious in their Nashville apartment.


title: Lassen Volcanic National Park

text: Lassen Volcanic National Park is an American national park in northeastern California. The dominant feature of the park is Lassen Peak, the largest plug dome volcano in the world and the southernmost volcano in the Cascade Range. Lassen Volcanic National Park is one of the few areas in the world where all four types of volcano can be found—plug dome, shield, cinder cone, and stratovolcano.


title: Lassen Volcanic National Park

text: The source of heat for the volcanism in the Lassen area is subduction of the Gorda Plate diving below the North American Plate off the Northern California coast. The area surrounding Lassen Peak is still active with boiling mud pots, fumaroles, and hot springs.


title: Lassen Volcanic National Park

text: Lassen Volcanic National Park started as two separate national monuments designated by President Theodore Roosevelt in 1907: Cinder Cone National Monument and Lassen Peak National Monument. Starting in May 1914 and lasting until 1917, a series of minor to major eruptions occurred on Lassen. Because of the eruptive activity and the area's stark volcanic beauty, Lassen Peak, Cinder Cone, and the area surrounding were established as a National Park on August 9, 1916.


title: Lassen Volcanic National Park

text: The Atsugewi have inhabited the area since long before white settlers first saw Lassen. They knew that the peak was full of fire and water and thought it would one day blow itself apart.


title: Lassen Volcanic National Park

text: European immigrants in the mid-19th century used Lassen Peak as a landmark on their trek to the fertile Sacramento Valley. One of the guides to these immigrants was a Danish blacksmith named Peter Lassen, who settled in Northern California in the 1830s. Lassen Peak was named after him. Nobles Emigrant Trail was later cut through the park area and passed Cinder Cone and the Fantastic Lava Beds.


title: Lassen Volcanic National Park

text: Inconsistent newspaper accounts reported by witnesses from 1850 to 1851 described seeing "fire thrown to a terrible height" and "burning lava running down the sides" in the area of Cinder Cone. As late as 1859, a witness reported seeing fire in the sky from a distance, attributing it to an eruption. Early geologists and volcanologists who studied the Cinder Cone concluded the last eruption occurred between 1675 and 1700. After the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens, the United States Geological Survey (USGS) began reassessing the potential risk of other active volcanic areas in the Cascade Range. Further study of Cinder Cone estimated the last eruption occurred between 1630 and 1670. Recent tree-ring analysis has placed the date at 1666.


title: Lassen Volcanic National Park

text: The Lassen area was first protected by being designated as the Lassen Peak Forest Preserve. Lassen Peak and Cinder Cone were later declared as U.S. National Monuments in May 1907 by President Theodore Roosevelt.


title: Lassen Volcanic National Park

text: Starting in May 1914 and lasting until 1921, a series of minor to major eruptions occurred on Lassen. These events created a new crater, and released lava and a great deal of ash. Fortunately, because of warnings, no one was killed, but several houses along area creeks were destroyed. Because of the eruptive activity, which continued through 1917, and the area's stark volcanic beauty, Lassen Peak, Cinder Cone and the area surrounding were declared a National Park on August 9, 1916.


title: Lassen Volcanic National Park

text: The Main Park Road was constructed between 1925 and 1931, just 10 years after Lassen Peak erupted. Near Lassen Peak the road reaches , making it the highest road in the Cascade Mountains. It is not unusual for of snow to accumulate on the road near Lake Helen and for patches of snow to last into July.


title: Lassen Volcanic National Park

text: In October 1972, a portion of the park was designated as Lassen Volcanic Wilderness by the US Congress (Public Law 92-511). The National Park Service seeks to manage the wilderness in keeping with the Wilderness Act of 1964, with minimal developed facilities, signage, and trails. The management plan of 2003 adds that, "The wilderness experience offers a moderate to high degree of challenge and adventure."


title: Lassen Volcanic National Park

text: In 1974, the National Park Service took the advice of the USGS and closed the visitor center and accommodations at Manzanita Lake. The Survey stated that these buildings would be in the way of a rockslide from Chaos Crags if an earthquake or eruption occurred in the area. An aging seismograph station remains. However, a campground, store, and museum dedicated to Benjamin F. Loomis stands near Manzanita Lake, welcoming visitors who enter the park from the northwest entrance.


title: Lassen Volcanic National Park

text: After the Mount St. Helens eruption, the USGS intensified its monitoring of active and potentially active volcanoes in the Cascade Range. Monitoring of the Lassen area includes periodic measurements of ground deformation and volcanic-gas emissions and continuous transmission of data from a local network of nine seismometers to USGS offices in Menlo Park, California. Should indications of a significant increase in volcanic activity be detected, the USGS will immediately deploy scientists and specially designed portable monitoring instruments to evaluate the threat. In addition, the National Park Service (NPS) has developed an emergency response plan that would be activated to protect the public in the event of an impending eruption.


title: Lassen Volcanic National Park

text: The Lassen Chalet, a large lodge with concession facilities, was located near the southwest entrance, but was demolished in 2005. A new full-service visitor center in the same location opened to the public in 2008. The Lassen Ski Area was located near the lodge; it ceased operation in 1992 and all infrastructure has been removed.


title: Lassen Volcanic National Park

text: In 2021, the Dixie Fire burned large portions of the National Park, becoming the largest wildfire in park history. On August 5th, 2021, the fire entered Lassen Volcanic National Park near Juniper Lake and the entire park was closed for safety. The town of Mineral, including park headquarters, was forced to evacuate. Structure loss occurred at the Drakesbad Guest Ranch and at cabins near Juniper Lake. The Dixie Fire's advance northward was slowed by the 2012 Reading Fire footprint, but the Dixie Fire ultimately burned 73,240 acres within the park—approximately 69% of the park's total area. 12,845 acres, or 18% of that area, burned at a severity that left the landscape unchanged. 34,450 acres, or 49% of the burned area in the park, burned at a low-to-moderate severity. The remaining 23,493 acres, or 33% of the area burned by the Dixie Fire in Lassen Volcanic National Park, burned at a high severity.


title: Lassen Volcanic National Park

text: The NPS tracks Lassen visitors by counting vehicles entering the park via in-road inductive loops at all vehicle entrances. Buses and other non-reportable vehicles are subtracted from the vehicle count, which is then multiplied by three, an estimate of the number of visitors per vehicle.


title: Lassen Volcanic National Park

text: The park is located near the northern end of the Sacramento Valley, near the cities of Redding and Susanville. It is located in portions of Shasta, Lassen, Plumas, and Tehama counties.


title: Lassen Volcanic National Park

text: The western part of the park features great lava pinnacles (huge mountains created by lava flows), jagged craters, and steaming sulfur vents. It is cut by glaciated canyons and is dotted and threaded by lakes and rushing clear streams.


title: Lassen Volcanic National Park

text: The eastern part of the park is a vast lava plateau more than one mile (1.6 km) above sea level. Here, small cinder cones are found (Fairfield Peak, Hat Mountain, and Crater Butte). Forested with pine and fir, this area is studded with small lakes, but it boasts few streams. Warner Valley, marking the southern edge of the Lassen Plateau, features hot spring areas (Boiling Springs Lake, Devils Kitchen, and Terminal Geyser). This forested, steep valley also has large meadows that have wildflowers in spring.


title: Lassen Volcanic National Park

text: Lassen Peak is made of dacite, an igneous rock, and is one of the world's largest plug dome volcanoes. It is also the southernmost non-extinct volcano of the Cascade Range (specifically, the Shasta Cascade part of the range). The tall volcano sits on the north-east flank of the remains of Mount Tehama, a stratovolcano that was a thousand feet (305 m) higher than Lassen and wide at its base. After emptying its throat and partially doing the same to its magma chamber in a series of eruptions, Tehama either collapsed into itself and formed a two-mile (3.2 km) wide caldera in the late Pleistocene or was simply eroded away with the help of acidic vapors that loosened and broke the rock, which was later carried away by glaciers.


title: Lassen Volcanic National Park

text: Sulphur Works is a geothermal area in between Lassen Peak and Brokeoff Mountain that is thought to mark an area near the center of Tehama's now-gone cone. Other geothermal areas in the caldera are Little Hot Springs Valley, Diamond Point (an old lava conduit), and Bumpass Hell (see Geothermal areas in Lassen Volcanic National Park).


title: Lassen Volcanic National Park

text: The magma that fuels the volcanoes in the park is derived from subduction off the coast of Northern California. Cinder Cone and the Fantastic Lava Beds, located about northeast of Lassen Peak, is a cinder cone volcano and associated lava flow field that last erupted about 1650. It created a series of basaltic andesite to andesite lava flows known as the Fantastic Lava Beds.


title: Lassen Volcanic National Park

text: There are four shield volcanoes in the park; Mount Harkness (southwest corner of the park), Red Mountain (at south-central boundary), Prospect Peak (in northeast corner), and Raker Peak (north of Lassen Peak). All of these volcanoes are 7,000–8,400 feet (2,133–2,560 m) above sea level and each is topped by a cinder cone volcano.


title: Lassen Volcanic National Park

text: During ice ages, glaciers have modified and helped to erode the older volcanoes in the park. The center of snow accumulation and therefore ice radiation was Lassen Peak, Red Mountain, and Raker Peak. These volcanoes thus show more glacial scarring than other volcanoes in the park.


title: Lassen Volcanic National Park

text: The park is accessible via State Routes 89 and 44. SR 89 passes north–south through the park, beginning at SR 36 to the south and ending at SR 44 to the north. SR 89 passes immediately adjacent to the base of Lassen Peak. There are five vehicle entrances to the park: the north and south entrances on SR 89; and unpaved roads entering at Drakesbad and Juniper Lake in the south, and at Butte Lake in the northeast. The park can also be accessed by trails leading in from the Caribou Wilderness to the east, as well as the Pacific Crest Trail, and two smaller trails leading in from Willow Lake and Little Willow Lake to the south.


title: Lassen Volcanic National Park

text: According to the Köppen climate classification system, Lassen Volcanic National Park has a Mediterranean-influenced warm-summer Humid continental climate ("Dsb"). According to the United States Department of Agriculture, the Plant Hardiness zone at Kohm Yah-mah-nee Visitor Center at elevation is 6b with an average annual extreme minimum temperature of .


title: Lassen Volcanic National Park

text: Since the entire park is located at medium to high elevations, the park generally has cool-cold winters and warm summers below . Above this elevation, the climate is harsh and cold, with cool summer temperatures. Precipitation within the park is high to very high due to a lack of a rain shadow from the Coast Ranges. The park gets more precipitation than anywhere else in the Cascades south of the Three Sisters. Snowfall at the new visitor center near the southwest entrance at is around despite facing east. Up around Lake Helen, at the snowfall is around , making it probably the snowiest place in California. In addition, Lake Helen gets more average snow accumulation than any other recording station located near a volcano in the Cascade range, with a maximum of . Snowbanks persist year-round.


title: Lassen Volcanic National Park

text: According to the A. W. Kuchler U.S. Potential natural vegetation Types, Lassen Volcanic National Park has a red fir, "Abies magnifica" ("7") potential vegetation type with a California Conifer Forest ("2") potential vegetation form.


title: Lassen Volcanic National Park

text: Lying at the northern end of the Sierra Nevada forests ecoregion, Lassen Volcanic National Park preserves a landscape nearly as it existed before Euro-American settlement: its of old growth include all of its major forest types.


title: Lassen Volcanic National Park

text: At elevations below 6,500 feet the dominant vegetation community is the mixed conifer forest. ponderosa and Jeffrey pines, sugar pine, and white fir form the forest canopy for this rich community that also includes species of manzanita, gooseberry, and "Ceanothus". Common wildflowers include iris, spotted coralroot, pyrola, violets, and lupin.


title: Lassen Volcanic National Park

text: Above the mixed-conifer forest is the major community of the red fir forest. Between elevations of 6,500 and 8,000 feet, red fir, western white pine, mountain hemlock, and lodgepole pine dominate a community less diverse than the mixed-conifer forest. Common plants include satin lupine, woolly mule's-ears and pinemat manzanita.


title: Lassen Volcanic National Park

text: Subalpine areas include the upper limit for the growth of standing trees. From 8,000 feet to treeline, plants are fewer in overall number with exposed patches of bare ground providing a harsh environment. Rock spirea, lupin, Indian paintbrush, and penstemon are a few of the rugged members of this community. Trees in this community include whitebark pine and mountain hemlock.


title: Lassen Volcanic National Park

text: Species that are typically found in these forested areas are black bear, red fox, mule deer, marten, cougar, brown creeper, a variety of chipmunk species, raccoon, mountain chickadee, pika, a variety of squirrel species, white-headed woodpecker, coyote, bobcat, weasel, a variety of mouse species, long-toed salamander, skunk, and a wide variety of bat species. Areas such as Reflection Lake attract waterfowl, including Canada geese, great blue heron, snowy egret, and kingfisher.


title: Lassen Volcanic National Park

text: Lassen Volcanic Park is home to the Sierra Nevada red fox in particular, one of the rarest mammals in California. 20 individuals have been identified in the park, making it the largest known Sierra Nevada red fox population.


title: Lassen Volcanic National Park

text: A repopulation of wolves in California began in late December 2011. A northwestern wolf pack originally from Oregon known as the "Lassen Pack" inhabits the forest surrounding this national park. Other residential California wolves are the "Beckwourth" and "Whaleback" packs. The "Shasta" pack, which formerly was in the forest near this park, no longer appears to be extant.


title: Lassen Volcanic National Park

text: In the Cenozoic, uplifting and westward tilting of the Sierra Nevada along with extensive volcanism generated huge lahars (volcanic-derived mud flows) in the Pliocene which became the Tuscan Formation. This formation is not exposed anywhere in the national park but it is just below the surface in many areas.


title: Lassen Volcanic National Park

text: Also in the Pliocene, basaltic flows erupted from vents and fissures in the southern part of the park. These and later flows covered increasingly large areas and built a lava plateau. In the later Pliocene and into the Pleistocene, these basaltic flows were covered by successive thick and fluid flows of andesite lava, which geologists call the Juniper lavas and the Twin Lakes lavas. The Twin Lakes lava is black, porphyritic and has abundant xenocrysts of quartz (see Cinder Cone).


title: Lassen Volcanic National Park

text: Another group of andesite lava flows called the Flatiron, erupted during this time and covered the southwestern part of the park's area. The park by this time was a relatively featureless and large lava plain. Subsequently, the Eastern basalt flows erupted along the eastern boundary of what is now the park, forming low hills that were later eroded into rugged terrain.


title: Lassen Volcanic National Park

text: Mount Tehama (also known as Brokeoff Volcano) rose as a stratovolcano in the southwestern corner of the park during the Pleistocene. It was made of roughly alternating layers of andesitic lavas and tephra (volcanic ash, breccia, and pumice) with increasing amounts of tephra with elevation. At its height, Tehama was probably about high.


title: Lassen Volcanic National Park

text: Approximately 350,000 years ago its cone collapsed into itself and formed a two-mile (3.2 km) wide caldera after it emptied its throat and partially did the same to its magma chamber in a series of eruptions. One of these eruptions occurred where Lassen Peak now stands, and consisted of fluid, black, glassy dacite, which formed a layer thick (outcroppings of which can be seen as columnar rock at Lassen's base).


title: Lassen Volcanic National Park

text: During glacial periods (ice ages) of the present Wisconsinan glaciation, glaciers have modified and helped to erode the older volcanoes in the park, including the remains of Tehama. Many of these glacial features, deposits and scars, however, have been covered up by tephra and avalanches, or were destroyed by eruptions.


title: Lassen Volcanic National Park

text: Roughly 27,000 years ago (older data gave an age of 18,000 years), Lassen Peak started to form as a dacite lava dome quickly pushed its way through Tehama's former north-eastern flank. As the lava dome pushed its way up, it shattered overlaying rock, which formed a blanket of talus around the emerging volcano. Lassen rose and reached its present height in a relatively short time, probably in as little as a few years. Lassen Peak has also been partially eroded by Ice Age glaciers, at least one of which extended as much as from the volcano itself.


title: Lassen Volcanic National Park

text: Since then, smaller dacite domes formed around Lassen. The largest of these, Chaos Crags, is just north of Lassen Peak. Phreatic (steam explosion) eruptions, dacite and andesite lava flows and cinder cone formation have persisted into modern times.


title: Lassen Volcanic National Park

text: There are active hot springs and mud pots in the Lassen area. Some of these springs are the site of occurrence of certain extremophile micro-organisms, that are capable of surviving in extremely hot environments.


title: Singh Is Bliing

text: Singh Is Bliing is a 2015 Indian Hindi-language action comedy film directed by Prabhu Deva and produced by Ashvini Yardi under Grazing Goat Pictures, which provided the story and screenplay. The film stars Akshay Kumar, Amy Jackson, Lara Dutta and Kay Kay Menon. It is a quasi-sequel to the 2008 film "Singh Is Kinng".


title: Singh Is Bliing

text: "Singh Is Bliing" was released in global cinemas on 2 October 2015, coinciding with Gandhi Jayanti, to mixed reviews from critics. Despite of getting mixed to negative reviews the film became a 'HIT' at the box office by grossing over 135crores worldwide against a budget of 70crores with all praise for Kumar's performance . It was amongst the highest grossers of the year.


title: Singh Is Bliing

text: Raftaar Singh (Akshay Kumar) is a nice and fun-loving but uneducated man, with a mischievous and humorous character. He is thrown out of his home by his father who gives him an ultimatum: if he wants to come back, he must get into business with Kirpal Singh in Goa or marry a woman called Sweetie whom he doesn't like. Raftaar chooses the former. Meanwhile, Sara Rana (Amy Jackson) is shown living in Romania with her father, who made bad choices and works for the mafia. Mark, a mafia boss, wants to marry Sara but is rejected by Sara and her father, and shoots Mr Rana in anger. Sara manages to escape to Goa where she hopes to find her estranged mother.


title: Singh Is Bliing

text: Raftaar meets Kirpal Singh and lies about speaking English in order to get a job taking care of Sara while she is in India. Raftaar and his friends meet Sara at the airport; finding that Sara does not understand Hindi, Raftaar hires a translator, Emily (Lara Dutta). Sara meets Kirpal and feels safe but presumes Raftaar to be a bad guy. Sara's opinion changes when she sees Raftaar helping a woman who was bothered by a bunch of goons. When these goons later come after Raftaar, they are beaten-up by Sara. Emily is shocked to see that Sara can fight, but Sara warns Emily not to reveal about the incident to Raftaar.


title: Singh Is Bliing

text: Raftaar's friends and Sara are kidnapped by the same goons; Raftaar tries to save them but gets badly beaten. Sara later fights all the goons away and begins to fall for Raftaar. Kirpal feels happy with Raftaar's performance and soon becomes a successful businessman with his help. Mark learns that Sara is in Goa and sends his men to bring her back. Raftaar and Sara try to flee but their car is hit and Raftaar is beaten-up. He later fights them all except for a woman who is beaten-up by Sara. On Kirpal's advice, Raftaar takes Sara to his family home in Punjab.


title: Singh Is Bliing

text: Sara meets Raftaar's parents, and seeing Raftaar with them she reminisces of her childhood and cheers-up. Raftaar's father asks Sara about her relationship with Raftaar, and she reveals that she is in love with him. Earlier, Emily had handed responsibility to Raftaar to find Sara's lost mother, and they return to Goa where Sara sees her mother with a child, thinking her mother had a second marriage and is happily living her life. Sara decides to go back to Romania, saying she would never return. Raftaar feels heartbroken seeing her leave.


title: Singh Is Bliing

text: In Romania, Sara finds her father recovering in hospital. Raftaar finds Sara's mother and brings her to Romania, reuniting the family, and Sara confesses her love to Raftaar. Raftaar decides to marry Sara, telling his family and purchasing a cake, flowers and new clothes. He goes to church but is angered when he finds Sara about to marry Mark. Sara refuses to marry Mark, who challenges Raftaar to a fight. Raftaar manages to beat Mark and his men but is shot. Sara is worried that Raftaar may die, but he wakes after remembering the lessons taught by his father and resumes the fight with Mark. Raftaar is able to beat the mafia and Mark, who dies after saying "You're too good, "sardaar" " ( 'chieftain' or 'leader'), with Raftaar left hanging by the side of a bridge. Sara and Raftaar confirm their love for each other, and Raftaar is saved and returns to Punjab to celebrate his happiness with his friends, family, and Sara. The film ends with Raftaar and Sara performing a song together.


title: Singh Is Bliing

text: Prabhu Deva cameos as a man in the washroom and in the song "Singh and Kaur". Also Sunny Leone cameos as a woman who Singh mistakes for Sara in the airport.


title: Singh Is Bliing

text: In early 2014, it was announced that actor Akshay Kumar and director Prabhudheva would be reuniting for another film after their previous blockbuster, "Rowdy Rathore". Soon after, it was confirmed that the film would be titled 'Singh Is Bliing' and was to be produced by Grazing Goat Pictures.


title: Singh Is Bliing

text: After Akshay Kumar was signed for the lead role, Kareena Kapoor was replaced by Kriti Sanon for the female lead.


title: Singh Is Bliing

text: Principal photography started in early April 2015. Kumar posted a photo on Twitter stating the film's first day shoot.


title: Singh Is Bliing

text: The final portion of the film including the climax was reportedly shot in Romania's Hunedoara Castle in the first week of July.


title: Singh Is Bliing

text: Shri Akal Takht "Jathedar" (the highest member of the Sikh clergy), Giani Gurbachan Singh, objected to scenes in the film's trailer. He said that equating Holy Golden Temple with whisky and chicken is highly objectionable, as were film posters which had Kada with inscribed "Gurbani" shown with semi-clad women. It was appealed that Shiromani Gurdwara Parbandhak Committee should be consulted by all film producers before producing movies showing Sikh characters, religious places or religious symbols.


title: Singh Is Bliing

text: Some Sikh organisations raised objections to scenes of the film which contained Kara used as a weapon and the lead character's turban being set on fire. Central Board of Film Certification decided to delete these scenes from the film. Kumar screened the movie for the organisations to ensure nothing that would hurt the Sikh community was shown.


title: Singh Is Bliing

text: Shubha Shetty Saha from "Mid-Day" described the comedy as "random and silly", but commented that "it is this randomness that also makes it a breezy, entertaining film". Devesh Sharma from "Filmfare" wrote that filmgoers should "watch the film if you like cornball comedies". Shubhra Gupta from "The Indian Express", however, was less receptive to the film, which she rated 1.5 stars of 5, expounding, "The only thing which saves it is that it wears its silliness proudly on its hero's 'pug' (turban)".


title: Singh Is Bliing

text: Rohit Vats from "Hindustan Times" noted the film's plot holes, poor screenplay and problematic dialogue. Saibal Chatterjee from "NDTV" wrote, "What is irretrievably amiss with the film is that nothing it says manages to drift anywhere near some degree of coherence." Surbhi Redkar from "Koimoi" commented, "Akshay Kumar's "Singh Is Bliing" is enjoyable in parts but as a whole it is not up to the mark. It loses its bling over time and you are just left watching the silly antics of Mr. Singh."


title: Singh Is Bliing

text: Tushar Joshi from "Daily News and Analysis" wrote, ""Singh is Bliing" has some genuinely funny moments and Lara Dutta brings a certain freshness to the film." "India TV" wrote, "Overall, "Singh is Bliing" does not disappoint. One steps in expecting mindless humour, entertainment and some fairly good performances and on that front the film delivers. That there would be a spectacular story was never an expectation".


title: Singh Is Bliing

text: Bishwajit Aribam from Tehelka said that the film seemed to be a copy of the 2006 South Korean film "My Wife is a Gangster 3".


title: Singh Is Bliing

text: The soundtrack album of "Singh is Bliing" consists of eight songs with an unplugged versions and two remix versions. Sneha Khanwalkar composed only one song titled "Tung Tung Baaje", Sajid–Wajid composed one song titled "Cinema Dekhe Mamma" and Meet Bros also composed one song "Dil Kare Chu Che". Manj Musik composed two tracks "Singh And Kaur", "Mahi Aaja", the remix versions of the two tracks he composed and an unplugged version of the song "Mahi Aaja". Sandeep Shirodkar composed the film score. The lyrics were penned by Sneha Khanwalkar, Manj Musik, Nindy Kaur, Raftaar, Big Dhillon, Wajid, Irfan Kamal and Kumaar. A single from the film "Tung Tung Baaje" was launched digitally on 12 August 2015, and was premiered with another Akshay Kumar-starrer "Brothers" on 14 August 2015, which is something new for a Bollywood film. The full album was released on 28 August 2015, and received positive reviews from critics. Popular music website Glamsham rated the album 3.5 out of 5 stars and stated that "The album does manage to live up to its expectations" and chose "Tung Tung Baaje", "Singh And Kaur" and "Maahi Aaja" as their picks.


title: Singh Is Bliing

text: The film became Kumar's highest-opener, beating the previous record of "Brothers" as it collected net on its opening day. On its second day the film collected net. The film collected net on its third day, bringing its first weekend total to an estimated . By the end of its first week, the film collected approximately net.


title: Serratiopeptidase

text: Serratiopeptidase (Serratia E-15 protease, also known as serralysin, serrapeptase, serratiapeptase, serratia peptidase, serratio peptidase, or serrapeptidase) is a proteolytic enzyme (protease) produced by enterobacterium "Serratia" sp. E-15, now known as "Serratia marcescens" ATCC 21074. This microorganism was originally isolated in the late 1960s from silkworm ("Bombyx mori" L.) intestine. Serratiopeptidase is present in the silkworm intestine and allows the emerging moth to dissolve its cocoon. Serratiopeptase is produced by purification from culture of Serratia E-15 bacteria. It is a member of the Peptitase M10B (Matrixin) family.


title: Serratiopeptidase

text: Some alternative medicine proponents claim that serratiopeptidase is beneficial for pain and inflammation but "existing trials [have been] small and generally of poor methodological quality." Online medical journal "Bandolier" (specializing in evidence-based thinking about healthcare) published an article (in about 2001) in response to a reader's enquiry about serratiopeptidase. After searching PubMed and the Cochrane Library "to see if there are any randomised, controlled trials", the article stated that the "evidence on serratiopeptidase being effective for anything is not based on a firm foundation of clinical trials."


title: Serratiopeptidase

text: The search found 34 publications in the medical databases covered that addressed the efficacy of serratiopeptidase, of which several were found to be animal experiments, personal letters, uncontrolled trials or those with inadequate or nonexistent randomisation. The article warned against ignoring safety issues with use of biological agents. No studies were found to have been conducted on the efficacy of serratiopeptidase as treatment for back pain, heart attack, stroke, or asthma. Of the 10 medical conditions with randomized-evidence studies on file in connection with serratiopeptidase, the quality or construction of the trial studies was described as "generally poor".


title: Need for Speed III: Hot Pursuit

text: Need for Speed III: Hot Pursuit is a 1998 racing video game developed for PlayStation by EA Canada and Microsoft Windows by EA Seattle, and published by Electronic Arts. It is the third major installment in the "Need for Speed" franchise, incorporating police pursuits as a major part of gameplay. "Hot Pursuit" remains focused on racing using exotic sports cars, but features races that primarily take place in locations within North America, including varied settings and climates. Police AI is improved over the first game, utilizing several tactics to stop both the player and opponent. The PlayStation version was released on March 25, 1998, while the Windows version was released on October 12 the same year. The game received critical success for its time, with praise for its graphics and fast action. It received in 2002 and in 2010.


title: Need for Speed III: Hot Pursuit

text: With police pursuits reintegrated into the game, "Hot Pursuit"s gameplay now consists of two categories. The first encompasses standard racing, as it has been in its predecessors, "The Need for Speed" and "Need for Speed II", in which the player is allowed to race against one (including split-screen races) or seven other racers in normal circuit racers, knockouts, or tournaments (which allow the player to unlock bonus vehicles and a bonus track). The second category is dubbed "Hot Pursuit", where police pursuits are included in races; the mode allows the player to select a standard sports car to race against a single opponent in a police-scattered track. The PC version also contains a role reversal variation in which players select a police version of a sports car to pursue and stop all six racers before they complete the race. Completing the Hot Pursuit challenges in both roles in the PC version on every track of the game unlocks additional police sports cars.


title: Need for Speed III: Hot Pursuit

text: Two modes were introduced in the game. The two-player split-screen mode allows two players to race using the same computer. The "Knockout" mode consists of seven races with eight racers on randomly chosen tracks, in which conditions such as selected difficulty, weather, and so on that the player has chosen before starting the race-series will apply. Each race consists of two laps where the driver who finishes last will be eliminated from the race lineup. All other drivers advance to the next round and carry on with the battle until there is only one player left, who technically wins the knockout competition. The standard "Tournament" mode consists of eight opponents in a four-lap race on randomly selected tracks and choices made by the player as in the knockout mode take effect when the tournament is started. The game supports network play through a serial port, modem, or IPX, and online gaming through TCP/IP protocol. It also allowed spawn installations of itself to be installed on other machines.


title: Need for Speed III: Hot Pursuit

text: Racing tracks range from desert canyons to countryside villages, as well as snow-capped mountain ranges. Most tracks contain one or more secret shortcuts.


title: Need for Speed III: Hot Pursuit

text: Car tuning was also introduced, which allowed any car's handling to be customized by adjusting low or high-end properties for engine tuning and gear ratios, front or back brake balance, slow or fast braking speed, soft or stiff suspension, low or high aerodynamics as well as rain or racing tires. Any of these options could be modified via sliders to offer a digit-sensitive, percentage-based effect to the selected car's overall performance. Higher-end engine and gear tuning, for example, will compromise acceleration for better top speed. Rear-based brake balance and slow braking speeds make for wider, drifting turns, and aerodynamics provide even higher speeds at the loss of handling.


title: Need for Speed III: Hot Pursuit

text: "Hot Pursuit"s pursuit system has been significantly improved in terms of AI and police tactics over "The Need for Speed". The game now requires that the racer only stops near a pursuing police car to be ticketed or arrested by the police, as opposed to being overtaken by a police car, forcing the racer to pull over for the same punishments. Accordingly, police cars are now programmed with the ability to block a racer's car in an attempt to halt them. In addition, whereas the original "Need for Speed" would only have a single police car chasing a racer in each pursuit, "Hot Pursuit" allows more police cars to pursue a racer, opening up the opportunity for them to collectively ambush the racer's car.


title: Need for Speed III: Hot Pursuit

text: Tactical aspects of the police pursuits have also been improved. The police have the ability to deploy roadblocks which has computer-controlled police cars form a wall across the road, and spike strips which puncture the tires of a racer's car, bringing it to a halt. Both tactics present weaknesses, specifically gaps in the blockade that can be used by a racer to avoid collisions with police cars, or tire punctures from a spike strip which is only deployed on one side of the road. The player may also listen to police radio chatter on the pursuits' statuses, revealing to them the current locations of racers, police cars, as well as roadblocks and spike strips. The radio chatter also reveals reactions to specific events, such as a racer's collision with a parked police car, as well as referencing the racer's passing speed and the occurrence of the race itself ("It looks like the cars are racing!"). Furthermore, if a computer-controlled racer's driving conduct proves to be more dangerous (also chosen by the player) than that of the racer's, the police may relent their pursuit of the player and chase the AI instead.


title: Need for Speed III: Hot Pursuit

text: The PlayStation version of "Need for Speed III: Hot Pursuit" received "favorable" reviews, just two points shy of "universal acclaim", according to the review aggregation website Metacritic. "Next Generation"s July 1998 issue called the same console version "an excellent racer for both novice and expert enthusiasts. Hopefully EA will continue to improve the engine so that "" offers a great two-player experience as well." Five issues later, the magazine said of the PC version, "Add the fine 3D-accelerated graphics, lightning-fast response to the controller, incredible weather effects, and impressively valued terrain, and you've got a winner." James Price of "Official UK PlayStation Magazine" gave the PlayStation version seven out of ten, saying, "While certainly accomplished, "Need for Speed 3" is hamstrung – in a direct head-to-head with "Gran Turismo", EA's title just can't compete. It's a great shame because it's one of the most playable racing games released in the past year." In Japan, where the same PlayStation version was ported for release under the name on September 23, 1998, "Famitsu" gave it a score of 29 out of 40.


title: Need for Speed III: Hot Pursuit

text: "AllGame" gave the PlayStation and PC versions each four-and-a-half stars out of five, with Shawn Sackenheim saying of the former, "All things considered, "Need for Speed 3" is a blast! A bit hard at first in the tournaments but the hot pursuit and two player modes will have you racing well into the night for weeks on end"; and Jonathan Sutyak calling the latter "a great game because of the ability to play as the police and take part in multiplayer games. Take away those two modes and you have a basic racing game with great graphics." However, "Edge" gave the former version seven out of ten, saying that it "doesn't manage to regain the 'rawness' of the first installment, remaining a fun title that will undoubtedly gain admirers at the expertise of most racing afficionados."


title: Need for Speed III: Hot Pursuit

text: The game was heralded during its time for its intense action and beautiful graphics. "Edge" praised the design of the game's tracks and challenging police pursuits, but criticized the weightlessness of some cars for "failing to convince the player of any realistic dynamics at work."


title: Need for Speed III: Hot Pursuit

text: The game reached number 10 in the UK charts. In the US, the PC version sold 276,000 copies during 1999 alone, at an average of $25. In February 1999, the same PC version received a "Gold" sales award from the Verband der Unterhaltungssoftware Deutschland (VUD), indicating sales of at least 100,000 units across Germany, Austria and Switzerland.


title: Need for Speed III: Hot Pursuit

text: The same PC version was a finalist for "Computer Games Strategy Plus" 1998 "Racing Game of the Year" award, which ultimately went to "Motocross Madness". The staff said that the game offers "great looks, and excellent racing action." "PC Gamer US" likewise nominated the game as the best racing game of 1998, although it lost again to "Motocross Madness". They wrote, "For pure arcade rush, it's hard to beat Electronic Arts' thrilling "Need for Speed III"." It won the "Personal Computer: Simulation Game of the Year" award at AIAS' Second Interactive Achievement Awards, the "Best Driving" award at "Computer Gaming World"s 1999 Premier Awards, and the "Driving Game of the Year" award at "GameSpot"s Best & Worst of 1998 Awards. It was also nominated for Best Multiplayer Game and Best Racing Game at the 1998 "CNET Gamecenter" Awards, for "Console: Racing Game of the Year" at AIAS' Second Interactive Achievement Awards, for the "Best Racing Game" award at the 1998 "OPM" Editors' Awards, and for the "Best Racing Game of the Year" award at "IGN"s Best of 1998 Awards, all of which went to "StarCraft", "Grand Prix Legends", "Gran Turismo", and "Powerslide", respectively.


title: Business telephone system

text: A business telephone system is a multiline telephone system typically used in business environments, encompassing systems ranging in technology from the key telephone system (KTS) to the private branch exchange (PBX).


title: Business telephone system

text: A business telephone system differs from an installation of several telephones with multiple central office (CO) lines in that the CO lines used are directly controllable in key telephone systems from multiple telephone stations, and that such a system often provides additional features related to call handling. Business telephone systems are often broadly classified into key telephone systems, and private branch exchanges, but many hybrid systems exist.


title: Business telephone system

text: A key telephone system was originally distinguished from a private branch exchange in that it did not require an operator or attendant at the switchboard to establish connections between the central office trunks and stations, or between stations. Technologically, private branch exchanges share lineage with central office telephone systems, and in larger or more complex systems, may rival a central office system in capacity and features. With a key telephone system, a station user could control the connections directly using line buttons, which indicated the status of lines with built-in lamps.


title: Business telephone system

text: Key telephone systems are primarily defined by arrangements with individual line selection buttons for each available telephone line. The earliest systems were known as "wiring plans" and simply consisted of telephone sets, keys, lamps, and wiring.


title: Business telephone system

text: "Key" was a Bell System term of art for a customer-controlled switching system such as the line buttons on the phones associated with such systems.


title: Business telephone system

text: The wiring plans evolved into modular hardware building blocks with a variety of functionality and services in the 1A key telephone system developed in the Bell System in the 1930s.


title: Business telephone system

text: Key systems can be built using three principal architectures: electromechanical shared-control, electronic shared-control, or independent key sets.


title: Business telephone system

text: New installations of key telephone systems have become less common, as hybrid systems and private branch exchanges of comparable size have similar cost and greater functionality.


title: Business telephone system

text: Before the advent of large-scale integrated circuits, key systems were typically composed of electromechanical components (relays) as were larger telephone switching systems.


title: Business telephone system

text: The systems marketed in North America as the 1A, 6A, 1A1 and the 1A2 Key System are typical examples and sold for many decades. The 1A family of Western Electric Company (WECo) key telephone units (KTUs) were introduced in the late 1930s and remained in use to the 1950s. 1A equipment was primitive and required at least two KTUs per line; one for line termination and one for station (telephone instrument) termination. The telephone instrument commonly used by 1A systems was the WECo 300-series telephone. Introduced in 1953, 1A1 key systems simplified wiring with a single KTU for both line and station termination, and increased the features available. As the 1A1 systems became commonplace, requirements for intercom features grew. The original intercom KTUs, WECo Model 207, were wired for a single talk link, that is, a single conversation on the intercom at a time. The WECo 6A dial intercom system provided two talk links and was often installed as the dial intercom in a 1A1 or 1A2 key system. The 6A systems were complex, troublesome and expensive, and never became popular. The advent of 1A2 technology in the 1964 simplified key system set up and maintenance. These continued to be used throughout the 1980s, when the arrival of electronic key systems with their easier installation and greater features signaled the end of electromechanical key systems.


title: Business telephone system

text: Two lesser-known key systems were used at airports for air traffic control communications, the 102 and 302 key systems. These were uniquely designed for communications between the air traffic control tower and radar approach control (RAPCON) or ground control approach (GCA), and included radio line connections.


title: Business telephone system

text: Automatic Electric Company also produced a family of key telephone equipment, some of it compatible with Western Electric equipment, but it did not gain the widespread use enjoyed by Western Electric equipment.


title: Business telephone system

text: With the advent of LSI ICs, the same architecture could be implemented much less expensively than was possible using relays. In addition, it was possible to eliminate the many-wire cabling and replace it with much simpler cable similar to (or even identical to) that used by non-key systems. Electronic shared-control systems led quickly to the modern hybrid telephone system, as the features of PBX and key system quickly merged. One of the most recognized such systems is the AT&T Merlin.


title: Business telephone system

text: Features could be added or modified simply using software, allowing easy customization of these systems. The stations were easier to maintain than the previous electromechanical key systems, as they used efficient LEDs instead of incandescent light bulbs for line status indication.


title: Business telephone system

text: LSI also allowed smaller systems to distribute the control (and features) into individual telephone sets that don't require any single shared control unit. Generally, these systems are used with a relatively few telephone sets and it is often more difficult to keep the feature set (such as speed-dialing numbers) in synchrony between the various sets.


title: Business telephone system

text: Into the 21st century, the distinction between key systems and PBX systems has become increasingly blurred. Early electronic key systems used dedicated handsets which displayed and allowed access to all connected PSTN lines and stations.


title: Business telephone system

text: The modern key system now supports SIP, ISDN, analog handsets (in addition to its own proprietary handsets - usually digital) as well as a raft of features more traditionally found on larger PBX systems. Their support for both analog and digital signaling, and of some PBX functionality gives rise to the "hybrid" designation.


title: Business telephone system

text: A hybrid system typically has some call appearance buttons that directly correspond to individual lines and/or stations, but may also support direct dialing to extensions or outside lines without selecting a line appearance.


title: Business telephone system

text: The modern key system is usually fully digital, although analog variants persist and some systems implement VOIP services. Effectively, the aspects that distinguish a PBX from a hybrid key system are the amount, scope and complexity of the features and facilities offered.


title: Business telephone system

text: A PBX is a telephone exchange or switching system that serves a private organization and permits sharing of central office trunks between internally installed telephones, and provides intercommunication between those internal telephones within the organization without the use of external lines. The central office lines provide connections to the public switched telephone network (PSTN) and the concentration aspect of a PBX permits the shared use of these lines between all stations in the organization. Its intercommunication ability allows two or more stations to directly connect while not using the public switched telephone network. This method reduces the number of lines needed from the organization to the public switched telephone network.


title: Business telephone system

text: Each device connected to the PBX, such as a telephone, a fax machine, or a computer modem, is referred to as an extension and has a designated extension telephone number that may or may not be mapped automatically to the numbering plan of the central office and the telephone number block allocated to the PBX.


title: Business telephone system

text: Initially, PBX systems offered the primary advantage of cost savings for internal phone calls: handling the circuit switching locally reduced charges for telephone service via central-office lines. As PBX systems gained popularity, they began to feature services not available in the public network, such as hunt groups, call forwarding, and extension dialing. From the 1960s, a simulated PBX, known as Centrex, provided similar features from the central telephone exchange.


title: Business telephone system

text: A PBX differs from a key telephone system (KTS) in that users of a key system manually select their own outgoing lines on special telephone sets that control buttons for this purpose, while PBXs select the outgoing line automatically. The telephone sets connected to a PBX do not normally have special keys for central-office line control, but it is not uncommon for key systems to be connected to a PBX to extend its services.


title: Business telephone system

text: A PBX, in contrast to a key system, employs an organizational numbering plan for its stations. In addition, a dial plan determines whether additional digit sequences must be prefixed when dialing to obtain access to a central office trunk. Modern number-analysis systems permit users to dial internal and external telephone numbers without special codes to distinguish the intended destination.


title: Business telephone system

text: The term PBX originated when switchboard operators managed company switchboards manually using cord circuits. As automated electromechanical switches and later electronic switching systems gradually replaced the manual systems, the terms "private automatic branch exchange" (PABX) and "private manual branch exchange" (PMBX) differentiated them. Solid-state digital systems were sometimes referred to as "electronic private automatic branch exchanges" (EPABX). , the term PBX is by far the most widely recognized. The abbreviation now applies to all types of complex, in-house telephony switching systems.


title: Business telephone system

text: Two significant developments during the 1990s led to new types of PBX systems. One was the massive growth of data networks and increased public understanding of packet switching. Companies needed packet-switched networks for data, so using them for telephone calls proved tempting, and the availability of the Internet as a global delivery system made packet-switched communications even more attractive. These factors led to the development of the voice over IP PBX, or IP-PBX.


title: Business telephone system

text: The other trend involved the idea of focusing on core competence. PBX services had always been hard to arrange for smaller companies, and many companies realized that handling their own telephony was not their core competence. These considerations gave rise to the concept of the hosted PBX. In wireline telephony, the original hosted PBX was the Centrex service provided by telcos since the 1960s; later competitive offerings evolved into the modern competitive local exchange carrier. In voice over IP, hosted solutions are easier to implement as the PBX may be located at and managed by any telephone service provider, connecting to the individual extensions via the Internet. The upstream provider no longer needs to run direct, local leased lines to the served premises.


title: Business telephone system

text: Many manufacturers provided manually operated private branch exchange systems in various sizes and features; examples are pictured here:


title: Business telephone system

text: Since the advent of Internet telephony (Voice over IP) technologies, PBX development has tended toward the IP PBX, which uses the Internet Protocol to carry calls. Most modern PBXs support VoIP. ISDN PBX systems also replaced some traditional PBXs in the 1990s, as ISDN offers features such as conference calling, call forwarding, and programmable caller ID. As of 2015 ISDN is being phased out by most major telecommunication carriers throughout Europe in favour of all-IP networks, with some expecting complete migration by 2025.


title: Business telephone system

text: Originally having started as an organization's manual switchboard or attendant console operated by a telephone operator or just simply the "operator", PBXs have evolved into VoIP centers that are hosted by the operators or even manufacturers.


title: Business telephone system

text: Even though VoIP is considered by many people as the future of telephony, the circuit switched network remains the core of communications, and the existing PBX systems are competitive in services with modern IP systems. Five distinct scenarios exist:


title: Business telephone system

text: For the option to call from IP network to the circuit-switched PSTN (SS7/ISUP), the hosted solutions include interconnecting media gateways.


title: Business telephone system

text: Historically, the expense of full-fledged PBX systems has put them out of reach of small businesses and individuals. However, since the 1990s many small, consumer-grade and consumer-size PBXs have become available. These systems are not comparable in size, robustness or flexibility to commercial-grade PBXs, but still provide many features.


title: Business telephone system

text: The first consumer PBX systems used analog (POTS) telephone lines, typically supporting four private analog and one public analog line. They were the size of a small cigar box. In Europe these systems for analog phones were followed by consumer-grade PBXs for ISDN. Using small PBXs for ISDN is a logical step, since the ISDN basic rate interface provides two logical phone lines (via two ISDN B channels) which can be used in parallel. With the adoption of VoIP by consumers, consumer VoIP PBXs have appeared, with PBX functions becoming simple additional software features of consumer-grade routers and switches. Additionally, many telecommunications providers now offer hosted PBX systems where the provider actually hosts the PBX and the phone handsets are connected to it through an internet connection.


title: Business telephone system

text: Open source projects have provided PBX-style features since the 1990s. These projects provide flexibility, features, and programmability.


title: Business telephone system

text: Launched in 1997, IP-PBX took business communication to the next level. IP-PBX is a PBX phone system that uses Internet Protocol (IP) data networks to manage the routing and switching of calls as well as to handle messaging. Virtual hosting resulted in significant cost efficiencies. Apart from offering advanced features (like voicemail), the system could also use a VoIP gateway to connect to traditional PSTN lines. This gave the user the option of continuing with the same carrier. Over time, improvements in the user interface and call quality, along with cost benefits, added to the popularity of IP-PBX among small businesses.


title: Business telephone system

text: In addition to these basic functions, PBXs offer many other calling features and capabilities, with different manufacturers providing different features in an effort to differentiate their products.


title: Business telephone system

text: A data record from a PBX or other telecommunication system that provides the statistics for a telephone call is usually termed a "call detail record" (CDR) or a Station Messaging Detail Record (SMDR).


title: Business telephone system

text: Virtual PBX systems or hosted PBX systems deliver PBX functionality as a service, available over the public switched telephone network (PSTN) or the Internet. Hosted PBXs are typically provided by a telephone company or service provider, using equipment located in the premises of a telephone exchange or the provider's data center. This means the customer does not need to buy or install PBX equipment. Generally the service is provided by a lease agreement and the provider can, in some configurations, use the same switching equipment to service multiple hosted PBX customers.


title: Business telephone system

text: The first hosted PBX services were feature-rich compared to most premises-based systems of the time. Some PBX functions, such as follow-me calling, appeared in a hosted service before they became available in hardware PBX equipment. Since introduction, updates and new offerings have moved feature sets in both directions. It is possible to get hosted PBX services that include feature sets from minimal functionality to advanced feature combinations.


title: Business telephone system

text: The ongoing migration of most major telecommunication carriers to IP-based networks, coupled with the rise in Cloud Communications has resulted in a significant rise in the uptake of hosted PBX solutions.


title: Business telephone system

text: A mobile PBX is a hosted PBX service that extends fixed-line PBX functionality to mobile devices such as cellular handsets, smartphones and PDA phones by provisioning them as extensions. Mobile PBX services also can include fixed-line phones. Mobile PBX systems are different from other hosted PBX systems that simply forward data or calls to mobile phones by allowing the mobile phone itself, through the use of buttons, keys and other input devices, to control PBX phone functions and to manage communications without having to call into the system first.


title: Business telephone system

text: A mobile PBX may exploit the functionality available in smartphones to run custom applications to implement the PBX specific functionality.


title: Business telephone system

text: In addition, a mobile PBX may create extension identifiers for each handset that allow to dial other cell phones in the PBX via their extension shortcut, instead of a PSTN number.


title: Business telephone system

text: An IP PBX handles voice signals over Internet protocol, bringing benefits for computer telephony integration (CTI). An IP-PBX can exist as physical hardware, or can carry out its functions virtually, performing the call-routing activities of the traditional PBX or key system as a software system. The virtual version is also called a "Soft PBX".


title: Science in the medieval Islamic world

text: Science in the medieval Islamic world was the science developed and practised during the Islamic Golden Age under the Umayyads of Córdoba, the Abbadids of Seville, the Samanids, the Ziyarids, the Buyids in Persia, the Abbasid Caliphate and beyond, spanning the period roughly between 786 and 1258. Islamic scientific achievements encompassed a wide range of subject areas, especially astronomy, mathematics, and medicine. Other subjects of scientific inquiry included alchemy and chemistry, botany and agronomy, geography and cartography, ophthalmology, pharmacology, physics, and zoology.


title: Science in the medieval Islamic world

text: Medieval Islamic science had practical purposes as well as the goal of understanding. For example, astronomy was useful for determining the "Qibla", the direction in which to pray, botany had practical application in agriculture, as in the works of Ibn Bassal and Ibn al-'Awwam, and geography enabled Abu Zayd al-Balkhi to make accurate maps. Islamic mathematicians such as Al-Khwarizmi, Avicenna and Jamshīd al-Kāshī made advances in algebra, trigonometry, geometry and Arabic numerals. Islamic doctors described diseases like smallpox and measles, and challenged classical Greek medical theory. Al-Biruni, Avicenna and others described the preparation of hundreds of drugs made from medicinal plants and chemical compounds. Islamic physicists such as Ibn Al-Haytham, Al-Bīrūnī and others studied optics and mechanics as well as astronomy, and criticised Aristotle's view of motion.