title: Battle of Fallen Timbers

text: Captain William Wells, Little Turtle's son-in-law and the commander of Wayne's intelligence company, was wounded along with some of his spies after they were identified spying in a Native American camp the night of 11 August. The Choctaw and Chickasaw scouts left the Legion at Fort Defiance after seeing how sick Wayne had become on the campaign. Wayne therefore ordered Captain George Shrim, commander of the Legion's ranger detachment, to lead a party of mounted scouts. On 18 August, Native American forces captured one of the scouts, William May, from whom they learned that Wayne intended to attack on the 19th, unless he stopped to build a supply depot, in which case he would attack on the 20th. Alexander McKee urged the confederacy to choose a suitable battlefield, since they knew the date of the attack. Suspecting that Wayne would march along the Maumee River, Blue Jacket took a defensive position not far from present-day Toledo, Ohio, where a stand of trees (the "fallen timbers") had been blown down by a storm. The tangled debris stretched for nearly a mile, and the heavy brush created a natural abatis which would protect the confederate warriors. The Native American forces, numbering about 1,500, comprised Blue Jacket's Shawnees, Delawares led by Buckongahelas, Miamis led by Little Turtle, Wyandots led by Tarhe and Roundhead, Ojibwas, Odawa led by Egushawa, Potawatomi led by Little Otter, Mingos, a small detachment of Mohawks, and a British company of Canadian militiamen dressed as Native Americans under Lieutenant colonel William Caldwell. After taking their positions starting on 17–18 August, the Native forces fasted in preparation for battle.


title: Battle of Fallen Timbers

text: Brigadier General Wilkinson urged Wayne to attack with haste before the native forces could assemble, but Wayne opted to fortify Fort Deposit. On the 19th, Wayne sent a battalion of mounted scouts under Major William Price to reconnoiter the area. They encountered a number of confederate positions, but no shots were fired. At the end of that day, a confederate council was held, and it was determined that as Wayne might prepare for battle for several days, their warriors would be given permission to eat the next morning.


title: Battle of Fallen Timbers

text: The Legion advanced early the next morning, 20 August, while the Native Americans were on their 3rd day of fasting. Due to morning rains, many warriors in the confederacy assumed there would be no battle, and retired to Fort Miami to break their fast. Suspecting contact, Wayne ordered the Legion to march in compacted columns, and distributed the dragoons and artillery in the center of the column so that they could respond to an attack from any direction. A battalion of mounted Kentucky militia led the column, and had difficulty with the terrain. The lead scouts were only about 100 yards into the center of the chosen battlefield when the Odawas and Potawatomis under Little Otter and Egushawa fired their first volley, scattering the militia. Behind the militia were two companies of infantry from the 4th Sub-Legion under Captain John Cook, and he directed their initial volley at the Kentuckians, whom he considered to be fleeing the battle. Soon, however, Cook's detachment fled the scene as advancing warriors initiated hand-to-hand fighting.


title: Battle of Fallen Timbers

text: The fleeing U.S. forces ran towards the left wing of the Legion's column, where Lieutenant Colonel Jean François Hamtramck commanded the 2nd and 4th sub-legions. They broke through Captain Howell Lewis' company, which fell back without firing a shot. Hamtramck, meanwhile, formed his wing into two ranks to halt the pursuing warriors, many of whom were armed with only tomahawks and knives, and General Wilkinson formed the 1st and 3rd sub-legions into one extended line covering 800 yards of the right wing. Wayne rushed to the sound of the muskets, and quickly deployed two light infantry companies from the center ahead of each wing, to halt any confederate advances until the lines could be properly formed. Artillery was brought to the front and blasted the Native American line with grapeshot. Blue Jacket's well-organized ambush was now in disarray, as the center elements had rushed forward while the wings had remained in position. When asked for orders by his aide-de-camp, Lieutenant William Henry Harrison, Wayne responded "Charge the damned rascals with the bayonet!"


title: Battle of Fallen Timbers

text: Captain Robert Campbell charged first, leading his company of dragoons across 60–100 yards with sabres drawn. Nearly a dozen of the dragoons were shot in the attack, and Captain Campbell was killed. Wilkinson's dismounted infantry made a slow advance to support the dragoons, and the Odawas and Potawatomis ran back to their positions. The pursuit was so lightly challenged that Wilkinson feared they were being led into a trap, and he paused to await instructions from Wayne.


title: Battle of Fallen Timbers

text: Meanwhile, Lieutenant Colonel Hamtramck advanced at trail arms and encountered the Wyandots, Lenape, and Canadians. A heavy exchange of fire ensued, and the confederate forces attempted to flank the 4th sub-legion. Instead, a brigade of Kentucky militia under Brigadier General Robert Todd moved quickly through the swamp and flanked the Canadians. The 4th sub-legion pursued with fixed bayonets. The confederated forces retreated from their original positions, and were unable to effectively re-form in the rough terrain.


title: Battle of Fallen Timbers

text: Wilkinson eventually resumed a cautious advance along the ridge high above the Maumee River. On route to Fort Miami, the Native forces had to cross a ravine. The Odawa and Potawatomi attempted to regroup here. Egushawa was in command, but was wounded when he was shot through the eye. Little Otter was severely wounded, and was thrown on the back of a white horse and evacuated so he could not be captured by the Legion. Another Odawa chief, Turkey Foot, stood atop a large rock and urged the warriors to make their stand, but he was shot in the chest and died almost instantly. According to Alexander McKee, the loss of so many confederate leaders made the Native American losses seem greater than they actually were, and many warriors fled to Fort Miami.


title: Battle of Fallen Timbers

text: Beyond the ravine, the landscape was much more open, allowing the Legion to advance more quickly and giving dragoons a frightening advantage over dismounted warriors. McKee, Matthew Elliot, and Simon Girty tried to rally the retreating forces one last time, but they were largely ignored. The retreat became a disorganized rout, except for the rear guard protection provided by the Canadians and Wyandots.


title: Battle of Fallen Timbers

text: The entire battle lasted an hour and ten minutes. The Indian warriors fled towards Fort Miami but were surprised to find the gates closed against them. Major William Campbell, the British commander of the fort, had closed the gates when the first warriors arrived and the sounds of musket fire came closer. He refused to open the gates now and give refuge to the confederate warriors, unwilling to start a war with the United States. The remnants of the confederate army continued north and reunited near Swan Creek, where their families were encamped. McKee tried to rally them once more, but they refused to fight again, especially after the betrayal of the British at Fort Miami.


title: Battle of Fallen Timbers

text: Wayne's army had lost 33 men and had about 100 wounded. They reported that they had found 30–40 dead warriors. Alexander McKee of the British Indian Department reported that the Indian confederacy lost 19 warriors killed, including Chief Turkey Foot of the Ottawa. Six white men fighting on the Native American side were also killed, and Chiefs Egushawa and Little Otter of the Ottawa were wounded.


title: Battle of Fallen Timbers

text: Wayne's army encamped for three days in sight of Fort Miami, which was commanded by British Major William Campbell. When Major Campbell asked the meaning of the encampment, Wayne replied that the answer had already been given by the sound of their muskets and the retreat of the Indians. General Wayne had already determined that he could not take Fort Miami by force, because his howitzers were underpowered and he did not have enough provisions for an extended siege. Instead, to illustrate that the U.S. controlled the region, he rode alone to the walls of Fort Miami and slowly conducted an inspection of the fort's exterior. The British garrison debated whether or not to engage the General, but in the absence of orders and being already at war with France, Major Campbell declined to fire the first shot at the United States. The Legion, meanwhile, destroyed Indian villages and crops in the region of Fort Deposit, and burned Alexander McKee's trading post within sight of Fort Miami. Despite the provocations, the British would not open the gates to the fort. General Wayne was as unwilling to start a war with Great Britain as Major Campbell was to start a war with the United States, and so finally, on 26 August, the Legion departed for Fort Recovery


title: Battle of Fallen Timbers

text: Wayne expected a new attack, and even hoped for it while the Legion was at full strength. Although the Native Americans did not reform into a large army, small bands continued to harass the Legion's perimeter, scouts, and supply trains. Although they resented the assignment, Wayne assigned the mounted militia to carry supplies between the chain of forts. On 12 September, Wayne issued invitations for peace negotiations, but they went unanswered. Finally, on 15 September, Wayne led the Legion from Fort Defiance and marched unopposed for two days to the Miami capital of Kekionga, where they constructed Fort Wayne. Wayne appointed Hamtramck as commandant of Fort Wayne and departed in late October, arriving at Fort Greenville on 2 November. That winter, Wayne also reinforced his line of defensive forts with Fort St. Marys, Fort Loramie, and Fort Piqua.


title: Battle of Fallen Timbers

text: Throughout the campaign, Wayne's second in command, General James Wilkinson, secretly tried to undermine him. Wilkinson wrote anonymous negative letters to local newspapers about Wayne and spent years writing negative letters to politicians in Washington, D. C. Wayne was unaware as Wilkinson was recorded as being extremely polite to Wayne in person. Wilkinson was also a Spanish spy at the time and was even hired as an officer. Despite the significant US losses, Wilkinson regarded Fallen Timbers as a mere skirmish, saying the short battle "did not deserve the name of a battle." Years later, a Native American warrior reflected that Little Turtle had warned that the Great Spirit would hide in a cloud if they did not make peace with Wayne. The rainy start to the day was a sign that they would lose.


title: Battle of Fallen Timbers

text: Parties began suing for peace in December. Antoine Lasselle arrived at Fort Wayne on 17 December with a group of Native Americans and Canadiens. Within a month, most Miami had returned to Kekionga, and representatives of the Potawatomi, Ojibwe, Odawa, and Wyandotte had sought out the Legion to "bury the hatchet." During the summer of 1795, the confederacy met with a U.S. delegation led by General Wayne to negotiate the Treaty of Greenville, which was signed on 3 August. This treaty opened most of the modern U.S. state of Ohio to settlement, using the site of St. Clair's defeat as a reference point to draw a line near the current border of Ohio and Indiana. The Treaty of Greenville, along with Jay's Treaty and Pinckney's Treaty, set the terms of the peace and defined post-colonial relations among the U.S., Britain and Spain.


title: Battle of Fallen Timbers

text: Henry Knox eventually alerted Wayne about Wilkinson's letters, and Wayne began an investigation. Wayne's suspicions were confirmed when Spanish couriers were intercepted with payments for Wilkinson. He attempted to court martial Wilkinson for his treachery. However, Wayne developed a stomach ulcer, complications from gout, and died on December 15, 1796 at Fort Presque Isle.; there was no court-martial. Instead Wilkinson began his first tenure as Senior Officer of the Army, which lasted for about a year and a half. He continued to pass on intelligence to the Spanish in return for large sums in gold.


title: Battle of Fallen Timbers

text: For decades following the battle, Odawas visited the battle site and left memorials at Turkey Foot Rock.


title: Battle of Fallen Timbers

text: The Northwest would remain largely peaceful until the War of 1812. Wayne's aide-de-camp, William Henry Harrison, became territorial secretary, then a member of Congress, and was appointed as governor of the Indiana Territory in 1801. He followed Thomas Jefferson's policy of incremental land purchases from Native American nations. Tecumseh, a young Shawnee veteran of Fallen Timbers who refused to sign the Greenville Treaty, resisted this gradual removal with a new pan-tribal confederation. Harrison attacked this new confederation in the 1811 Battle of Tippecanoe.


title: Battle of Fallen Timbers

text: Many veterans of the Battle of Fallen Timbers would become known for their later accomplishments, including William Clark, who co-led the Lewis and Clark Expedition, and William Henry Harrison, the 9th President of the United States. Tecumseh, who watched his older brother Sauwauseekau die in battle, would later organize a new confederacy to oppose American Indian removals.


title: Battle of Fallen Timbers

text: On 14 September 1929, the United States Post Office Department issued a stamp commemorating the 135th anniversary of the Battle of Fallen Timbers. The post office issued a series of stamps referred to as the 'Two Cent Reds' by collectors, issued to commemorate the 150th Anniversaries of the many events that occurred during the American Revolutionary War (1775–1783) and to honor those who were there. The Fallen Timbers stamp features an image of the Battle of Fallen Timbers Monument, which was dedicated that same year.


title: Battle of Fallen Timbers

text: For 200 years, the site of the Battle of Fallen Timbers was thought to be on the floodplain on the banks of the Maumee River, based upon documentation such as the map above and to the right (location of Fallen Timbers Monument). Dr. G. Michael Pratt, an anthropologist and faculty member at Heidelberg University (Ohio), correctly surmised the battlefield was 1/4 mile above the floodplain after considering documentation that described a ravine. The City of Toledo owned the area which was desirable for development. Although the City of Toledo initially refused archaeological exploration, in 1995 and 2001, Pratt was able to conduct archaeological surveys, which relied primarily on metal detection, which revealed musket balls, pieces of muskets, uniform buttons and a bayonet, confirming that major fighting had taken place at the site.


title: Battle of Fallen Timbers

text: Because of Pratt's archaeological work and advocacy the Fallen Timbers Preservation Commission, the land was granted National Historic Site status in 1999. A federal grant allowed the Metroparks of the Toledo Area to purchase the land where the artifacts were found in 2001, and the site was developed into a park in affiliation with the National Park Service.


title: Battle of Fallen Timbers

text: The Ohio Historical Society maintains a small park at the site originally believed to have the main fighting (similar historic picture above and right). This site features the Battle of Fallen Timbers Monument, honoring both Major General Anthony Wayne and his army and Little Turtle and his warriors. Additionally, there are plaques describing the Battle of Fallen Timbers and honoring the several Indian tribes that participated. The main monument has tributes inscribed on each of its four sides honoring in turn, Wayne, the fallen soldiers, Little Turtle, and his Indian warriors. The park is located near Maumee in Lucas County. Turkey Foot Rock, marking the death place of Turkey Foot, is also at the site.


title: Bodies (Drowning Pool song)

text: "Bodies" is the debut single by the American rock band Drowning Pool, released in May 2001 from their debut album "Sinner". "Bodies" is Drowning Pool's signature song and has been featured in various films, TV programs, and advertisements since its release. It was also the theme song for the 2001 WWF SummerSlam pay-per-view event, as well as that of the ECW brand in 2006 to early 2008. During 2001, the song became popular, but the song was taken off radio stations after the September 11 attacks because it was considered inappropriate in the wake of the terrorist attacks.


title: Bodies (Drowning Pool song)

text: An early version of "Bodies" appeared on their EP "Pieces of Nothing", omitting the lyrics in the bridge and featuring a significantly greater amount of screaming.


title: Bodies (Drowning Pool song)

text: Considered a nu metal song, "Bodies" features a heavy use of the lyric "let the bodies hit the floor". Its lyrics build by gradually counting up from one to four, shouting the number each time, until reaching its intense chorus. Clean vocals in the song's verses make a contrast from the many harsh vocals elsewhere. The guitar structure of "Bodies" features a heavy use of the wah pedal.


title: Bodies (Drowning Pool song)

text: The song peaked at number 6 on the "Billboard" Mainstream Rock Tracks chart in August 2001, and No. 12 on the Alternative Songs charts in September 2001. The song was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America on June 24, 2008, then certified platinum on January 31, 2019 with a million digital copies sold. The song re-entered the chart in April 2016 and reached No. 6 on the Hard Rock Digital Song and No. 30 on the Rock Digital Songs charts. It has sold 1,751,000 digital copies in the US as of April 2016. On September 22, 2001, "Bodies" peaked at number 19 on the Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart. It also reached number 34 on the UK Singles Chart.


title: Bodies (Drowning Pool song)

text: Much like the song's radio success, the "Bodies" music video found significant airplay on various music channels in 2001. Directed by Glen Bennett, it has the band performing in what appears to be a psychiatric hospital, with Williams screaming the lyrics into the ear of a man strapped to a chair. Clips from the video were later used in the title animation for the music program "Uranium".


title: Bodies (Drowning Pool song)

text: Due to the misinterpretation of its lyrics, the song created controversy. In 2011, the song was linked to the shooting of Congresswoman Gabby Giffords, after it was discovered that the perpetrator, Jared Lee Loughner, had saved an unofficial music video for the song as a favorite on his YouTube account. In response, the band issued a statement concerning the link: "We were devastated this weekend to learn of the tragic events that occurred in Arizona and that our music has been misinterpreted. 'Bodies' was written about the brotherhood of the moshpit and was never about violence." The band also added: "For someone to put out a video misinterpreting a song about a moshpit as fuel for a violent act shows just how sick they really are. We support those who do what they can to keep America safe. Our hearts go out to the victims and their families of this terrible tragedy".


title: Bodies (Drowning Pool song)

text: The song was used by interrogators at the Guantanamo Bay detention camps in 2003. "Bodies" was repeatedly played over a 10-day period during the interrogation of Mohamedou Ould Salahi while he was "exposed to variable lighting patterns" at the same time. In 2006, Drowning Pool bassist Stevie Benton took pride in the military usage of the song. He said: "People assume we should be offended that somebody in the military thinks our song is annoying enough that, played over and over, it can psychologically break someone down. I take it as an honor to think that perhaps our song could be used to quell another 9/11 attack or something like that."


title: Biggles

text: James Bigglesworth, nicknamed "Biggles", is a fictional pilot and adventurer, the title character and hero of the "Biggles" series of adventure books, written for young readers by W. E. Johns (1893–1968). Biggles made his first appearance in the story "The White Fokker", published in the first issue of "Popular Flying" magazine and again as part of the first collection of Biggles stories, "The Camels Are Coming" (both 1932). Johns continued to write "Biggles books" until his death in 1968. The series eventually included nearly a hundred volumes – novels as well as short story collections – most of the latter with a common setting and time.


title: Biggles

text: The chronology of the canon, spanning both world wars, set up certain inconsistencies over the unavoidable ageing of Biggles and his friends. Also later editions had to be somewhat edited in line with changing norms of acceptability, especially regarding racism, and in view of the pre-teenage readership who increasingly favoured both the books and the comics.


title: Biggles

text: Biggles first appears as a teenaged "scout" (fighter) pilot in the Royal Flying Corps (RFC) during the First World War. He joined the RFC in 1916 at the age of 17, having conveniently "lost" his birth certificate. Biggles represents a particularly British hero, combining professionalism with a gentlemanly air. Under the stress of combat he develops from a slightly hysterical youth prone to practical jokes to a calm, confident, competent leader. He is occasionally given "special" (secret) missions by the shadowy figure of Colonel (initially Major) Raymond (Wing Commander/Air Commodore in later books, reflecting the creation of the Royal Air Force with its own ranks), who is already involved with the intelligence side of operations. Biggles is accompanied by his cousin Algernon ('Algy') Lacey and his mechanic Flight Sergeant Smyth, who accompany Biggles on his adventures after the war. Added to the team in 1935 is the teenager Ginger Hebblethwaite.


title: Biggles

text: W. E. Johns was himself a First World War pilot, although his own career did not parallel that of Biggles particularly closely. The author's initial war service was as an infantryman, fighting at Gallipoli and on the Macedonian front. He was commissioned as a second lieutenant in September 1917, seconded to the Royal Flying Corps and posted back to England for flight training: Johns served as a flying instructor in England until August 1918, when he transferred to the Western Front. On 16 September 1918 his De Havilland DH4 was shot down on a bombing raid. His observer, Lieutenant Amey, was killed (in two of the stories in "Biggles Learns to Fly" observers flying with Biggles are killed or badly wounded) but Johns survived to be taken prisoner of war. Johns remained with the RAF until 1927, latterly as an administrative officer rather than a pilot: his final rank was Flying Officer (equivalent to Lieutenant in the RFC) rather than the "Capt." that formed part of his pen name.


title: Biggles

text: While the purpose of the Biggles stories was to entertain adolescent boys, in the First World War stories Johns paid attention to historical detail and helped recreate the primitive days of early air combat, when pilots often died in their first combat and before devices such as pilot's oxygen supply and parachutes had become practical. Various models on which the Biggles character might have been based have been suggested, including rugby player and WWI flying ace Cyril Lowe, fighter pilot Albert Ball and air commodore Arthur Bigsworth. Johns stated that the character was a composite of many individuals in the RFC (including himself).


title: Biggles

text: The bulk of the Biggles books are set after the First World War, and after Johns' flying career was over. Biggles has an unusually lengthy career, flying a number of aircraft representative of the history of British military aviation, from Sopwith Camels during the First World War, Hawker Hurricanes and Supermarine Spitfires in the Second World War, right up to the Hawker Hunter jet fighter in a postwar adventure "Biggles in the Terai". In these later books geographic and historical accuracy is less evident and the grim detail of the first stories is moderated for an increasingly younger readership. The books were successful and were translated into Czech, Danish, Dutch, Finnish, Flemish, German, Hungarian, Icelandic, Italian, Norwegian, Portuguese, Spanish and Swedish.


title: Biggles

text: According to stories in "The Boy Biggles" and "Biggles Goes to School", James Bigglesworth was born in India in May 1899, the son of an administrator in the Indian Civil Service and his wife. James was the younger of two sons, Charles being the elder by five years. The young James had little contact with European culture and commenced a lifelong affection for India, befriending the local Indian boys, exploring the countryside and learning to speak fluent Hindi. He retained a lifetime gift for languages and as an adult spoke French and German fluently, with a "fair command" of other languages. He spent holidays in England, under the custody of "Dickpa", an eccentric uncle and inventor who lived in rural Norfolk. When Biggles, now an adult, visits Dickpa, his father's brother, again, an adventure begins that takes both men to Brazil (the Cruise of the Condor). Biggles then attended Malton Hall School in Hertbury, England. His first encounter with an aircraft was with a Blériot that landed on the school cricket ground.


title: Biggles

text: Biggles left school and initially joined the army as a subaltern in the Rifle Regiment in 1916. He transferred to the Royal Flying Corps and learned to fly in the summer of 1916, at No. 17 Flying Training School, which was at Settling, Norfolk, flying solo after two hours of instruction. He then attended No. 4 'School of Fighting' in Frensham, Lincolnshire.


title: Biggles

text: Posted to France with under 15 hours, dual and solo, he first flew in combat in September 1916 with 169 Squadron, RFC, (commanded by Major Paynter). His observer was another youth named Mark Way, a New Zealander. Biggles began flying the F.E.2b "pusher" and later the Bristol F2B. In late summer 1917, he was transferred to 266 Squadron RFC, commanded by a Dubliner, Major Mullen. With 266 Squadron, Biggles flew the Sopwith Pup and the famed Sopwith Camel, developing a friendly rivalry with 'Wilks' (Captain Wilkinson) and the S.E.5s of 287 squadron and forming a close friendship with his young cousin Algy (the Hon. Algernon Montgomery Lacey). A study of the short stories featuring his First World War exploits, suggests that he had a 'score' of 49 aircraft, three balloons and one submarine, while himself being shot down or crash-landing eight times. He was awarded the Distinguished Service Order and the Military Cross and bar.


title: Biggles

text: After the Great War, Biggles' adventures as a freelance charter pilot, took him around the world in an unidentified amphibian named the "Vandal" (often illustrated on covers, anachronistically, as either a Supermarine Walrus or Supermarine Sea Otter). The nearest "real" aircraft that fits W. E. Johns description of the "Vandal", is a Vickers Viking Mk 4. His team grows when he and Algy meet young Ginger Hebblethwaite in "The Black Peril", while foiling a possible plot against Britain. Post-Second World War editions of the book change this plot from a German to a Russian plot. Ginger brings the energy and daring of youth to these and many of their later adventures. Between the wars Biggles and his friends mix their own escapades with ventures on behalf of British Secret Service.


title: Biggles

text: Biggles returned to service in the Second World War, initially with a Supermarine S6B type machine in the Baltic Sea and then to defy the Nazis and their allies in Norway. He then took up his post as Commanding Officer of 666 Squadron, RAF, a Special Duties squadron that fought in the Battle of Britain before being sent around the world on specific assignments. Biggles, Algy, Smyth and Hebblethwaite are joined by a new companion, the monocle-wearing Lord Bertram 'Bertie' Lissie. The changed setting forced Johns to update his material with references to new flying slang and aeroplanes, unsuccessfully at first but later with more realism. Biggles' new squadron includes a diverse cast, including the American 'Tex' O'Hara (from Texas), the Welshman 'Taffy' Hughes, the Cockney 'Tug' Carrington, the Oxford graduate Henry Harcourt and George 'Ferocity' Ferris from the streets of Liverpool.


title: Biggles

text: After the Second World War Johns reinvents Biggles' career yet again, with his former boss Air Commodore Raymond hiring him as a "flying detective" for Scotland Yard. Biggles returns to his rooms in Mount Street, Mayfair and assumes a role as head of the new Special Air Police division with Algy, Ginger and Bertie making up the flying squad. The group takes on criminals who have taken to the air, both at home in Britain and around the globe, as well as battling opponents behind the Iron Curtain. The team fly a wide variety of machines, with Auster and Percival types doing much of the work.


title: Biggles

text: Johns continued writing Biggles short stories and novels up until his death in 1968; in all, nearly 100 Biggles books were published.


title: Biggles

text: A final unfinished novel "Biggles Does Some Homework" shows Biggles at last preparing to retire and meeting his mixed-race replacement; Johns died while writing this novel. The 12 completed chapters were issued privately in 1997.


title: Biggles

text: The Honourable Algernon Montgomery Lacey or "Algy" is a cousin who is posted to Biggles' flight in 266 Squadron by the influence of his aunt. Despite initial misgivings, the two soon become very close friends and eventually Algy adopts the role of Biggles' second in command. In the books set in the 1930s, Algy, Ginger and Smyth become Biggles' regular companions.


title: Biggles

text: Ginger (his real first name is never revealed) first appears in "The Black Peril" (1935) as a teenage runaway found hiding in a railway shed. Ginger left his father, a mineworker in Smettleworth, after an argument about Ginger's determination to become a pilot. When he first meets Biggles, he tells him he is on his way to London to join the RAF. Biggles immediately calls him Ginger because of his red hair. He proves his worth by rescuing Biggles from some enemy agents. He becomes one of the regular team and is often Biggles's chosen companion. He is a talented mechanic and his speech is peppered with youthful slang and Americanisms, learned from the cinema.


title: Biggles

text: Flight Sergeant Smyth is Biggles' trusty mechanic and logistic organiser since they first worked together in 266 Squadron during the First World War. Smyth, aside from being a mechanic in both world wars in Biggles's squadron, also joins them on some journeys to act as mechanic, like "Cruise of the Condor" and "Goes to War". Smyth is a talented Mechanic.


title: Biggles

text: First appearing in "Spitfire Parade" (1941), Lord Bertie is a pilot in 666 Squadron. An eccentric former racing driver, who flies with a hunting horn and a monocle, Bertie joins Biggles in the Air Police in most of the post-war stories. He is a brave and talented fighter, an expert shot and he has a lot of handy knowledge on a range of unusual subjects.


title: Biggles

text: A counterpoint to Lord Bertie, Tug is a boxer from the slums of London. His parents being killed in the war, Tug is out for revenge and can be a very risky person to have around. He scorns alcohol, much to the amusement of his fellow squadron members. In return for Biggles setting him up for a job as a London cabby, he occasionally helps Biggles and his gang on their missions after the Second World War.


title: Biggles

text: Biggles' greatest opponent is the German intelligence officer Erich von Stalhein, a member of an old Prussian family of soldiers. They first meet in "Biggles Flies East", in which Biggles is a spy in the Middle East during the First World War, having some narrow escapes. Stalhein returns as an adversary in numerous other adventures: in "Biggles & Co." he is the leader of a group of smugglers based in a medieval castle somewhere in Germany. As the Cold War begins, Stalhein enters the services of the Communist bloc, until his new masters imprison him on the island of Sakhalin, from where Biggles helps him to escape in "Biggles Buries a Hatchet". Stalhein then settles in London and he and Biggles remain in touch. It is from Stalhein that Biggles learns that Janis (see "Female characters" below) survived the Second World War and was imprisoned in Czechoslovakia, from where Biggles rescues her and goes on to support her in England.


title: Biggles

text: First appears as a major (later colonel) in the British Intelligence service during the First World War, in which capacity he organises secret ("special") missions in which Biggles takes part. In later books, he reappeared as an air commodore.


title: Biggles

text: In the Biggles stories, female characters appear infrequently. Despite brief affairs, Biggles and his chums remain steadfastly single. Biggles suffers a disappointment in the First World War, when he falls in love with German spy Marie Janis in the short story "Affaire de Coeur" set in 1918. Rather than being considered asexual or a repressed homosexual, Biggles' relationship with Janis suggests he is a romantic hero, "tragically loyal to the only woman he ever really loved".


title: Biggles

text: In "Biggles & Co." Stella Carstairs, the daughter of the man Biggles helps, turns up. A pilot herself, she is concerned for Biggles's safety and tells him more than once not to take on her father's request.


title: Biggles

text: In "Biggles Flies Again" (1934), Algy becomes close to Consuelo, the daughter of the President of Bolivia, but is dissuaded from continuing the relationship by Biggles, "... unless you intend marrying her". In "Biggles Fails to Return" (1943), Ginger falls in love with the sister of the French pilot who has flown Biggles into France on a secret mission and at the end of the story Ginger gets to spend several weeks in her company while awaiting transport back to England. The young Ginger is also smitten by the beautiful Polynesian girl Full Moon, in "Biggles in the South Seas" (1940).


title: Biggles

text: There is a discussion of the issue of Biggles, sex and alcohol in "By Jove, Biggles: The Life of Captain W. E. Johns" (1981) by Peter Berresford Ellis and Piers Williams.


title: Biggles

text: In the 1950s, a popular Australian radio version of Biggles, "The Air Adventures of Biggles", was made under licence. Johns did not write the scripts and apparently ended the contract after receiving complaints from young readers that the storyline had made Biggles "go soft" by taking up a blonde female lover.


title: Biggles

text: Another female character appears in the form of Worrals (Flight Officer Joan Worralson), eponymous heroine of a related series of books featuring this resourceful and "plucky" member of the WAAF. A further Johns creation, the commando Captain Lorrington "Gimlet" King, also features in a series of books that intersect with Biggles at times.


title: Biggles

text: The settings of the Biggles books are spread over more than 50 years; this produces a number of credibility difficulties, especially for older readers.


title: Biggles

text: Though Biggles and his friends age in the books, they do so much more slowly (and inconsistently) than is historically credible. For instance, Biggles (with some of his First World War "chums"), who by now should be well into their forties, are still relatively junior squadron officers flying Spitfires during the Battle of Britain. In the stories set after the end of the Second World War, Biggles and Algy, in particular, are, by the rules of arithmetic, passing into their fifties and early sixties, while retaining levels of activity and lifestyle more typical of people at least thirty years younger.


title: Biggles

text: Even within a group of stories set in the same time frame, there are some chronological inconsistencies:


title: Biggles

text: It is doubtful whether a careful rearrangement of the various First World War stories could result in a coherent sequence. When W. E. Johns started the Biggles series, he can hardly have anticipated that he would be called on to write so many Biggles stories to short editorial deadlines, so that such inconsistencies are perhaps inevitable.


title: Biggles

text: The author succeeds reasonably well in chronicling developments in aviation technology, but social and cultural changes are much more difficult. The cultural and social world of Biggles (whether in the 1930s or some earlier period) does not persist completely unchanged through the whole series – for instance, in an early book, the evidence points to an English nobleman as the perpetrator but Biggles dismisses this out of hand as the gentry would never commit a crime; in a later novel, one of the gentry is the villain. Nonetheless, the social context of the books, viewed in chronological order, does become increasingly old-fashioned, even anachronistic, especially in those works set after the Second World War.


title: Biggles

text: Since the Biggles books were first published, attitudes to race and ethnicity have changed. A perception of Biggles during the 1960s and 1970s as unacceptably racially prejudiced, especially considered as children's literature, led to the removal of the Biggles books from the shelves of many public and school libraries. Historian Marika Sherwood objected to Johns' use of "chinks" and "coolies" to describe people of Chinese origin in "Biggles Hits the Trail" (1935). Biggles' enemy is a group called the Chungs who "chatter monkey-like". Jeff Sparrow, writing in "The Guardian" in 2014, commented: "the later books, in particular, manifest all the racism you’d expect from an Empire loyalist writing in the sour era of British decline." Dennis Butts, in a 2000 essay, suggested Johns' Biggles stories had to be viewed historically and he was not a "deliberate racist".


title: Biggles

text: Biggles was raised in British India, speaks fluent Hindi and has Indian friends and colleagues. In "Biggles Goes to School", on one occasion when told to write lines in Latin, he remarks that he would rather do so in Hindi. On another occasion the adult Biggles asserts to Air Commodore Raymond that "while men are decent to me I try to be decent to them, regardless of race, colour, politics, creed or anything else". While individually developed non-white characters are infrequent, according to David Milner in "Children and Race" (1975), when they are part of the story, they are usually "positive", from the Oxford-educated "Chinaman", Li Chi, in "Biggles Flies Again" and "Biggles Delivers the Goods" and the perky Polynesian girl, Full Moon, in "Biggles in the South Seas", to Alexander MacKay, a part "Red Indian" nicknamed "Minnie" who joins "the chums" as a valued colleague and is even set to inherit Biggles' job in "Biggles Does Some Homework". Milner observed that the positive characteristics of these characters include relatively light complexions, Western education and general usefulness to the white hero and his friends and allies.


title: Biggles

text: There are instances in which unpleasant "foreigners" are mixed race, and Johns has been accused of stereotyping non-whites. With the already mentioned "Chungs" of "Biggles Hits the Trail", and the Aboriginals of "Biggles in Australia", in particular, Johns applies stereotypes typical of his time to non-white opponents of his hero. "No Rest for Biggles", set in Liberia, where he encounters descendants of Jean-Jacques Dessalines and Henri Cristophe plotting to set up a black empire, is another novel some might consider racist. In "Biggles in Borneo", Dayak headhunters are stereotyped as barely human "savages", even though they are Biggles' allies against the Japanese. The portrayals of non-whites in these books (and others in the "Biggles" canon) is typical of a once common genre of fiction for young people.


title: Biggles

text: The early Biggles stories and novels, especially those set in First World War, were apparently written mainly for older adolescents. Death is a frequent theme, sometimes treated in quite a grim fashion. Other "adult themes" are also touched on: more than once Biggles sets out on a mission in a "red mist", inspired by the death of a comrade. The emotional strain of combat is also realistically described, as Biggles becomes a "highly-strung" fidgeting pale youth, lacking his usual sense of humour. In these stories, in particular, alcohol is mentioned occasionally and cigarettes are much in evidence. The early First World War books were reprinted in the 1950s, when the Biggles books had acquired a younger readership and were bowdlerised. In the short story "The Balloonatics", as republished in "Biggles of the Special Air Police", the prize for capturing a German observation balloon was altered from a case of Scotch whisky to a case of lemonade. The reprint also removes all references to drinking and swearing.


title: Biggles

text: Even the original editions contain no explicit sexual content and the traditional values of bravery, honesty and fair play are stressed. Romantic stories, which would have bored Johns' younger readers and embarrassed his older ones, are on the whole avoided, with the odd exception, such as in "Biggles Looks Back", where he and Stalhein rescue Marie Janis (with whom Biggles was briefly in love in an earlier story) from her prison in Bohemia.


title: Biggles

text: Johns died while still writing "Biggles Does Some Homework". Although never completed, it was released in 1998 by Norman Wright Publishing as a strictly limited edition of 300 copies in paperback. A further limited print run of 300 hardback copies was printed in 2007.


title: Biggles

text: Biggles appeared in a TV series based on the books with Neville Whiting playing the title role. There were 44 B&W untitled episodes of 30 minutes, which were made by Granada and ran from 1 April till 9 September 1960. Biggles was a Detective Air Inspector attached to Scotland Yard. Helping him were Ginger (John Leyton) and Bertie (David Drummond) and they fought against villains like von Stalhein (Carl Duering).


title: Biggles

text: He was also featured in the feature film "Biggles" (1986), directed by John Hough with Neil Dickson in the title role. The film attempted to add appeal to the character by adding a science fiction element but it was a commercial and critical failure. Dickson reprised the character in all but name in the Pet Shop Boys' feature film, "It Couldn't Happen Here".


title: Biggles

text: In 1986, a Biggles video game was released as a tie-in to movie "Biggles: Adventures in Time" by Mirrorsoft for the platforms Amstrad CPC, Commodore 64 and ZX Spectrum. It included levels based in 1917 and other levels set in modern-day London.


title: Biggles

text: Many versions of Biggles comics have been published in countries such as Australia, Great Britain, Belgium, France and Sweden.


title: Biggles

text: Some albums were released in 1990 featuring the Biggles team. The titles are separate from the books though they cover the same war or after war investigation operations of Biggles.


title: Biggles

text: Biggles featured on a stamp issued by the Royal Mail on 1 February 1994, as part of the sixth issue of its Greetings Stamps series. The set comprised ten first class stamps, each portraying a character from children's literature. Aside from Biggles, the other characters featured were Dan Dare, The Three Bears, Rupert Bear, Alice in Wonderland, Noggin the Nog, Peter Rabbit, Red Riding Hood, Orlando the Marmalade Cat and Paddington Bear.


title: Biggles

text: The stamps were designed by Newell and Sorrell, and the artist for the Biggles stamp was Alan Cracknell. Biggles is wearing a leather flying helmet and goggles, holding an 'air mail' envelope addressed to him, and giving the thumbs up. A biplane, probably a De Havilland Tiger Moth is shown flying in the background.


title: Biggles

text: Also included in the presentation pack were labels containing greetings messages. The two related to Biggles, shown in white text on a blue background, read "Happy Birthday" and "Chocks Away". The Biggles stamp, its associated presentation pack and first day covers were described in the British Philatelic Bulletin of January 1994.


title: Biggles

text: Biggles was parodied in a series of skits on the 1970s British comedy television show, "Monty Python's Flying Circus", including one titled "Biggles Dictates a Letter". In the sketch, Biggles (Graham Chapman) behaves in a naive and overreactive manner about the sexual orientation of his comrades, shooting Algy in the process.


title: Neutrogena

text: Neutrogena Corporation, trading as Neutrogena, is an American company that markets skin care, hair care and cosmetics owned by parent company Johnson & Johnson and is headquartered in Los Angeles, California. According to product advertising at their website, Neutrogena products are distributed in more than 70 countries.


title: Neutrogena

text: Neutrogena was founded in 1930 by Emanuel Stolaroff, and was originally a cosmetics company named Natone. Johnson & Johnson acquired the independent company in 1994.


title: Neutrogena

text: The company originally supplied to department stores and salons that catered for the Hollywood film industry.


title: Neutrogena

text: In 1930, Emanuel Stolaroff started a small company called Natone. Soon, it grew into a larger business, and he started expanding it into retail markets. Stolaroff met Belgian chemist Edmond Fromont in 1954, and acquired the rights to distribute his patented formula of a mild clear soap that cleared the skin, without drying it, in the US. By then, Lloyd Cotsen had entered the Stolaroff family by marrying his daughter Joanne Stolaroff.


title: Neutrogena

text: In 1962, the company name was officially changed to Neutrogena Corporation; Cotsen became president in 1967.


title: Neutrogena

text: The company listed publicly on the NASDAQ in 1973, with a market value of $1.2 million. Cotsen started marketing soap through two major channels: dermatologists and luxury hotels. Neutrogena managed to stay clear of any major pricing wars, like those of other big corporations of that generation. It launched product lines in acne and anti-aging areas. In 1982, profits reached US$3 million, and Cotsen was named the CEO.


title: Neutrogena

text: In 1994, Johnson & Johnson acquired Neutrogena for $924 million, at a price of $35.25 per share. Johnson & Johnson's international network helped Neutrogena boost its sales and enter newer markets including India, South Africa, and China. Priced at a premium, Neutrogena products are distributed in over 70 countries. The company has major subsidiaries in Canada, United Kingdom, South Korea and India.


title: Neutrogena

text: In July 2021, parent company Johnson & Johnson recalled four Neutrogena aerosol sunscreen products and one Aveeno branded spray from stores in the United States after detecting the carcinogen benzene in some samples. The company went on to state that benzene is not used in the manufacturing process of the sprays and said it began an investigation into the source of the contamination.


title: Gallup, New Mexico

text: Gallup ( ) ; Zuni: "Kalabwaki") is a city in McKinley County, New Mexico, United States, with a population of 21,899 as of the 2020 census. A substantial percentage of its population is Native American, with residents from the Navajo, Hopi, and Zuni tribes. Gallup is the county seat of McKinley County and the most populous city between Flagstaff and Albuquerque, along the historic U.S. Route 66.


title: Gallup, New Mexico

text: The city was founded in 1881 as a railhead for the Atlantic and Pacific Railroad, and named after David Gallup, a paymaster for the railroad. It is on the Trails of the Ancients Byway, one of the designated New Mexico Scenic Byways. Because of the nearby rugged terrain, it was a popular location in the 1940s and 1950s for Hollywood Westerns.


title: Gallup, New Mexico

text: Gallup was founded in 1881 as a railhead for the Atlantic and Pacific Railroad. The city was named after David Gallup, a paymaster for the Atlantic and Pacific Railroad.


title: Gallup, New Mexico

text: During World War II, the city fought successfully to prevent 800 Japanese American residents from being placed in wartime internment,


title: Gallup, New Mexico

text: Gallup is known as the "Heart of Indian Country" or "The Heart of Indians" because it is on the edge of the Navajo reservation and is home to members of many other tribes as well.


title: Gallup, New Mexico

text: U.S. Route 66 passed through Gallup, and the town's name is mentioned in the lyrics of the song "(Get Your Kicks on) Route 66" ("You'll see Amarillo and Gallup, NM"). In 2003, the U.S. and New Mexico Departments of Transportation renumbered US Highway 666, the city's other major highway, as Route 491. Former Governor Bill Richardson pushed for (and got) the number changed because "666" is associated with Satan and Devil worship, and thus it was considered "cursed" or a "Beast" to some locals. The situation was exacerbated by the high death toll on the highway, which was largely a result of high rates of drivers under the influence of alcohol or drugs, and budget shortfalls among both the New Mexico Department of Transportation and state and local law enforcement agencies.


title: Gallup, New Mexico

text: Gallup has a modestly lively night time culture downtown, Indian dances during summertime nights, art crawls, small museums including a Navajo Code Talk museum.


title: Gallup, New Mexico

text: Being the largest city between Flagstaff and Albuquerque, Gallup claims many notable buildings, places, events and people.


title: Gallup, New Mexico

text: The historic El Rancho Hotel & Motel has hosted a numerous array of movie stars including John Wayne, Ronald Reagan, Humphrey Bogart, Spencer Tracy, Katharine Hepburn, Joan Crawford, Kirk Douglas, Doris Day, Gregory Peck, and Burt Lancaster. The rugged terrain surrounding Gallup was popular with Hollywood filmmakers during the 1940s and 50s for the on-location shooting of Westerns. Actors and film crews would stay at that hotel during filming. Films made in Gallup include "Billy the Kid" (1930), "Pursued" (1947), "The Sea of Grass" (1947), "Four Faces West" (1948), "Only the Valiant" (1951), "Ace in the Hole" (1951), "Escape from Fort Bravo" (1953), "A Distant Trumpet" (1964), and "The Hallelujah Trail" (1965). Other movies shot here are "Redskin" (1928) and "Superman" (1978).


title: Gallup, New Mexico

text: Gallup is sometimes called the "Indian Capital of the World", for its location in the heart of Native American lands, and the presence of Navajo, Zuni, Hopi, and other tribes. 1/3 of the city's population has Native American roots. Gallup's nickname references the huge impact of the Native American cultures found in and around the city.


title: Gallup, New Mexico

text: Gallup is located at (35.5280783, −108.7425843). According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , all land.


title: Gallup, New Mexico

text: As of the 2000 census, there were 20,209 people, 6,810 households, and 4,869 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,513.7 people per square mile (584.5/km). There were 7,349 housing units at an average density of 550.5 per square mile (212.5/km). The racial makeup of the city was 43.8% Native American, 35.2% White, 31.7% Hispanic or Latino of any race, 2.0% Asian, 1.2% African American, 0.1% Pacific Islander, 12.0% from other races, and 5.8% from two or more races.


title: Gallup, New Mexico

text: There were 6,810 households, out of which 41.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 45.3% were married couples living together, 19.8% had a female householder with no husband present, and 28.5% were non-nuclear families. 23.8% of all households were made up of individuals, and 6.8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.85 and the average family size was 3.39.


title: Gallup, New Mexico

text: In the city, the population was spread out, with 32.7% under the age of 18, 9.3% from 18 to 24, 28.8% from 25 to 44, 20.3% from 45 to 64, and 8.9% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 31 years. For every 100 females, there were 91.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 86.2 males.


title: Gallup, New Mexico

text: It has close proximity to Native American reservations, and historic lack of economic development in addition to many mine closures in the last century. As a result of these mine closures, a large proportion of Gallup's households are low-income. The median income for a household in the city was $34,868, and the median income for a family was $39,197. Males had a median income of $33,380 versus $24,441 for females. The per capita income for the city was $15,789. About 16.6% of families and 20.8% of the population were below the poverty line, including 26.8% of those under age 18 and 16.8% of those age 65 or over.


title: Gallup, New Mexico

text: Crime is a serious problem in Gallup. In 2012, violent crime was nearly five times the national average. As a result, the city has the highest violent crime rate in the state of New Mexico. According to an article published in November 2014, "Gallup saw 463 violent crimes last year including murder, rape, robbery and aggravated assault. That’s an eleven percent increase from the year before and two times the rate of Albuquerque, the state’s largest city."


title: Gallup, New Mexico

text: On August 4, 2022, an SUV, driven by an intoxicated individual, drove through a parade crowd during the city's 100th annual Intertribal Celebration, leaving 15 injured; including two police officers and several children.


title: Gallup, New Mexico

text: Previously the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) operated Manuelito Hall in Gallup, a dormitory which housed Native American students attending Gallup-McKinley schools. In 1973 it had about 300 students. That year the BIA closed Manuelito Hall, planning to move students to various boarding schools.


title: Gallup, New Mexico

text: Gallup, like most of the interior Mountain West, has a cool semi-arid climate (Köppen "BSk"). The summers are hot during the day, but the high altitude and low humidity means that nights remain distinctly cool: as late as July 2 of 1997 the temperature fell to . Despite the large diurnal temperature range, most rain falls in the summer from afternoon thunderstorms. Snow is common and sometimes heavy: the maximum in a month is in December 1992 and the most in a year between July 1990 and June 1991. Actual snow "cover", with the hot sun at Gallup's altitude, however, has never exceeded , and for no day averages over .


title: Traditional African masks

text: Traditional African masks play an important role in certain traditional African rituals and ceremonies.


title: Traditional African masks

text: Masks serve an important role in rituals or ceremonies with varied purposes like ensuring a good harvest, addressing tribal needs in times of peace or war, or conveying spiritual presences in initiation rituals or burial ceremonies. Some masks represent the spirits of deceased ancestors. Others symbolize totem animals, creatures important to a certain family or group. In some cultures, like the kuba culture of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, masks represent specific figures in tribal mythology, like a king or a rival to the ruler.


title: Traditional African masks

text: The wearer of the mask is often believed to be able to communicate to the being symbolized by it, or to be possessed by who or what the mask represents.


title: Traditional African masks

text: Ritual and ceremonial masks are an essential feature of the traditional culture of the peoples of a part of Sub-Saharan Africa, e.g. roughly between the Sahara and the Kalahari Desert. While the specific implications associated with ritual masks widely vary in different cultures, some traits are common to most African cultures. For instance, masks usually have a spiritual and religious meaning and they are used in ritual dances and social and religious events, and a special status is attributed to the artists that create masks to those that wear them in ceremonies. In most cases, mask-making is an art that is passed on from father to son, along with the knowledge of the symbolic meanings conveyed by these masks. African masks come in all different colours, such as red, black, orange, and brown.


title: Traditional African masks

text: In most traditional African cultures, the person who wears a ritual mask conceptually loses his or her human life and turns into the spirit represented by the mask itself. This transformation of the mask wearer into a spirit usually relies on other practices, such as specific types of music and dance, or ritual costumes that contribute to the shedding of the mask-wearer's human identity. The mask wearer thus becomes a sort of medium that allows for a dialogue between the community and the spirits (usually those of the dead or nature-related spirits). Masked dances are a part of most traditional African ceremonies related to weddings, funerals, initiation rites, and so on. Some of the most complex rituals that have been studied by scholars are found in Nigerian cultures such as those of the Yoruba and Edo peoples, rituals that bear some resemblance to the Western notion of theatre.


title: Traditional African masks

text: Since every mask has a specific spiritual meaning, most traditions comprise several different traditional masks. The traditional religion of the Dogon people of Mali, for example, comprises three main cults (the "Awa" or cult of the dead, the "Bini" or cult of the communication with the spirits, and the "Lebe" or cult of nature); each of these has its pantheon of spirits, corresponding to 78 different types of masks overall. It is often the case that the artistic quality and complexity of a mask reflects the relative importance of the portrayed spirit in the systems of beliefs of a particular people; for example, simpler masks such as the "kple kple" of the Baoulé people of Côte d'Ivoire (essentially a circle with minimal eyes, mouth and horns) are associated with minor spirits.


title: Traditional African masks

text: Masks are one of the elements of great African art that have most evidently influenced European and Western art in general; in the 20th century, artistic movements such as cubism, fauvism and expressionism have often taken inspiration from the vast and diverse heritage of African masks. Influences of this heritage can also be found in other traditions such as South- and Central American masked Carnival parades.


title: Traditional African masks

text: Whilst traditional masks have been produced since Paleolithic times, there are notable stages through which traditions pass to reach the level of modernisation. Indigenous tribal communities in many areas of sub-Saharan Africa decorate traditional masks that are passed down from generation to generation. They are often seen in rituals that play an important role of religion and social customs.


title: Traditional African masks

text: African masks are usually shaped after a human face or some animal's muzzle, albeit rendered in a sometimes highly abstract form. The inherent lack of realism in African masks (and African art in general) is justified by the fact that most African cultures clearly distinguish the essence of a subject from its looks, the former, rather than the latter, being the actual subject of artistic representation. An extreme example is given by "nwantantay" masks of the Bwa people (Burkina Faso) that represent the flying spirits of the forest; since these spirits are deemed to be invisible, the corresponding masks are shaped after abstract, purely geometrical forms.


title: Traditional African masks

text: Stylish elements in a mask's looks are codified by the tradition and may either identify a specific community or convey specific meanings. For example, both the Bwa and the Buna people of Burkina Faso have hawk masks, with the shape of the beak identifying a mask as either Bwa or Buna. In both cases, the hawk's wings are decorated with geometric patterns that have moral meanings; saw-shaped lines represent the hard path followed by ancestors, while chequered patterns represent the interaction of opposites (male-female, night-day, and so on)


title: Traditional African masks

text: Traits representing moral values are found in many cultures. Masks from the Senufo people of Ivory Coast, for example, have their eyes half closed, symbolizing a peaceful attitude, self-control, and patience. In Sierra Leone and elsewhere, small eyes and mouth represent humility, and a wide, protruding forehead represents wisdom. In Gabon, large chins and mouths represent authority and strength. The Grebo of the Ivory Coast carve masks with round eyes to represent alertness and anger, with the straight nose representing an unwillingness to retreat.


title: Traditional African masks

text: Animals are common subjects in African masks. Animal masks might actually represent the spirit of animals, so that the mask-wearer becomes a medium to speak to animals themselves (e.g. to ask wild beasts to stay away from the village); in many cases, nevertheless, an animal is also (sometimes mainly) a symbol of specific virtues. Common animal subjects include the buffalo (usually representing strength, as in the Baoulé culture), crocodile, hawk, hyena, warthog and antelope. Antelopes have a fundamental role in many cultures of the Mali area (for example in Dogon and Bambara culture) as representatives of agriculture. Dogon antelope masks are highly abstract, with a general rectangular shape and many horns (a representation of abundant harvest. Bambara antelope masks (called "chiwara") have long horns representing the thriving growth of millet, legs (representing roots), long ears (representing the songs sung by the working women at harvest time), and a saw-shaped line that represents the path followed by the Sun between solstices. A 12th/13th century mural from Old Dongola, the capital of the Nubian kingdom of Makuria, depicts dancing masks decorated with cowrie shells imitating some animal with long snouts and big ears.


title: Traditional African masks

text: A common variation on the animal-mask theme is the composition of several distinct animal traits in a single mask, sometimes along with human traits. Merging distinct animal traits together is sometimes a means to represent unusual, exceptional virtue or high status. For example, the Poro secret societies of the Senufo people of the Ivory Coast have masks that celebrate the exceptional power of the society by merging three different "danger" symbols: antelope horns, crocodile teeth, and warthog fangs. Another well-known example is that of "kifwebe" masks of the Songye people (Congo basin), that mix the stripes of a zebra (or okapi), the teeth of a crocodile, the eyes of a chameleon, the mouth of an aardvark, the crest of a rooster, the feathers of an owl and more.


title: Traditional African masks

text: Another common subject of African masks is a woman's face, usually based on a specific culture's ideal of feminine beauty. Female masks of the Punu people of Gabon, for example, have long curved eyelashes, almond-shaped eyes, thin chin, and traditional ornaments on their cheeks, as all these are considered good-looking traits. Feminine masks of the Baga people have ornamental scars and breasts. In many cases, wearing masks that represent feminine beauty is strictly reserved for men.


title: Traditional African masks

text: One of the well-known representations of female beauty is the "Idia" mask of Benin. It is believed to have been commissioned by King Esigie of Benin in memory of his mother. To honor his dead mother, the king wore the mask on his hip during special ceremonies.


title: Traditional African masks

text: As the veneration of defunct ancestors is a fundamental element of most African traditional cultures, it is not surprising that the dead is also a common subject for masks. Masks referring to dead ancestors are most often shaped after a human skull. A well-known example is the "mwana pwo" (literally, "young woman") of the Chokwe people (Angola), that mixes elements referring to feminine beauty (well-proportioned oval face, small nose and chin) and other referring to death (sunken eye sockets, cracked skin, and tears); it represents a female ancestor who died young, venerated in rites such as circumcision rites and ceremonies associated to the renewal of life. As veneration of the dead is most often associated with fertility and reproduction, many dead-ancestor masks also have sexual symbols; the "ndeemba" mask of the Yaka people (Angola and DR Congo), for example, is shaped after a skull complemented with a phallic-shaped nose.


title: Traditional African masks

text: A special class of ancestor masks are those related to notable, historical or legendary people. The "mwaash ambooy" mask of the Kuba people (DR Congo), for example, represents the legendary founder of the Kuba Kingdom, Woot, while the "mgady amwaash" mask represents his wife Mweel.


title: Traditional African masks

text: The most commonly used material for masks is wood, although a wide variety of other elements can be used, including light stone such as steatite, metals such as copper or bronze, different types of fabric, pottery, and more. Some masks are painted (for example using ochre or other natural colorants). A wide array of ornamental items can be applied to the mask surface; examples include animal hair, horns, or teeth, sea shells, seeds, straw, egg shell, and feathers. Animal hair or straw are often used for a mask's hair or beard.


title: Traditional African masks

text: The general structure of a mask varies depending on the way it is intended to be worn. The most common type applies to the wearer's face, like most Western (e.g., carnival) masks. Others are worn like hats on the top of the wearer's head; examples include those of the Ekhoi people of Nigeria and Bwa people of Burkina Faso, as well as the famous "chiwara" masks of the Bambara people. Some masks (for example those of the Sande society of Liberia and the Mende people of Sierra Leone, that are made from hollow tree stumps) are worn like helmets covering both the head and face. Some African cultures have mask-like ornaments that are worn on the chest rather than the head of face; this includes those used by the Makonde people of East Africa in "ndimu" ceremonies.


title: Traditional African masks

text: As African masks are largely appropriated by Europeans, they are widely commercialized and sold in most tourist-oriented markets and shops in Africa (as well as "ethnic" shops in the Western world). As a consequence, the traditional art of mask-making has gradually ceased to be a privileged, status-related practice, and mass production of masks has become widespread. While, in most cases, commercial masks are (more or less faithful) reproductions of traditional masks, this connection is weakening over time, as the logics of mass-production make it harder to identify the actual geographical and cultural origins of the masks found in such venues as curio shops and tourist markets. For example, the Okahandja market in Namibia mostly sells masks that are produced in Zimbabwe (as they are cheaper and more easily available than local masks), and, in turn, Zimbabwean mask-makers reproduce masks from virtually everywhere in Africa rather than from their own local heritage.


title: Raúl García (footballer, born 1986)

text: Raúl García Escudero (; born 11 July 1986) is a Spanish professional footballer who plays for La Liga club Athletic Bilbao mainly as an attacking midfielder or second striker.


title: Raúl García (footballer, born 1986)

text: Formed at Osasuna, he spent most of his career at Atlético Madrid, scoring 46 goals in 329 games across all competitions over eight seasons and winning six major titles, including the 2014 national championship and the 2010 Europa League. In 2015 he signed with Athletic Bilbao, going on to have an equally lengthy spell and win the 2020–21 Supercopa de España.


title: Raúl García (footballer, born 1986)

text: Born in Pamplona, García played for hometown's CA Osasuna during his first years as a professional. On 24 October 2004, he made his debut for the first team in a 3–0 away defeat against FC Barcelona, with his first chance being offered by Mexican coach Javier Aguirre.


title: Raúl García (footballer, born 1986)

text: García scored five league goals (the first on 26 October 2005 in a 3–2 home win over Athletic Bilbao) in his first full season as the Navarrese finished in fourth place in La Liga, starting in 28 of his 33 appearances at the age of just 19.


title: Raúl García (footballer, born 1986)

text: In July 2007, after helping Osasuna to the semi-finals of the UEFA Cup with one goal in 12 games, García signed a five-year contract with Atlético Madrid, reuniting with former boss Aguirre upon the €13 million deal.


title: Raúl García (footballer, born 1986)

text: In January 2010, García lost his starting position to newly signed Tiago Mendes, who had arrived on loan from Juventus FC. However, he started the UEFA Europa League final against Fulham, as the Portuguese was cup-tied, playing the full 90 minutes and extra time in the 2–1 victory for the first honour of his career; additionally, he appeared in the second half of the Copa del Rey's decider against Sevilla FC, a 2–0 loss.


title: Raúl García (footballer, born 1986)

text: On 27 August 2010, García featured the entire match in the UEFA Super Cup against Inter Milan, giving away a penalty kick in the last minute for a foul on Goran Pandev; the shot was however saved by David de Gea, and the "Colchoneros" won it 2–0. Again, he played significantly less minutes than Tiago, but still managed to collect 29 league appearances as Atlético finally qualified to the Europa League, and netted his only goal of the season in a 2–1 home loss to eventual champions Barcelona, heading in from a corner kick.


title: Raúl García (footballer, born 1986)

text: After renewing his contract for a further three years, García was loaned to former club Osasuna for 2011–12, where he began to appear more prominently as an attacking midfielder. He scored 11 goals during the campaign, including twice against RCD Mallorca – both through headers from corners by Álvaro Cejudo (2–2)– and one in a defeat of Barcelona (3–2), finishing as team top scorer with four more goals than Ibrahima Baldé.


title: Raúl García (footballer, born 1986)

text: On 9 April 2014, after playing the full 90 minutes in a 1–0 UEFA Champions League home defeat of Barcelona that qualified Atlético Madrid to the semi-finals for the first time in 40 years, García became the club's most capped player in the competition with 22 appearances, surpassing Luis Aragonés. On 19 August he scored a 88th-minute 1–1 equaliser against Real Madrid at the Santiago Bernabéu for the Supercopa de España, as his team went on to win the trophy 2–1 on aggregate and conquer it for the second time in their history.


title: Raúl García (footballer, born 1986)

text: On 31 August 2015, after a transfer request, García signed a four-year contract with Athletic Bilbao which included a release clause of €40 million. He scored in his first appearance, helping to a 3–1 home victory over Getafe CF where he featured 79 minutes.


title: Raúl García (footballer, born 1986)

text: García made his 100th appearance for the club in October 2017. In late May 2018, after he had scored ten league goals in each of his first two seasons, he and Athletic agreed on a contract extension running to June 2020.


title: Raúl García (footballer, born 1986)

text: On 20 July 2019, the 33-year-old García agreed to a one-year extension at the San Mamés Stadium until June 2021, with no release clause. He scored a career-best 15 goals that campaign (seven penalties) – entering the league's record books after becoming the first player to find the net in every month of a calendar year – but his team could only finish 11th.


title: Raúl García (footballer, born 1986)

text: García became only the 11th player in La Liga history to reach 500 games in the competition on 31 December 2020, in a 1–0 home Basque derby loss to Real Sociedad.


title: Raúl García (footballer, born 1986)

text: From 2006 to 2009, García played with Spain under-21s, earning a total of 20 caps in the category and representing the nation at the 2009 UEFA European Championship, in a group stage exit. He also appeared for the under-19 team.


title: Raúl García (footballer, born 1986)

text: On 29 August 2014, aged 28, García was named by full side manager Vicente del Bosque in a 23-man squad for matches against France and Macedonia in September. He made his debut on 4 September, starting and playing 58 minutes in a 1–0 friendly loss to the former.


title: Raúl García (footballer, born 1986)

text: García was known for scoring from the bench and having good aerial ability. A competent penalty taker, he was also often deployed as a false 9 due to his movements off the ball.


title: Otolith

text: An otolith (, ' ear + , ', a stone), also called statoconium or otoconium or statolith, is a calcium carbonate structure in the saccule or utricle of the inner ear, specifically in the vestibular system of vertebrates. The saccule and utricle, in turn, together make the "otolith organs". These organs are what allows an organism, including humans, to perceive linear acceleration, both horizontally and vertically (gravity). They have been identified in both extinct and extant vertebrates.


title: Otolith

text: Counting the annual growth rings on the otoliths is a common technique in estimating the age of fish.


title: Otolith

text: Endolymphatic infillings such as otoliths are structures in the saccule and utricle of the inner ear, specifically in the vestibular labyrinth of all vertebrates (fish, amphibians, reptiles, mammals and birds). In vertebrates, the saccule and utricle together make the "otolith organs". Both statoconia and otoliths are used as gravity, balance, movement, and directional indicators in all vertebrates and have a secondary function in sound detection in higher aquatic and terrestrial vertebrates. They are sensitive to gravity and linear acceleration. Because of their orientation in the head, the utricle is sensitive to a change in horizontal movement, and the saccule gives information about vertical acceleration (such as when in an elevator).


title: Otolith

text: Similar balance receptors called statocysts can be found in many invertebrate groups but are not contained in the structure of an inner ear. Mollusk statocysts are of a similar morphology to the displacement-sensitive organs of vertebrates; however, the function of the mollusk statocyst is restricted to gravity detection and possibly some detection of angular momentum. These are analogous structures, with similar form and function but not descended from a common structure.


title: Otolith

text: Statoconia (also called otoconia) are numerous grains, often spherical in shape, between 1 and 50 µm; collectively. Statoconia are also sometimes termed a statocyst. Otoliths (also called statoliths) are agglutinated crystals or crystals precipitated around a nucleus, with well defined morphology and together all may be termed endolymphatic infillings.


title: Otolith

text: The semicircular canals and sacs in all vertebrates are attached to endolymphatic ducts, which in some groups (such as sharks) end in small openings, called endolymphatic pores, on the dorsal surface of the head. Extrinsic grains may enter through these openings, typically less than a millimeter in diameter. The size of material that enters is limited to sand-sized particles and in the case of sharks is bound together with an endogenous organic matrix that the animal secretes.


title: Otolith

text: In mammals, otoliths are small particles, consisting of a combination of a gelatinous matrix and calcium carbonate in the viscous fluid of the saccule and utricle. The weight and inertia of these small particles causes them to stimulate hair cells when the head moves. The hair cells are made up of 40 to 70 stereocilia and one kinocilium, which is connected to an afferent nerve. Hair cells send signals down sensory nerve fibers which are interpreted by the brain as motion. In addition to sensing acceleration of the head, the otoliths can help to sense the orientation via gravity's effect on them. When the head is in a normal upright position, the otolith presses on the sensory hair cell receptors. This pushes the hair cell processes down and prevents them from moving side to side. However, when the head is tilted, the pull of gravity on otoliths shifts the hair cell processes to the side, distorting them and sending a message to the central nervous system that the head is tilted.


title: Otolith

text: There is evidence that the vestibular system of mammals has retained some of its ancestral acoustic sensitivity and that this sensitivity is mediated by the otolithic organs (most likely the sacculus, due to its anatomical location). In mice lacking the otoconia of the utricle and saccule, this retained acoustic sensitivity is lost. In humans vestibular evoked myogenic potentials occur in response to loud, low-frequency acoustic stimulation in patients with the sensorineural hearing loss. Vestibular sensitivity to ultrasonic sounds has also been hypothesized to be involved in the perception of speech presented at artificially high frequencies, above the range of the human cochlea (~18 kHz). In mice, sensation of acoustic information via the vestibular system has been demonstrated to have a behaviourally relevant effect; response to an elicited acoustic startle reflex is larger in the presence of loud, low frequency sounds that are below the threshold for the mouse cochlea (~4 Hz), raising the possibility that the acoustic sensitivity of the vestibular system may extend the hearing range of small mammals.


title: Otolith

text: After the death and decomposition of a fish, otoliths may be preserved within the body of an organism or be dispersed before burial and fossilization. Dispersed otoliths are one of the many microfossils which can be found through a micropalaeontological analysis of a fine sediment. Their stratigraphic significance is minimal, but can still be used to characterize a level or interval. Fossil otoliths are rarely found "in situ" (on the remains of the animal), likely because they are not recognized separately from the surrounding rock matrix. In some cases, due to differences in colour, grain size, or a distinctive shape, they can be identified. These rare cases are of special significance, since the presence, composition, and morphology of the material can clarify the relationship of species and groups. In the case of primitive fish, various fossil material shows that endolymphatic infillings were similar in elemental composition to the rock matrix but were restricted to coarse grained material, which presumably is better for the detection of gravity, displacement, and sound. The presence of these extrinsic grains, in osteostracans, chondrichthyans, and acanthodians indicates a common inner ear physiology and presence of open endolymphatic ducts.


title: Otolith

text: The composition of fish otoliths is also proving useful to fisheries scientists. The calcium carbonate that the otolith is composed of is primarily derived from the water. As the otolith grows, new calcium carbonate crystals form. As with any crystal structure, lattice vacancies will exist during crystal formation allowing trace elements from the water to bind with the otolith. Studying the trace elemental composition or isotopic signatures of trace elements within a fish otolith gives insight to the water bodies fish have previously occupied. Fish otoliths as old as 172 million years have been used to study the environment in which the fish lived. Robotic micromilling devices have also been used to recover very high resolution records of life history, including diet and temperatures throughout the life of the fish, as well as their natal origin.


title: Otolith

text: The most studied trace and isotopic signatures are strontium due to the same charge and similar ionic radius to calcium; however, scientists can study multiple trace elements within an otolith to discriminate more specific signatures. A common tool used to measure trace elements in an otolith is a laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometer. This tool can measure a variety of trace elements simultaneously. A secondary ion mass spectrometer can also be used. This instrument can allow for greater chemical resolution but can only measure one trace element at a time. The hope of this research is to provide scientists with valuable information on where fish have frequented. Combined with otolith annuli, scientists can add how old fish were when they traveled through different bodies of water. This information can be used to determine fish life cycles so that fisheries scientists can make better informed decisions about fish stocks.


title: Otolith

text: Finfish (class Osteichthyes) have three pairs of otoliths – the sagittae (singular sagitta), lapilli (singular lapillus), and asterisci (singular asteriscus). The sagittae are largest, found just behind the eyes and approximately level with them vertically. The lapilli and asterisci (smallest of the three) are located within the semicircular canals. The sagittae are normally composed of aragonite (although vaterite abnormalities can occur), as are the lapilli, while the asterisci are normally composed of vaterite.


title: Otolith

text: The shapes and proportional sizes of the otoliths vary with fish species. In general, fish from highly structured habitats such as reefs or rocky bottoms (e.g. snappers, groupers, many drums and croakers) will have larger otoliths than fish that spend most of their time swimming at high speed in straight lines in the open ocean (e.g. tuna, mackerel, dolphinfish). Flying fish have unusually large otoliths, possibly due to their need for balance when launching themselves out of the water to "fly" in the air. Often, the fish species can be identified from distinct morphological characteristics of an isolated otolith.


title: Otolith

text: Fish otoliths accrete layers of calcium carbonate and gelatinous matrix throughout their lives. The accretion rate varies with growth of the fish – often less growth in winter and more in summer – which results in the appearance of rings that resemble tree rings. By counting the rings, it is possible to determine the age of the fish in years. Typically the sagitta is used, as it is largest, but sometimes lapilli are used if they have a more convenient shape. The asteriscus, which is smallest of the three, is rarely used in age and growth studies.


title: Otolith

text: In addition, in most species the accretion of calcium carbonate and gelatinous matrix alternates on a daily cycle. It is therefore also possible to determine fish age in days. This latter information is often obtained under a microscope, and provides significant data to early life history studies.


title: Otolith

text: By measuring the thickness of individual rings, it has been assumed (at least in some species) to estimate fish growth because fish growth is directly proportional to otolith growth. However, some studies disprove a direct link between body growth and otolith growth. At times of lower or zero body growth the otolith continues to accrete leading some researchers to believe the direct link is to metabolism, not growth per se. Otoliths, unlike scales, do not reabsorb during times of decreased energy making it even more useful tool to age a fish. Fish never stop growing entirely, though growth rate in mature fish is reduced. Rings corresponding to later parts of the life cycle tend to be closer together as a result. Furthermore, a small percentage of otoliths in some species bear deformities over time.


title: Otolith

text: Age and growth studies of fish are important for understanding such things as timing and magnitude of spawning, recruitment and habitat use, larval and juvenile duration, and population age structure. Such knowledge is in turn important for designing appropriate fisheries management policies.


title: Otolith

text: Since the compounds in fish otoliths are resistant to digestion, they are found in the digestive tracts and scats of seabirds and piscivorous marine mammals, such as dolphins, seals, sea lions and walruses. Many fish can be identified to genus and species by their otoliths. Otoliths can therefore, to some extent, be used to deduce and reconstruct the prey composition of marine mammal and seabird diets.


title: Otolith

text: Otoliths (sagittae) are bilaterally symmetrical, with each fish having one right and one left. Separating recovered otoliths into right and left, therefore, allows one to infer a minimum number of prey individuals ingested for a given fish species. Otolith size is also proportional to the length and weight of a fish. They can therefore be used to back-calculate prey size and biomass, useful when trying to estimate marine mammal prey consumption, and potential impacts on fish stocks.


title: Otolith

text: Otoliths cannot be used alone to reliably estimate cetacean or pinniped diets, however. They may suffer partial or complete erosion in the digestive tract, skewing measurements of prey number and biomass. Species with fragile, easily digested otoliths may be underestimated in the diet. To address these biases, otolith correction factors have been developed through captive feeding experiments, in which seals are fed fish of known size, and the degree of otolith erosion is quantified for different prey taxa.


title: Otolith

text: The inclusion of fish vertebrae, jaw bones, teeth, and other informative skeletal elements improves prey identification and quantification over otolith analysis alone. This is especially true for fish species with fragile otoliths, but other distinctive bones, such as Atlantic mackerel ("Scomber scombrus"), and Atlantic herring ("Clupea harengus").


title: Tropicana Las Vegas

text: The Tropicana Las Vegas is a casino hotel on the Las Vegas Strip in Paradise, Nevada. It is owned and operated by Bally's Corporation, on land leased from Gaming and Leisure Properties. It offers 1,467 rooms, a gaming floor, and of convention and exhibit space.


title: Tropicana Las Vegas

text: This location, the Tropicana – Las Vegas Boulevard intersection, has the most hotel rooms of any intersection in the world. Pedestrians are not allowed to cross at street level. Instead, the Tropicana is linked by overhead pedestrian bridges to its neighboring casinos: to the north across Tropicana Avenue, the MGM Grand, and to the west across the Strip, the Excalibur.


title: Tropicana Las Vegas

text: In 1955, Ben Jaffe, an executive of the Fontainebleau Miami Beach, came to Las Vegas and bought a 40-acre parcel at the corner of Las Vegas Boulevard and Bond Road (now Tropicana Avenue). Jaffe aimed to build the finest hotel in Las Vegas, featuring a Cuban ambience, with four room themes for guests to choose from: French Provincial, Far East, Italian Renaissance, and Drexel. M. Tony Sherman of Miami was the architect and Taylor Construction Company was the general contractor.


title: Tropicana Las Vegas

text: Construction ran over schedule and over budget, due in part to competition for labor with the under-construction Stardust down the road. Jaffe had to sell his interest in the Fontainebleau to complete the project, which finally opened in April 1957. Performers included Eddie Fisher, Neile Adams, Cathy Crosby, Carol Channing, and Elaine Dunn. The original showgirls included Pat Sheehan, Adelle August, Evelyn Dutton, Honey Merrill, Betty Jean Hansen, Marilyn Johnson, Leona Gage, Felicia Atkins, and Kathleen Wakefield.


title: Tropicana Las Vegas

text: Jaffe first leased the property to his associate, Phil Kastel. The Gaming Control Board raised suspicions over Kastel's links to organized crime, which were confirmed in May when a note bearing a Tropicana earnings figure was found in the possession of mobster Frank Costello. Jaffe next turned to J. Kell Housells, owner of the Las Vegas Club. By 1959, Housells bought out Jaffe's interest, gaining a majority share in the Tropicana.


title: Tropicana Las Vegas

text: In the early 1970s, the Tropicana fared poorly from competition with larger hotels like Caesars Palace and the Las Vegas Hilton. Houssels sold out in 1968 to Trans-Texas Airways. Deil Gustafson, a Minnesota financier, bought the Tropicana in 1972. He undertook an expansion plan, but ran into financing difficulties. Edward and Fred Doumani took over management on an emergency basis in 1974 after investing $1 million into the property. Mitzi Stauffer Briggs, heir to the Stauffer Chemical fortune, bought a majority interest in the Tropicana in 1975. Briggs began construction of the 22-floor Tiffany Tower in 1977.


title: Tropicana Las Vegas

text: The Tropicana became the target of a mob skimming operation in 1978. Joe Agosto, the owner of the casino's Folies Bergere show, oversaw the siphoning of money from the cashier cage to the Kansas City crime family. The scheme was exposed in 1979 by an FBI investigation into hidden mob interests in Las Vegas casinos. Briggs and Gustafson faced revocation of their gaming licenses because they had allowed Agosto to manage the casino without a license. They had little choice but to sell the Tropicana. Hotel chain Ramada Inns purchased the business in December 1979, along with the 50% share of the property's real estate that had been owned by the Doumanis.


title: Tropicana Las Vegas

text: The Tropicana's country club was closed in 1990 after being sold to MGM Grand Inc. to become part of the site of the new MGM Grand casino.


title: Tropicana Las Vegas

text: In 2002, Aztar consolidated ownership of the Tropicana by buying the remaining 50% interest in the land and buildings from the Jaffe family for $117.5 million.


title: Tropicana Las Vegas

text: Aztar was acquired by Columbia Sussex in January 2007. A $2-billion renovation of the Tropicana was announced, planned to be completed in 2010, making it the largest resort casino in the world. The existing Paradise and Island towers would have received both interior and exterior renovations, and four new towers would have been built on the property, one of which would be branded as a separate hotel.


title: Tropicana Las Vegas

text: The plans included a casino, five hotel towers totaling 10,000 rooms, and a sprawling retail promenade. Other amenities included spas and fitness centers; more than 20 restaurants and lounges; a 1,500-seat entertainment venue for big-name headliners; and a water–ride attraction.


title: Tropicana Las Vegas

text: All improvements to the property were put on hold because of the financial crisis of 2007–2008, and became moot when Columbia Sussex's gaming arm filed for bankruptcy in 2008. The Tropicana, which had a $440 million secured loan against it, was bought from the bankrupt company in July 2009 by its creditors, led by Canadian private equity firm Onex Corporation and former MGM Mirage CEO Alex Yemenidjian, who took over as CEO.


title: Tropicana Las Vegas

text: The remainder of Columbia Sussex's gaming business, reorganized under new ownership as Tropicana Entertainment Inc., promptly sued the Las Vegas property, demanding royalties for use of the Tropicana name. The case was eventually settled, with the Tropicana Las Vegas receiving exclusive rights to use the name in the Las Vegas region, royalty-free.


title: Tropicana Las Vegas

text: In August 2009, Yemenidjian announced a $165-million plan to renovate the property around a South Beach theme, to be done in several phases. The first phase would renovate the Tropicana's back office facilities, with completion planned for the end of 2009. The second phase would renovate the conference facilities, rooms, and common areas, with construction to finish at the end of August 2010. The third phase, including a Nikki Beach Night Club and Nikki Beach multimillion-dollar pool renovation was planned to be completed by April 2011.


title: Tropicana Las Vegas

text: In 2010, the Tropicana demolished two wings. One, built in 1964, was on the north side of the resort facing Tropicana Ave, removed to make room for a second entrance to the property and open up space for additional parking. The other, built in 1959 was on the east side of the resort.


title: Tropicana Las Vegas

text: In August 2015, Penn National Gaming (later Penn Entertainment) purchased the Tropicana for $360 million.


title: Tropicana Las Vegas

text: In December 2016, as part of Penn's Interactive Division, the Tropicana created an online experience for customers to play.


title: Tropicana Las Vegas

text: During the COVID-19 pandemic, Penn faced the prospect of financial issues brought on by resort closures. As a result, Penn sold the land occupied by the Tropicana to its spin-off company, Gaming and Leisure Properties, Inc. (GLPI). Penn sold the land for $337.5 million in rent credits, and the sale was finalized in April 2020. Penn would continue to operate the Tropicana for another two years, or until the resort were sold.


title: Tropicana Las Vegas

text: In September 2022, Bally's Corporation bought the non-land assets of the Tropicana from GLPI and Penn for $148 million, and leased the land from GLPI for annual rent of $10.5 million.


title: Tropicana Las Vegas

text: The largest venue at the property is the 1,100-seat Legends in Concert Theater, which features the Prince tribute show "Purple Reign" (since 2017) and the celebrity impersonator revue "Legends in Concert" (since 2019). The venue opened in 1973 as the Superstar Theater. It was renamed as the Tiffany Theatre in 1975. In 2011, it became the Gladys Knight Theater when the singer began a residency at the venue. It was renamed as the Tropicana Theater later that year, after Knight's departure, and then to its current name in 2019. Other productions at the theater have included magician Rick Thomas (1997-2005); magician Dirk Arthur (2005–10); singer Wayne Newton (2009–10); percussion group Recycled Percussion (2010–12); a live production of "Dancing with the Stars" (2012); "Mamma Mia!", the Broadway musical based on the songs of ABBA (2014); "Raiding the Rock Vault", a musical featuring classic rock songs (2014–16); illusionist Jan Rouven (2014–16); and illusionist David Goldrake (2017–18).


title: Tropicana Las Vegas

text: A showroom on the Tropicana's mezzanine level is occupied by the Laugh Factory, a comedy club offering two nightly stand-up comedy shows, as well as nightly performances by impressionist Rich Little and comic magician Murray Sawchuck. The space opened in 1988 as Rodney's Place, a comedy club associated with Rodney Dangerfield, which closed after six months. It then operated as the Comedy Stop from 1990 to 2009. The venue next became the Bobby Slayton Room, offering regular shows by the comedian and several other performers. It then opened as Brad Garrett's Comedy Club in 2010. Garrett's club departed in 2011 to move to the MGM Grand. The Laugh Factory took over the space in 2012.


title: Tropicana Las Vegas

text: From 1959, the Tropicana hosted the Folies Bergére Show, the longest running revue theater show in Las Vegas. Directed by and Choreographed by Jerry Jackson. It closed down March 27, 2009, shortly before its 50th anniversary. Dave Brubeck's 1966 live album, "Jackpot!," was recorded at the Tropicana.


title: Tropicana Las Vegas

text: From 1999 to 2005, the Tropicana was the home of the Casino Legends Hall of Fame. The facility displayed artifacts and memorabilia from hundreds of casinos, and held induction ceremonies to honor notable Las Vegas entertainers and gaming industry figures. It was quickly replaced by the Las Vegas Historic Museum, which then closed in 2006.


title: Tropicana Las Vegas

text: An exhibit space at the Tropicana hosted "Titanic: The Artifact Exhibition" beginning in 2005. It was joined in 2006 by "", a display of preserved human bodies. The two exhibits, both produced by Premier Exhibitions, closed in 2008 to move to the Luxor.


title: Tropicana Las Vegas

text: They were replaced in March 2011 by the Las Vegas Mob Experience, an attraction describing the rise and fall of organized crime in Las Vegas, featuring mob artifacts, holograms of famed gangsters such as Bugsy Siegel and Meyer Lansky, and live actors. After being plagued by technical problems, litigation, and low ticket sales, and going through a bankruptcy and partial closure, the exhibit became known as the Mob Attraction Las Vegas in March 2012. It closed in November 2013.


title: Tropicana Las Vegas

text: Celebrity chef Robert Irvine opened his restaurant at the Tropicana, Robert Irvine's Public House, in July 2017. Other dining options include the Italian restaurant Bacio and Oakville Steakhouse.


title: Tropicana Las Vegas

text: Other amenities at the property include boutique stores; a swimming pool with tropical landscaping, waterfalls and an outdoor bar; and a wedding chapel. The Tropicana also contains the resort office for Virgin Holidays.


title: Dési Bouterse

text: Desiré Delano "Dési" Bouterse (; born 13 October 1945) is a Surinamese military officer, politician, convicted murderer and drug trafficker who served as President of Suriname from 2010 to 2020. From 1980 to 1987, he was Suriname's "de facto" leader after conducting a military coup and establishing a period of military rule. In 1987, Bouterse founded the National Democratic Party (NDP). On 25 May 2010, Bouterse's political alliance, the "Megacombinatie" ("Mega combination"), which included the NDP, won the parliamentary elections, and on 19 July 2010, Bouterse was elected as President of Suriname with 36 of 50 parliament votes. He was inaugurated on 12 August 2010.